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PUTNAM'S  HOME  GTOLOPEDIA. 


HAND-BOOK 


Oy 


HRONOLOGY  AND  HISTORY. 


A  DICTIONARY  OF   DATES: 


riTH  TABULAR  VIEWS   OF   GENERAL   HISTORY,    AND   A 
HISTORICAL   CHART. 


EDITED    BY 

GEORGE    P .    P  U  T^ AM . 


NEW-YORK : 
GEORGE    P.    PUTNAM. 

1853. 


Enter BD,  according  to  the  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  j'ear  1850,  by 

George  P.  PaxNAM, 

in  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  for  th*^  Southern  District 
of  New- York. 


John  F.  Trow, 

Printer  and   Stereotyper^ 

49,  51  and  53  Ajin-st.,  N.  Y. 


PEEPACE. 


While  revising  a  chronological  manual,  in  compiling  whioli  I  hadj 
at  the  age  of  fifteen,*  employed  many  midnight  hours,  I  have  found 
material  assistance  in  the  tables  prepared  by  my  late  friend,  D.  A. 
Talboys,  publisher,  of  Oxford,  England,  usually  called  the  Oxford 
Chronological  Tables.  In  the  alphabetical  part  of  the  volume,  the 
comprehensive  and  useful  Dictionary  of  Dates,  by  Haydn.f  has  been 
incorporated  almost  entire,  vpith  such  additions  relating  to  the  United 
States  as  were  necessary  to  its  completeness,  and  with  continuations 
to  the  present  year. 

The  contemporary  tables  which  I  had  formerly  prepared,  had 
cost  much  diligent  application,  and  I  was  glad  to  find  on  collating 
them  with  the  more  recent  works,  that  some  slight  additions  only 
were  needed  to  make  them  as  full  and  complete  as  was  desirable  for 
the  purpose  in  view,  viz. :  a  convenient  and  portable  volume  for  refer- 
ence, not  over-burdened  with  details,  but  indicating  to  the  intelligent 
reader  all  the  great  landmarks  of  history  in  their  order  of  succession  ; 
and  showing  also  what  was  going  on  at  the  same  time  in  different 
countries.  To  render  this  glance  more  comprehensive  and  clear, 
many  of  the  details  in  the  former  tables  are  now  omitted,  as  they 
are  given  more  at  large  in  the  alphabetical  part  of  the  volume. 

To  a  reader  of  history  the  utility  of  such  a  glance  at  contempo- 
rary persons  and  events,  is  too  obvious  to  need  illustration  :  but  while 
the  more  elaborate  and  ponderous  works  of   Blair,  Talboys,   and 


*  Chronclogy — An  Index  to  Universal  History.  &c.    12mo.      Leavitt,  Now- 
York,  1833.    The  vokime  has  been  long  out  of  print. 

t  Fourth  edit.    8vo.    Lond.,  1847.     That  Avork  needs  no  praise  here. 


IV  PREFACE. 

others,  are  available  to  the  historian  or  the  merely  literary  man,  they 
are  usually  repulsive  to  the  general  reader,  for  the  very  reason 
that  they  contain  too  micch  for  ordinary  purposes ;  their  very  elaborate- 
ness serves  to  puzzle  and  to  mystify. 

What  is  here  aimed  at  is  simply  to  indicate,  in  brief  and  sugges- 
tive terms,  the  succession  of  the  prominent  occurrences  and  of  the 
governments  in  the  chief  nations  of  the  world — enough  merely  to 
recall  to  the  reader  of  history  the  full  pictures  of  these  events,  and 
to  enable  him  to  classify  them  correctly  in  his  memory. 

The  aljjhabetical  part  of  the  volume  gives,  in  most  cases,  more 
full  and  ample  references  to  the  same  historical  facts ;  but  still  the 
whole  work  is  but  an  index  to  the  sources  of  knowledge — a  Diction- 
ary of  Dates.  It  has  been  planned  so  as  to  facilitate  access  to  the 
largest  amount  of  useful  information  in  the  smallest  possible 
compass. 

There  are  some  discrepancies  among  the  authorities,  as  to  names 
and  dates — especially  in  the  Middle  Ages — and  in  some  instances 
the  dictionary  varies  from  the  tables ;  but  these  instances  are  not 
numerous  or  important. 

The  Biographical  List  at  the  close  of  the  volume  will  contribute, 
it  is  presumed,  to  render  the  contemporary  tables  far  more  variously 
useful  than  would  be  at  first  supposed.  By  ascertaining  from  it 
the  dates  of  birth  and  death  of  any  eminent  person,  the  tables  will 
show  at  a  glance  what  events  happened,  and  what  other  eminent  per- 
sons lived  during  the  life-time  of  that  individual. 

It  would  be  superfluous  to  say  more  by  way  of  explanation.  That 
such  a  volume  can  be  quite  free  from  imperfections  is  not  to  be 
supposed  ;  but  the  compiler  trusts  that  it  will  be  found  to  answer  all 
reasonable  expectations,  as  a  compact  manual  of  reference  to  the 
World's  Progress  in  Arts,  Literature,  and  Social  Life,  as  well  as  in 
Politics  and  Government.  Gr.  P.  P. 


CONTENTS. 


TAEULAR  VIEWS  OF  UNIVERSAL  fflSTORY, 

IN    CONTEMPORARY    COLUMNS, 

1.   ANCIENT  HISTORY. 

Period  I. — The  Antediluvian  (1656  years)                 ...  .8 

Period  II.— Dispersion  of  Mankind  (427  years).— The  Deluge  to  Abraham  4 

Period  III.— The  Abrahamic  or  Patriarchal  (430  years).— Abraham  to  Mosea    .  .            6 

Period  IV. — The  Mosaic  or  Theocratic  (396  years).— Bloses  to  Saul             .              .  8 

Period  V. — The  Monarchical  (489  years).— Saul  to  Cyrus       ....  14 

Period  VI. — The  Persian  (322  years). — Cyrus  to  Alexander           ...  21 

Period  VII.  —The  Grecian  (184  years). — Alexander  to  the  Fall  of  Greece           .  ,           26 

Period  VIII.— The  Roman  (146  years).— Fall  of  Greece  to  the  Christian  Era             .  38 


II.    MODERN  HISTORY. 


48 


Period  I. — (306  years). — From  the  Christian  Era  to  the  reign  of  Constantine     , 

Period  II. — (170  years.) — Constantine  to  Odoacer 

Period  III.— (146  years.)— Odoacer  to  Mahomet        .... 

Period  IV. — (178  years.)— Mahomet  to  Charlemagne 

Period  V.— (266  years.)— Charlemagne  to  William  the  Conqueror 

Period  VI. — (233  years.)— William  the  Conqueror  to  Othman  I. 

Period  VII, — 154  years.) — Othman  to  the  Fall  of  the  Eastern  Empire 

Period  VIII. — (145  years.)— Fall  of  Eastern  Empire  to  the  Edict  of  Nantes 

Period  IX. — (120  years.)— Edict  of  Nantes  to  the  death  of  Charles  XII.,  of  Sweden 

Period  X— (97  years.)— Charles  XII.  of  Sweden  to  the  Fall  of  Napoleon  •  •  134 

Period  XI.— (35  years.)— Napoleon  to  the  year  1850     ......        146 


62 
68 

72 
86 
102 
112 
122 


II.  DICTIONARY  OF  DATES  .  .       ■ 146 

III.  LITERARY  CHRONOLOGY 609 

IV.  HEATHEN  DEITIES,  &c 648 

V   BIOGRAPHICAL  INDEX 667 


EXPLANATION  OF  THE  CHART  OF  HISTORY, 

ixepresenting,  in  a  Chronological  Series,  the  Rise,  Revolutions,  and  Fall  J  Ike 
principal  Empires  of  the  World. 

ON    THE    PLAN    OF    DR.     J,    PRIESTLEY. 

It  is  necessary  to  notice,  tliat  the  space  allotted  .o  each  country  is  rather  according  to  its  relative 
political  importance,  than  to  its  geographical  extent. 

The  spaces  between  the  vertical  lines  which  cross  the  chart,  represent  time,  viz.,  eacli  a  cen- 
tury or  100  years ;  those  between  the  horizontal  lines  represent  countries,  the  names  of  wliich  are 
expressed  at  the  end  of  the  chart. 

By  examining  the  vertical  columns,  we  ascertain  the  contemporary  state  of  different  nations  al- 
the  period  we  fix  upon.  For  instance :  about  1500  years  before  Christ,  we  see  states  forming  in 
Greece ;  the  Israelites  in  Egypt  (from  whence  they  depart  nine  years  after) ;  the  Egyptian,  Assy- 
rian, Persian,  Chinese,  and  other  kingdoms  had  been  founded  several  centuries  previous — but  their 
history  uncertain  and  obscure.  At  the  time  of  Christ,  we  find  the  Roman  Empire  spread  over  a 
greater  part  of  the  then  known  world,  but  the  Parthians,  Britons,  and  Germans,  as  yet  unsubdued 
by  them.  700  years  after,  this  empire  exists  only  in  Turkey,  and  its  former  territories  are  under 
barbarians :  the  Heptarchy  in  England ;  the  Lombards  in  Italy,  the  Franks  in  Gaul ;  the  African 
provinces,  and  a  large  part  of  Asia  under  the  Saracens.  In  1.500  we  find  the  Eastern  or  Greek 
Empire  fallen  under  the  Turks;  the  Tartars  powerful  in  Asia:  many  of  the  modern  states  o/ 
Europe  founded ;  America  discovered  by  the  Europeans,  &c.  &c. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  revolutions  of  each  country  may  be  seen  in  continuation  by  looking 
along  the  chart  horizontally :  the  Persian  empire  is  founded  in  remote  antiquity ;  united  with  that 
of  the  Medes,  about  600  b.  c.  ;  is  extended  by  Cyrus  into  Assyria,  Asia  Minor,  and  Egypt,  536 ;  falls 
in  turn,  under  the  Macedonians,  Parthians,  Saracens,  Turks,  and  Tartars,  successively. — The 
Israelites  in  Egypt  from  1706  to  1491  b.  c.  ;  in  Canaan  1451 ;  under  the  Judges  about  1300;  under 
Kings,  1095 ;  Ten  Tribes  separated,  975 ;  they  are  conquered,  721,  and  Judah,  588,  by  the  Assyrians ; 
restored  by  the  Persians,  535 ;  under  the  Macedonians,  330 ;  restored  to  independence  by  the  Mac- 
cabees, 150;  conquered  by  the  Romans,  63;  by  the  Saracens,  a.  d.  622;  afterwards  by  the  cru- 
saders, Mamelukes,  and  Turks,  successively. — England  subdued  by  the  Romans  in  the  first  cen- 
tury; relinquished  by  them,  A.  D.  410;  subdued  by  the  Saxons,  500;  by  the  Danes,  860;  by  the 
Normans  (receiving  French  territories),  1066  ;  united  with  Ireland,  1170  ;  with  Wales,  1280;  with 
Scotland,  1600. — Italy  in  antiquity  possessed  by  several  petty  tribes ;  by  the  Romans  from  300—200 
B.  C.  to  480  A.  D.,  then  by  the  Herulii,  Ostrogoths,  Lombards,  and  Franks,  successively ; — in  modern 
times,  divided  into  several  small  republics  and  principalities ;  joined  to  the  French  empire  about 
ISOO,  and  now  divided  chiefly  between  Austria,  the  Grand  Dukes  of  Tuscany,  Modena,  &c.,  the 
Pope,  and  the  King  of  Naples. 

"  They  are  rather  melancholy  reflections  which  the  view  of  such  a  chart  of  history  is  apt  to 
excite  in  the  minds  of  persons  of  feeling  and  humanity.  What  a  number  of  revolutions  are 
marked  upon  it !  What  torrents  of  human  blood  has  the  restless  ambition  of  mortals  shed,  and  in 
what  complicated  distress  has  the  discontent  of  powerful  individuals  involved  a  great  part  ol 
their  species !  "—Priestley. 


UTith  a 

Iiuli.x.  Rrit. /Empire 

T  ar  t  ai'y 

A  s  ia  ti  c 


P  e  1-  s  i  a 


Turl^  ey 


Aralira 

B  at l)ar>^ 

^  Fl'eiicU  posFessiotls. 

Moiotco 
Spam 
T  ovlug-al 

jjuvopeau  Tui-key 
Greeee 

Ital.  Ducllies  \ 
A«»  Ir.  Eiiip  .      ^ 

W  ^      X    ■  t 

Ixiscany 
FopeAom         1 
"N  aT>le  s 

Swilx  erlaitd 
Holland 

Fran  ce 


Gr  eat 
IVriUiin 


Fr  u  s  s  i  a 
All  s  Ir  i  a. 
Gei-inaii     States 
Sweden 

Den  111  arlt. 

Russia 

Brit.ATJieiTca. 

UiiiLed   \ 
Slates/ 


g/    Mexir  n 

/^      TOew  Gremarl  a  Sec 

Per  It- Boll  via 

.AvgenliiieRepifb. 
/* ChUi.  Eouaaov 


ew  HoUauJ  ,  Uew'^  S.ealaud  t-i: .     J'li  U.Empii-  e 


f^ 


i*L*': 


THE  WORLD'S  PEOGRESS. 


PART  I. 

TABULAR  VIEWS  OF  UNIVERSAL  HISTORY, 

I.  Ancient  Chronology — from  the  Creation  to  the  Birth  of  Christ — 4004  years. 
[I.  Modern  Chronology — from  the  Birth  of  Christ  to  the  present  time — 1850  years. 


I.     ANCIENT    CHEONOLOGY. 
DIVIDED  INTO  EIGHT  PERIODS. 


1.  From  the  Creation, 

to  the  Deluge, 

2.  From  the  Deluge, 

to  the  Call  of  Abraham, 

3.  From  the  Call  of  Abraham, 

to  the  Exode  from  Egypt, 

4.  From  the  Exode, 

to  the  Kingdom  of  Saul, 

5.  From  Saul, 

to  the  Captivity  of  Israel, 

6.  From  the  Captivity, 

to  Alexander  the  Great, 

7    From  Alexander, 


B.  C. 

4004 
2348.. 

2348 
1921. 

1921 
1491. 


.  1656  years The  Antediluvian  Period, 

.  427  years The  Dispersion  Period. 

.  430  years The  Patriarchal  Period. 


1491 

1095 396  years.. 


.The  Theocratic  Period, 


330. 


507  years The  Monarchical  Period. 

258  years The  Persian  Period. 


330 


to  the  Subjugation  of  Greece,      146 184  years The  Grecian  Period. 

8  From  the  Subjugation  of  Greece,    146 

to  the  Birth  of  Christ,  0 146  years The  Roman  Period. 


'  From   the  Creation  to  the  Christian   era,  the  dates  are   reckoned  b  c- 
BEFORE  CHRIST.     They  are  then  changed  to  a.  B.—the  Year  of  our  Lord. 


Tllfi    WORLD'S    PllOGP^ESS. 


FIRST  PERIOD— (^/^e  Antediluvian)— 165Q  years. 


B.  C 

4004 


3S75 
3S74 
3769 


3679 
3609 
a544 
33S2 
3317 
3130 
3074 
3017 
2948 
2468 
2348 


THE  CREATION  OF  THE  WORLD.— (Seirew  Pentateuch.-)  [Hales  places  it  5411  B.  c* 

The  fall  of  man,  and  the  promise  of  a  Saviour. 

The  birth  of  Cam,  the  tiist-born  of  woman — a  husbandman. 

The  death  of  Abel,  the  first  subject  of  death.    He  was  a  shepherd. 


Seth  born,  the  third  son  of  Adam. 
Enos  born. 


Cainan  born. 
Mahalaleel  born. 
Jared  " 

Enoch  " 

Methuselah    "    (lived  969  years.) 
Lamech         " 

Death  of  Adam,  aged  930  years. 
Enoch  translated. 
Noah  born. 

The  building  of  the  Ark  commenced. 
THE  DELUGE.     [Hales  places  it  3154 
B.  c] 


Enoch  born,  the  first  son  of  Cain.t 

Cain  builds  a  city,  which  he  calls  Enoch.  He  in- 
troduces the  use  of  weights  and  measures, — Jo- 
sephus.     Tytler. 

Irad. 

Mehujael. 

Methusael. 

Lamech — polygamy  introduced. 


Jabal 
The  first  to 
build  a  Tent 
for  habita- 
tion, and  to 
use  cattle  for 
purposes  of 
husbandry. 


Jubal. 
He  invent- 
ed the  Harp 
and  the  Or- 
gan,or  wind 
and  stringed 
instruments 
of  music. 


Tubal-cain. 
He  discov- 
ed  the  mode 
ofpreparing 
and  using 
iron,  brass, 
and  other 
Metals. 


Naamah 
She  intro- 
duced the 
artsof;S^zw- 
ning  and 
Weaving. 


*  See  alphabetical  portion  of  this  volume  for  the  various  dates  of  the  chronologists.  The  Sa- 
maritan Pentateuch  places  the  Creation  b.  c.  4700;  the  Septuagint,  5872;  Josephus,  4658;  the 
Talmadists,  BZii ;  Scaligei;  3950;  Petaviiis,  d98i;  and  Dr.  Hales,  5411.  The  last  named  enu- 
merates above  120  various  opinions  on  this  subject,  the  difference  between  the  latest  and  remotest 
date  of  which  is  no  less  than  3263.  The  Hebrew  account  is  followed  by  Usher,  and  is  here  adopted 
as  the  most  generally  received  standard. 

t  No  dates  are  assigned  in  Scripture  to  the  names  here  placed  in  the  right-hand  column. — They 
are  however  contemporary  with  those  in  the  other  column. 


Remarks. — The  Antediluvian  Period  was  nearly  as  long  as  the  whole  period  that  has  elapsed 
since  the  birth  of  Christ.  Of  the  progress  of  knowledge  and  the  arts,  during  that  period,  nothing 
is  known  beyond  what  is  given  above,  except  that  ship-building,  calking,  and  the  use  of  pitch,  or 
paint,  of  measures  by  cubit,  &c.,  and  of  doors  and  windows,  were  known.  They  imply,  in  their 
adaptation  to  the  use  of  man,  other  arts,  ard  a  considerable  advance  in  science  and  the  mechanical 
powers. 


Ji3=-The  Tabular  Views   are   continued  across  two  pages  at  th« 

same    time, 


TsXE    WORLD  S    PROGRESS. 


SECOND  F'EmOJ)— {Dispersion  of  Mankind. )- 


SACRED  HISTORY. 


Proqrbss  op  Society  and  the  Arts. 


2347 


2247 


2234 


Wine  made  by  Noah  from  the  grape. 


Bricks  made,  and  cement  used  to  unite  them. 
Confusion  oi  languages  at  Babel. 


Astronomical  observations  begun  at  Babylon. 


2347.  The  descendants  of  Noah  dispersed 
through  the  earth :  those  of  Shem  probably 
in  Asia,  of  Ham  in  Africa,  and  of  Japhet  in 
Europe. 

2347.  The  curse  pronounced  upon  the  descend- 
ants of  Ham. 

2247.  The  building  of  Babel.* 

2245.  BABYLON  founded  by  Nimrod,  son  of 
Cush,  and  Grandson  of  Ham. 

NINEVEH  founded  by  Ashur,  son  of 
Shem. 


2122 


2100 
2095 


Athotes  (son  of  Menes)  invents  hieroglyphics. 


Sculpture  and  Painting  employed  to  com- 
memorate the  exploits  of  Osymandyas. 

Pyramids  and  Canals  in  Egypt.    The  science 
of  Geometry  begim  to  be  cultivated. 


1998 


Ching  Hong  teaches  the  Chinese  the  art  of 
Husbandry,  and  the  method  of  making 
Bread  from  wheat,  and  wine  from  rice. 


1996.  Abraham  bom. 


1921.  The  call  of  Abraham. 


*  The  chronology  here  adopted  is  that  of  the  Hebrew  Pentateuch.    The  Samaritan  places 
Babel  531  years  after  the  deluge. 


THE   world's   progress. 

427  years. — The  Deluge  to  Abraham. 


PROFANE  HISTORY.— (/n  this  period  traditional  and  uncertain.) 


2207 1  CHINA.  The  first  imperial 
dynasty  of  Hia  begins.  Fohi 
(who  is  perhaps  Noah  him- 
self) is  mentioned  as  the  first 
Chinese  monarch. 


2124 


2069 
2059 


2017 


Belus  reigns  in  BABYLON 
[Some  suppose  Belus  to  be 
the  Nimrod  of  Scripture.  If 
so,  there  is  a  discrepancy  of 
121  years  between  the  sacred 
and  profane  chronologies.] 
The  origin  of  the  kingdoms 
of  Babylon  and  Nineveh,  and 
of  the  Assyrian  empire,  is 
variously  stated  by  the  chron- 
ologists.    See  Sacred  Hist.] 


fiiinus,  son  of  Belus,  reigns  in 

'Nineveh. 
Reestablishes  the  ASSYRIAN 
EMPIRE. 


Semiramis  enlarges  and  embel 
lishes  Babylon,  and  makes  it 
the  seat  of  empire.  [By  others 
placed  2107  b.  c] 


1975  Semiramis  invades  Lybia,Ethi- 
opia,  and  India. 


1937 


The  Arabs  seize  Nineveh.  C?) 


Europe. 


2188.  Misraim  (Mones),  the  son 
of  Ham,  builds  Memphis,  in 
EGYPT,  and  begins  the  E- 
gyptian  monarchy. 


2111.  THEBES  founded  by 
Busiris. 

2100.  Osymandyas,  the  first 
warlike  king,  passes  into 
Asia,  and  conquers  Bactria. 


2085.  Egypt  conquered  by  the 
shepherd  kings  of  Phenicia, 
who  hold  it  2(50  years. 


1938.  Lake  Moeris  constructed. 


089.  SICYON,  the  first  king- 
dom of  GREECE,  founded 
by  Egialus,  or  Inachus. 


2048.  A  colony  of  Pheniciana 

land  in  Ireland.  (7) 
2042.  Uranus  arrives  in  Greece. 


Revolt  of  the  Titans 
War  of  the  Giants. 


THE   WORLD'S   PROGRESS. 


THIKD  PERIOD— (T^  Abrahamic  or  Fatriarchal.)— 


1582 


1580 


1534 


1506 
1497 


1494 


Progress  op  Society  and  the  Arts. 


Gold  and  silver  first  mentioned  as  money. 


Letters  first  used  in  Egypt  by  Syphoas. 


Memnon  invents  the  Egyptian  alphabet. 


Atlas,  the  astronomer. 

The  chronology  of  the  Arundelian  marble? 

begins. 
The  cymbal  used  at  the  feasts  of  Cybele. 


Dancing  to  music  introduced  by  Curetes. 
Book  of  Job  written  about  this  time. 


TheJ?u/e  invented  by  Hyagnis,  a  Phrygian. 
Amphictyon  gives  interpretation  to  dreams 

and  draws  prognostics  from  omens. 
Ericthoneus  teaches  the  Athenians  husbandry. 


SACRED  HISTORY. 


1921 .  Abraham  called. 
1920.  — goes  into  Egypt. 
1912.  — delivers  Lot  from  captivity,  and  re- 
ceives ihe  blessing  of  Melchizedec. 
1909.  Ishniael  born. 
1897.  Sodom  and  Gomorrah  destroyed. 

God  renews  liis  covenant  with  Abraham. 
1896.  Isaac  born. 

1871.  Abraham  commanded  to  offer  Isaac  in 

sacrifice. 
1856.  Isaac  married. 

1836.  Jacob  and  Esau  bom. 

1824.  Abraham  dies,  aged  172. 

1759.  Jacob  marries  Leah  and  Rachel. 
1739.  His  name  changed  to  Israel. 

1729.  Joseph  sold  into  Egypt. 

1715.  Is  made  governor  under  Pharaoh. 

1706.  Jacob  and  his  family  settle  in  Egypt. 

1702.  End  of  the  seven  years'  famine. 

1699.  Death  of  Jacob. 

1635.  Death  of  Joseph. 


1577.  Israelites  persecuted  in  Egypt. 
1574.  Aaron  born. 
1571.  Moses  born. 


1531.  Moses  flees  into  Midian. 
1513.  The  supposed  era  of  Job. 


1491.  God  appears  to  Moses  in  a  burning  bush 
at  Horeb,  and  sends  him  to  Egypt  to  deliver 
the  Israelites. 

The  Ten  Plagues  in  Egypt. 
Institution  of  the  Passover. 
The  EXODUS  of  the  Israelites  from 
Egypt. 


THE   world's    progress. 

Abraham  to  Moses. — (430  years.) 


PROFANE  HlSTOKY.—QStm  fabulous  or  uncertain.) 


Asia. 


Africa. 


1766 


China.    The  2d  Imperial  dy- 
nasty begins. 


1618.  Sesostris  reigns  in  Egypt. 

1556.  Rameses-Miamum  reigns 
in  Egypt. 


1856.  Inachus,  the  Pheniciai 
plants  a  colony  in  ARGOS. 


1807.  Phoroneus  reigns  in 
Argos. 

1764.  Ogyges  reigns  in  Boeotia. 

1707.  Apis,  king  of  Avgos. 

1732.  The  Ogygean  Deluge  in 
Attica. 

1711.  The  city  of  Argos  built 
by  Argus,  the  son  of  Niobe. 

1710.  A  colony  of  Arcadians 
emigrate  into  Italy  under 
CEnotrus. — CEnotria  after- 
wards called  Magna  Grecia. 

1641.  Criasus  succeeds  his 
father,  Argus. 


1556.  ATHENS    founded  by 
Cecrops. 


1552.  Triopas,  king  of  Argos. 
The  kingdom  divided.  Poly- 
caon  reigning  in  Messenia. 

1546.  TROY  founded  by  Sea- 
mander. 

1529.  Deluge  of  Deucalion  in 
Thessaly. 

1520.  Cormth  founded. 

1516.  Sparta  founded,  and  the 
kingcfom  of  Laconia,  or  La- 
cedemon. 

1507.  The  Areopagus  establish- 
ed in  Athens. 

1506.  Crotopas  succeeds  to  the 
throne  of  Argos. 

1504.  Deucalion  arrives  in  Ati 
tica. 

The  kmgdom  of  Messe. 
nia  commenced  by  Poly  caon. 

1493.  THEBES  in  Boeotia, 
founded  by  Cadmus,  a  Phe 
nician,  who  introduces  tlie 
alphabet  into  Greece. 


THE   WORLD  S   PROGRESS. 


FOURTH  PERIOD.— (TAe  Mosaic  or  TJieocratic.)- 


Progress  op  Society  and  the  Arts. 


Crockery  made  by  the  Egyptians  and  Greeks. 
Ericthonius  introduces  the  first  chariot. 

The  fabulous  or  traditionary  Hermes- Tr is- 
megisttis  placed  about  this  period. 


Bacchus,  god  of  wine. 


Olympic  Games  first  celebrated  in  Greece. 
Apollo,  god  of  music  and  poetry. 


Bucklers  used  in  single  combat  invented  by 

Proetus  and  Acrisius  of  Argos. 
Eleusinian  mysteries  instituted  by  Eumol- 

pus. 


Orpheus  and  Linus,  sons  of  Apollo,  skilled 

in  music. 
The  temple  of  Apollo  at  Delphi  built  by  the 

council  of  Amphiciyons. 
Jason  leads  the  Argonautic  expedition;   the 

first  OTccDoZ  expedition  on  record. 


MuscBUs,  a  poet. 


The  axe,  teedge,  wiinble  and  lever,  also  masts 
and  sails  for  ships  invented  by  Dsedalus  of 
Athens. 


The  game  of  Backgammon  invented  by  Pala- 
medes  of  Greece. 


SACRED  HISTORY. 


The  Jews. 


1491.  Departure  of  the  Israelites  from  Egypt, 
The  law  given  at  Mount  Sinai. 


1471.  Rebellion  of  Korah,  Dathan,  and  Abirani 

1453.  Aaron  dies. 

1451.  Moses  writes  the  Pentateuch,  and  dies. 

1451.  Israelites  enter  Canaan  under  Joshua. 


1443.  Joshua  dies. 

1405.  Othniel  judges  Israel. 

1390.  The  tribe  of  Benjamin  tlmost  ext.nct. 


1343.  Eglon,  king  of  Moab,  enslaves  Israel. 
1325.  Ehud  kills  Eglon,  and  delivers  Israel. 
1317.  Shamgar  kills  600  Philistines  with  art 

ox  goad. 
1305.  Israel  subdued  by  Jabin,  king  of  Canaanr 
1285.  Deborah  and  Barak  defeat  the  Canaan- 

ites — Sisera  killed  by  Jael. 


1252.  Israel  enslaved  by  the  Midiantes. 
1249.  Gideon,  with  300  men,  defeats  the  Mi- 
dianites. 


1209.  Abimelech  judges  Israel. 
1206.  Tola  judges  Israel. 


1183.  Jair,  judge  of  Israel. 


THE   WOULD  S   PROGRESS. 


396  years. — Moses  to  Saul. 


PROFANE  HISTORY.— (-Sit';;  uncertain.) 


1449 

1413 
1400 


1374 
1314 


Dardarius,  king  of  Troy,  builds 
Dardania. 


Ericthonius  reigns  in  Troy. 


Cushanrishathaim,  king  of 
Mesopotamia.  (See  Scrip 
ture.) 

Teucer,  king  of  Troy. 


Troas,  king  of  Troy. 
Ilus,  son  of  Troas,  founder  of 
Ilium. 


1260 
1259 


1252 
1240 


1225 
1222 


1220 
1215 


1194 
1184 


1183 
1182 


Laomedon,  kmg  of  Troy. 
Phenicia :  TYRE  founded. 

Second     Assyrian    Dynasty : 

Mithreaus  or  Ninus  II. 
Troy  taken  by  the  Argonauts. 


Hercules  arrives  in  Phrygia. 
Argon,  a  descendant  of  Hercu- 
les, first  king  of  LYDIA. 
Priam,  king  of  Troy. 
Tautanas,  king  of  Assyria. 


The  TRO.TAN  WAR  begins 
Troy  taken,  403  years  before 

the  1st  Olympiad. 
Teutaeus,  kmg  of  Assyria. 
Trojans  migrate  into  Italy. 


Africa. 


1491.  Pharaoh  and  his  army 
drowned  in  the  Red  Sea. 

1485.  Egyptus  reigns,  and 
gives  name  to  the  country. 


1376.  Sethos  reigns  in  Egypt. 


1233.  Cart,  age  founded  by  the 
Tyrians 


Sthenelus  reigns  in  Argos. 


1474.  Danaus  usurps  the  king- 
dom of  Argos. 

1463.  Damnonii  invade  Ire- 
land. 

1457.  The  kingdom  of  Mycene 
begins  under  Perseus,  late 
king  of  Argos. 

1453.  Olympic  games  first  ce- 
lebrated at  Elis. 

1438.  Pandion  begins  to  reign 
at  Athens. 

1400.  Minos  reigns  in  Crete. 

1397.  CORINTH  becomes  a 
kingdom  under  Sisyphus. 

1383.  Ceres  arrives  in  Attica. 

1376.  The  Isthmian  games  in- 
stituted. 

1356.  Eleusinian  mysteries  in- 
troduced. 


1283.  jEgeus  reigns  in  Attica. 

1266.  CEdipus,  king  of  Thebes. 

1263.  The  Argonautic  Expe- 
dition. 

1257.  Theseus  unites  the  cities 
of  Attica  under  one  govern- 
ment. 

1243.  The  Arcadians  conducted 
by  Evander  into  Italy.— Mu- 
saeus,  a  poet. 

1239.  Latinus  reigns  in  Italy 


1225.  First  Theban  War.— 
Euristhenes  and  Procles, 
kings  of  Lacedemon. 

1222.  Hercules  celebrates  the 
Olympic  Games. 

1216.  War  of  the  Epigonii,  or 
2d  Theban  War. 

1213.  Helen  carried  off  by 
Theseus,  is  recovered  by 
Castor  and  Pollux,  and  mar- 
ries Menelaus. 

1204.  Helen  elopes  with  Paris. 
1182.  .^neas  lands  in  Italy. 
1176.     Salamis    Ibunded    by 

Teucer. 
1170.  Epirus :  Pyrrhus  Neop- 

tolemus. 


10 


THE   world's   progress. 

Fourth  Period. — {The  Mosaic  or  Theocratic.] 


1115 

1100 


Prooress  op  Society  and  the  Arts. 


Mariner's  compass  said  to  be  known  in 
China.  C?) 

A  standard  dictionary  of  the  Chinese  contain- 
ing 40,000  characters,  completed  by  Pa-out- 
she.  (1) 


SACRED  HISTORY. 


1161.  Israel  enslaved  by  the  Philistines  and 
Ammonites. — Samson  born. — Eli  judges  a 
portion  of  Israel. 

1143.  Jephtha  defeats  the  Ammonites,  and 
becomes  judge  of  a  part  of  Israel. 


1136.  Samson  slays  1000  Philistines  with  the 
jawbone  of  an  ass. 


1117.  Death  of  Samson  and  Eli. 
1116.  Samuel,  the  last  judge  of  Israel 


1096.  The  Philistines  defeated  at  Ebenezer. 
1095.  Establishment  of  the  HEBREW  MO- 
NARCHY.—Saul  anointed  king  of  Israel. 


THE   WORLD  S    PROGRESS. 

396  years. — (Continued.) — Moses  to  Saul 


11 


PROFANE  HXSVOViY .—iStiU  fabulous  or  uncertain.) 


1141 
U39 


1122 


Temple  of  Ephesua  burnt 

the  Amazons. 
Thinseus,  king  of  Assyria. 


China :— 3 J  dynasty ;— Tchcoo. 


Dercylus,  king  of  Assyria. 


Africa. 


1152.     Alba-Longa    built    by 
Ascanius. 


1124.  ^olian  migration. 

THEBES,  the  Capital  of 
BcEOtia,  founded. 


1104.  Return  of  the  Heraclidae. 
—End  of  the  kingdom  of 
Mycene. 


12 


THE   world's   progress. 


FIFTH  PERIOD.— (TAe  Monarchical)— 


SACRED  HISTORY. 

B.C, 

Progress  op  Society  and  the  Arts. 

The  Jews. 

1095.  Saul,  King  of  Israel. 

1085.  David  born. 

1062.  David  kills  Goliath. 

1055.  Death  of  Saul.    David  reigns  in  Hebron 
over  Judah ;  Ishbosheth  reigning  in  Maha- 
naim,  over  eleven  tribes. 

1048.   Ishbosheth  slain.     David  made    king 
over  all  Israel. 

1043.   David  subdues   the  Philistines,  Moab- 
ites,  Syrians,  and  extends  his  dominions  to 
the  Euphrates,  on  the  East,  the  Red  Sea,  on 
the  South,  and  Lebanon,  on  the  North. 

1036.  Solomon  born. 

1023  Revolt  and  death  of  Absaloni. 

1014.  Conspiracy  of  Adonijah. 

1015 

Minos  gives  his  laws  to  Crete. 

1015.  Solomon  crowned  in  the  presence  of 
David. 

1016.  David  dies. 

1012.    Solomon  lays  the   foundation  of    the 
temple. 

1004.    DEDICATION     OF     SOLOMON'S 
TEMPLE. 

1000.  Solomon  extends  his  commerce,  in  con- 
nection with  Hiram,  king  of  Tyre,  to  India, 
via  Red  Sea,  and  to  the  shores  of  the  Atlan- 
tic, via  Straits  of   Gibraltar  :    builds  Tad- 
mor  (Palmyra)  in  the  desert,  Baalbec,  and 
other  cities. 

985.  He  is  seduced  into  idolatry  by  his  wives. 
975.  — dies,  and  is  succeeded  by  Rehoboam. 

JtjDAH.                      Israel. 

975.  Rehoboam,  king.          Jeroboam,  king. 
971.  Shishak  plunders 

the  temple. 
958.  Abijah,  king. 
955.  Asa,  king. 

954.                                     Nadab,  king. 
953                                      Baasha,  king. 

THE   WORLD  S   PROGRESS. 


13 


507  years. — Saul  to  Cyrus. 


PROFANE  HISTORY. 


1044 


The  Ionian   emigrants   settle 
in  Asia  Minor. 


Alliance  between  Solomon  and 
Hiram,  king  of  Tyre. 


Samos  built. 


Shishak  plunders  Jerusalem. 


Alliance  between  Solomon  ani 
Pharaoh. 


986.  Utica  built. 


978.  Sesac,  (Shishak  in  Scrip- 
ture, and  supposed  Sesos- 
tris,)  king  of  Egypt. 


1088.  End  of  the  kingdom  of 

Sicyon. 
1070.  Heremon,  from  Gallicia, 

conquers  Ireland. 
1069.   Codrus  devotes  himself 

for  Athens. 
1060.     Athens    governed    by 

Archons. 


976.  Capys    reigns  in  Alba 
Longa. 


H 


THE    world's   progress. 


Fifth  Period. — {The  Monarchical.) — 


SACRED  HISTORY. 

B.C. 

Progress  of  Society  and  the  Arts. 

The  Jews. 

JuDAH.                        Israel. 

942.   Asa  defeats  Ze- 
rah,  king  of  Ethio- 
pia, with  a  million 

of  men. 
941.  — makes  a  league 
with  Benhadad,  king 

937 

Breastplates  invented  by  Jason. 

of  Syria.                   930.  Elah,  king. 

929.  Zimri,  king. 

Orari,  king. 

918.  Aiiab,  king. 

800 
786 


772 


721 


710 

685 
680 


Homer'' s  poems  brought  into  Greece. 
Lycurgics  reforms  the  constitution  of  Sparta 
Gold  and  silver  coined  by  Phtdon,  tyrant  of 
Argos. 


Prophecies  of  Jonah. 


Carpets  in  use  for  tents. 
The  Corinthians  employ  triremes  or  vessels 
with  three  banks  ot  oars. 


Sculpture  first  mentioned  in  profane  history- 
an  Egyptian  art. 


The  first  eclipse  of  the  moon  observed  by  the 
Chaldeans  at  Babylon. 

The  Buddha  religion  introduced  by  Gautama 
into  India. 

Roman  Calendar  reformed.  The  year  divided, 
12  months  instead  of  10  as  before. 

Augurs  instituted  by  Numa. 

lam,bic  verse  introduced  by  Archilocus,  Tyr- 
iceusj  and  JEvander,  poets. 

Chess  invented. 


914.         Jehoshaphat, 
king. 

907.  Benhadad,  king  of 

„„„,,,      ,  Syria,  besieges  Sa- 

898.    Jehoshaphat    as-    maria,  but     is    re- 
sists Ahab.  pulsed. 

894.  War  with  Moab. 


9.  Jehoram,  king 


897.  Ahaziah,  king. 
896.  Jehoram,  king. 
895.  Elijah  translated. 


884.  Ahaziah,  king.      884.  Jehu,  king. 
Alhaliah,  queen ; 
usurps  the  throne.     856.  Jehoahaz,  king. 
878.  Jehoash,  king. 


The  Prophet  Jo-  841.  Jehoash,  kins 


nah. 

839.  Amaziah,  king. 
810.  Azariah,  king. 


758.  Jotham,  king 
742.  Ahaz,king. 


825.  Jeroboam,  king. 

784.  InterregnuTn. 

773.  Zachariah,  king. 
Shallum,  king. 

772.  Menahem,  king. 

770.  Pul  invades  Is- 
rael, and  is  bribed 
to  depart  with  1000 
talents. 

762.  Pekahiah,  king. 

759.  Pekah,  king. 
Interregnum. 
Hoshea,  king. 

721.  CAPTZVITY  OP 
ISRAEL. 


17.  Hezekiah,  king. 

712.  Sennacherib  in- 
vades Judah. 

711.  His  army  (185,- 
000)  destroyed  by  a 
pestilence. 

696.  Manasseh,  king. 


THE   WORLD  S    PROGRESS. 


15 


507  years. — Saul  to  Cyrus. — (Continued.) 


PROFANE  HISTORY. 


971 


840 


820 
797 


767 


709 


680 


Homer  bom. 


Jonah  preaches  to  the  Nine- 
vites. 


Arbaces,  king   of  Assyria. — 

Media  revolts. 
Ardyssus,  1st  king  of  LYDIA. 


Pul,  king  of  Nineveh. 


Sardanapalus,  king  of  Nine- 
veh. 

Media  subjected  to  Assyria. 

Alyattea,  king  of  Lydia. 

ERA  OF  NABONAZZAR.— 
Assyrian  empire  destroyed. 
— Meles,  king  of  Lydia. 

Phamacea,  king  of  Cappado. 
cia. 

Tiglath-Pileser  conquers  Sy- 
ria and  part  of  Israel. 

Candaules,  king  of  Lydia. 

Shalvianezer  king  of  .Nine- 
veh, takes  Samaria,  and  car- 
ries the  Ten  Tribes  into 
captivity. 

Gyges  usurps  the  throne  of 
Lydia. 

Sennacherib,  king  of  Nineveh. 

MEDIA  becomes  a  kingdom 
under  Dejoces. 

Ecbatana  founded  by  Dejoces. 


Babylon  and  Nineveh  under 
Esarhaddon. 


869.  Dido  arrives  in  Africa, 
and  builds  Byrsa. 

825.  The  dynasty  of  the  Ta. 
nites  in  Egypt ;  begins  with 
Peterbastes. 


781.  The  dynasty  of  the  Saites 
in  Egypt. 


737.  Sebacon  invades  Egypt. 


935.  Bacchus,  king  of  Corinth 


916.  Calpetus,  Ung  of  Alba. 


903.  Tiberinus,  king  of  Alba. 

895.  Tiberinus  drowned  in  tha 
river  Albula,  which  is  thence 
called  the  Tiber. 


864.   Romulus,  king  of  Alba 
Longa. 


845.  Aventinus,  king  of  Alba. 


814.  The  kingdom  of  MACE- 
DON  founded  by  Caranus. 
18.  Procas,  king  of  Alba. 
794.  Numitor,  "  " 

794.  Amulius, "  " 


Clam  Fodla,  king  in  Ii-e- 
land.  (-!) 

769.    Syracuse    founded    by 
Archias  of  Corinth. 

753.  BUILDING   OF  ROME 
begun. 

Catania  founded  by  a  co- 
lony from  Chalcis. 

747.  Union  of    Romans   and 
Sabines. 

743.  Ist  Messinian  War. 


716.  Romulus  murdered  by  the 

senators. 
715.  Numa  Pompilius. 
713.  Gela  in  Sicily  founded. 

703.  Corcyra  built  by  the  Co- 
rinthians. 

685.  2d  Messinian  War. 


16 


THE   world's    progress. 

Fifth  Period. — {The  Monarchical.)- 


Progress  of  Society  and  the  Arts. 


Attempt  to  discover  the  primitive  language  of 
mankind ;  Interpreters  instituted  by  Psam- 
meticus ;  children  educated  in  the  language 
and  manners  of  Greece. 

Se-Matsien's  history  of  China' begins. 


The  Spherical  form  of  the  earth  and  the  true 
cause  of  lunar  eclipses  taught  by  Tholes, 
who  discovers  the  electricity  of  amber. 


Periander  encourages  learning  at  Corinth. 


Draco  frames  his  bloody   code  of  laws  at 
Athena. 


Pharaoh-Necho  begins  a  canal  between  the 
Mediterranean  and  Red  Sea.  The  lives  of 
120,000  men  lost  in  the  attempt.  He  sends 
out  a  Phoenician  fleet  wliich,  sailing  through 
the  Straits  of  Babelmandel,  returned  the 
third  year  by  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar,  thus 
circumnavigating  Africa. 


Sappho,  Alccms,  Pittacus,  Bius,  Chilo,  Mj/- 
son,  Anacharsis,  .^sop,  Ilychis,  Theognis, 
Stesichorus,  Phocylides,  and  Cadmus  (of 
Miletus),  flourish  at  this  time. 


Thales'  prediction  of  a  solar  eclipse  accom- 
plished.— (See  Asia.) 


Solon's  legislation  in  Athens,  supersedes  that 

of  Draco. 
The  Pythian  Games  at  Delphi. 


SACRED  HISTORY. 


The  Jews. 


677.  Marjasseh  carried  to  Balylon,  is  after- 
wards reAored. 


640.  Ammon,  king  of  Juciah. 

641.  Josiah.  king  of  Judah. 


Josiah  killed  at  Megiddo,  by  Pharaoh  Ne- 


cho. 


609.  Jehoahaz,  king,  deposed  and  carried  to 
Egypt. 

Jehoiakim,  kmg. 


606.    CONQUEST    OF    JERUSALEM   by 

Nebuchadnezzar. 


598.  Jehoiachin,  king,  reigns  three  months, 
and  is  carried  captive  to  Bahylon. 
Zedekiah,  king. 
591.  Ezekiel  begins  to  prophesy  in  Chaldea. 


588.  CAPTIVITY  OF  JUDAH  completed. 
JERUSALEM  DESTROYED— the  tern- 
pie  burnt. 
Ohadiah  prophesies. 


THE   world's    progress. 


17 


507  years.— Saul  to  Ct/ras.— (Continued.) 


676 


658 


626 
624 


PROFANE  HISTORY. 


Ardysus  H.,  king  of  Lydia. 
Holofernes,  Assyrian  general. 

Phraortes,  king  of  Media. 

Saracus,  king  of  Babylon  and 

Nineveh. 
Phraortes    conquers     Persia, 

Armenia,  &c. 

Cyaxares,  king  of  Media. 
Sadyattes,  king  of  Lydia. 

Nabopolassar  revolts  from  Sa- 
racus. 

The  Scythians  invade  Lydia 
and  Media. 

Alyattes  II.,  king  of  Lydia. 

Nineveh  a  second  time  destroy 
ed. 

Nabopolassar,  king  of  Baby 
Ion. 


Africa. 


660.  Psammeticus,  king  of 
Egypt.— Memphis  becomes 
the  capital  of  the  kingdom. 


006 

604 
601 


599 
696 


Pharaoh-Necho  defeated  by 
Nebuchadnezzar  at  Circe- 
eium,  on  the  Euphrates. 

Nebuchadnezzar,  king  of  Ba- 
bylon. 

Daniel  interprets  the  king's 
dream. 

A  solar  eclipse  predicted  by 
Thales— separates  the  Medes 
and  Lydians  in  battle.  {New 
ton's  Chron.,  585.) 

Birth  of  Cyrus. 

Astyages  of  Media  drives  out 
the  Scythians. 


610.  Pharaoh-Necho,  king  of 
Egypt. 


678.  Argaeus,  1st  king  of  Ma- 

cedon. 
672.  Tullus  Hostilius,  king  oi 

Rome. 
668.  Messina  in  Sicily  founded. 
665.  Alba  destroyed. 
664.    Sea   fight  '  between    the 

Corinthians  and  Corcyreans. 

658.  BYZANTIUM  founded. 


640.  AncusMartius.— The  port 
of  Ostia  built.— The  Latins 
conquered  by  the  Romans.— 

Philip,  1st  king  of  Mace- 


629.   Periander  rules  at    Co- 
rinth. 


616.  Tarquinius  Priscus,  king 
of  Rome. 


60O.  Psammia,  king  of  Egypt. 


602.  .^Eropus,  king  of  Mate- 
don,  conquers  lUyria. 


594.  Pharaoh-Hophra,  king  of  594.  Solon,  Archor  of  Athena 
Egypt. 


18 


THE    world's    progress. 


SIXTH  PERIOD.— (T/^ePersmw.)— 


B.c        Progress  of  Society. 


585 


.578 


DSy 


5i0 


535 


Money  coined  a.t  Rome  by  Ser- 
vius  TuUius. 


Depoenus  and  Scyllis  open  a 
school  of  statuary  at  Athens. 

Naucrates  given  to  the  Greeks 
by  Egypt  as  a  factory. 

Egypt  possesses  20,000  inha- 
bited cities. 

First  comedy  acted  at  Athens 
on  a  cart,  by  Susarion  and 
Dolon. 

Dials  invented  by  Anaximan 
der  of  Miletus. 

Anaximenes,  Cleobulus. 


The  Corinthian  order  of  ar- 
chitecture invented  by  Call- 
machus. 

Zoroaster,  the  Persian  Philo- 
sopher. 

iSimonides,  Anacreon,  poets. 


Thespis    performs    the    first 
tragedy  at  Athens. 


Learning  encouraged  at  Ath 
ens. — Firet  public  library 
founded. 

Confucius  the  Cliinese  philo- 
sopher. 
The  Dane  issued  by  Darius. 


559.  Handwriting  on  the  wall 
at  Belshazzar's  feast. 


536.  Edict  of  Cyrus  for  the  Re- 
turn of  the  Jews. 
Joshua,  Zerubbabel. 

535.    Rebuilding  of  the  tem- 
ple begins. 

Zechariah.  Ilaggai. 


516.  Dedication  of  the  second 
temple. 


582.  Nebuchadnezzar  invadea 
Elam — takes  Susa. 


572.  Tyre  taken  by  Nebuchad- 
nezzar. 


569.     Nebuchadnezzar 
his  reason  is  deposed. 
New  Tyre  founded, 


562.   Croesus,  king  of  Lydia. 

Solon  and  Mso\>  at  his  court. 
561.   Evil-Merodach,   king   of 

Babylon. 

559.  Neriglissar  or  Belshazzai 
killed  in  the  night. 

Cyaxares     H.     (Darius) 
king  of  Media. 

Cyrus  the  Persian  assists 
him. 
Asia  Minor  subjected  to  Croe 
sus. 


546.  Sardis  taken  by  Cyrus. — 
Croesus  made  prisoner. — 
The  Lydian  Kingdom  end- 
ed. 

538.  BABYLON  TAKEN  by 
Cyrus. 

536.  PERSIAN  EMPIRE 
founded  by  CYRUS,  com- 
posed of  Assyria,  Media  and 
Persia. 


529.   Cambyses,  king  of  Per- 
sia. 


522.    Darius  Hystaspes,  king 
of  Persia. 


THE    world's   progress. 


19 


258  -years. —  Gyrus  to  Alexander  the  Cheat. 


581 


536 


505 


Egypt  invaded  by  Nebuchad- 
nezzar. 


Apries  taken  prisoner,  and 
strangled  in  his  palace. 

Amasis,  Iving — connection  be- 
tween Greece  and  Egypt. 


Pythagoras  visits  Egypt. 


Psammenitus,  last  king  of 
Egypt. — Invasion  of  Cam- 
byses,  who  defeats  the 
Egyptians  at  Pelusium,  and 
takes  Memphis. 

Egypt  becomes  a  Persian 
Province. 


585.  Death  of  Periander,  tyrant 

of  Corinth. 
582.  Corinth  becomes  a  repub 

lie. 


Rome,  etc. 


560.  Pisistratus,  tyrant  ol  Ath- 
ens. 


549.  Temple  of  Apollo  at 
Delphi  burnt  by  the  Plsis- 
tratidae. 

547.  Amyntas,  king  of  Mace- 
don. 


539.  The  Phocians  emigrate  to 
Gaul  and  build  Massilia 
(now  Marseilles). 


527.  Pisistratus  dies. 


522.  Polycrates,  tyrant  of  Sa- 

mos. 
521.  Hippias  and  Hipparchus 

reign  in  Athens. 


510.  The  Pisistratidas  expelled. 
— Democracy  estabfished  at 
Athens. — Statues  erected  to 
Harmonius  and  Aristogiton, 
leaders  in  the  revolution. 


578.  Servius  Tullius,  king  cf 
Rome. 


567.  Conquest  of  the  Etruriana 

by  Rome. 
565.    First  census  of  Rome: 

84,700  citizens. 


534.  Tarquinius  SuperbuB, 
king  of  Rome. 

530.  Cadiz  built  by  the  Car- 
thaginians (near  the  ancient 
Tarshish). 


20 


THE   WOULD'S   PROGRESS. 


Sixth  Period. — [Tlie  Persian.) — 


B.C. 

509 


507 


483 


479 


4:7 


460 


Progress  op  Society. 


Abolition  of  the  Regal  Govern- 
ment, and  establishment  of 
Republic  at  Rome. 


HeracUtus,  Theano,  Prota- 
goras, Anaxagoras,  philoso- 
phers.— Corinna,  poetess. 


The  Phctnician  letters  carried 
to  Ireland  from  Spain. 

Pythagoras  teaches  the  doc- 
trine of  celestial  motions. 

The  temple  of  Minerva  built. 


The  Etruriayis  excel  in  music, 
the  drama  and  architecture. 


jEsckylus,  Pindar,  poets. 


Simonides,  of  Cos,  obtains  the 
prize  at  Olympia,  for  teach- 
ing a  system  o{ 3Ineino>iics, 
which  he  had  invented. 

Empirics  instituted  by  Acron, 
of  Agrigentutn. 


Sophocles,     the    tragic,    and 
Plato,  the  comic  poet. 


Voyage  of  the  Carthaginians 
to  Britain  for  tin. 


483.  Joachim,  High  Priest. 


458.  Esther. 

457.  Ezra  goes  to  Jerusalem, 
collects  life  Jewish  Scrip- 
tures :  and 

45.3.  —writes  the  Chronicles. 


508.  Darius  conquers  India. 


98.  The  .  onians  revolt  from 
Persia  and  burn  Sardis. 


491.  Darius  sends  an  army  of 
500,000  men  into  Greece. 


487.  Artabazes,  king  of  Pen- 

tua. 
486.  Xerxes,  king  of  Persia. 

481.  The  expedition  of  Xerxes 
into  Greece.  . 

480.  The  family  of  Archean- 
actes,  from  Mytilene,  settle 
in  Bosphorus  (now  Circas- 
sia.) 


478.  Death  of  Confucius.— 
China  distracted  by  interna 
wars. 


466.  Persians  defeated  by  sea 

and  land. 
465.  Xerxes  assassinated. 
464.  Artaxerxes  I.  (Longiiua 

nus,)  king  of  Persia. 


THE    WORLD'S   PROGRESS. 


21 


258  years. —  Cyrus  to  Alexander. — (Continued.) 


480 


460 


455 


Egypt  revolts— is  subdued  by 
Xerxes. 


Hamilcar  killed  in  battle. 


Egypt,  under   Inarus,  revolts 
from  Persia. 


All  Egypt  reduced  by  Megaby- 
eus. 


505.  Lacedemonian  War. 
504.   Lemnos  taken  by  Milti- 
ades. 


497.    Alexander   1st,  king 
Macedon. 

Hippocrates,    tyrant 
Gela. 

491.  Invasion  of  the  Persians 
under  Datis  and  Artaplier- 
nes. 

490.  Battle  of  MARATHON. 


488.  Miltiades  imprisoned. 


483.  Aristides  banished. 


I  Battle  of  Thermopylse. 
Athens  burnt  by  Xerxes. 
Battle  of  Salamis. 
479.  Mardonius  a  second  time 
takes  Athens. 

Defeat  of  the  Persians  at 
Platea  and  Mycale  on  the 
same  day. 


476.  Themistocles  rebuilds 
Athens. — The  Piraeus  built. 

470.  Cimon  son  of  Miltiades.— 
Themistocles  banished.— 
The  kingdom  of  the  Odrysse 
extends  over  the  most  of 
Thrace. 

466.  The  Persians  twice  de- 
feated at  the  Eurymedon  by 
Cimon. 

465.  3d  Messinian  War. 

461.  Ostracism  of  Cimon. — 
Pericles  rises  to  great 
povper. 

459.  Athens  assumes  to  be  the 
head  of  Greece. 

456.  Cimon  recalled. 


Ri.  JO/  AND  Italy. 


509.    Thj    Tarqums  expelled 

from  Ili.me. 
Brutus     and     Collatinus 

first  Consuls  of  Rome. 

507.  Second  census  of  Rome, 

130,909  citizens. 
The    Capitol    finished.— War 

against   the    Tarquins   and 

their  ally  Porsenna. 


498.  Titus  Lartius,  first  Dicta- 
tor. 

Tribunes  of  the  people. 
496.  Posthumius,  Dictator. 


491.  Coriolanus  banished. 


488.  At  the  request  of  his 
mother,  Coriolanus  with- 
draws the  Volsci  from  Rome. 

485.  Gelon,  tyrant  of  Syracuse. 

483.  Quasstors  appointed. 

480.  The  Carthaginians  de- 
feated by  Gelon. 

479.  Syracuse  governed  by 
Hiero. 


477.  The  300  Fabii  slain. 


467.  Thrasybulus  succeeds 
Hiero,  and  is  expelled  for 
his  cruelty. 

Democracy  in  Syracuse. 


461.  Earthquake  at  Rome. 


456.  Cincinnatus  Dictator. 


22 


THE    world's   progress. 

Tim  Sixth  Period. — [The  Fersian.)- 


B.c    Pkogeess  op  Society,  etc. 


The  Bfitona  inflict  punish- 
ment of  death  by  drowning 
in  a  quagmire. 


Herodotus  reads  his  history  in 
the  Athenian  council. — E7n- 
pedocles,  Parmenides,  Aris- 
tippus,  and  Antisthenes, 
philosophers. — Phidias  the 
finest  sculptor  of  antiquity. 
— Euripides,  tragic  poet. 

The  Battering  Ram  invented 
hy  Anemones. 


Aristophanes,  prince  of    an- 
cient comedy. 


Melon  begins  his  lunar  cycle. 

Socrates,  the  greatest  of  hea- 
then moralists. 

Hippocrates,  of  Cos,  the  father 
01  medicine. 

Thucydides,  Ctesias,  histo- 
rians. 

Democritus,  the  laugliing  phi- 
losopher. 


An  eclipse  of  the  sun  causes 
the  defeat  of  the  Atlienians 
at  Syracuse 


Thucydides'  history  ends,  and 
Xenophon's  begins. 


445.  Walls  of  Jerusalem  built 
by  Nehemiah. 

Sect  of  Samaritans. 


449.  Persians  defeated  at  Sa- 
lamis  in  Cyprus. 
Peace  with  Greece. 


438.   Spartacua  takes  posses 
sion  of  the  Bosphorus. 


425.    Xerxes  n.  k.  of  Per.-ia 
424.    Darius  11.  k.  ol  lV;rsia. 


4(M.  Artaxerxes  H.  (JVuiemon.) 

king  of  Persia. 


THE    WORLD  S    PROGRESS. 

258  years. —  Cyrus  to  Alexander. — (Continued.) 


23 


414 


407 


Amyrteeus,  king  of  Egypt, 
shakes  off  the  yoke  of  Per- 
sia. 


The  Carthaginians  send  300,- 
000  men  into  Sicily. 


454.  Perdiccas,  II.,  king  of  Ma- 
cedon. 

449.  Cimon  makes  peace  with 

Persia. 
448.  First  Sacred  War. 
447.  Athenians  defeated  at  Che- 

ronoea. 


440.  Pericles  takes  Samos. 


437.    Amphipolis  planted   by 

Athenians. 
436.  Corinth  at  war  with  Cor- 

cyra. 


432.  Revolt  of  Potidaea  from 
the  Athenian  confederacy 

431.  The  Peloponnesian  War. 
Invasion  of  Attica. 

430.  The  Plague  at  Athens. 

429.  Pericles  dies,  having  goV' 
emed  Athens  40  years. 

425.  An  earthquake  separates 
the  peninsula  of  Eubcea 
from  the  main  land. 

424.  Exile  of  Thucydides. 

Campaign  of  Brasidas  in 

420.  The 'gOth  Olympiad. 

Alcibiades  effects  a  treaty 
between  the  Athenians  and 
Argives. 

416.  Nicias,  general  of  the 
Athenians. 

War  in  Sicily . 

414.  The  Athenians  .Tlarmed  by 
an  eclipse,  are  repulsed  be- 
fore Syracuse. 

413.  Archelaus,  king  of  Mace- 
don. 

412.  Athens  governed  by  the 
400. — Alliance  of  Sparta 
with  Persia. 

411.  Alcibiades  at  the  court  of 
Tissaphemes. 

410.  Alcibiades  defeats  the 
Spartans. 


408.  Capture  of  Byzantium. 

405.  Lysander  defeats  the 
Athenians  —  takes  Athens, 
and  establishes  the  30  ty- 
rants. 

End  of  the  Peloponnesian 
War. 

Death  of  Alcibiades. 


Rome,  etc. 


451.   Decemviri— the  laws  of 
the  12  tables. 

Virginia    killed    by    her 
father. 


446.  Syracuse  reduces  Agri- 
gentum. 

445.  Military  Tribunes. 

444.  Office  of  Censor  insti- 
tuted. 

440.  Famine  in  Rome. 


437.  The  Veil  defeated. 


434.  War  with  the  Tuscans. 

433.  The  temple  of  Apollo  de- 
dicated. 

431.  The  Equi  and  Volsci  de- 
feated. 


24 


THE   world's   progress. 

The  Sixth  Period. — ( The  Persian.)- 


B.c.  Progress  op  Society,  etc, 


377 


368 


360 


CatapultcB,  invented  by  Diony- 


Cynics,  sect  of  philosophers 
founded  by  Antisthenes, 


Plato,  the  philosopher. 
Philoxenes,  the  poet. 


Treatise  on  conic  sections  by 
Arist(Bus. 


Diogenes,  the  cynic ;  Isocrates 
and  Isoius,  orators. 


A  celestial  globe  brought  into 
Greece  from  Egypt. 


Philippics  of  Demosthenes. 


Commerce    of  Rhodes   with 
Africa  and  Byzantium 


3GC.  Jeshua  slain  by  Johan- 
nan  in  the  inner  court  of  the 
temjDle,  for  which  a  heavy 
fine  is  laid  on  the  daily  sacri- 
fices. 


401.  Cyrus  the  younger  de- 
feated.—Retreat  of  the  10,000 
imder  Xenophon. 

400.  The  city  of  Delhi  found 
ed. 


387.  The  Greek  cities  of  Asia 
tributaiy  to  Persia. 

383,    BITHYNIA  becomes  a 
kingdom. 

Mithridates    1st,  king   of 
PONTUS. 


362.  Ariobarzanes  king  of  Pon- 
tu3. — Revolt  of  the  Persian 
governor  in  Asia  Minor. 

361.  Darius  Ochus,  or  Artax- 
erxes  III.  king  of  Persia. 

360.  CAPPADOCIA  becomes 
a  kingdom  under  Ariarathes  L 


THE    WORLD  S   PROGRESS. 


25 


258  years. —  Cyrus  to  Alexander. — (Continued.) 


362 


360 


The    Ci^rthaginians    land    in 
Italy" 


Tachos,  king  of  Egypt. 

Agesilaus,  the    Spartan, 
aids  the  Egyptians. 


Voyages  of  the  Carthaginians 
under  Hanno. 


401.   Thrasybulus  espela  the 
30  tyrants. 

Death  of  Socrates. 


399.  Amyntas  II.,  king  of  Ma^ 
cedon. 


396.  Agesilaus  goes  into  Asia, 
395.  Corinthian  War  begun.— 
Battle  of  Coronea. 


382.  Thebes  taken  by  Phcebi- 
das. 

380.  Thebes  delivered  by  Pelo- 
pides  and  Epaminondas. 
100th  Olympiad. 

377.  Spartan  fleet  defeated  at 
Naxos. 

372.  Ellice  and  Bula  in  the  Pe- 
loponnesus, swallowed  up 
by  an  earthquake. 

371.  Battle  of  Leuctra. 

Alexander II.,  kingofMa- 
cedon. 
Predominance  of  Thebes. 

370.  Perdiccas  III.,  king  of 
Macedon. 

364.  Pelopidas  killed  in-battle. 

362.  Battle  of  Mantinea,  death 
of  Epaminondas. 

Decline  of  Grecian 
Republics. 

360.  Philip  II.,  king  of  Mace- 
don. defeats  the  Athenians 
at  Methone. 

The  Macedonian  phalanx. 

War  of  the  allies  against 
Athens. 


358.  Philip  takes  Amphipolis 

and  loses  his  right  eye  by  an 

arrow  from  Astoi\ 
357.  The  2d  Sacred  War. 
356.    Philip  conquers  Thrace 

and  Illyria. 

The  Temple  of  Diana  at 

Ephesus  burnt. 

A  L  B  X  A  N  D  E  R  "  the 

Great"  bom. 


Rome  and  Italy. 


400.  Siege  of  Veil  begun. 


397.  Lake  Alba  drained. 


391.  Camillus,  Dictator,  takes 
Veii,  after  a  siege  of  ten 
years. 

390.  Rome  taken  and  burnt  by 
the  Gauls,  under  Brennus. 
— The  Capitol  besieged. — 
Camillus  delivers  his  coun- 
try. 

386.  Damon  and  Pythias. 

384.  M.  Manlius  Capilolinua 
thrown  from  the  Tarpeian 
rock. 


379.    The   Volsci   defeat   the 
Romans. 


376.  Lucius  Sextus,  first  ple- 
beian consul. 

Camillus,  the  fifth  time 
Dictator. 

371.    The  curule  magistrates 
appointed. 


362.  Curtius  leaps  into  a  gulf 
'  in  the  Forum. 


357.  Dionysius,  the  younger, 
expelled  from  Syracuse. 


26 


THE    world's    progress. 

SEVENTH  PERIOD.— (TAe  Grecian.)- 


B.C.  Progress  of  Society,  etc- 


343 


336 


328 


320 


Aristotle,  the  logician  and  phi- 
losopher, founder  of  the  Pe- 
ripatetics; uEschines,  ora- 
tor. 

Demosthenes  ;  Jcetas,  of  Syra- 
cuse. 

The  Lyceum  built  in  Attica. 


Alexander  spares  the  house  of 

Pindar. 
The  revolution  of  eclipses  first 

calculated  by  Calippus,  the 

Athenian. 

Caustic  painting  or  the  art 
of  burning  colors  into  icooei 
or  ivory,  invented  by  Gau- 
sias,  a  painter  of  Sicyon. 


The  voyage  of  Nearchus  from 

the  Indus  to  the  Euphrates. 
Apelles,  the  painter  ;     Calis- 

thenes,  philosopher. 
Menander,  the  inventor  of  the 

new  comedy. 
Lysistratus    invents     moulds 

from    which   to    cast   wax 

figures. 


First  work  on  mechanics,  writ 
ten  by  Aristotle.  —  Diving 
Bell  first  mentioned. 


Alexander  enters  Jerusa- 
lem.— On  seeing  Jaddus,  the 
High  Priest,  clad  in  his 
robes,  he  declares  he  had 
seen  him  in  a  vision,  invit- 
ing him  to  Asia,  and  pro- 
mising him  the  Persian  em- 
pire. He  goes  to  the  Tem- 
ple, offers  sacrifices  to  Jeho- 
vah, and  departs. 


320.   Ptolemy  carries   100,000 
Jews  into  Eypt. 
Onias  I. 


336.    Mithridates  11.,  king  of 
Pontus. 


334.  Battle  of  the  Granicus. 

333.  Battle  of  Issus. — Parthia, 
Bactria,  Hyrcania,Sogdiana, 
and  Asia  Minor,  conquered 
by  Alexander. 

332.  Tyre  subdued  after  seven 
months'  siege. 

Damascus  taken. — Gaza 
surrenders. 

331.  Battle  of  Arbela.— The 
Persian  army  totally  defeat- 
ed. 

330.  CONQUEST  of  the  PER- 
SIAN EMPIRE. 

329.  Thalestris,  queen  of  the 
Amazons,  visits  Alexander, 
with  a  train  of  300  women. 

328.  Alexander  extends  his 
conquest  to  the  Ganges. 

323.  Alexander  dies  at  Baby- 
lon. 

322.  Perdiccas  takes  Cappa- 
docia. 


320.  Eumenes  defeated  by  An- 
tigonus. 


THE    world's   progress. 


27 


184  years. — Alexatider  to  the  Fall  of  Gh'mce. 


319 


340 


332 


323 


Darius  Ochus  conquers  Egypt, 
and  pillages  its  temples. 


The  Carihaginians  defeated  by 
Timoleon. 


Egypt  conquered  by  Alexan- 
der. 

Alexandria  built. 


Ptolemy  I.    (Soter,  son  of  La- 
gus.) 


Greece — Macedon. 


353.  The  Phocians  defeated  bv 
Philip. 

348.  End  of  the  Sacred  War. 
Philip  takes  Olynthus. 

346.    Philip    admitted  to    the 
Amphictyonic  Comicil. 

345.  Duras  buried  by  an  earth- 
quake. 

343.  Thrace  tributary  to  Mace- 
don. 

Aristotle  appointed  tutor 
to  Alexander. 


341.  Philip  makes  war  upon 
Athens. 

•340.  — lays  siege  to  Byzantium. 
Timoleon  recovers  Syra- 
cuse, expels  Dionysius,  the 
tyrant,  and  defeats  the  Car- 
thaginians at  Agrigentum. 

338.  Philip  defeats  the  Greeks 
at  Cheronea. 

336.  Philip  is  murdered  by 
Pausanias. 

ALEXANDER  III.,  sur- 
named  the  Great. — He  rava- 
ges Greece,  destroys  Thebes, 
sparing  the  house  of  Pindar. 

335.  ^is  chosen  generalissimo 
of  Greece  against  Persia. 

334.  — invades  Persia,  and  after 
several  great  battles  (see 
"  Asia ")  subdues  the  Per- 
sian empire  and  Egypt,  and 
marches  into  India. 


330.     .ffischines,    the    orator, 
banished. 


325.  Demosthenes  banished. 

323.  Death  of  Alexander. — 
The  Grecian  cities  revolt 
from  Macedon. — Demosthe- 
nes recalled. 

322.  The  Greeks  defeated  by 
sea  and  land  near  Cranon. 
Death  of  Demosthenes. 

321.  Antipater,  regent. 


319.  Polysperchon  succeeds 
Antipater,  and  proclaims 
liberty  to  the  Grecian  cities- 


Rome,  etc. 


354.  Dion  put  to  death,  and 
Syracuse  usurped  by  ty- 
rants. 


345.  Twelve  cities  in  Campa- 
nia buried  by  an  earthquake. 

343.  Samnian  War,  which  con- 
tinues 53  years. 


340.  P.  Decius  aevoles  him- 
self for  his  courtry. 

All  Campania  is  subdued. 


332.  The  Caledonian  mo- 
narchy (Scotland)  founded 
by  Fergus  I. 


325.  Papirius  Cursor,  Dictator. 


Kl.  The  Samnites  make  the 
Romans  pass  under  the  yoke. 

.320.  The  Samnites  defeated  at 
Luceria. 


28 


THE   WORLD  S    PROGRESS. 


The  Seventh  Period. — (TAe  Grecian^ — 


B.  c.  Progress  of  Society,  etc. 


Commerce  of  Macedon  with 
India,  through  Egypt. 


The  Appian  Way  constructed. 
— The  Gnomon  inventecl  to 
measure  altitudes. 


Aqueducts  and  baths  in  Rome. 


311.  Judea  subject  to  Ar.tigo- 
nus. 


Euclid,  of  Alexandria,  the 
celebrated  mathematician. — 
Zeiio,  founder  of  the  Stoics ; 
—Pyrrho,  of  the  Skeptics  ; 
Epicurus,  of  the  Epicu- 
reans.— Bion,  of  Borysthe- 
nes,  philosopher. 

The  great  Chinese  Wall  built. 


The  first  sun-dial  erected  at 
Rome  by  Papirius  Cursor, 
and  the  time  first  divided 
into  hours. 


Fabius  mtroduces  painting  at 
Rome. 

The  Colossus  of  Rhodes 
built  by  Chares,  of  Lindus. 


Theocrites,  the  father  of  pas- 
toral  poetry. 

Dionysius,  the  astronomer  at 
Alexandria,  begins  his  era. 
He  found  the  solar  year  to 
consist  of  365  days,  5  hours, 
and  49  minutes. 

The  Septuagint  translation  of 
the  old  Testament,  begun  at 
Alexandria,  by  order  of  Pto 
lemy  Philadelphus. 


The  Jews. 


301.    Judea  under  the  domi- 
nion of  the  Ptolemies. 


284.  The  sect  of  the  Sadducees. 


312.  SYRIA.  Seleucus,  Nicator. 


311.  Seleucus  Nicator  retakes 

Babylon. 

Era  of  the  SeleucidtB. 
310.     Eumeles    usurps    the 

throne  of  Bosphorus,  putting 

to  death   all    his    brothers. 

After  a  reign  of  six  years,  is 

murdered. 


305.   War   in  India,   against 

Sandrocottus. 


301.  Battle  of  jfpsws.— Antigo- 
nus  killed. 

ALEXANDER'S  EM- 
PIRE DIVIDED  in  four 
parts.  —  Ptolemy,  Seleucus, 
Cassander,  Lysimachus. 

Mithvidates  III.,  king  of 
Pontus. 


291.  Seleucus  founds  Antioch, 
Edessa,  and  Laodicea. 


285.    The    Scythians    invada 
Bosphorus, 


THE    WORLD'S    PROGRESS. 


29 


184  years. — (Continued.) 


307 

306 


Agathocles  is  defeated  by  the 
Carthaginians. 

Peace  between  Sicily  and  Car- 
thage. 


318.  Phocion  put  to  death  by 
the  Athenians. 

317.  Cassander  assumes 
the  government  of  Macedon, 
Demetrius  Phalerius  gov- 
erns Athens. 

315.  Cassander  rebuilds  Thebes, 
and  founds  Cassandria. 


312.  Epirus :  P  y  r  r  h  u  s  II., 

the  greatest  hero  of  his  time. 


306.  Democracy  established  at 
Athens  by  Demetrius. 

304.  Athenians  •repulsed  from 
Rhodes. 

303,  Demetrius  Poliorcetes, 
general  of  the  Grecian  States. 


300.  Restoration  of  Democracy 
at  Athens. 


291.  Death  of  Cassander. — 
Alexander  and  Antipater 
succeed. 

296.  Siege  of  Athens,  by  De- 
metrius. 

294.  Demetrius  murders  Alex- 
ander, and  seizes  the  throne 
of  Macedon. 


287.  Athens  revolts  from  De- 
metrius. 

286.  Pyrrhus  expelled  from 
Macedon. 


2&1.  The  Achtean  Republic. 


Rome,  etc. 


317.  Syracuse  and  Sicily  usurp- 
ed by  Agathocles. 


312.  War  with  the  Etruscans 


310.  The  Carthaginians  defeat 
Agathocles,  and  besiege  Sy- 
racuse. 

308.  Fabius  Maximus 
defeats  the  Samnites. 


303.     Establishment    of 
Tribus  Urbancb. 


the 


300.First  Plebeian  High  Priest. 


290.  End  of  the  Samnite  War. 


86.  Law  of  Hortensius,  by 
which  the  decrees  of  the 
people  had  the  force  of  those 
of  the  senate. 


30 


THE   world's   progress. 


The  Seventh  Period. — {The  Grecian.) — 


B.C. 

Progress  op  Society,  etc. 

The  Jews. 

Asia. 

283 
281 

The  Pharos  built  at  Alesan- 
dria,  the  first  light-house  on 
record. 

Philetaerus,  of  Pergamus,  pa- 
tron of  the  arts,  especially 
Architecture. 

Alexandria,  the  resort  of  the 
learned,  and  centre  of  trade. 

Chariots  armed  with  scythes, 
axA  fortified  camps,  in  use. 

282.  The  kingdom  of  PER- 
GAMUS founded  by  Phile- 
t«rus. 

281.  Lysimachus  defeated  and 
killed  by  Seleucus.— Antio- 
chus  Soter  succeeds  Seleu- 
cus. 

276 

First  society  of  critics  formed. 

• 

267 
266 

Ptolemy  makes  a  :anal  from 

the  Nile  to  the  Red  Sea. 
Silver  money  first  coined. 

266.  Ariobarzanes  III.,  king  of 

Pontus. 

264 

The  Parian   Chronicle  com- 
posed. 

Gladiators  first  exhibited  at 
Rome. 

262.  Antiochus  Soter  defeated 
at  Sardis. 

256 
255 

Beroszis,  the  historian  of  Ba- 
bylon. 

The  armillary  sphere  invented 
by  Erastosthenes,  who  made 
the  first  attempt  to  determine 
the  length  of  a  degree. 

Greece  instructs  the  Romans 
in  the  arts  and  sciences. 

248.  Onias  11.,  high  priest. 

256.  Kingdom  of  PARTHIA 
fotmded  by  Arsaces. 

255.  The  fourth  imperial  dy- 
nasty of  China  begins. 

252.  Mithridates  IV.,  besieged 
in  his  capital  by  the  Gauls. 

THE   WORLD'S   PROGRESS. 


31 


184  2/mr5.— (Continued.) 


283 


Ptolemy  Philadelphua  king  of 
Egypt. 


269 


256 


251 


Egypt  first  sends  ambassadors 
to  Rome. 


Regulus  invades  Africa,  and  is 
defeated  by  Xantippus,  a 
Spartan  general. 


Metellus  defeats  Asdrubal. 


283.  Lysimachia  destroyed  by 
an  earthquake. 


281.  Lysimachus  defeated  and 
slain  by  Seleucus. 

The  Achasan  League  of 
12  states,  under  Aratus,  of 
Sicyon. 


279.    Irrruption  of  the   Gauls 

under  Brennus. 
278.  — they  are  defeated  near 

Delphi. 
277.  Antigonus  Gonatus,  king 

of  Macedon. 


274.  Pyrrhus  iftvades  Mace 
don,  defeats  Antigonus,  and 
is  proclaimed  king. 


272.  Pyrrhus  besieges  Sparta 
and  Argos — is  slain,  and  An- 
tigonus is  restored. 


268.    Athens  taken  by  Antigo- 
nus Gonatus. 

Second    incursion  of  the 
Gauls  into  Macedon. 


255.  Antigonus  liberates 
Athens. 

Athens  joins  the  Achasan 
league. 


251.  Sicyon  joins  the  Achaean 
league. 

250.  The  Romans  begin  to  re- 
sort to  Greece  for  improve- 
ment in  knowledge.  —  Par- 
thia  revolts  from  Macedon. 


Rome,  etc. 


283.   The  Gauls  and    Eim- 
rians  subdued. 


281.  The  Tarentine  War. 


280.  The  Tarentines  seek  the 
alliance  of  Pyrrhus,  who 
conquers  the  Romans  at 
Pandosia,  and  at 

279  — Asculum. 

278.  Sicily  conquered  by  Pyrr- 
hus. 


275.  Curius  defeats  Pyrrhus, 
and  compels  him  to  leave 
Italy. 


272.  Fall  of  Tarentum. 


266.  Rome  mistress  of  all  Italy : 
census  of  the  city  292,224. 

264.  The  iirst  PUNIC  WAR. 
— Appius  Claudius  drives 
Hiero  from  Syracuse. 

260.  D  u  i  1 1  u  s  gains  a  vic- 
tory over  the  Carthaginian 
fleet. 

256.  Regulus  gains  ano- 
ther victory. 

255.  The  Lacedemonians  as- 
sisting Carthage. — Xantip- 
pus defeats  Regulus,  and 
takes  him  prisoner. 

254.  Palermo  besieged  by  the 
Romans.  —  About  this  time 
the  Huns  are  first  heard  of, 
governed  by  Teuman. 

249.  Naval  fight  at  Drapanum 


32 


THE   world's    progress. 


The  Seventh  Period. — {The  Grecian.)—^ 


B.  c    Prooress  op  Society,  etc. 


Agrarianism    attempted     in 
Sparta,  but  is  put  down. 


Comedies  first  acted  at  Rome, 
those  oiLivius  Andronicits. 


The  original  MSS.  of  JEschy- 
lus,  Euripides  and  Sopho- 
cles, lent  by  the  Athenians 
to  Ptolemy,  on  a  pledge  of  15 
talents. 


Fabius  Pictor,  the  first  Roman 
historian. 

Appollonius  Rhodius,  poet. — 
Chrysippus,  Stoic  philoso- 
pher. 

ArchiTnedes,  the  mathemati- 
cian, demonstrates  the  pro- 
perties of  the  lever,  and 
other  mechanical  powers, 
also  the  art  of  measuring 
solids  and  surfaces,and  conic 
sections — constructs  a.plane- 
tarium. 


The  art  of  Surgery  introduced. 
An  eclipse  of  the  moon  ob- 
served in  Asis  Minor. 


The  Jews. 


237.  Simon  II.,  High  Priest. 


246.  Antiochus  II.  poisoned  by 
his  wife. 


211.  Attains  I.,  king  of  Perga. 
mus. 


226.  Seleucus  III.,  k.  of  Syria. 


224.  The  Colossus  of  Rhodei 
thrown  down. 


213.  Chi  Hong  Ti  destroys  tha 
records  of  the  Chinese  em- 
pire. 

211.  Antiochus  tha 
Great,  king  of  Syria. 


THE    world's    rROGRESS. 


33 


184  years. — (Continued.) 


227 


Hamilcar  Barcas,  general  of 

the  Carthaginians. 
Ptolemy  Eurgetes  subdues  Sy- 


Greece. 


End  of  the  Libyan  War. 
Hamiloar  with  Hannibal,  pass- 
es into  Spain. 


Carthagena  in  Spain,  built  by 
Asdrubal. 


219 


Ptolemv  Philopater,  king  of 
Egypt. 


Conquests  of  Hannibal, 
the  Carthaginian,  in  Spain ; 
He  crosses  the  Alps. 


Rome,  etc. 


213.  Corinth  taken  by  Aratus. 

312.  Demetrius  H.,  of  Mace 
don. 

241.  Agis,  king  of  Sparta,  put 
to  death  for  attempting  to  es- 
tablish an  Agrarian  law. 

240.  Cleanihus,  the  Stoic, 
starves  himself. 


232.  Philip  III.,  of  Macedon. 

228.  Roman  ambassadors  first 
appear  at  Athens  and  Co- 
nnth. 

The  fortress  of  the  Athe- 
naeum built. 


226.  Cleomenes,  king  of  Spar- 
ta, defeats  the  Achaeana. — 
Lyscades  killed. — The  Agra- 
rian law  restored. 

225.  The  Romans  send  another 
embassy  to  Greece.  They 
are  admitted  to  a  share  in 
the  Isthmian  games,  and 
granted  the  freedom  of  Ath- 
ens. 

223.  Cleomenes  takes  Megalo- 
polis. 
222.  Battle  of  Sellasia. 


220.  The  S  o  c  i  a  1  W  a  r  . 
— Philip,  of  Macedon,  as- 
sists the  Achaeans. — Cleome- 
nes dies  in  Eyypt. — Agesi- 
polis  and  Lycurgus  elected 
kings  of  Sparta. 

218.  Acanania  ceded  to  Philip. 


215.      Aratus     poisoned     at 

.^gium. 
214.  First  Macedonian  War, 


211.    Alliance  of  Philip  with 
Hannibal. 


247.  Hamilcar  defeats  the  Ro- 
mans at  Liliboeum. 


241.    End  of  the  first  Punic 
War. 


231.  Sardinia  and  Corsica  con- 
quered by  Rome. 


225.    The  Gauls  repulsed  in 
Italy. 


224.   The  Romans  first  cross 

the  Po. 
223.  Colonies  of  Placen- 

i  i  a   and    Cremona. 
222.  Insubria  (Milan)  andLigu- 

ria  (Genoa)   conquered  by 

Rome. 


219.    Hannibal  takes    Sagun- 
tum,  and  crosses  the  Alps. 


218.  The  Second  Punic 
War  .—The  Romans  de- 
feated by  Hannibal  at  T  i  - 
c  i  n  i  s   and   T  r  e  b  i  a  . 

217.  F  1  a  m  i  n  i  u  s  defeated 
at   Thrasymene. 

216.  Varro  at  C  a  n  n  ae  to- 
totally  defeated  by  Hannibal. 
Fabius  Maximus, 
Dictator. 

212.  Syracuse  and  Sicily  con- 
quered by  M  a  r  c  e  1 1  u  s . 
— Archimedes  killed. 

211.  The  Carthaginians  driven 
from  Capua. 


2* 


34 


THE    world's   progress. 


The  Seventh  Perwd. — {The  Grecian.) — 


B.C.  Progress  op  Societt,  etc. 


Ennius,  of  Calabria,  poet; 
Sotion,  of  Alexandria,,  a 
grammarian. 

Plautus,  of  TJmbria,  the  co 
mic  poet ;  Appollonius,  of 
Perga,  mathematician;  Ze 
no,  of  Tarsus,  the  philoso 
pher. 

Gold  coined  at  Rome. 


The  art  oi  printing  in  China. 


Aristonymus  4th,  librarian  of 

Alexandria. 
Caius    Lelius-i    the    Roman 

orator. 


Books,  with  leaves  of  vellum, 
introduced  by  Attalus,  king 
of  Pergamus,  in  lieu  of  rolls. 


A  total  eclips,^.  of  the  sun  at 

Rome. 
Asiatic   luxuries   brought   to 

Rome. 


A  co7net  visible  80  days. 
Bion    and    Moschus,    comic 
poets. 

Statius  Ccbcilius,  comic  poet. 


The  Jews. 


203.    JUDEA    CONaUERED     3Y 
ANTIOCHUS   THE   GREAT. 


201.  Onias  III.,  High  Priest. 


200.  Jesus,  the  son  of  Sirach, 
writes  Ecclesiasticus. 


198.  The  Jews  assist  Antio- 
chus  in  expelling  Scopas  and 
the  Egyptian  troops  from 
Jerusalem. 

First  mention  of  a  Senate  or 
Sanhedrim. 


206.  The  dynasty  of  H  a  n  in 
China. 


197.  Euraenes,  king  of  Perga- 
mus. 

196.  Hannibal  joins  Antiochus, 
who   seizes    the   Thracian 

Chersonese. 


192.  Syria  at  war  with  Rome. 
190.  Scipio  Asiaticus   defeats 
Antiochus  at  Magnesia. 


187.  Antiochus  killed  in  the 
temple  of  Jupiter  Belus.— 
Syria  becomes  a 
Roman    province. 

186.  The  city  of  Artaxata  (in 
Armenia)  built. 

185.  Seleucus  IV..  king  of  Sy- 
ria. 

183.  Phamacesl.,king  of  Pon- 
tus,  conquers   S  i  n  o  p  e  . 


THE   world's    progress. 


35 


184  years. — (Continued. 


202 


193 


180 


Ptolemy  Epiphanes,  king  of 
Egypt. 

The  Roman  general  Scipio  be- 
sieges Utica,  and  takes  in 
one  day  the  camps  of  Asdru- 
bal  and  Syphax. 

Hannibal  recalled.— Sophonis- 
ba  poisoned  by  Masinissa. 

Hannibal  defeated  at  Z  a  m  a . 
—End  of  the  2d  Punic  War. 


Treaty  of  Carthage  with  Ma- 
sinissa, king  of  Nunaidia. 

Egypt  loses  her  Syrian  posses- 
sions. 


Masinissa  harasses  the  Cartha- 
ginians, and  injures  their 
commerce. 


Ptolemy  Philometer,  king  of 
Egypt. 


208.  Battle  of  Lamia,  near  Elis. 
— Philip,  of  Macedon,  de- 
feats the  .SItolians. 


206.  Battle  of  Mantinea  : 
Philopcemen,  the  Prae- 
tor of  Achaia,  defeats  the 
Spartans. 


200.  The  Rhodians  defeat  the 
Macedonian  fleet  near  Chios. 
— Siege  of  Abydos. — Second 
Macedonian  War  begins. 


198.  The  Achseans  and  Spar- 
tans join  the  Romans  against 
Macedon. 

I9r.  Philip  in.  defeated  at  Cy- 
nocephatas  by  the  Romans, 
under  Flaminius. 

195.  Flaminius,  the  Roman, 
quarrels  with  Nabis,  king  of 
Sparta. 


189.   Epirus  declared  free  by 
the  Romans. 

18.  Philopcemen  abrogates 
the  laws  of  Lycurgus  in 
Sparta. 


183.  PhilopoBmen  defeated  and 
killed  by  Dinocrates,  king  of 
Messinia. 


Rome,  etc. 


210.  Scipio  takes  New 
Carthage,  and  conquers  As- 
drubal. 

207.  Nero  and  Livy  defeat  As- 
drubal  at  Metaurus — Asdru- 
bal  killed. 

206.  The  Carthaginians  driven 
out  of  Spain. 


204.    Scipio   carries  the  war 
into  Africa. 


201.  Scipio  carries  Syphax  in 
triumph  to  Rome. 


197".   Flaminius  victorious  in 
Macedon. 

195.    C  a  t  o   in  Spain. 


190.  War  with  Antiochus,  of 
Syria,  who  is  totally  defeat- 
ed by  L.  C.  Scipio,  and 

188.  Syria  is  made  a  Roman 
province. 

187.  Scipio  Africanus  banish- 
ed from  Rome. 


183.  Cato,the  elder,  censor. 
181.  Plague  at  Rome. 

180.  Death  of  Scipio  Africa- 
nus. 

179.  Numa's  books  found  in  a 
stone  coffin  at  Rome. 


36 


THE    world's   progress. 

The  Seventh  Period. — {The  Grecian.)- 


B.C. 

Progress  op  Society,  etc. 

The  Jews. 

Asia. 

176.  Heliodorus  in  Jerusalem. 

175.    Jason  obtains  the    high 

priesthood  by  corruption. 

172.  Jason  defeated  by  Mene- 

172.   Antiochus  IV.  (Epipha- 

laus. 

nes)  king  of  Syria. 
171  — declares  war  against  Pto- 
lemy Philomater. 

172 

Paper  invented  in  China. 

170.  Jerusalem  and  the  temple 

170.  An  irruption  of  Tartars 

169 

Polybius,  historian  of  Greece 

plundered     by     Antiochus 

into  China. 

and  Rome. 

Epiphanes,  who  attempts  to 

The  comedies  of  Terence  per- 

abolish the  Jewish  religion, 

formed.                          , 

and  commits  great  cruelties. 

168 

An  eclipse  of  the  moon,  which 
was  predicted  by  Q.  S.  Cal- 
lus. 

The  first  library  opened   at 

167 

167.  Matthias,  High  Priest. 

Rome,  consisting  of  books 

166.  Prusias,  kirgof  Eithynia. 

brought  from  Macedon. 

The  Roman  treasury  is  so  rich 

165.   Judas  Maccabeus  ex- 

that  the    citizens    pay    no 

pels  the  Syrians,  and  puri- 

taxes. 

fies  the  temple. 

162 

Hipparchus  of  Nice  fixes  the 
first  degree  of  longitude  and 

latitude    at    Ferro,    whose 
most    western    point   was 

164.     Antiochus     Epiphanes 
died. 

made  the  first  general  meri- 
dian— lays  the  foundation  of 

162.  Demetrius  Soter,  king  of 
Syria. 

Mithridates     Philopater, 
king  of  Cappadocia. 

161 

Trigonometry. 
Philosophers  and  rhetoricians 
banished  from  Rome. 

161.    Judas  kills  Nicanor — is 

succeeded  by  Jonathan. 

First  treaty  with  the  Ro- 

mans. 

158.  Jonathan  compels  the  Bac- 

chides  to  withdraw— is  mur- 

159 

The  clepsydra  or  icater  clock 

dered  by  Tryphon. 

invented  by  Scipio  Nascia. 

157.    Mithridates  V.,  king  of 
Pontus. 

153.   Ariarathes  VII.,  king  oi 
Cappadocia. 

150 

Hipparchus,  of  Rhodes,  astro- 

150. Jews  take  Joppa. 

150.  Alexander  Bala  kills  Dc- 

nomer.  —  Aristarchus,     of 
Alexandria,  grammarian. 

metrius,and  takes  the  throne. 
149.  Prusias,  of  Bithynia,  kill 

' 

ed  by  his  son  Nicomedes. 

THE    world's    progress, 

184  years. — (Continued.) 


37 


174 


H6 


Cato's  embassy  to  Carthage. 


Massinissa  defeats  the  Cartha- 
ginians. 

Joint  reign  of  Philomater  and 
Physcon  in  Egypt. 


CARTHAGE  TAKEN 

destroyed. 


178.    Perseus,  king  of  Mace- 
don. 


171.  Third  Macedonian  War. 


168.  Perseus  defeated  at  Pyd- 
na,  by  Paulus  Emilius.— 
Macedon  becomes  a  Ro- 
man Province. 


165.  Romans  enter  Achaia. 


155.  Embassy  of  Diogenes, 
Camiades,  and  Critolaus  to 
Rome. 


152.  Andriscus  usurping  the 
government  of  Macedon,  is 
conquered  by  Metellus. 


147.  Metellus  defeats  the  Ach- 
asans  in  Greece. 

146.  Corinth  taken  and  de- 
stroyed by  Mummius.  — 
GREECE  becomes  a  RO- 
MAN PROVINCE  under 
the  name  of  Achaia. 


Rome,  etc. 


170.  Tibe  rius  and  Caius 
Gracchus. 


167.  Census  327,032. 


155.  Romans  unsuccessful  in 
Spain. 


151.  Defeat  of  Galba, 


149.  Third  Punic  War. 


Con3uest  of  Carthage  and 
of  Corinth. 

Greece  annexed  to  the 
Roman  empire. 


38 


THE    world's   progress. 

EIGHTH  PEKIOD.— (T^e  Roman.)- 


B.C. 

Progress  of  Society,  etc. 

The  Jews. 

Asia. 

146 

Alexandria,  the  centre  of  C07n- 
merce. 

143 

Hipparchiis  begins  his   new 

cycle  of  the  moon. 

142.  Simon,  High  Priest. 

140 

Toothed  wheels  applied  to  the 
clepsydra  by  Ctesibius. 

137 

Learning  and    learned    inen 

137.    Antiochus  IV.,  (Sidetes,) 

liberally  patronized  by  Ptol- 

king of  Syrieu 

emy  Physcon. 

Diodorus  and  Satyrus,  peri- 
patetics ;  Nicanaer.  physi- 

cian and  poet ;  Lucius  Ac- 

135.  End  of  the  Apocrypha. — 

cius,  tragic  poet ;  Aristobu^ 
Ins,  the  Jewish  peripatetic. 

Jerusalem  besieged  by  An- 
tiochus  IV. 

134.  Antiochus  invades  Judea. 

133 

Equestrian  order,  a  distinct 
class. 

130 

Revival  of  learning  in  China. 

130.   John  Hyrcanus  delivers 

130.    Antiochus  IV.    defeated 

Judea  from  the  Syrian  yoke : 

and  killed  in  a  war  with  Par- 

— reduces  Samaria  and  Idu- 

thia. 

mea. 

129.    Demetrius  H.   (Nicator) 

regains  Syria. 
123.    Mithridates    the    Great, 

120 

The  theory  of  eclipses  known 
to  the  Chinese. 

king  of  Pontus. 

116 

L.    Ccdius  Antipater,  histo- 
rian ;     Lucillius,    the   first 
Roman    satirist ;    Apollodo- 
rus,  of  Athens,  clironologist ; 
Castor,  of  Rhodes,  chrono- 
logist;   Anthemon,  philoso- 

pher. 

HI.  Mithridates  conquers  Scy- 

110 

First  sumptuary  law  at  Rome. 

thia,    Bo,?phorus,    Colchis, 

108.  Hyrcanus  destroys  Sama- 

&c. 

107.  — succeeded  by  his  son 

Aristobulus,  who    first   as- 

sumes the  title  of  king. 

105.    Alexander    Janneus    at 

war  with  Egypt— takes  Ga- 

za. —  Rebellion  excited   by 

the  Pharisees. 

THE    world's    progress. 

146  years. — Fall  of  Greece  to  the  Christian  Era. 


39 


B.C. 

Africa-. 

Roman 

Empire. 

146 

Commerce  of  the  world  cen- 
tres at  Alexandria. 

In  the  East. 

In  Europe.  ■ 

145 

Ptolemy     Physcon     becomes 
sole  king  of  Egypt  by  the 
death  of  Philomater. 

141.  Numantian  War. 

' 

140.  The  Picts  from  the  north 
of  England  settle  m  the  south 
of  Scotland. 

135.  Servile  war  in  Sicily. 

133.   PfiRGAMUS,  a  Roman 

133.   Numantia  destroyed  by 

Province. 

Scipio  :  Spain  becomes  a 
Roman  Province. 

Death  of  Tiberius  Grac- 
chus. 

129 

Ptolemy  Physcon  driven  from 
his  throne  for  his  cruelty. 

128 

Pestilence  in  Egypt. 

123 

Carthage  rebuilt. 

123.   Tribunate  of    Caius 

118 

Death  of    Micip^a,    king    of 

118.  Dalmatia,  a   Roman 

Gracchus. 

Numidia,  and  the  assassina- 

Province. 

tion  of  Hiempsal  by  Jugur- 
tha. 
Ptolemy    Lathyrus,    king    of 

116 

Jugurthine  War. 

113.  First  great  migration  of 

112 

the  German  nations. 

109.  War  of  the  Teutoni  and 

Cimbri. 

107 

Alexander  I.,  king  of  Egypt. 

105 

Jugurtha  is  defeated  and  sur- 

105. Numidia  becomes  a  Ro- 

renders Numidia  to  the  Ro- 

man province  by  the  defeat 

mans, 

of  Jugurtha. 

104.  The  Teutoni  defeat  80,000- 
Romans  on  the  banks  of  the 
Rhone. 

102.     M  a  r  i  u  s     victorious 
over  the  Teutom  and  Ambro- 
nes  at  Aquse  Sextae. 

101.  Marius  and  Catullus  de- 
feat the  Cimbri. 

100.  Marius  buys  his  sixth  con- 
sulate. 

Banishment  of  Metellua 

40 


THE    world's   progress. 


The  Eighth  Period. — {The  Roman.) — 


B.  c    Progress  op  Society,  etc. 


Libraries  of  Athens  sent  to 
Rome  by  Sylla. 


Decline   of    Agriculture 
Italy;  corn  supplied   from 
the  provinces. 

Posidonius  calculates  the 
height  of  the  atmosphere  to 
be  about  800  stadia. 

Zeno,  of  Sidon,  the  Epicurean ; 
Apellicon  of  Athens ;  Alex- 
ander Polyphistor,the  gram- 
marian ;  Photius  Gallup, 
rhetorician ;  Q.  Valerius 
Anlias,  Roman  historian ; 
Q.  Hortensius,  orator. 

The  cherry  tree  brought  to 
Europe  from  Asia  by  Lu- 
cullus.  —  Terentius  Varro 
writes  three  books  on  agri- 
culture. 

The  Romans  possess  gold 
mines  in  Asia  Minor,  Mace- 
donia, Sardinia  and  Gaul ; 
and  productive  silver  mines 
in  Spain. 

The  first  water  mill  described 
near  a  dwelling  of  Mithri- 
dates. 

Ebony  introduced  at  Rome  by 
Pompey. 

Vikramaditya,  king  of  Ozene, 
in  India,  patron  of  literature 
— at  his  court  flourish  Aine- 
ra  Sinka,  lexicographer ; 
Vararuchi,  grammarian ; 
Kalidasa,  poet. 


79.  Alexandra,  widow  of  Jan- 
neus,  governs  Judea. 


70.  Hyrcanus  II.,  High  Priest, 
deposed  by  his  brother  Aris- 
tobulus. 

67.  Aristobulus  and  Hyrcanus 
appeal  to  Pompey,  who  en- 
ters Judea  and  takes  Jerusa- 
lem, and  restores  Hyrcanus 
to  the  priesthood. 


98.  China  still  submits  to  the 
Han  dynasty ;  S  e  m  a  t  - 
z  i  n  ,   Emperor. 

97.  Mithridates  conquers  Cap- 
padocia. 

95.  Cappadocia  declared  free 
by  Rome.  —  Ariobarzanes 
elected  king. 

94.  Antiochus,  king  of  Syria, 
defeated  ly  Seleucus. 

93.  Tigranes,  king  of  Arme- 
nia. 


9.  Pontus  at  war  with  Rome. 


86.  Mithridates  takes  Bythi- 
nia  and  several  Roman  pro- 
vinces. 

83.  Tigranes  made  king  of 
Syria. 


75.  By  the  death  of  Nicome- 
des  Bythinia  becomes  a 
province. 


63.  JUDEA  A  ROMAN  PRO- 
VINCE. 


70.    Dafnascus    possessed    by 

the  Romans. 
69.  Mithridates  and  Tigranes 

defeated  by  Lucullus. 
66.    Mithridates    defeated   by 

Pompey. 

65.  Antiochus  XII.  defeated 
by  Pompey.— The  race  of 
the  Seleucidse  becomes  ex- 
tinct. —  Ariobarzanes  II., 
king  of  Cappadocia.  — An 
earthquake  in  Bosphorus 
lays  in  ruins  several  towns. 

64.  Dejotarus,  king  of  Galatia, 
seizes  Armenia  Minor. 

63.  Pharmaces,  king  of  Pontus. 


THE   world's   progress. 


41 


146  years. — (Continued.) 


By  the  death  of  Ptolemy 
Apion,  Cyrene  becomes  a 
Roman  province. 


Thebes  destroyed. 
Alexander  II.,  king  of  Egypt. 


Roman  Empire. 


In  Asia  and  Africa. 


97.  Annexation  of  Cyrene. 


9.  Mithridatic  War;  Sylla 
commands  the  Roman  army. 

8.  The  Athenians  seek  as- 
sistance from  Mithridates 
against  Rome. 

6.  Athens,  reduced  by  famine, 
is  taken  by  Sylla. 

S3.  Second  Mithridatic  War. 
Revolt   in    Dpper     Egypt. —  82.  Sylla  plunders  the  temple 


Ptolemy    Auletes,    king     of 
Egypt. 


of  Delphi. 


79.    P  o  m  p  e  y    defeats    Do- 
mitius  in  Africa. 


75.    Bythinia   a   Roman 
Province. 


74.   Third    Mithridatic   War 
under  LucuUus. 


In  Europe. 

99.  L  u  s  i  t  a  n  i  a  conquered 
by  Dolabella,  and  becomes 
a  Roman  province. — Birth 
of  Julius  Caesar. 


66.  Metellus  subdues  Crete. 
P  0  n  t  u  s     becomes     a 

Roman  Province. 
65.    Syria,    a    Roman 

Province. 


91.  Social  War  in  Italy. 


8.  Sylla  defeating  the 
Marsi  and  Peligni,  puts  an 
end  to  the  Social  War. 

Civil  War  between  Ma- 
rius  and  Sylla. 


82.  Sylla  defeats  Marius,  and 
is  cxea.ted perpetual  dictator. 

SO.  JULIUS  CAESAR'S  First 
Campaign. 


77.  Sertorius  revolts  in  Spain 
and  defeats  Metellus  and 
Pompey. 


73.  War  of  Spartacus,  the  gla- 
diator. 

71.  Spartacus  defeated  by  Cras 
sus. 


70.    Pompey    and    Cras 

BUS   Consuls. 
69.  Census  450,090. 


65.  M.  T.  Cicero,  Consul. 


63.  Cataline's  Conspi- 
racy detected  and  sup- 
pressed by  Cicero. 


42 


THE    WORLD'S    PROGRESS. 


The  Eighth  Period. — [The  Roman.) — 


B.C. 

Progress  op  Society,  etc. 

The  Jews. 

Asia. 

62 

Magnificent    houses   of    the 
nobles;   marble  theatre  of 
Scaurus,  to  hold  30,000  spec- 
tators. 

60 

Cicero,  statesman  and  orator  ; 
Sallust,  historian;    Lucre- 
tius and    Catullus,   poets; 
ApoUonius,  of  Rhodes,  rhe- 
torician ;    Aristomedes,    of 
Crete,  grammarian ;  Andro- 
nicus,  of  Rhodes,  peripate- 
tic philosopher. 

S5 

Iron  chain  cables  used  by  the 
Veneti. 

53.  Crassus  plunders  the  tem- 

53. Parthian  War.— The  Ro- 

ple of  10,000  talents. 

mans     defeated.  —  Crassus 
slain. 

60 

A  water  mill  on  the  Tiber  at 
Rome. 

48.  Antipater,  the  Idumean,  is 
made  lieutenant  in  Judea  by 

Caesar. 

49.  The  era  of  Antioch. 

47 

The  Alexandrian  library  (400,- 

47.  Battle  of  Zela.— Phamacea 

46 

000  vols.)  burnt. 
The  year   of  confusion  —  so 
called  because  the  calejidar 
was  altered  by  Sosigenes. 

conquered  by  Caesar. 

45 

Ccesar  reforms  the  Calendar, 
by  introducing  the  solar  in- 
stead of  the  lunar  year.— 
First  Julian  year.  —  Vitru- 

' 

vius,  the  greatest  Roman  ar- 
chitect. 
Cornelius  Nepos,   historian; 

44.  A  comet  seen  m  China. 

43 

43.  Judea  oppressed  by  Cras- 

Diodorus   Siculus,    histo- 
rian. 

sus. 

Malichus    poisons    Anti- 
pater. 
40.   Herod  the  Great,  son  of 

** 

Antipater,  defeats  his  rival. 

39.  The  Parthians,  under  Par- 

Antigonus,   and    Parcorus, 

corus,    defeated    by    Venti- 

the  Parthian— takes  Jerusa- 

dius. 

lem—marries  Mariamne — is 

Darius,  king  of  Pontus. 

made  king  by  the  Romans. 

38.  Aiiobarzanes  dethroned  by 
Marc  Antony. 

THE    world's   progress. 

146  years. — (Continued.) 


43 


58 


46 


Ptolemy  goes  to  Rome,  Bere- 
nice reigns  in  his  absence. 


The  African  War.  —  Scipio 
and  Juba  defeated  at  Thap- 
sus. — Cato  kills  himself  at 
Utica.  — Ptolemy  Bionysius 
drowned  in  the  Nile. 

Ceesar  rebuilds  Carthage. 


Cleopatra  poisons  her  brother 
and  reims  alone. 


Roman  Empire. 


East. 


53.  Crassus  defeated  and  killed 
in  Parthia. 


48.  Thessaly  becomes  the  seat 
of  war. — The  Athenians  de- 
clare for  Caesar  against  Pom- 
pey. 

Battle  of  Pharsalia: — Pom- 
pey,  defeated  by  Cessar,  flees 
into  Egypt,  and  is  slain  there. 

47.  CcBsar  takes  Alexandria, 
and  conquers  Egypt. — Cse- 
sar  victorious  at  Zela,  ir 
Asia. 

45.  Corinth  rebuilt  by  Csesar. 


60.  First  TriumviTate : — 
Pompey,  Crassus,  and  Julius 
Ccesar. 

Sciold,  first  king  of  Den- 
mark.—  Boh,  a  fierce  son 
of  Odin. 

58.  Clodius  procures  the  ban 
ishment  of  Cicero.  —  The 
Helvetii  defeated  by  Julius 
Csesar. 

57.  Cicero  recalled.  —  S  a  1  - 
lust  expelled  from  the 
senate. — Gylf,  king  of  Swe- 
den. 

55.  Cffisar  passes  the 
Rhine,  defeats  the  Ger- 
mans and  Gauls,  and  In- 
vades Britain. 

54.  Caesar's  second  invasion 
of  Britain. 


ij^.  Pompey,  sole  consul. 

51.  Csesar  completes  the  con- 
quest of  Gaul,  which  be- 
comes a  Roman  province. 

49.  Caesar  passes  the 
Rubicon,  and  in  sixty 
days  makes  himself  master 
of  Italy— marches  into  Spain 
and  forces  Porapey's  troops 
to  surrender. 

48.  Battle  of  Dyrrhachium. 


45.  Caesar  perpetual 
dictator  —  he  subdues 
the  two  sons  of  Pompey,  and 
acquires  the  sole  power. 

44.  Caesar  assassinated  in  the 
Senate  House. 

43.  Second  Triumvirate : — 
Octavius  Csesar,  Marc  An- 
tony, and  Lepidue. — Cicero 
proscribed  and  murdered. 

42.  The  Battle  of  Philippi  ;— 
Antony  and  Octavius  defeat 
Brutus  and  Cassius. 


44 


THE   world's    progress. 

The  Eighth  Pe)-iod. — {The  Romans 


B.  0.  Progress  op  Socibty,  etc. 


Golden  age  of  Roman  litera- 
ture. 

The  revenue  of  the  empire 
amounts  to  about  40  millions 
sterling. — First  standing  ar- 
my in  Rome. — Direct  trade 
of'^Rome  with  India. — Silk 
and  linen  manufactories 
in  the  empire. 

Temple  of  Janus  at  Rome 
closed— there  being  now  a 
general  peace. 


Treasures  of  Egyptian  art 
brought  to  Rome. — The  Pan- 
theon built. 

Horace,  Virgil,  Tibullus, 
Propertius,  poets;  Varrus 
and  Tucca.,  critics ;  Livy, 
historian ;  McBcenas,  minis- 
ter of  Augustus,  patron  of 
literature;  Strabo,  geogra- 
pher; JEmiitus  Macer,  of 
Verona,  poet ;  Agrippa,  war- 
rior, and  patron  of  tne  arts. 

Worship  of  Isis  at  Rome. 

Pantomimic  dances  intro- 
duced on  the  Roman  stage. 


Aqueducts     constructed     by 
Agrippa. 

Dedications  of  byiks  first  in- 
troduced. 


The  Jews. 


30.  Herod  kills  Mariamne. 


19.  Tlie  Temple  rebuilt  by 
Herod — he  also  builds  Cy- 
pron,  Antipatris,  PharsaBUs, 
and  the  to"wer  of  Phasael  in 
Jerusalem. 


The  legions  distributed  over 
the  provinces  in  fixed  camps, 
which  soon  grew  into  cities 
— among  them  were  Bonn 
and  Mayence. 

The    calendar    corrected    by 

Augustus. 
Dionysius,  of  Halicarnassus, 
historian ;    and  Dionysius, 
geographer. 

BIRTH  OF  OUR  SAVIOUR,  JESUS  CHRIST,  4  years  be- 
I     fore  the  Vulgar  Era. 
3.  Archelaus  succeeds  Herod 
with  the  title  of  Ethnarch. 


Cyrenius  taxes  Judea. 


34.  Antony  takes  possession 
of  Armenia,  which  becomes 
a  Roman  province  —  leads 
an  inglorious  expedition 
against  Parthia. 


29.  Ephesus,  next  to 
Alexandria,  the  chief  place 
of  trade  in  the  Roman  em- 
pire. 


20.  Porus,  king  of  India,  soli- 
cits an  alliance  with  Rome. 
Parthians  defeated  by  Ti- 
berius. 


14.    Polemon  coiiquers   Bos- 
porus. 


THE    world's   progress. 


45 


146  years. — (Continued.) 


34 


30 


Roman  Empire. 


East. 


Cleopatra  obtains  from  An- 
tony a  grant  of  Phoenicia, 
Cyrene  and  Cyprus. 

— receives  all  Asia  from  the 
Mediterranean  to  the  Indus. 

Cleopatra  and  Marc  Antony 
defeated  by  Octavius,  at 
AcUum. 


Alexandria  taken  by  Octavius. 
— Antony  and  Cleopatra  de- 
stroy themselves. 

Egypt  becomes  a  Ro- 
man   province. 


21.  Athens  finally  subjected  to 

Rome. 
20.  CXCth  Olympiad. 


8.  Tiberius  at  Rhodes. 

5.  Q.  Varrus  appointed  gov- 
ernor of  Syria,  and  Cyre- 
nius  governor  of  Judea. 


West. 


36.   Sextus  Pompey  defeated 
in  Sicily. 


32.  Antony  quarrels  with  Oc- 
tavius. 

31.  By  the  BATTLE  OF  AC- 
TIUM  Octavius  acquires 
the  empire. 


30.    THE    REPUBLIC    BE- 
COMES A  MONARCHY. 


29.  Octav  tus  s  3  days  triumph 
at  Rome. 

Temple  of  Janus  shut. 
Rome  contains  4,101,017 
citizens. 
27.  The  titles  of  Augustus  and 
Emperor  conferred  on  Octa- 
vius for  10  years. 


23.  Agrippa  in  Spain. 


22.  Conspiracy  of  Muraena. 

21.  Augustus  visits  Greece 
and  Asia. 

16.  Lollius  defeated  by  the 
Germans. 

15.  Cantabria,  Austria,  RhcE- 
bia,  Vindelencia  and  Mcesia 
become  Roman  provinces — 
being  conquered  by  Dru- 
sus. 

13.  Augustus  assumes  the 
title  of  Pontifex  Maxiraus. 

12.  Pannonia,  conquered  by 
Tiberius,  becomes  a  Ro- 
man province. 

11.  Germany  subdued  by  Ger 
manicus. 


4.  Cymbeline,  king  of  Britaia 


PA]IT  II. 

MODERN    CHRONOLOGY, 

FROM   THE    CHRISTIAN   ERA   TO    THE   PRESENT   TIME. 


Epochas  or  Periods. 


1.  From 
t 

u. 
m. 

IV. 
V. 

VI. 
VII. 

vni 

IX. 
X. 
XI. 


..  the  Christian  Era  \  Period  of  the    Ten   Persecutions  of 

the  Reign  of  Constantine  the  Great,  A.  D.  306 )  Christians. 


Northern  Invasions. 
Justinian  and  Belisarius. 


The  Crusades. 


Extinction  of  the  Western  Empire,   "     476  \ 

Flight  of  Mahomet,  "     622  S 

CrowningofCharlemagneatRome,  "     800  (  "     Saracen  Empire. 

Battle  of  Hastings,                             "   1066  (  "     New  Western  Empvra. 

Founding  of  the  Turkish  Empire,      "    1299  \ 

Taking  of  Constantinople,                  "   1453  (  "      Tamerlane,WiMiffe,and Huso. 

\  "      The  Reformation;  Discoveries 

Edict  of  Nantes,                                 "    1598  \  and  Inventions. 

i"      The    English    Commonwealth 
and  Wars  of  Louis  XIV. 

}  "     American  and  French  Revohi- 

Battle  of  Waterloo,                            "    1815  \  tions. 

(  "     European  Revolutions,  Litem- 

present  time,  (1850.)                                       \  ture  and  the  Arts. 


48  THE  world's  progress. 

MODERN"  CHRONOLOGY— PERIOD  1st.— (TAe  Ten  Persecutions.)— 


A.D. 

Pkogbess  op  Society,  etc. 

Sacred. 

The  BIRTH  OF  CHRIST  :-(see  p.  44.) 
Herod  Antipas  being  at  this  time  tetrarch 
of  Galilee. 

8.  Christ  reasons  with  the  doctors. 

9 

Celsus,  the  physician;  Phcedrus,  the  fabu- 
list ;     Vellius    Paterculus,    Roman    histo- 

rian. 

26 
30 

The  Druids  in  Germany. 

Pkilo,  Alexandrian  Jew,  disciple  of  Plato. 
Seneca,  moral  philosopher. 

2.5.  Pontius  Pilate,  governor  of  Judea. 

26.  John  the  Baptist  begins  his  ministry. 

27.  Christ  baptized  by  John 

23.  —at  the  marriage  in  Cana.  —  Matthew 
called. 

29.  Twelve  disciples  sent  abroad,  "  two  and 
two." 

30.  CRUCIFIXION  of  our  SAVIOUR,  Fri- 
day, April  3,  at  3  P.  M.  ;    Resurrectioti. 
Sunday,  April    5;    Ascension,   Thursday, 
May  4. 

33 

37 

Valerius  Maximus,  historian. 

Appion,  of  Alexandria,  grammarian,  called 
the  "Trumpet  of  the  World." 

33.  St.  Peter  baptizes  Cornelius. 

34.  St.  Paul  converted  to  Christianity. 

39.  St.  Matthew  writes  his  gospel. 

40.  The  disciples  first  called  Christians  ac 
Antioch. 

41.  Herod's  persecution ;  St.  Peter  imprisoned 

48 

A  census  being  taken  by  Claudius,  the  em- 
peror and  censor,  the  inhabitants  of  Rome 
are  fo'und  to  amount  to  6,900,000. — (Univ. 
Sist.)— [More  than  three  times  the  number 

44.  St.  Mark  writes  his  gospel.  —  Death  of 
St.  James. 

45.  Barnabas  and  Paul  preach  in  Cyprus. 

50 

of  London  at  present.! 
Columella,  born  in  Spain ;  left  twelve  books 
on  husbandry. 

50.  Paul  preaches  in  the  Areopagus,  at  Athens. 

52.  Council  of  the  Apostles  at  Jerusalem. 

55.  Paul  preaches  at  Ephesus,  and  at  Caesa- 
rea. 

57.  — pleads  before  Felix. 
59.  —pleads  before  Festus,   and  appeals  to 
Caesar. 

THE    world's   progress. 


49 


306  years. — From  the  Christia7i  Era  to  the  reign  of   Constantine. 


Roman  Empire. 


East. 
Caius  Caesar  makes  peace  with  the  Parthians. 


26 


Germanicus  conquers  Cappadocia. 
Germanicus  poisoned  at  Antioch. 


Thrace  becomes  a  Roman  province. 


Tiberius  returns  to  Rome. 

3.  Cinna's  conspiracy  detected. 

— Caius  Cassar  dies. 
6.  Q.  Varrus  encamped  on  the  Weser,  gov- 
erns Lower  Germany  like  a  Roman   pro- 
vince. 
9.  The  Germans,  under  jlrwizjizus,  defeat  and 
kill  Varrus. 
Ovid  is  banished  to  Tomos. 
14   Augustus  dies  at  Nola,  aged  76,  and  is 
succeeded  by 

Tiberius  .^M 


9.  The  Jews  banished  from   Rome. — The 
Marcomanni  conquered  by  Drusus. 
'21 .  The  theatre  of  Pompey  destroyed  by  fire. 


26.  Tiberius  retires  to  Caprsa. 


31.  Sejanus  disgraced  and  put  to  death. 

33.  Conquest  of  Mauritania. 
S7.  Tiberius  dies,  aged  78. 


-Caligula. 


(noted  for  his  profligacy  and  folly.) 
41.  Caligula  assassinated  by  Chereas. 


Claudius" 


succeeds  to  the  throne. 
43.  — invades  Britain  with  his  general,  Plau- 
tius. 

45.  Vespasian,  general  in  Britain. 
48.  Census  of 'the  city,  6,900,000. 


51.  Caractacus,  the  chief  of  the  Britons,  con- 
quered and  brought  to  Rome. 


N  e  r  0  ,^ 


a  profligate  and  bloody  tyrant. 

55.  — poisons  Britanicus. 

56.  Rotterdam  built. 

59.  Nero's  mother,  Agrippina,  put  to  death  by 
his  order. 


50 


THE   WORLD'S   PROGRESS. 


[Modern :  Period  I. — 306  years. 


Progress  op  Society,  etc. 


Nero's  golden  palace  built ;  of  great  extent, 
inclosing  fields,  &c.  The  buildings  in 
Rome  more  regular  after  the  fire. 


Pliny,  the  elder,  author  of  the  first  natural 
history ;  Quintius  Curtius,  historian ;  Per- 
sius,  satirist. 

Josephus,  the  Jewish  historian. 


The  Coliseum  of  Vespasian. 


The  Capitol    rebuilt. 
Circumnavigation  of  Scotland. 
Destruction  of  Herculaneum  and  Pompeii. 


Very  beautiful  paintings    in  the    Baths  of 
Titus ;    the  group  of  the  Laocoon: 

Quintillian,  orator ;  Valerius  Flaccus,  poet 
Martial,  Epigrammatist;  ApoUonius,  Py- 
thagorean philosopher;  Epicletus,  stoic: 
Dio  Chrysostom,  Greek  rhetorician  and  phi- 
losopher ;  Philo  ByHius  ;  Ignatius  and  Pa- 
pias,  two  of  the  fathers  of  the  church. 


Tacitus,  historian;  Juvenal,  satirist;  Sta- 
tius,  poet;  Aul.  Gellius,  Latin  gramma- 
rian ;  Plutarch,  moralist  and  biographer ; 
the  younger  Pliny. 


The  Ulpian  library;  Public  schools  in  all 
the  provinces ;  Jurisprudence  flourishes ; 
the  city  adorned  with  the  Forum ;  Pillar 
of  Trajan,  and  baths;  bridge  built  over 
the  Danube. 


Sacred  and  Ecclesiastical. 


59.  Paul  is    shipwrecked  on  the   Island  of 

Melita  (Malta). 

60.  Paul  imprisoned  at  Rome 

63.  Paul  set  at  liberty. 

64.  The  first  persecution  (if  Christians  by 

Nero. 

63  to  66.  I'aul  visits  Jerusalem,  and  travels 
through  tlie  greater  part  of  the  known 
world. 

66.  Pope  Linus.* 

The  Jews  at  war  with  the  Romans,  and 
Paul  beheaded. 
St.  Peter  crucified. 

67.  The  Jews  massacred  by  Florua. — Josephus, 
governor  of  Galilee. 

Pope  St.  Clement. — Gamaliei, 

68.  Vespasian  invades  Judea. 


70.  The  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  by  T4ua. 


77.  Pope  St.  Cletus 


83.  Pope  Anacletus. 


95.  Second  persecution  of  the  Christians  by 
Domitian. 

St.  John  writes  his  Gospel  and  Apoca- 
lypse, and  is  banished  to  the  isle  of  Patmoa. 

96.  Pope  Evaristus. 


97.  Timothy  stoned. 

St.  John  returns  from  exile. 

98.  Christian  assemblies  prohibited  by  Trajan. 


*  The  word  Pope  is  used  in  accordance 
with  the  Roman  Catholic  usa^e,  though  the 
name  was  not  adopted  by  their  Pontiffs  tili 
several  centuries  after. 


— Christian  Era  to  Constantine.'] 


THE    WORLD  S    PROGRESS. 


51 


Roman  Empire. 


60 


East. 


Corbuli  subdues  Armenia. 


Tiridates  placed  on  the  throne  of  Armenia  by 
Nero. 


Judea  subdued  and  Jerusalem  destroyed  by 

Tiius. 
Vespasian  conquers  Lycia,  Rhodes,  Thrace, 

Cilicia,  Byzantium  and  Samos. 
Revolt  of  the  Parthians. 


61.  Revolt  of  the  Britons  under  queen  Boa- 
dicea ;  they  burn  London.  The  queen,  de- 
feated by  Suetonius,  poisons  herself. 

64.  Nero  sets  Rome  on  fire,  and  accuses  the 
Christians  of  the  crime. 

— persecutes  the  Christians — Seneca,  Lu- 
cian,  and  others  put  to  death. 


68.- 


Galba,' 


reigns  9  months,  and  is  put  to  death  by 


69.- 


■O  the  ,' 


(2  months)  defeated  and  killed  by 
-V  it e 1 1 i  us, 


who  is  defeated  by  the  army  of 
70. Vespasian.  ^§ 


77.  A  great  plague  at  Rome,  10,000  dying  in 
one  day. 


79.- 


— Titus  ,' 


(beneficent.) 
Herculaneum    and    Pompeii   destroyed 
by  an  irruption  of  Vesuvius. 
80.  Julius  Agricola,  conqueror  and  governor 
of  Britain,  reduces  Wales,  enters  Caledonia. 


81.  • 


-Domitian,  ^g 
(  a  cruel  tyrant.) 


86.  Dercebal,  leader  of  the  German  hordes, 
defeats  Domitian,  and  compels  him  to  pay  a 
vearly  tribute. 

88!  Capitoline  and  secular  games. 
War  with  Dacia  15  years. 


96.  Domitian  put  to  death  by  Stephanus. 


N  e  r  V  i 


(well  intentioned  but  enfeebled  by  age.) 


-Trajan,' 


(a  ereat  sovereign  anda  warrior.) 
The  Roman  Empire  at  its  greatest  exieiv 
J.  Severus,  general  in  Britain. 


52 


THE    world's    progress. 


[Modern :  Period  I. — 306  years. 


107 


132 


180 


Progress  op  Society,  etc. 


The  first    credible    historian    among    the 
Chinese. 


The  great  buildings  oi  Palmyra.- 

the  Sun  at  Baalbec. 
The  Roman  mosaics. 


-Temple  of 


Jurisprudence  improved  by  the  publishment 
of  Adrian's  perpetual  code. 

Ptolemy,  the  celebrated  Egyptian  astronomer 
and  geographer  — Arriati,  Appian,  Maxi- 
7nus,  Lysius  and  Pausanius.,  Greek  histo 
rians ;  Lucian,  a  satirical  writer  ;  Hermo- 
genes,  rhetorician  of  Tarsus. 


Tschan^  Heng.  the  Chinese  astronomer. 


Galen,  Greek-  physician ;  Athceneus,  a  gram- 
marian; Diogenes  Laertius,  Greek  histo- 
rian. 


The  equestrian  statue  of  Marcus  Aurelius. 


Ecclesiastical. 


100.  St.  John  dies  at  Ephesus,  aet.  94. 


107.  Third  persecution  of  the  Christians  by 

Trajan. 
lOy.  St.  Ignatius  devoured  by  wild  beasts. 
Pope  Alexander  I. 


118.  Fourth  persecution  of  the  Christiana  by 
Adrian. 

119.  Pope  Sixtusl. 


126.  Quadratus,  bishop  of  Athens. 

127.  Pope  Telesphorus. 

130.  Heresy  of  Prodicus,  chief  of  the  Ada- 
mites. 


134.  Heresy  of  Marcion,  who  acknowledge? 
three  Gods. 

135.  Polycarp  and  Aristides,  Christian  fathers. 

139.  Pope  Hygenus. 


142.  Pope  Pius  J. 

Heresy  of  Valentine. 


150.  Pope  Anicetus. 

Canon  of  Scripture  fixed  about  this  time. 

154.  Justin  Martyr  publishes  his  apology  for 
the  Christians. 


162.  PopeSoter. 


167.  Polycarp  and  Pionices  martyred  in  Asia. 


171.  Pope  Eleutherus. 

177.  The  Christians  persecuted  at  Lyf  ns.— 
Theophilus,  Tatian.,  and  Montajias. 


185.  Pope  Victor  I. 
St,  Irenceus. 


-C/irisL'aii  Era  to  Cimstantine.l 


THE    WOU-LDS    PB-OGllESS. 


Roman  Empire. 


102 


East. 


Pliny,  proconsul  in  Bithynia,  sends  Trajan  his 
account  of  the  Christians. — Great  victories 
of  Trajan. 


Trajan's  expedition  against  the  Parthians. 


Seizure  of  Ctesiphon. 

Armenia  Major  again  governed  by  its  own 
kings  dependent  upon  Rome. 

Nicomedia  and  other  cities  destroyed  by  an 
earthquake. 


Adrian  in  Asia  Minor  for  seven  years. 

Adrian  rebuilds  Jerusalem,  under  the  name  of 

.a^lia  Capitolina,  and  erects  there  a  temple 

to  Jupiter. 
The  rebellion  of  the  Jews  crushed  after  a  war 

of  five  years. — The  Jews    banished   from 

Judea. 


160 


168 


E'lnbassy  sent  by  Antoninus  to  China. 


War  with  the  Parthians,  lasts  3  years. 


West. 


100.  The  Huns  emigrate  westward. 

101.  Trajan  reduces  Dacia. 


115.  Massacre  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans  by 
the  Jews  of  Gyrene. 


120.  — makes    s    progress    through    all    the 

121.  provinces  -visits  Britain,  builds  there 
a  wall  from  the  Tyne  to  Solway  Frith. — A 
wall  built  from  the  Rhine  to  the  Danube. 


13S. —  Antoninus    Pius,  ^g 

(eminent  for  his  virtues  and  love  of  peace.) 

140.  LoUius  Urbicus  extends  the  Roman  do- 
minion in  Britain,  and  erects  a  second  ram- 
part, called  the  Wall  of  Antoninus. 

145.  Antoninus  defeats  the  Moors,  Germans, 
and  Dacians. 

146.  -^introduces  the  worship  of  Serapis  into 
Rome. 

152.  — stops  the  persecution  of  the  Christians. 


161.—  Marcus   Aurelius,  ^^  (Anto- 
ninus,) 
(the  stoic  philosopher.) 
Escape  of  the  thundering  legion. 
158.  Plague  over  the  whole  known  world. 


169.  The  Marcomanni  at  war  with  Rome. 


180.  The  emperor   dies   at   Sirmium: 
ceeded  by 


C  0  m  m  o  d  ti  s  . 


(profligate  and  cruel ;)  makes  peace 

with  the  Germans. 
GOTHS  in  Dacia. 


54 


THE    WORLD  S    PROGRKSS. 


[Mode7'ii :  Period  I. — 306  yccon. 


Progress  op  Society,  etc. 


242 


Papinian,  the  greatest  civil  lawyer  of  aniv 
quily — Julius  Africmius,  chronologer. 


Caracalla  grants  the  right  of  Roman  citizen- 
ship to  all  the  provinces,  that  they  may  be- 
come liable  to  the  taxes,  inheritances,  &c. 


Ecclesiastical. 


Ammonius,  founder  of  a  new  school  of  Pla- 
tonic philosophy  at  Alexandria. 
Dio  Cassius,  Greek  historian. 


Censorius,  a  critic  and  grammarian. 


Herodian,  Greek  liistorian. 
Longinus,  philosopher  and  critic. 


197.  Pope  Zephyrinus. 


20"  Fifth  persecution  of  the  Christians  under 
Severus. — Tertullian,  an  able  defender  of 
Christianity. — Clemens,  of  Alexandria,  and 
Mi7iutius  Felix,  C.  F.* 


217.  Pope  Calixtus  I. 

The  Septuagint  found  in  a  cask. 


228.  Pope  Urban  I. 
2.34.  Pope  Pontianus. 

235.  Anterus. 

Driven,  C.  F. 

Sixth  persecution  of  the  Christians,  under 
Maximinus,  in  which  Leonidtts,  IrencBus, 
Victor,  Perpetua,  and  Felicitas  are  mar- 
tyred. 


244.  Gregory  Tkaumalurgus, anH  Dionysiuf. 
of  Alexandria,  C.  F. 


250.  Pope  St.  Cornelius. 

Seventh  persecution  of  the  Christians 

*  Christian  Father. 


— Christian  Era  to  Constantine.] 


THE    world's    progress. 


55 


Roman  Empire. 


1S9 


East. 
The  SARACENS  defeat  the  Romans. 


242 


PERSIA  ;  the  new  kingdom  begun  by  Avtax- 
erxes ;  (the  dynasty  of  the  Sassasidas). 

Parlhia  tributary  to  Persia. 


Gordiaii  defeats  the  Persians  under  Sapoi- 


West. 

189.  The  Capitol  of  Rome  destroyed  by  light- 
ning. 

191.  Rome  nearly  destroyed  by  fire. 

192.  Commodus  assassinated  by  Martia  and 
Laetus. 


193.- 


Pertinax, 


proclaimed   by  the  Preetonan  guards — 
murdered  after  a  reign  of  3  months. — Th^; 
empire  bought  by  JOidiiis  Julianas,  whu 
is  put  to  death  by  order  of  the  senate. 

Septimus   Severus ,^§ 

(governs  with  vigor.) 
— defeats  his  competitors,  Niger  and  Albi- 
nus. 
194.  — besieges  Byzantium. 
202.  ^lersecutes  the  Christians. 
203   — his  sons  Caracalla  and  Geta  go  to  Bri- 
tain, where  50,000  Roman  troops  died  o( 
plague. 

The  wall  of  Severus  between  the  Forth 
and  the  Clyde  built. 

211.  Severus  dies  at  York,  in  Britain. 

Caracalla    and    Geta.  ^g 

Caracalla  murders  Geta. 

212.  — visits  the  provinces  along  the  Danube. 
— Wars  with  the  Catti  and  Alemanni. 

217.  Caracalla  is  assassinated. 

M  a  c  r  i  n  u  s  , 


put  to  death  by  the  soldiers. 

218. Heliogabalus,' 

(a  monster  of  vice  and  cruelty.) 

222.-  Alexander  Severus  ,^5 

(a  beneficent  and  enlightened  prince.) 
The  Romans  agree  to  pay  an  annual  tri- 
bute to  the  Goths,  to  prevent  them  from 
molesting  the  empire. 
226.  The  victory  of  Severus  over  the  Persians 
at  Tadraor. 

235.  Severus  murdered  in  a  mutiny  of  the 

army ;  succeeded  by 
M  a  X  i  m  i  n  u  s  ,  ^M^ 


who  defeats  the  Dacians  and  Sarraatians. 

286.   Maximinus  assassinated  by  his  troops 
near  Aquilea. 

■  Balbinus   and    Gordian,  ^g  ~ 
241.  The    FRANKS  first  mentioned  in  his- 
tory ;  they  invade  Gaul. 
244.  —are  repulsed  at  Moguntiacum. 
Gordian  put  to  death  by 


-Philip  ,^g  (the  Arabian,)- 


who  makes  makes  peace  with  Sapor. 
247.  The  secular  games  restored. 


249, 


persecutes  the  Christians. 
250.  —slain  by  the  Goths,  who  invade  the 
empire  by  crossing  the  Danube. 


56 


THE    WORLD'Ei    PROGRESS. 


[Modem .-  P,eriod  I. — 306  years. 


251 


270 


276 
277 


Progress  op  Society,  etc. 


Plotinus. 

Odin  in  Scandinavia. 


Ecclesiastical. 


251.  St   Cyprian,  bishop  of  Cartilage. — Mo- 
nastic life  ori;;inates  about  this  time. 

Dispute  between  the  churches  of  Rome 
and  Africa  about  baptism. 


Paulus,  a  Roman  poet. 


Longinus  at  the  court  of  Zenobia. 


Rome  surrounded  with  a  wall. 
Longinus  dies. 


Porphyri/,  the  Greek  philosopher  and  opposer 

ol  Christianity. 
Extraordinary  naval  expedition  of  the  Thra- 

cian   Franks    in    t>3   Mediterranean     and 

Northern  Seas. 


Diocletian's  Oriental  form  of  government — 
the  monarchy  considered  hereditary — nomi- 
nation of  Ccesars  as  co-rulers. 

Diocletian's  baths,  containing  3,000  benches 
of  white  marble,  while  the  walls  were 
adorned  with  paintings. 


259.  Pope  Dionysius. 


262.   Paul,  bishop  of  Samosatia,  deriea  the 
divinity  of  Jesus  Christ 


269.  Pope  Felix  I. 

272.  Ninth  persecution  under  Aurelian. 


274.  Pope  Eutychianes. 

Manes  originates  the  heresy  of  the  Mani- 
chfeans — rejects  all  the  sacraments ;  refuses 
allegiance  to  temporal  sovereigns,  &c. 


283.  Pope  Caius. 

The  Jewish  Talmud  and  Targum  com- 
posed. 

Paul,  the  Theban,  the  first  hermit. ^Reli- 
gious ceremonies  multiplied. — Pagan  rites 
imitated  by  the  Christians. 

286.  Ilierax,  chief  of  the  Hieraxians  ;  asserts 
that  Melchizedec  was  the  Holy  Ghost,  and 
denies  the  resurrection. 


— Ckristiaii  Era  to  Co7istantine.'\ 


THE    world's    progress. 


57 


Roman  Empire. 


East. 


HUNS  on  the  Caspian  Sea. 


260 
261 


264 


269 
273 


The  Persians  victorious  in  Asia  Minor. 
Persia : — Sapor's    victory    over  the    Roman 

arms. 
The  temple  of  Biana  at  Ephesus  burnt. 
Sapor,  the  Persian,  takes  Antic ch,  Tarsus  and 

Caesarea. 

Odenatus,  king  of  Palmyra— lie  is  succeeded 

by  his  wife. 
Z  en  ob  i  a,  who  reigns  with  the  titles  of 

'  Augusta,'  and  '  Queen  of  the  East.' 


Zenobia  conquers  Egypt,  a  part  of  Armenia, 

and  Asia  Minor. 
Zenobia  defeated  at  Edessa,  by  Aurelian,  who 

destroys  her  magnificent  capital,  and  carries 

her  to  Rome. 


The  Persians  iefeated  by  Probus. 


G  a  1 1  u  s 


purchases  a  peace  with  the  Goths. — Con- 
federacy of  the  Franks  between  the  Rhine 
and  Elbe. 

— a  great  pestilence  prevails  in  the  empire. 


254.- 


Emilianus. 
Valerian. 


is  successful  against  the  Germans  and 

Goths. 
256-69.  Four  great  piratical  expeditions  of  the 

Goths  into  Asia  Minor  and  Greece. 
259.  Valerian  defeated  and  taken  prisoner  and 

flayed  alive  by  the  Persians. 

•  G  a  1 1  i  e  n  u  s  .  ^m 


Period  of  the  30  tyrants. 
The  Persians  penetrate  to  Ravenna. 
264.  Alliance  with  Odenatus. 

267.  Cleodamus  and  Athenius  defeat  the  Goths 
and  Scythians. 

268.  Gallienus  killed  at  Milan. 

-Claudius    II. 


defeats  an  army  of  320,000  Goths. 
269.  —dies  at  Sirmium. 


270. Aurelian,  ^§ 

(a  great  warrior.) 
271.  —defeats  the  Goths  and  Alemanni. 


273.  — reduces  Palmyra  after  an  heroic  resist- 
ance, and  takes  queen  Zenobia  prisoner. 

274.  France,  Spain,  and    Britain  reduced  to 
obedience. 

The  Temple  of  the  Sun  at  Rome  burnt. — 
Dacia  given  up  to  the  barbarians. 

275.  Aurelian  killed  near  Byzantium. 
An  interregnum  of  6  rnonths. 

Tacitus, 


277.- 


(a  descendant  of  the  historian,) 
reigns  with  wisdom  6  months. 

Probus,' 


(a  warlike  prince.) 
— obtains  several  victories  over  the  barba- 
rians.—The  Franks  permitted  by  Probus  to 
settle  in  Gaul. 
282.  Probus  slain  by  his  soldiers. 


C  a  r  u  s 


killed  by  lightning. 

Carinus   and   Numerianus," 

(effeminate  and  cruel.) 
288.  Fingal,  king  of  Morven,  dies. 


Diocletian^ 


sends  ambassadors  to  China. 
"The  JEra  of  Diocletian,"  or  of  "the 
martyrs,"  Au£rust29. 
287.  Britain  usurped  by  Qarausius,  who  reigns 
7  years.  The  empire  attacked  by  the  north- 
ern barbarians,  and  several  provinces 
usurped  by  tyrants.— Maximianus,  a  col- 
league of  the  Emperor. 


58 


THE    WORLD'S    PROGRESS. 


[Modern :  Period  I. — 306  years. 


290 


304 


312 


323 


330 


310 


357 


Progress  of  Society,  etc. 


The  Gregorian  code. 


Gregory  and  Hermogenes,  lawyers ;  JElius, 
Spartianus,  and  Vopiscus,  hislovia.'os;  Tre- 
bellius  Polio. 


Ecclesiastical. 


296.  Monks  in  Spain  and  Egypt. 
Pope  Marcellinus. 


303.  Tenth  Persecution  of  the  Christians. 
30-1.   Arnobius,  of  Africa,  C.  F.,  converted 
.•rom  idolatry. 


The  prmtorian  guard  broken  up  by  Constan- 
tlne. 


MODERN:  PERIOD     SECOND.— 170  7jears,— 

306.  Persecution  of  the  Christians  stopped  by 
Constantius. 

310.  Pope  Eusebius. 
Arius  excommunicated. 

311.  Pope  Malchiades. 

314.  Pope  Sylvester  I. 

319.  Toleration  of  Christianity  by  Constantine 
the  Great. 


Foundation  of  Constantinople  by  Constantine 
the  Great. — Celebrated  dome  of  St  Sophia : 
the  splendor  of  the  court  so  great  tlrat  it 
cost  more  than  the  legions. 

Constantinople  becomes  the  seat  of  art  and 
literature. 


Ossian,  the  Caledonian  bard,  supposed    to 
have  flourished  about  this  time. 


Eutropius  and  Marcellinus,  historians ;  Jam- 
blicus  and  Eunapitis,  Greek  historian. 


325.  The  Council  of  Nice  (from  June  19th, 
325  to  August  25th)  consisting  of  318  bishops, 
who  condemn  Kxia.n\sm.—Eusebiv^, bishop 
of  Csesarea,  C.  F.,  and  ecclesiastical  histo- 
rian. —  Lactantius,  At/ianasius,  Arius, 
Ephraim  and  Basil,  C.  F.,  flourish  in  the 
reign  of  Constantine. 

336.  Pope  Marcus. 

337.  Pope  Julius. 

Eleventh  persecution.  —  Saints  invoked, 
the  cross  reverenced,  and  incense  used  by 
the  Christians. 


341.  Christianity  propagated  in  Ethiopia  by 
Frumaintius. 

356.  Pope  Feta  II. 

St.  Hilary  and  Gregory  Nazianzen,  of 
Constantinople,  an  emment  writer,  C.  F. — 
Elius  Donatus,  bishop  of  Carthage.— 
Cyril,  bishop  of  Je  rusalem. — Monasteries  in 
Thebais. 


—Ckrisbian  Era  to  Constantine.^ 


THE    WORLD'S    PROGRESS. 


59 


325 
328 

333 
334 

337 

340 
350 
354 

361 


Roman  Empire. 


East. 


Narses,  king  of  Persia,  loses  Armenia,  Meso- 
potamia, and  Assyria. 

Alexandria  taken  by  Diocletian. 

Hormisdas,  II.,  king  of  Persia,  builds  Ormus. 


From  Constantine  to  Odoacer. 


The  first  general  council  at  Nice. 

The  seat  of  government  removed  to  Constan- 
tinople, which  was  solemnly  dedicated  on 
May  11th,  330. 

Great  famine  and  pestilence  in  Syria. 
Revolt  of  Sarmatian  slaves,  300,000  are  dis- 
persed over  the  empire. 
Death  of  Constantine,  and  the  accession  of  his  three  sons, 

Constantius,   Constans,and    Constantino.^ 


West. 

291.  The  Franks  make  themselves  masters  of 

Batavia  and  Flanders. 
293.  The  Franks  expelled  from  Batavia. 

296.  Britain  restored  to  the  emperor. 


304.  Diocletian  and  Maximian  resign  the  Em- 
pire to 

Constantius  and  Galeritis. 


306.—  Constantine  the  Great,  ^^ 

(first  Christian  emperor.) 
Licinius,  Maximian,  and  Maxentius,  his 
three  colleagues. 
Constantine  defeats  the  Franks. 
312.  Maxentius  defeated  and  killed. 
314.  Civil  war  with  Licinius. 
319.  Constantine  favors  and  tolerates  Chris- 
tianity. 

321.  —appoints  the  observance  of  Sunday. 

322.  — deteats  and  banishes  Licinius,  and  be- 
comes sole  emperor. 

325.  — abolishes  the  combats  of  gladiators  and 
assemblies. 


331.  Constantine  orders  all  the  heathen  tem- 
ples to  be  destroyed. 


150  Greek  and  Asiatic  cities  destroyed  by  an 

earthquake. 
Hermanric,  king  of  the  Ostrogoths,  founds  an 

extensive  empire. 
Gallus  put  to  death  by  Constantius. 


Constantius  dies  at  Tarsus. 

A  disadvantageous  peace  with  the  Persians. 


340.  Constantine,  the  younger,  defeated  and 

killed  by  Constans  at  Aquilea. 
350.  Constans  killed  in  Spain  by  Magnentius. 


357.  Six  German  kmgs  defeated  by  Julian  at 
Strasburg. 


361. —  Julian,    the  Apostate,  ^g 

— attempts  in  vain  to  rebuild  the  temple 
at  Jerusalem. 
363.  — is  slain  in  a  war  with  the  Persians. 


EASTERN  EMPIRE 

extending  from  the  lower  Danube  to  the  con- 1 
fines  of  Persia. 


364.  Death  of  Jovian,  and  the  accession  of 
Valentinian  and  Valens,  under  whom  the 
EMPIRE  is  DIVIDED  : 

WESTERN  EMPIRE, 
extending  from  the  Caledonian  ramparts 
to  the  foot  of  Mount  Atlas. 


60 


THE   world's   progress. 


[Modern:    Period  II. — 170  years-. 


412 


425 


135 


Progress  op  Society,  etc. 


Aurelius  Victor,  author  of  lives  of  celebrated 
Romans. 


Prudentius  and  Ausonius,  Latin  poets; 
Pappus  and  Theon,  of  Alexandria,  mathe- 
maticians. 


Claudian,  Latin  poet. 


Macrubius,  Platonic  philosopher. 


Theodosius  establishes  public  schools,  and  at- 
tempts the  restoration  of  learning. 


The  Theodosian  code  published. 


Ecclesiastical. 


373.  The  Bible  translated  into  the  Gothic  lan- 
guage. 


379.  The  prerogatives  of  the  Roman  See  much 
enlarged. 

381.  The  second  general  Council  of  Constan- 
tinople. 


384.  Symachus  pleads  in  the  Roman  Senate 
for  Paganism  against  St.  Ambrose. 

385.  Pope  Syricius. 


392.  St.  Chrysostom,  patriarch  of  Constan- 
tinople ;  St.  Ambrose,  archbishop  of  Milan ; 
St.  Jerome,  St.  Martin,  and  St.  Augustine, 
'  Christian  Fathers.' 

Image    worship. — The    Christian   hier- 
archy begins. 


401.  Pope  Innocent  I. 


412.  C)/n7,  bishop  of  Alexandria ;  Isidore  waA 
Socrates,  ecclesiastical  historians ;  Orosius, 
a  Spanish  disciple  of  St.  Augustine ;  and 
Pelagius,  a  British  monk,  wlio  denied  origi- 
nal sm,  &c. 

416.  The  Pelagian  heresy  condemned  by  the 
African  bishops. 

417.  Pope  Zozimus. 

418.  Pope  Boniface  I. 

422.  Pope  Celestine  I. 


429.  Nestorius,  bishop  of  Constantinople,  ac- 
knowledges  two  persons  in  Jesus  Christ. 

431.  Third  general  Council  at  Ephesus. 

432.  Pope  Sixtus  III. 

St.  Patrick  preaches  the  Gospel  in  Ire- 
land. 
435.  Nestorianism  prevails  in  the  East. 


440.  Pope  Leo  I.  (the  Great). 

443.  The  Manichcean  books  burned  at  Rome. 
445.  Flavian,  patriarch  of  Constantinople. 


-From  Constantvne  to  Odoacer,] 


THE   world's   progress. 


61 


376 


378 


Eastern  Empire. 


HUNGARY,  (ancient  Pannonia,)  invaded  by 
the  Huns,  from  whom  it  is  named.— The 
Goths  expelled  by  the  Huns,  are  allowed  by 
Valens  to  settle  in  Thrace. 

Valens  defeated  and  slain  by  the  Goths  near 
Adrianople. 

Theodosius  the  Great,  ^S 


a  zealous  supporter  of  Christianity. 


Theodosius  defeats  Maxiraus,the  tyrant  of  the 
western  empire. 


Western  Empire. 


364. Valentinian     I.  ^^ ■ 

elected  by  the  army. 
368.  The  Saxons  invade  Britain,  but  are  de- 
feated by  Theodosius. 


375.- 


G  r  a  t  i  an 


gains  a  victory  over  the  Germans;  suc- 
ceeds to  the  eastern  empire  on  the  death  oi 
Valens;  Maximus  is  proclaimed  emperor. 
— Gratian  killed  at  Lyons. 


379.  The  LOMBARDS  first  leave  Scandina- 
via, and  defeat  the  Vandals. 


383.- 


Valentinian  II. 


—is  dispossessed  by  Maximus,  hut  is  re- 
stoied  by  Theodosius;  makes  Treves   his 
capital. 
384.  —is  strangled  at  Vienna  by  Arbogastes,  a 
Gaul,  commander  of  the  army. 


Theodo  si  us  W 


becomes  sole  emperor  of  the  East  and  West. 

Complete  down  fall  of  Paganism. 

Theodosius   defeats    Eugenius,    the   usur  per  of  the  West,  and  Arbogastes,  the  Gaul. 

Final  division  of  the  empire  be  tween  the  sons  of  Theodosius. 


A  r  c  a  d  i  u  s  . 


-Theodosius    Il.^g^ — 
a  ehild ;  Athenius,  minister. 


Regency  of  the  emperor's  sister,  Pulcheria. 


Persian  War. 


Armenia  divided  between  the  Persians  and 

Romans. 
A  great  part  of  Constantinople  destroys  1  by 

fire. 

Pannonia,  Dalmatia  and  Noricum  gained  from 
the  western  empire. 


Honorius, 


401.  Europe  overrun  by  the  VISIGOTHS. 

403.  Alaric  defeated  by  Stillicho. 

406.  The  Vandals  permitted  to  settle  in  Spain, 

Gaul,  &c. 
410.  Rome  sacked  and  burned  by  the  Goths 

under  Alaric. 

412.  Beginning  of  the  Vandal  power  in  Spain. 

413.  Burgundian  kingdom  begun  in  Alsace. 

414.  The  Visigoths  plant  themselves  in  Tou- 
louse. 


417.  The  Alani  defeated  and  extirpated   by 

the  Goths. 
420.    FRANKS :  —  Pharamond,     their 

first  king,  on  the  lower  Rhine. 

424. —  Valentinian  III. 


426.  Britain  evacuated  by  the  Romans. 

427.  Pannonia  recovered  from  the  Huns. 

428.  .^Etius,  the  Roman  general,  defeated  by 
the  Franks  and  Goths. 

Franks :— Clodion,  king,  extends  his  con- 
quests to  the  river  Somme. 

433.  A  1 1  i  1  a  ,  "  The  scourge  of  God,"  forms 
an  immense  empire  from  China  to  the  At- 
lantic. 

437.  .S;tius  defeats  the  Goths. 

439.  The  kingdom  of  the  Vandals  in 
Africa,  under  G  e  n  s  e  ri  c  ,  who 
takes  Carthage  and  plunders  Italy. 

441.  The  Roman  territories  invaded  by  the 
Huns,  Persians  and  Saxons. 

445.  Th9  famous  embassy  from  Britain,  soli- 
citing aid  against  the  Picts. 


62 


THE    WORLD  S    PROGRESS. 


[Modern:  Period II. — nO years 


Progress  op  Society,  etc. 


Zozimus   and    Olympiodorus,  Greek    histo- 
rians. 


The  pnnciple  established  that  every  accused 
person  shall  be  tried  by  his  peers,  or  equals. 


Legislation  of  the  Visigoths  in  Spain — Eric 
being  king,  and  founder  of  the  Gothic  mo- 
narchy. 


The  tottering  empire  of  the  west  was  finally 
overthrown  by  Odoacer's  sack  of  Rome,  the 
great  event  which  precedes  the  middle  or 
'■'■dark  ages."  The  form  of  the  old 
Roman  government  remained — the  senate, 
the  consuls,  &c. — but  Italy,  ravaged  by  a 
succession  of  wars,  plagues,  famines,  and 
every  form  of  public  tyranny  and  domestic 
slavery,  was  nearly  a  desert. 


ECCLESIASTICAI.. 


447.  Eutyches  asserts  the  existence  of  only 
one  nature  in  Jesus  Olirist. 

449.  Ibus,  bishop  of  Edessa;  and  Eusebius, 
bishop  of  Doryleum,  deposed. 

450.  Sozomen  and  Theodoret,  ecclesiastical 
historians. 

451.  The  fourth  general  Council  at  Chalcadon, 
at  which  Eutycheanism  and  Nestorianisra 
are  solemnly  condemned. 


461.  Pope  Hilarius. 
465.  Pope  Simplicius. 


Oligarchy  of  the  bishops  of  Rome,  Con- 
stantinople, Alexandria,  Antioch,  and  Jeru- 
salem— all  striving  for  the  supremacy.— 
The  church  now  begins  to  assume  a  politi- 
cal aspect. 


— F'rom  Constatitiiic  to  Odoaccr.j 


THE    WORLD  S    PROGRESS. 


G3 


450 


Eastern  Empire. 


M  a  r  c  i  a  n  , ' 


457 


474 
475 


a  Thracian,  refuses  to  pay  the  annual 
tribute  to  the  Huns. 


Leo   I . ,  (the  Thracian,)  ' 


first  emperor  ever  crowned  by  the  patriarch. 
War  with  the  Goths. 

Peace  with  the  Goths ;  Theoiloric  is  received 
from  them  as  a  hostage. 


Z  en  0  . 


a  turbulent  reign :  debaucheries  and  conspi- 
racies. 
Theodoric  becomes  chief  of  the  Ostrogoths, 

and    invades    the    empire.      He    ravages 

Thrace. 


Western  Empire. 


448.  Franks :— Merovosus  1st,  king  of  the  Me- 
rovingians. 

.ffitius  defeats  the  Huns. 


451.  The    arrival    of    the    Saxons 
in    Britain,    under  Hengist  and  Horsa. 

452.  The  city  of  VENICE  founded. 
455.  Valentinian  assassinated  by 

Petronius  Maximus.  ^M 

A  V  i  t  u  s  .  ^M 


-M  a j  o  r  i  a  n . 


458.  P'ranks  : — Childeric  I.,  conquers  as  far 
as  the  Loire  and  takes  Paris. 


461.- 


■  S  e  V  e  r  u  s  . 


467.- 


-Athenius.  ^^g ■ 

(The  last  three  emperors   slain    by 
Ricimer.) 
68-  Spain : — The  Visigoths,  under  Eric,  esta- 
blish their  kingdom. ' 


O  1  y  b  i  u  s  . 


Eruption  of  Vesuvius,  seen  at  Constan- 
tinople. 


473. Glycerius. 

474. Julius   Nepos 


475.—  Romulus   Augustulus.  ^§ 
476.  ROME    taken  by  ODOACER,  king  of 
the  Herulii : 

END  of  the  WESTERN  EMPIRE, 
1228  years  after  the  building  of  Rome ;  and 
commencement  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy  un- 
der Odoacer. 


64 


THE    world's   PROGUESS. 

MODERN :  PERIOD  IH.— 146  years. 


493 


498 


511 


513 
514 


533 


Progress  of  Society,  etc. 


Rise  of  the  feudal  system  in  France,  under 
Clevis. 


Theodoric    introduces    the    architecture    of 
Greece  to  improve  the  buildings  of  Italy. 


Publication  of  the  Gemara  or  Talmud  of  Ba- 
bylon. 

Burgundian  laios  published,  being  a  collec- 
tion of  the  rights  and  customs  of  the  Bur- 
gundians. 


The  Salic  law  established  in  France. 


Boethius,  the  Roman  poet  and  philosopher. 

Use  of  burning  glass  in  warfare  at  Constan- 
tinople. 


The  Christian  Era  proposed  and  introduced 
by  JDionysius,  a  monk. 


The  schools  of  Athens  suppressed. 

The  fables  of  Pilpay  translated  into  Pers  aji. 
Chess  introduced  into  Persia  from  India. 

Justinian's  pandects  and  code  of  laws. 


Architecture :  the  church  of  St  Sophia  built 

at  Constantinople. 
Proclus,  a  learned  Platonist. 


Ecclesiastical. 


483.  Pope  Felix  III. 
—excommunicated    by    Acacius,  bishop    of 

Constantinople. 

484.  Christians  persecuted  by  Huneric,  king 
of  the  Vandals. 


492.  Pope  Ge.asius  I. 

494.   The  Roman  Pi 

macy, 
496.  Cnristianity  introduced  into  France, 


494.   The  Roman  Pontiff  asserts  his  auprt 

macy, 
Chrii 


513.  Christianity  embraced   by  the  Persian 
king,  Carbades. 

514.  Pope  Hormisdas. 


519.  The  orthodox  bishops  restored  by  lustin. 


523.  Pope  John  I. 

525.  The  Arian  bishops  deposed. 

526.  Pope  Felix  IV. 

Extreme  Unction  introduced. 


.529.  The   Order  of  Benedictine  monks  in- 
stituted at  Monte  Cassino,  near  Naples. 
530.  Pope  Boniface  II. 


533.  Pope  John  II. 

535.  Pope  Agapetus. 

536.  "     Sylvester  I. 

Separation  of  the  Armenians  from  the  Greek 

church. 
538.  Pope  Vigiliiis. 


THE  world's  progress.  65 

— Odcacer  to  Malwmet.  [The  "  Middle  or  Dark  Ages''  begin  here.} 


480 
481 


Eastern  Empire. 


An  earthquake,  lasting  40  days,  destroys  the 

greater  part  of  Constantinople. 
Zeno  makes  Theodoric  general  and  consul 


Anastasius   I. 


The  Green  and  Blue  factions. 

The  emperor's  persecution  of  the  Catlio- 
lics,  and  protection  of  the  Manichaeans,  oc- 
casions a  rebellion  headed  by  Vitalianus. 


The  empire  ravaged  and  the  imperial  army 
destroyed  by  Carbades,  king  of  Persia. 

Long  walls  built  to  protect  Constantinople 
from  the  Bulgarians. 

A  great  insurrection  in  Constantinople,  10,000 
killed. 


Constantinople  besieged  by  Vitalianus,  whose 
fleet  is  consumed  by  the  burniiig  glass  of 
Proclus. 

Anastasius  killed  by  lightning. 


-Justin    I . 


a  peasant  of  Dalmatia. 
Brilliant  period  of  the  Byzantine  empire. 


■Justinian    I. 


celebrated  for  his  code  of  laws  and  the 

victories  of  his  generals,  Belisarius 

and  Narses. 

Belisarius  defeats  the  Persians  under  Chos- 

roes. 


-quells  a  conspiracy  in  Constantinople. 

—defeats  the  Vandals  in  Africa. 
— subdues  Sicily, 
—takes  Naples. 

—takes    Rome,  defeats    the    Ostrogroths  in 

Italy, 
—the  Huns  in  Thrace,  and 


Europe,  generally. 


481.  FRANCE  :— C  1  o  v  i  s   I .  ,^  founder 
of  the  French  monarchy. 


484.  Alaric  IL,  king  of  the  Visigoths  in  Spain. 

485.  France :—  Battle    of    Soissons 
gained  by  Clovis. 

487.  Britain  :— The  Saxons  defeated  by  Prince 

Arthur    and  Ambrosius. 
490 : — Italy  : — ravaged  by  the  barbarians. 

Britain :— kingdom  of  Sussex. 
491.  France  :— Clovis  subdues  Thuringia. 


493.  Italy  ;— c  onquered  by  Theo- 
d  o  r  i  c  ,  king  of  the  Ostrogoths.— Odoa- 
cer  put  to  death. 


499.  France  :— Clovis  concludes  a  peace  with 
Theodoric  in  Italy. 

500.  Burgundy  becomes  his  tributary. 


507. Clovis  defeats  Alaric  near  Poictiers. 

510.  France :— Clovis  makes  Paris  his  capital. 

511.  France:— Clovis  dies. 

■ Child  ebert   l.^m 

512.  The  HERULIl  settle  in  Thrace. 


516.  The  Christian  Era  adopted. 

517.  Getae  ravages  Ulyricuni,  Macedon,  &c. 

519.    Britain :— Prince    Arthur    defeated    at 

Charford  by  Cerdic,  who  begins  the  third 

Saxon  kingdom  of  Wessex. 
522.  Spain : — Amalaric,  the  first  Gotliic  king, 

who  establishes  his  court  in  Spain— his  capi- 

tal,  Seville. 


530.  Britain : — kingdom  of  Essex. 

531.  Spain : — Theudis  succeeds  Amalaric. 

532.  Burgundy  conquered  by  Childebert. 


536.  Vitiges,  king  of  the  Ostogroths,  surren- 
ders his  possessions  in  Gaul  to  the  French 
king. 

537.  Italy  conquered  by  Belisarius. 


66 


THE    WORLD  S    PflOGRESS. 


[Modern :  Period  III. — 146  years 


Progress  op  Society,  etc. 


The  manufacture  of  silk  introduced    from 
China  by  the  monks. 


Procopius,  a  Roman  historian — the  last  of  the 
classic  writers. 

The  Saxon  lams ;  the  liing's  authority  limit- 
ed by  the  WiUenagemnt. 

Three  orders ;  the  noble,  the  free,  and  the 
servile. — Trial  by  ordeal. 


Christianity  introduced  among  the  Picts  by 
Columbi. 

The  old  Roman  municipal  system  in  Italy 
overthrown  by  the  invasion  of  the  Lombards 
— and  the  feudal  system  established. 

Written  laws  compiled  among  the  nations  of 
German  origin— first  by  the  Visigoths  in 
Spain. 

Semi-circular  arches  introduced  in  the  archi- 
tecture of  churches,  with  much  grotesque 
sculpture. 


The  Latin  language  ceases  to  he  spoken  in 
Italy,  while  it  supersedes  the  Gothic  in 
Spain. 

The  origin  of  fiefs. 

The  Roman  Catholic  faith  established  in 
Spam. 

Gregory  of  Tours,  the  father  of  French  his- 
tory. 


Bretwalda,  king  of  England,  converted  to 
Christianity. 

Asathus,  a  Grecian  historian. 

G'ildas,  the  first  British  historian. 

Evagrias,  ecclesiastical  historian. — Cassiodo- 
rus,  the  historian  of  Ravenna,  tutor  to 
Theodoric. 

The  Saxons,  having  conquered  England,  it 
relapsed,  in  a  great  measure,  into  the  state 
of  barbarism,  from  which  it  had  been  par- 
tially raised  by  the  Romans. 


Ecclesiastical. 


540.   The  Monothelites,   who  acknowledged 
but  one  will  in  Jesus  Christ. 


552.  The  Fifth  general  Council  at  Conslanti 

nople. 
555.  Pope  Pelagius  I. 

557.  The  church  of  St.  Germain  de  Pres,  buill 
at  Paries. 


560.  Pope  .John  m. 

The  Trilheisls  acknowledge  three  Gods,, 
and  deny  the  resurrection. 


573.  Pope  Benedict  I. 

575.  The  first  monastery  founded  in  Bavaria. 
Great  increase  of  miracles. 

578.  Pope  Pelagius  II. 


590.  Pope  Gregory  I.  called  The  Great. 

The  doctrine  of  purgatory  first  taught.- 
Mass  introduced. 


598.  St.  Augustine,  first  archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury, introduces  Christianity  into  Britain. 

601.  Pope  Sabianus,  or  Sabinian. 

(506.  Pope  Boniface  III.  made  supreme  head 
of  the  church  by  Phocas.— The  title  of  Uni- 
versal Bishop  assumed. 

The  Waldenses   refuse   submission    to 
Rome. 


•—Frovi  Odoacer  to  Mahomet.'] 


THE    WORLD'S    PROGRESS. 


67 


542 
548 
549 


552 
554 


558 


561 
562 
563 


574 
576 
578 
582 


570- 
6U0 


Eastern  Empire. 


Vitiges  at  Ravenna.  —  North  Africa,  Cor- 
sica and  Scirdinia,  annexed  to  the  Eastern 
empire. 

Plague  at  Constantinople  —  during  three 
months  from  5,000  to  10,000  die  daily. 

The  Lombards,  settle  in  Pannonia. — The 
Turkish  monarchy  founded  in  Asia-. 

Siege  of  Petra. 


Narses  defeats  and  kills  Totila.  ■ 
Italy  governed  by  Greek  exarchs. 


A  plague  extending  over  Europe  and  Asia, 
and  lasting  nearly  50  years. 


Belisarius  disgraced  by  Justinian. 

"         restored: — he  quells  a  conspiracy. 
Great  fire  in  Constantinople — the  city  nearly 

destroyed. 
Justinian  dies. 

Justin    II.  ^M 


Belisarius  dies  in  prison. 


The  TURKS  first  mentioned  in  history. — 
They  send  embassies  to  Justin,  and  form 
an  alliance. 

Tiberius  associated  with  Justin  in  the  gov- 
ernment. 

Justin  defeats  Chosroes,  king  of  Persia. 

-Tiberius   II.^& 


Maurice,  the  Cappadocian,  king;  under  his 
reign  the  empire  extends  to  the  Araxes,  and 
almost  to  the  Caspian  Sea. 


The  Avars  flourish  under  Baian— invade  the 
Eastern  empire,  and  spread  over  Hungary, 
Poland,  and  Prussia. 


■P  h  o  c  a  s,  ^^ — a  centurion,  elected  king. 
The  empire  invaded  by  the  Persians. 


Europe,  generally. 


539.  Italy :  War,  famine,  and  pestilence. 

The  City  of  Milan  ravaged  by  the  Goths. 


542.    Britain :— Prince   Arthur  murdered  in 
Cornwall. 


550.  POLAND  a  dukedom— Lech,  its  first 
duke  and  legislator.  His  brotiier,  Zech. 
first  duke  of  Bohemia. 

The  Greeks    form    settlements  on   the 
Spanish  coast,  from  the  Straits  to  Valencia. 

550.  Civil  wars  in  France. 

558.  France :— C  1  o  t  a  i  r  e   I .   ^J 

559.  Britain :— t  he  Saxon  Heptar- 
chy   commences. 

560.  Britain:— the  kingdom  of  Northumbria, 
formed  by  the  union  of  Bernicia  and  Deira. 
— Ethelbert,  king  of  Kent,  subdues  most  of 
the  Saxon  kings. 

561.  France  :— C  h  a  r  i  b  e  r  t    I .  ^ 


565.  Europe  ravaged  by  a  pestilence. 


568.  Italy  conquered  by  the  Lombards,  under 
Alboin.    He  fixes  his  capital  at  Pavia. 


571.  Britain :— Bretwalda  II.,  king  of  Wessex. 


575.  "  East  Anglia  formed  into  a  king- 
dom, and  called  Angle-land,  whence  the  ori- 
gin of  the  name  England. 


-the  Suevi  subdued  by  the  Visi- 


583.  Spain : 
goths. 


France :— C  1  o  t  a  i  r  e   II.  ^^ 
586.  Britain :— the  kingdom  of  Mercia  founded. 
Spain  : — Recared,  king. 

588.  The  city  of  Paris  destroyed  by  fire. 

589.  Rome  inundated  by  the  Tiber. 

591.  Britain :— Ethelbert,  king  of  Kent,  gains 
the  pre-eminence,  and  becomes  Bretwalda 
III. 

Italy : — the  Lombards,  under  Autharis, 
successful  against  the  Greeks  and  Franks. 
i95.  Istria,  Bo'hemia,  and  Poland  invaded  by 
the  Sclavonians. 

596.  France  :— Thierry  II.,  king  of  Burgundy. 

597.  Britain :— Christianity  introduced  by  St. 
Augustine. 

60O.  Italy  ravaged  by  the  Sclavonians. 


007.  Britain :— Supremacy  of  the  Pope   ac- 
knowledged. 


68 


THE  world's  progress.  [Modem :  Period  III— 146  years 


Progkess  OP  Society,  etc. 


The  aristocracy  acquire  great  power  in 
France,  somewhat  restrained  by  the  mayors 
of  the  palace. 

Riles  and  superstitions  increase  in  all  Europe. 
— Relics  sought  for,  and  worshipped. — Lita- 
nies addressed  to  the  Virgin. — The  burning 
of  candles  by  day. — Exorcisms,  &c. 

Hereditary  fiefs. — Aristocratic  class. 


Stcundus,  historian  of  the  liOmbards. 
Elhelbert  publishes  the  _^rsZ  corfe  of  laws  in 
England. 


Progress  of  Society,  etc. 


Isodorus,  historian  of  Sjiain,  grammarian  and 
philosopher. 


Islamism,  and  the  power  of  the  Caliplis  esta- 
blished in  the  East.  In  the  Caliph.s  were 
united  the  highest  spiritual  and  regal  autho- 
rity. 


Christianity  introduced  into  China. 

In  England,  some  improvement  in  ecclesiasti- 
cal architecture;  circular  arches  intro- 
duced ;  churches  buiU  at  Canterbury,  fJlas- 
tonbury,  St.  Albans,  Winchester,  &c. 

In  civil  architecture,  forts  and  castles — Conis- 
borough  Castle  in  Yorkshire;  Castletown 
in  Derbyshire,  &c. 

University  of  Cambridge  founded. 


Some  of  the  monasteries  of  Europe  continue 
to  be  tiie  repositories  of  learning  and  the 
arts. 

Celibacy  of  the  clergy  enjoined. 


Ecclesiastical. 


606.  Pope  Boniface  III. 

607.  Pope  Boniface  IV. 

The  Pantheon  at  Rome  dedicated  to  God, 
the  Virgin,  and  the  Saints. 
609.  The  Christians  massacred  by  the  Jews  at 
Antioch. 


618.  Pope  Boniface  V. 


MODERN:  PERIOD  IV.— 178 years, 


Ecclesiastical. 


625.  Pope  Honorius  I.    He  had  a  taste  for 
splendid  cathedrals  and  processions. 
Jlonks  and  monasteries  increase. 


Africa  and  Asia,  with  the  churches  of 
Jerusalem,  Alexandria,  and  Antioch  lost  to 
the  Christian  world  by  the  progress  of  Mo- 
hammedanism. 


6-10.  Pope  Severinus. 
640.  Pope  John  IV. 


642.  Pope  Theodorus.    He  assumes  the  title 

of  "  Sovereign  Pontiif." 
644.  Pope  Martin  I.    He  ordains  celibacy  of 

the  clergy. 

Separation    between    the     Greek    and 

Roman  churches. 

654.  Pope  Eugenius. 

657.  Pope  Vitalian.  Pie  established  the  uni- 
versal use  of  the  Latin  language  in  the 
service  of  the  church. 


672.  Pope  AdeodatUB. 


-Frovi  Odoacer  to  Mahomet.'] 


THE    world's    progress. 


69 


A.D. 

Eastern  Empire. 

Europe,  generally. 

eOi.  Britain :— St.  Paul's  Church  founded  by 

Ethelbert,  king  of  Kent. 

610 

Heraclius  takes  Constantinople,  kills  Phocas, 
and  makes  himself  king. 

612 

MAHOMET  publishes  his  Koran. 

612.  Britain : — Ethelfrith,  king  of  Northum- 

Svria  ravaged  by  the  Arabs. 

bria,  deleats  the  Britons,  and  destroys  the 

614 

Jerusalem  taken  by  the  Persians. 

monastery  of  Bangor. 
615.  War  between  Lombardy  and  Ravenna. 
617.  Britain:— St.  Peter's  (now  Westminster 

618 

Constantinople  taken    and    pillaged    by  the 

Abbey)  founded  by  Sabert,  king  of  Kent. 

Avari. 

Britain  :—Bretwald    IV. 

— From,  Malwmet  to  Charlemas:ne. 


[Dark  Ages,  co?itinued.\ 


Eastern  Empire,  Asia,  &c. 


TheHEGIRA;    or  Mahomet's  Flight    from 

Mecca  to  Bledina. 
.Bra  of  the  Mahometans. 
Heraclius  defeats  the  Persians  under  Chos- 


Death  of  Mahomet. 

Abubeker   succeeds  him  as  caliph  of  the 
Saracens. 


Omar,    caliph. 

"  takes  .Terusaleni,  which   is  held 

by  the  Saracens  463  years. 
Omar     takes    Alexandria,     and     destroys 

another  famous  library. 


Constantine   III.  ^M — 

C  onstans   II.  ,^g 

(11  years  of  age.) 


The  Saracens  become  masters  of  Africa  and 
Cyprus. 

The  Saracens  take  Rhodes,  and  destroy  the 

Colossus. 
Persia  becomes  a  part  of  the  empire  of  the 

Caliphs. 

The  Saracens  obtain  peace  from  Constans,  by 
agreeing  to  pay  him  100,000  crowns  yearly. 

Constans  goes  to  Rome,  and  plunders  the 
Treasury. 

Moawiah,  caliph,  makes  Damascus  his  capi- 
tal. 

Constantine     IV.  ^Jinvades  Sicily. 

Grand  Cairo  founded. 

Siege  of  Constantinople  by  the  Saracens, 
whose  fleet  is  destroyed  by  the  Greek  fire  of 
Callinicus.  The  caliph  compelled  to  pur- 
chase a  peace  of  thirty  year.'!,  by  paying  a 
yearly  tribute. 


Europe,  generally. 


628.  France  : — D  asobert   I.  ^p' He 

builds  the  church  of  St.  Deny,  ine  burial 

place  of  the  French  kings. 
631.  Samo,  a    merchant  of  France,    makes 

himself  king  of  Bohemia. 
633.  Britain :  —  Bretwald   V. ;    he    embraces 

Christianity. 


634.  Britain :— Bretwald  VI. 


638.  France  — C  1  o  v  i  s   II.  ^^5  years  old. 
The  kingdom  divided,  Sigebert,  (18  years 
old,)  being  king  of  Austrasia. 

642.  Britain:— Bretwald VII. 

644.  Britain :— The  University  of  Cambridg6 
founded  by  Sigebert,  king  of  E.  Anglia. 

650.   Britain :  —  Blercia  converted  to    Chris- 
tianity. 

656.  France :— C  lotaire   III.  ^m 


660.  France :— C  h  i  I  d  e  r  i  c    II. 


663.  Lombardy  conquered  by  Grimoald,  duke 
of  Beneventura. 


672.    The  Saracens  driven  from  Spain,    by 
Wamba,  king  of  the  Goths. 


7U 

THE   world's    progress. 

[Modern :  Period  IV.  178  years. 

K.B. 

Progress  op  Society,  etc. 

Ecclesiastical. 

674 

St07ie  buildings  and  glass  come  into  use  in 
England. 

676. 

Pope  Domnus. 

The  abbey  of  Whitby,  and  the  monastery  of 

The  popes  become  independent  of  the 

Gilling  founded. 

Greek  emperor. 

The  Anglo-Saxons  advance  in  civilization 

679. 

Pope  Agatho. 

and  power,  by  the  introduction  of  Ckris- 

680. 

The  sixth  general  Council  at  Constantino. 

tianity. 

Pl 

e,  called  by  the  emperor  Constantine,  who 

In  France,  the  Teutonic  language  supersedes 

presides. 

the  Latin. — National  assemblies  established, 

68^: 

Pope  Leo  II.    He  usurps  iha  right  of  in- 

though  confined  to  the  aristocracy. 

vestiture. 

684. 

Pope  Benedict  II. 

In  Persia,  the  Magian  religion  gives  way  to 

685. 

"     John  V. 

the  Mohammeria3. 

686. 

"     Conon. 

687 

Severe  persecution  of  the  Jews  in  Spain. 

687. 

"     Sergius. 

691 

Julian,  of  Toledo,  historian  and  moralist. 

097 

The  venerable  Bede,  Ecc.  historian. 

698 

A  king  first  elected  in  Poland. 

Adhelm,  the  first  British  writer  in  prose  and 

verse. 

701. 

Pope  John  V  .. 

Sclavonian  republics  in  Bohemia. 

704. 

The  first  province  ^iven  to  the  pnpa. 

705. 

Pope  John  VII. 

708. 

"     Sissinius  (20  day.?). 

Christianity  greatly  extended  among  the  Ger- 

708. 

"     Constantine. 

man  nations  and  other  people  in  the  north 

of  Europe ;   but  almost    exterminated    in 

Africa,  by  tlie  progress  of  Mohammedan- 

ism. 

709 

711. 

Custom  of  kissing  the  Pope's  foot  intro 

duced. 

714. 

Pope  Gregory  II. 

716 

The  art  of  making  paper  brought  from  Sa- 

marcand  by  the  Arabs. 
George  Syncellus,  a  Grecian  chronologist. 

718 

Glastonbury  Abbey  rebuilt  by  Ina. 

Leo  (Eastern  Emperor)  attempts  to  pro- 

cure  the  assassination  of  the  Pope.    The 

1 

Romans  defend  him. 

-F^vm  Mahomet  to  Chai-lcmag-nc] 


THE    world's    progress. 


7\ 


C8o 


(398 


711 


Eastern  Empire,  Asia,  «fcc. 


673.  France :— T  h  i  e  r  r  y    I .  ^ 

675.  Spain: — Waniba  gains  a,  naval  victory 
over  the  Arabs,  who  attempt  to  invade  his 
kingdom. 


The  kingdom  of  Bulgaria  founded. 
Yezid,  caliph  of  the  Saracen.s. 


iVIoawiah  II.,  caliph. 
Abdallah,  caliph. 

Justinian    II, 


Abdulmelek,    caliph.      He   discontinues    the 
tribute  to  the  Greek  emperor 


Justinian  II.  deposed,  and  his  ni.se  cut  olT  by 

Leonitius,  who  is  also  deposed  by 

Absimerus  Tiberius. 

Armenia  and  the  provinces  between  the  Black 
and  Caspian  Seas  subdued  by  Caliph  Abdul- 
melek. 

Carthage  rased7  and  the  north  coast  of  Africa 
completely  subjugated. 


Justinian  II.  restored. 

Syria  recovered,  200,000  Saracens  slain. 


Africa  subdued  by  the  Saracens. 


Justinian  put  to  death  by  Philip  Bardanes. 
who  reigns  under  the  name  of  Philippicus. 


-Anastasius    II. 1 


Theodosius    III.   ^^ pro- 
claimed by  the  revolted  army  ol  Anastasius. 


—  Leo   III.,  (the  Isaurian,)  ' 
of  a  shoemaker. 


Europe,  generally. 


682.    Spain  :- 
monk. 


-Wamba  abdicates  and  tunifl 


690.  France :— P  epin  d'Heristel  ,^^ 
mayor  of  the  Palace  and  duke  of  Austrasia, 
Qefeats  Thierry,  and  becomes  king. 


691.  France :— C  1  o  v  i  s    III  .^- 
695.        "      — C  hildebert    II. 


698.  Poland  : — Cracow  founded. — An  elective 
monarchy  established. 

Venice  : — Luc  Anafetto,  first  Doge. 

700.  Britain:— Anglo-Saxon  Octarchy. 

France  : — Aquitaine,  Burgundy  and  Pro- 
vence become  separate  dukedoms. 

705.  Britain : — Alfred    the    Wise,   in  North- 
umbria. 


710.    Spain:  —  Roderic,    king 
last  of  the  Goths.') 


711.  France  :— D  agobert     II. 


(the 


713.  Spain  conquered  by  the 
Saracens  under  Muca.  By  the  mar- 
riage ol'  Abdallah,  the  Moor,  with  the  widow 
of  the  Gothic  king,  the  two  nations  are 
united  in  interest. 

714.  France :— Charles  Martel,  duke  of  Aus- 
trasia. 


715.  France : 

716.  Britain  : 


-Childeric    II.  W- 
-Ethelbald,  king  of  Mercia. 


718.  Spain: — Pelagius  founds  the  kingdom  oJ 
Asturias. 


720.  France :— T  It  i  e  r  r  y     1 1 .1 


72 


THE  world's  progress.  ^     [3Iodern :  Period  7F.— 178  years. 


Progress  op  Society,  etc. 


Increasing 
power, 

spiritual 
and 

temporal 
of  the 
Popes. 


Dark 

period 

of 

European 

literature. 


Winifred,  an  Anglo-Saxon,  preaches  the  gos- 
pel to  the  Frisons. 

The  venerable  Bede  dies — a  grammarian,  phi- 
losopher, historian,  and  theologian. 

The  Abassidae,  caliphs  of  the  Saracens,  en- 
courage learning. 


Fredegaire,  a  French  historian. 

Virgilius,  a  priest,  is  condemned  as  a  heretic, 
for  believing  in  the  existence  of  antipodes. 


An  organ  sent  by  Constantine  to  France. 

John  of  Damascus,  a  founder  of  the  scholas- 
tic philosophy. 

Fredegaire  conlinues  the  history  of  Gregory 
of  Tours. 

The  schools  of  Bagdad,  Cufa,  Alexandria, 
Fez,  and  Cordova,  promoted  by  the  Abas- 
sidae caliphs. 


Ignorance,  profligacy,  and  misery,  cliaracter- 
ized  the  age  preceding  Charlemagne. 


The  first  palm-tree  planted  in  Spain. 


Golden  period  of  learning  in  Arabia,  imder  the 
caliph  Haroun  al  Ilaschid. 


Pleadings  in  courts  of  justice  first  practised. 
Foundation  of  schools    in  monasteries    and 

cathedrals,  by  Charlemagne. 
The  Gregorian  chant. 
The  Synod  of  Frankfort. 
George,  the  monk. 


Ecclesiastical. 


726.  Image  worship  being  forbidden  by  tho 
emperor  Leo,  causes  great  disturbance. 

727.  Peter's  pence  first  collected  in  England. 

728.  Leo  ordei-s  the  pope  to  be  seized. 

730.  Gregory  excommunicates  the  emperor. 
The  Iconoclasts,  or  image  breakers. 

731.  Pope  Gregory  III. 


736.  The  images  throughout  the  empire  de- 
stroyed by  order  of  the  emperor. 
Monks  persecuted. 
741.  Pope  Zachary 


752.  The  Pope  dethrones  Childeric,  kmg  of 
France,  by  a  papal  decree. 

752.  Pope  Stephen  III.  at  war  with  the  Lom- 
bards, assisted  by  Pepin. 


754.  —he  journeys  to  Pepin  to  implore  his 
protection. 

753.  Commencementof  the  Pope's 
temporal  power  under  the  auspices 
of  Pepin,  who  bestows  on  Stephen  the  ex- 
archate of  Ravenna. 

757.  Pope  Paul  I. 


768. — —  Stephen  IV. 

769.  Council  of  the  Lateran. 

770.  The  Eastern  monasteries  dissolved  by  the 
emperor. 

772.  Pope  Adrian  I.,  on  whom  the  Ecclesias- 
tical state  is  conferred  by  Charlemagne. 


770.  Imposition  of  Tithes  enforced  by  Char- 
lemagne, for  the  support  of  the  clergy, 
churches,  schools,  and  the  poor. 

785.  Forcible  conversion  of  the  Saxons  by 
Charlemagne. 


787.  The  seventli  general  Council  at  Nice,  in 
which  the  doctrine  of  the  Iconoclasts  was 
condemned. 


794.  Pope  Leo  III.  sends  to  Charlemagne  for 
confirmation. 

Masses  said  for  money. 


—From  Mahomet  to  Charlemagne.'] 


THE    WORLD  S    PROGRESS. 


73 


Eastern  Empire,  Asia,  &c. 


The  Arabs  invest  Constantinojjle  by  land  with 
120,000  men,  and  by  sea  with  1800  ships. 
The  city  is  saved  by  the  Greek  fire — the 
Aiub  fleet  being  almost  entirely  destroyed. 

Leo  confiscates  Calabria  and  Sicily. 

The  Greek  possessions  in  Italy  are  lost  in  con- 
sequence of  the  edict  forbidding  image  wor- 


Constantine  V.  (Copronymus). 


The  Arabs  defeated  by  Constantine. 
Cyprus,  and  Antioch  captured. 


-Rhodes, 


Almanzor,  caliph ;  builds  Bagdad  and  makes 

it  his  capital. 
Asia  Minor  ravaged  by  the  Turks. 


Great  victory  over  the  Bulgarians. 
L  e  o     I  r  .f^ 


Constantine  VI.  (Porphyrogenetus).^^ 
Irene  (Queen  mother)  restores  image  worship. 
The  empire  is  invaded  by    Hafoun    al 

R  a  s  c  h  i  d  ,    caliph  of  Bagdad. 
Constantine  imprisons  his  mother,  Irene,  for 

her  cruelty. 

Irene  ^g puts  him  to  death, 

and  assumes  the  sole  power. 
— proposes  to  marry  Charlemagne. 
— is  dethroned  by  Nicephorus. 
The  Saracens  ravage  Thrace. 


Europe,  generally. 


725.  France :— Charles  Martel  crosses  the 
Rhine,  and  subdues  Bavaria. 

727.  Britain :— Ina,  king  of  Wessex,  begins  the 
tax  called  Peter's  pence,  to  support  a  col- 
lege at  Rome. 


732.  France :— Charles  Martel  gains  a  great 
victory  over  the  Saracens  near  Tours. 

740.  Spoletto  taken  by  the  Normans,  but  re- 
covered by  the  Pope. 

742.  France :— C  h  11  d  o  r  i  c    III.  ^ 


752.    France :— End  of  the  Merovingian    line 
of    French  kings. 


-Pepin    le    B  r  e  f  ,1 


first  of  the  Carlovingian  line. 
753.  Pepin  le  Bref  aids  the  Pope  with  a  large 
army  against  the  Lombards. 
Italy :— Ravenna  a  dukedom. 


756.  Spain :— Separated  from  the  Caliphate  ; 
A  b  d  e  r  h  a  m  a  . 


761.  Spain  :—Froila,  grandson  of  Pelagius, 
builds  Oviedo,  and  makes  it  the  seat  of  his 
kingdom. 

768.  France:— CHARLEMAGNE, or  Charles 
the  Great,  reigns  with  his  brother,  Carlo- 
man,  until  771 . 


774.  Charlemagne  invades  Italy;  defeats 
Didier,  king  of  Lombardy,  and  annexes 
Iialv  to  his  empire. 

End    of    the     Lombard     king- 
dom. ,  ^        . 

778.  A  part  of  Charlemagne's  army  defeated 
at  Roncesvalles.  . 

779.  Charlemagne  conquers  Navarre,  Sardinia, 
and  the  Saxons. 

Charlemagne  conquers  the  Avari. 
—attempts  to  unite  the  Rhine  and  the 
Danube. 

787  Britain  :— First  recorded  invasion  of  the 
banes :— The  Sea  Kings  and  Vikings. 


794.  Charlemagne  extirpates  the  Huns. 
Sweden  conquered  by  Iva  Viafamo. 


74 


THE   WORLD'S    PROGRESS. 


PERIOD.  Y.—Tlie  Middle  Ages.— 2m  yean, 


A.D. '      Prosress  op  Society. 


ECCLESIASTICAI.. 


Agriculture  and  horticul- 
ture encouraged  by  Charle- 
magne ;  both  flourish  in 
Spain  under  the  caliphs. 

Gold  mines  worked  in  Spain. 

Paul  Warefredus  (Diaconus) 
the  historian. 

Haroun  al  Raschid,  courting 
his  alliance,  presents  Charle- 
magne with  a  striking  clock. 
This  clock  was  adorned  with 
automaton  figures,  which 
moved  and  played  on  va- 
rious musical  instruments. 

Fine  Arabian  breed  of  horses 
introduced  into  Spain. 

Alcuin,  of  York,  a  pupil  of 
Bede,  forms  schools  at  Tours 
—patronized  by  Charle- 
magne. 

Transient  revival  of  learning 
under  Charlemagne. 

Eginhard,  historian,  secre- 
tary to  Charlemagne. 

The  reign  of  Mamun  (caliph) 
is  regarded  as  the  Augustine 
age  of  Arabian  literature. 


00.  The  Pope  separates  from 
the  Eastern  Empire,  and 
becomes  supretne  Bishop  of 
the  Western. 


Charlemagne  reforms  the 
church. 


Many  bishoprics  founded. 
— Great  increase  of  monastic 
institutions. 


St.  Mark's  Church  at  Venice 

built. 
Turpin,  archbishop,  to  whom 

is    attributed    the    famous 

"X)e  Vita  Caroli  Magni  et 

Rolandi." 


813.    Insurrection    at     Rome 
against  the  pope. 


816.  Pope  Stephen  V. 

817.  "     Paschal  I. 

The  College  of  Cardinals 
founded. 


824.  Pope  Eugenius  II. 

Christianity  in  Denmark 
and  Sweden. 

827.  Pope  Valentine. 

828.  "     Gregory  IV. 
Missionaries    sent    from 

France  to  Sweden. 

831.  Paschasius  Radbertus,  a 
monk  of  Corbey,  father  of 
the  doctrine  of  trausub- 
stantiation.  This  doctrine 
disowned  by  the  English 
Church. 

Ratram,us  and  Scotus  Eri- 
gena,  theologians,  holding 
much  the  same  opinions  as 
Luther. 


New  Western  Empire. 


00.  NEW  EMPIRE  of  the 
WEST  founded  by  Charle- 
magne, who  is  crowned  at 
Rome,  by  the  pope,  king  of 
Italy,  Germany,  and  France. 


302.  Charlemagne  receives  an 
embassy  from  Nicephorus, 
and  from  Haroun  al  Ras- 
chid. 


06.  Charlemagne  di- 
vides the  empire  be- 
tween his  three  sons. 

08.  First  descent  of  the  NOR 
MANS  upon  France. 


813.  Charlemagne  dies,  Jan. 
28. 

814.  L  o  u  i  s  I .  ^M 

(Debonaire)   an    inglorious 
and  turbulent  reign. 

817.  Louis  divides  the  empire 

between  his  three  sons. 
820.  Invasion  of  the  Normans. 


833.  Lothaire,  a  fourth  son  of 
Louis,  associated  in  the  gov- 
ernment. 

840.  — L  o  t  h  a  i  r  e  .^S — 

841.  —defeated  by  his  brothers, 
Louis  and  Charles,  in  the 
battle  of  Fontenoy. 

Division  of  the  empire. 

France:— Charles  l.^§ 
(the  Bald). 

Gev. :— L  o  u  i  s    I .  ^m. 

— surnamed    the   Ger- 


Italy:— Lot  hair e  ^^ 
— ^-with  imperial  dignity. 

The  Normans  plunder 
Rouen,  and  advance  to  Paris. 


THE    world's    progress, 
(a.  d.  800-1066.) — Charlemagne  to  WiUiam  tlie  Conqueror. 


rs 


Eastern  Empire. 


The  World,  elsewhere 


— N  icephorus  .^g  — 

The    Saracens    ravage    Asia 

Minor,  capture  Cyprus,  and 

compel  Nicephorus  to  pay  a 

tribute. 


—  Michael   I .  ^g 

(Caropaltes) ;    at  war  with 
the  Bulgarl. 

'W <the 


Earthquakes,  famine,  iire,  &c. 
ravage  the  empire. 


Michael    1 1  .^' 

(Balbus  or  the  Stammerer). 

Constantinople  besieged  by 
the  Saracens.  The  Bulga- 
rians raise  the  siege.  Tlie 
Saracens  obtain  possession 
of  Crete,  and  name  it  Can- 
dia. 


-Theophilus. 


—Michael  III. 
(the  Drunkard). 


813.  Egbert,  king  of  Wessex, 
defeats  the  Britons. 


827.  The  seven  king- 
doms of  the  Hep- 
tarchy united  by  Eg- 
bert,icing  ofWe'ssex, 
under  the  name  of  ENG- 
LAND, or  the  Land  of  the 
Angles. 

E  g  b  e  r  t .  ® 

Invasion  of  the  Danes. 

838.  — E  t  h  e  1  w  0 1  f ,  ^— 
a  weak  prince. 

Scotland :— Kenneth,  king 
of  the  Scots,  defeats  and  ex- 
tirpates the  Picts,  and  be- 
comes sole  monarch. 

The  Danes  return,  and 
ravage  the  country  unmo- 
lested, and  burn  the  city  of 
London. 

Ethelwolf  makes  a  pilgri 
mage  to  Rome. 


801.  DENMARK   become,    a 
kingdom  under  Gotricaa 


818.  Al  Mamun  (caliph)  a  pa- 
tron of  learning. 

820.  First  dismemberment  of 
the  Arabian  monarchy.  The 
dynasty  of  the  Taherites 
founded  at  Khorassan. 

826.  The  Danish  prince,  Ha- 
rold, is  baptized  at  Ingel- 
heim. 


833.  Motassim,  caliph.  Ho 
builds  Sauniora,  which  ha 
makes  the  seat  of  govern- 
ment. 


76      THE  world's  progress.       [Period  F— (a.  d.  800-1066.)— 266  yean. 


A.B.       Progress  of  Society. 


872 


The  aristocratic  Feudal  sys- 
tem in  all  its  power.  Here- 
ditary nobility,  which,  with 
the  clergy,  was  the  domi- 
nant order  in  the  state. 

The  barons  independent  of 
the  king.  Gradual  intro- 
duction of  the  Roman  and 
common  law. 


Ecclesiastical. 


France,  Spain,  Germany. 


844.  Pope  Sergius  III.  (Bucca 
Porci). 

Ignatius,     patriarch     of 
Constantinople. 

Persecution  of  the  Chris- 
tians in  Spain. 
847.  Pope  Leo  IV. 

850.  Christianity  propagated 
by  Auscharius  in  Denmark 
and  Sweden. 

855.  Pope  Benedict  III. 


First  inclosicre  of  lands  at 
Spalding,  where  Richard  de 
Rules  does  much  to  improve 
agriculture. 


Clocks  brought  to  Constanti- 
nople from  Venice. 


The  Faroe  Isles,  and  Iceland 
discovered  in  this  century. 


858.  Pope  Nicholas  I. 

First  coronation  of  a  pope. 

859.  Eulogius,  archbishop   of 
Cordova,  martyred. 

860.  The  schism  of  the  Greeks 
begins. 


864.  The  Bible  translated  into 
Slavonian. 

867.  Pope  Adrian  II. 

8th  Council  at  Constan- 
tinople.— Photius,  patriarch 
of  Constantinople,  deposed. 

872.  Pope  John  VIII. 


855.  Lothario  retires  to  a  mo- 
nastery and  dies. 

New  division  of  the  em- 
pire at  Mersen. 

856.  Germ. : — Louis  Il.^g 
has  Italy  with  the  im- 
perial dignity. 

— establishes  his  court  at 
Pavia. 
858.  France  invaded  by  Louis 
the  German,  who  is  finally 
compelled  to  retire. 


882.  Pope  Martin  II. 
884.     "     Adrian  III. 

SS5.      "     Stephen  VI. 


68.    Lorraine     annexed     to 
France. 


877.  Fr.:— Louis  II.^_ 
(the  Stammerer). 


879.- 


-Louis  III.  and 


Carloman 
reign  jointly. 


884.  France  :— C  h  a  r  1  e  s^ 
the  Fat,  an  usurper. 

885.  Paris  besieged  by  the 
Normans ;  gallantly  defend- 
ed by  archbishop  Goslin. 

886.  Charles  makes  a  disgrace- 
ful peace  with  the  Normans. 

887.  Germany : — A  mold, 

emperor, ^§ (the  im- 
perial dignity  transferred 
from  France  to  Germany). 

888.  France  :— E  u  d  e  s  .@- 


■Charlemagne  to  William  /.] 


THE    WORLD  S    PROGRESS. 


77 


867 
868 


Eastern  Empire. 


Decline  of  the  Caliphate  be- 
gins.— .lews  and  Christians 
persecuted. — Frequent  wars 
between  the  Greeks  and  Sa- 


Bazil    I.^ 

(the    Macedonian),    defeats 
the  Saracens. 


Crete   and  the  Sicilies   reco- 
vered from  the  Arabs. 


Basil  commences    the  Mace- 
donian dynasty. 
Publication  of  the  Basilica. 


Leo    VI.  1 

(the  philosopher). 


849.  Alfred  the  Great,  born. 


852.     Ethelwolf   defeats     the 
Danes  in  the  Isle  of  Thanet. 


857.  E  the  1  bald  and  Ethel- 
fa  e  r  t  ^g — reign  jointly  : — 
increase  the  influence  of  the 
clergy. 


.  — E  t  h  e  1  r  e  d  .^g 

867.  The  Danes  conquer  Nor- 
thumberland. 


872.  Alfred  the  Great^ 
— defeats  the  Danes. 


879.  Alfred  abandoned  by  his 
subjects,  retires  to  the  Isle  of 
Athelney,  but  soon  draws 
together  his  friends  and  con- 
quers the  Danes. 


The  World,  elsewhere. 


8J5.  The  Normans  plunder 
Hamburg,  and  penetrate  into 
Germany. 

846.  The  Saracens  destroy  the 
Venetian  fleet,  and  besiege 
Rome. 

849.  —defeated  by  the  Pope's 
allies. 

851.  Sardinia  and  Corsica  ra- 
vaged by  the  Saracens. 


856.  The    coasts   of    Holland 
plundered  by  the  Normans. 


860.  Gorm  the  Elder,  (descend- 
ed from  Odin,)  unites  Jut- 
land and  the  Danish  Isles, 
and  becomes  king  of  Den- 
mark. 

861.  Iceland  discovered  by  the 
Normans. 

862.  RUSSIA:  — Ruric,  first 
grand  Prince,  builds  the  city 
of  Lagoda. 


868.  Egypt  throws  off  its  de- 
pendence on  the  caliphs,  un- 
der Ahmed. 

874.  Iceland,  a  republic,  found- 
ed by  the  Normans. 

875.  NORWAY :  —  Harold 
Harfrage,  first  king. 


886.  The  Scythians  seize  Cro- 
atia. 


89.  Hungary  :  —  Arpad  lays 
the  foundation  of  the  king- 
dom. 


78        THE  world's  progress.        [Period  F.— (a.  d.  800-1066.)— 266  yean. 


A.D.        Progress  of  Society. 


890 


915 


929 


933 


939 


Oxford  University  found- 
ed.— Alfred  the  Great  esta- 
blishes a  regular  militia 
and  navy,  and  the  mode  of 
trial  by  jury ;  institutes_/o»"S 
and  markets.  —  Johannes 
Scotus  Erigena,  a  learned 
philosophical  writer. 

England  divided  into  coun- 
ties, hundreds,  and  tithings. 
The  county  courts,  held 
monthly,  become  the  great 
safeguard  of  the  civil  rights 
of  Englishmen. 

Hired  troops  substituted  for 
the  feudal. 


891.  Pope  Formosus. 
89(3.     "     Boniface  VI. 
"     Stephen  VII. 
IS.      "     John  IX. 

Veneration  for  saints  and 
a  passion  for  relics  prevail. 


900.  Pope  Benedict  IV. 
903.      "     Leo  V. 
905.     "     Sergius  III. 


912.  The  Normans  in  France 
embrace  Christianity. 


914.  Pope  John  X. 


The     University    of     Cam- 
bridge founded. 


The  Anglo-Saxon    monarchy 
rises  into  importance. 


Azophi,  Arabian  astronomer. 


Printing  invented  among  the 
Chinese  C?) 


Cordova,  in  Spain,  becomes 
the  seat  of  Arab  learning, 
science,  industry,  and  com- 
merce. Its  celebrated  schools 
of  geometry.astronomy,  che- 
mistry and  medicinej  toge- 
ther with  its  equally  cele- 
brated poets  and  philoso- 
phers, render  it  famous 
throughout  the  vvorld. 

Luitprand,  the  historian. 

Mints  established  in  Kent  or 
Wessex. 


Ecclesiastical. 


921.  The  Bohemians  embrace 
Christianity. 


928.  Pope  Leo  VI 

929.  "     Stephen  VIII. 
Eudes,  monk  of  Cluni. 

931.  Pope  John  XI. 

Mere  children  elevated  to 
the  highest  offices  in  the 
church. 


936.  Pope  Leo  VII. 
939.      "     Stephen  IX. 


943.  Pope  Martin  III. 


France,  Germany,  &c. 


90.  Arnold,  emperor  of  Ger- 
many, takes  Rome. 


98.Fr.:— Charles  III.^ 
- — (the  Simple). 

99.  Ger.:— Louis    III.^ 
Invasion  of  the  Hunga-. 
rians. 

Contests  between  the  no- 
bles and  bishops 


912.  France  :— R  o  b  e  r  t ,  duke 

of  Normandy. 

The  Normans,  under 
R  o  1 1  o  ,  establish  them- 
selves in  Normandy. 

Ger. :— Conrad  I.^g 

(the    empire    becomes 

elective). 


919  Ger. :— Henry  I.^— 
(the  Fowler),  first  ot  the 
Saxon  line. 

921.  France :— Robert  L  de- 
feated and  killed  by  his 
brother  at  Soissons. 

923.  France :— Rudolph  elect- 
ed duke. 

Italy :  —  Hugo,  count  of 
Provence,  oppresses  the  aris- 
tocracy, who  call  to  their  aid 
Berenger. 

France : — Civil  wars. 

929.  "  —Charles  dies  a 
prisoner  at  Peronne. 


936.  Ger. :— O  t  h  o    I . 
(the  Great). 


Fr. : — L  o  u  i  s   IV, 
(the  Stranger). 


940.  Burgundy,  a  fief  of  the 
empire. 


— Charlemagne  to  William  /.] 


THE    WORLD  S    PROGRESS. 


79 


Eastern  Empire. 


Southern  Italy  subject  to  the 

Greek  empire. 
War     with    the    Bulgarians, 

Lombards,  and  Saracens— 

the  latter  take  the  island  of 

Samos. 


Russian  expedition  under 
Oleg,  against  Constantino- 
ple. 


■Constantine  Vll.^g- 
associates  his  four  sons,  so 
that  there  are  five  emperors. 


Constantinople  besieged  by  the 
Bulgarians. 

Romanus,  general  of  the  fleet, 
usurps  the  empire,  with  his 
three  sons,  Christopher,  Ste- 
phen, and 

-Constantine  VIII.^P- 


&i2 
945 


Romanus  gains  a  naval  victory 
over  the  Russians,  who,  led 
by  Igor,  enter  the  Black 
Sea  with  10,000  ships  or  ca- 
noes. 


Naples  annexed  to  the  empire. 

The  empress  Helen  usurps  the 
throne. 


891.  Invasion  of  the  Danes. 
The  first  larid  tax. 


901.  E  d  w  a  r  d^ 

(the  Elder),  the  first  who 
takes  the  title  of  "  Rex  An- 
glorum." 

War  with  the  Danes. 


924.  —A  t  h  e  I  s  t  a  n  .  W— 


934.  —by  the  victory  of  Bru- 
nanbursh,  he  becomes  kinj 
of  all  Britain. 


The   World,  elsewhere. 


900.  Scotland :  —  Constantine 
III. 

901.  Italy  :— The  republics 
of  Venice  and  Genoa 
founded. 


8.  The  race  of  Fatimites  in 
Egypt. 

910.  Spain :— Kingdom  of  Leon 
founded  by  Garcia. 

912.  Spain :— Abderrahman  III 
the  greatest  Arab  prince  of 
Spain— builds  the  splendid 
city  and  palace  of  Zehra. 

914.  Spain  :— Ordogno  II.,  king 
of  Oviedo,  makes  Leon  his 
capital. 

Commencement   of    the 
heroic  age  in  Spain. 


921.  Poland: 


-Lesko  IV. 
-Zemormysl. 


923.   Spain  :—Fruelai  king  of 

Leon. 
934.        "     — Alphonzo  IV. 
927.        "     — Ramiro  II. 


930.  Denmark  :— Harold  VL, 
firs'  Christian  king. 

932.  -Vrnolf  of  Bavaria,  de- 
feated near  Verona. 

933.  Norway :— Eric,  king— 
his  cruelty  leads  the  people 
to  revolt. 


940.  — E  d  m  u  n  d  I  .^ 
brother  of  Athelstan. 


940.  Spain  :— Ramiro,  king  of 
Leon,  defeats  the  Moors,  un- 
der Abderrahman,  in  the  bafc 
tie  of  Simancus. 


80        THE  WORLD*S  PRO-^RESS.        [Period  T.— (a.  D.  800-1066.)— 266  i/ears. 


A.D.       Progress  op  Society. 


The  mercantile  character 
raised  by  a  law  of  Athelstan, 
that  a  merchant  who  made 
three  voyages  over  the  high 
seas  with  a  ship  and  cargo 
of  his  own,  should  enjoy  the 
rank  emd  privileges  of  a 
thane. 

The  figures  of  arithmetic 
brought  into  Europe  by  the 
Saracens. 

Silver  mines  in  the  Hartz 
Mountains. 

Manufactories  of  linens  and 
woollens  in  Flanders,  which 
becomes  the  seat  of  western 
commerce. 


Geber,  Arabian  astronomer. 
Suidas,  grammarian  and  lexi- 
cographer. 
Rhazes,  Arabian  physician. 


The  Saxon  fleet,  consisting  of 
360  sail,  in  three  squadrons, 
makes  the  circuit  of  the 
island,  under  the  command 
of  king  Edgar. 


Abbo,  monk  and  astronomer. 


Albirunius,  Arabian  geogra- 
pher. 

Greenland  discovered  by  the 
Norwegians. 


Almoin,  historian. 


Dublin  much  frequented  for 
trade,  also  many  places  on 
the  Baltic. 


Ecclesiastical. 


946.  Pope  Agapetus  II. 


955.  Baptism  of  Olga,  and  con- 
version of  Russia  to  Chris- 
tianity. 

956.  Pope  John  XII. 
Quarrel  with  the  emper- 
ors respecting  investiture. 

959.  St.  Dunstan,  archbishop 
of  Canterbury,  attempts  to 
reform  the  church— enforc- 
ing clerical  celibacy. 

The    influence    of      the 
monks  greatly  increased. 


963.  PopeLeoVIII.  elected  by 
Roman  citizens. 


964.  Benedict  V.  elected  by  a 
council. 

965.  John  XIII. 

Poland  receives    Christianity 
under  Miecislus. 


972.  Pope  Benedict  VI. 

973.  Boniface   VII.  :  deposed 
and  banished  for  his  crimes. 

974.  Domnus  II. 

975.  Benedict  VII. 


984.  Pope  John  XIV. 
986.     "     John  XV. 


989.  Christianity  propagated 
in  Russia  by  Waldimir — 
they  hold  to  the  Greek 
church. 


France,  Germany,  &o. 


950.  Germany  : — Bohemia  be- 
comes tributary  to  Otho. 

953.  The  Hungarians  sub- 
dued. 

954.  Fr. :— Lothaiie  I.^ 
— confers  the  dukedoms  of 
Burgundy  and  Aquitaine  on 
Hugh  the  Great. 

957.  Germany : — Otho  defeats 
the  Slavonians  in  Saxony. 


964.  Italy  united  to  the  empire 
of  Germany. 

Tuscany  becomes  a  duke- 
dom. 


97.3.  Ger.  :— Otho  11.^ 
subdues  the  Bohemians. 


979.   Otho  at  war  with   Lo- 

thaire. 


983.  — O  the    III.  ,  W — 

(3  years  of  age). 

936.  Fr. :— L  o  u  i  s    V . 

("the  Slothful,")  lastdTihe 
Carlovingian  race. 

988.Fr.:  Hugh  Capet,1 

— founder  of  the  third  cr 
dapeiian  line  of  French 
kings. 


— Charleviagne  to  Williani  /.] 


THE    world's    progress. 


Eastern  Empire. 


England,  <kc. 


The  World,  elsewhere. 


959 


963 


9G7 
969 


975 


Constantine  III.  retires  into  a 
cloister. 


— R  omanus  II.  ^^ — 
poisoned  by  his  wife,  Theo- 
phano. 


-Nicephorus   II. 


—he  recovers  Cyprus  and  An- 
tioch  from  the  Saracens. 

— is  murdered  by 

John    Zimisces.^^ — 


946. E  1  d  r  e  d^ 

governed  by  Dunstan,  abbot 
of  Glastonbury. 

952.  Scotland :  —  Malcolm  I.. 
kin?. 


955.  Scotland  :—Indulf,  king 


955. 


-E  d  w  y  ' 


insulted  by  Dunstan,  and 
deposed — his  queen,  Elgiva, 
put  to  death. 


959. E  d  g  a  r  ^ 

marries  the  beautiful  El- 
frida,  after  the  violent  death 
of  Athelwold,  her  lover. 

960.  Scotland:— Duff,  king. 
Wolves  expelled  from 
England  and  Wales,  in  con- 
sequence of  a  reward  being 
offered  for  the  purpose  by 
the  king. 

Violent  disputes  between 
the  monks  and  the  clergy. 


Basil  and  Constantine 
VIII.  ® 


Apulia  and  Calabria  recover- 
ed and  united  to  the  empire. 


975.  E  d  w  a  r  d^— 

(the  martyr),  murdered  by 
his  stepmother,  Elfrida. 


978.  — Ethelred  II.,W- 
("  the  Unready.")— Dunstan 
still  minister. — The  people 
become  discontented. 


985.    Danish  invasion,  under 
Sweyn. 

The  king  purchases  their 
retreat. 


950.  Spain  :— Ordono  III.,  king 
of  Leon. 


955.  Spain  :—Sancho  I.,  king 
of  Leon. 


958.  Italy ;-- War  between  tht 
Normans  and  Saracens. 


961.  Candia  recovered   from 
the  Saracens. 

962.  Poland :— Bliecislas  esta- 
blishes Christianity. 


967.  Spain:— Raniiro III., king 
of  Leon. 

968.  The  Northmen  devastate 
Galicia,  but  are  defeated  and 
almost  exterminated. 


973.  Hungary :  —  St.  Stephen, 
first  hereditary  king,  extends 
the  kingdom  eastward ;  gives 
it  a  constitution  and  written 
laws. 

976.  Spain :— Hixem,  caliph 
of  Cordova. 

Almansor,  regent,  obtains 
many  victories  over  the 
Christians. 

980.  Russia :  —  Waldimir  I ; 
marries  Anna,  sister  of  the 
emperor  Basil  11. 

983.  Italy  : — Venice  distracted 
by  violent  commotions. 

985.  Sweyn  I.,  or  Sweno,  kmg 
of  Denmark,  invades  Eng- 
land. 


82      THE  world's  progress.       [Period  F.— (a.  d.  800-1066.)— 266  years. 


A.D.       Progress  op  Society. 


997 


1002 


Venice  and  Genoa  carry  on  a 
flourishing  trade  between 
Asia  and  Western  Europe. 

Stephen,  duke  of  Hunga- 
ry, propagates  Christianity 
among  his  subjects. 


i024 


Paper  made  of  cotton  rags. 


Spain,  the  seat  of  Arabian  and 
Jewish  learning. 


Churches   first  built    in    the 

Gothic  style. 
Foundation  of  the  House  of 

Wisdom  at  Cairo. 
The  French  language  first  be 

gins  to  be  written. 
Leo,  the  grammarian. 
The  arts  faintly  revive  in  Italy 

— paintings   in   fresco   and 

mosaic. 

Literature,  the  arts  and  sci- 
ences,and  commerce  flourish 
at  Ghizni. 

Musical  scale,  con^ting  of  six 
notes,  invented  by  Guido 
Aretino. 

Avicenna,  a  famous  Arabian 
chemist  and  physician. 

Glaber  Rod,  historian. 

Campanes,  of  Navarro,  astro- 
nomer. 

Hermannus  Contractus, monk 
and  mathematician. 


Ecclesiastical. 


993.     First    canonization    of 
sai7its. 


996.  Pope  Gregory  V. 

997.  "     John  XVI. 


999.  Pope  Sylvester  II. 


Hungary    a   fief  of  the 
Romish  church. 


1003.  Pope  John  XVIII. 


1009.  Pope  Sergius. 
1012.     "     Benedict  VIII. 


Persecution  of  the  Albi 
genses  in  Languedoc. 


Fkance,  Germany,  &c. 


996. Fr. :  — R o b e r t  II . , W 
— (the  Wise,)  succeeds  Tna 
father  Hugh. 


998.  — is  excommunicated  by 
the  pope  for,  marrying  his 
cousm  Bertha. 


1002.  Ger. :— Henry  II.,® 
— (duke  of  Bavaria). 

Italy :— Ardoin,  margrave 
•  of  Ivrea,  elected  king. 


1004.  Italy  .-—Henry  invited  by 
the  German  parly.— -Ardoin 
loses  most  of  Italy  and  re- 
signs. —  Pavia  burnt  in  a 
quarrel  between  the  troops 
and  people. 


1015.  Germany:— The  empe- 
ror receives  an  annual  tri- 
bute from  Poland. 


1024.  Pope  John  XIX.  He 
gained  his  election  by  bribe- 
ry. He  was  not  of  the  clergy, 
but  consul  and  senator  of 
Rome. 


1033.  Pope  Benedict  IX.,  (ten 
years  old). 

"  Peace  of  God,"  pub- 
lished by  the  bishops. 


1024.  Ger.  -.-Conrad  II.W 
— <the  Salic,)  first  of  the 
Franconian  line. 

1025.  Expedition  into  Italy. 


1029.  War  with  the  Poles. 
1031.  Fr.:— Henry   I.^ 


1032.   Burgundy   annexed   to 
the  empire. 


—  Charle7iiagne  to  William  /.] 


THE    world's    progress. 


83 


1000 


■1018 


1028 


1034 


Eastern  Empire. 


Basil  drives    the    Bulgarians 
from  Thessaly. 


Bulgaria  again  redu<"2i  to  a 
Grecian  province. 


— Romanus    III.,^§  — 
(Argyrus). 

— expels  the    Saracens    from 

Syria, 
—poisoned  by  his  wife  Zoe. 


— M  i  c  h  a  e  1    IV 


England,  &c. 


The  World,  elsewhere. 


994.  Scotland  :  —  Constantine 
IV.  slain  by 

995.  Kenneth  IV.,  (the  Grim). 


1002.  Dreadful  massacre  of 
all  the  Danes  in  England — 
upon  which  Sweyn  lands  a 
large  armament,  and  brings 
war  and  all  its  miseries  upon 
the  country. 

1003.  Scotland :— Malcolm  II., 
an  able,  renowned  prince. 


1012.  An  annual  tribute  pro- 
mised to  the  Danes. 

1013.  The  Danes,  under  Svs'eyn, 
become  masters  of  England. 


1016.  —E  d  m  u  ii  d  1 1 . ,  W— 
(Ironsides.)  fights  six  battles 
Willi  Canute,  king  of  Den- 
mark, with  whom  he  finally 
divides  (he  kingdom. 

1016.- Canute  ^- 

the  Great,  patronizes  litera- 
ture and  the  church. 


1027.   Ireland :  — Brian  Boru. 
sole  monarch. 


1031.  Canute  penetrates  into 
Scotland — subdues  Malcolm. 

1032.  — performs  a  pilgrimage 
to  Rome. 

1034.  Scotl'd  :— Duncan,  king. 

103.5.  -Harold  I.  ,W— 
(Harefoot^  cruel  andun- 
popular  —  ruled  by  Earl 
Godwin. 


995.  Norway  :—01af  I. 

Christianity  introduced. 

997.  Drontheim  founded. 
Mahmud  Sultan  of  Ghiz- 

ni,  adds  Transoxiania,  Ca- 
bul,  and  part  of  India  to  hia 
dominions;  patronizes  litera- 
ture. 

998.  Spain :— Division  of  the 
Mohammedan  kingdom  of 
Cordova. 

1000.  Sancho  III.,  (the  Great,) 
king  of  Navarre,  takes  the 
title  of  emperor. 

1000.  Savoy : — independent  un- 
der Bervald,  its  first  count. 

Poland :  —  Boleslas     I,, 
(the  Lion-hearted). 


1006.  Pestilesice  in  Europe  for 
three  years. 

1012.  Spain : — Suleiman,  ca- 
liph. 


1014.  Denmark  :— Harold  III., 
king. 

1015.  Norway  :—01af  II. 

1016.  Denmark: — Canute  XL, 
(the  Great). 


1019.   Norway  conquered  by 

Canute. 

Venice,  G';noa,  and  Pisa 

rise  into  importance. 
1025.  Poland  :— Miecislas  II. 


1035.  Spain  :— Raniiro  I.,  king 
of  Arragon. 

1037.  Ferdinand  I.,  of  Castile, 
in  right  of  his  wife  succeeds 
10  Leon ;  successful  against 
the  Mohammedans. 

1036.  Denmark  :  —  Hardica- 
nute  IIL 

1037.  Norway :— Magnus  I^ 
Cthe  Good). 


84        THE  world's  progress.        [Period  F.— (a.  d.  800-1066.)— 266 


-years. 


A.D.    Peogress  of  Society,  etc. 


Ecclesiastical. 


Fe  dusi,  the  Persian  Homer. 
Franco,  mathematician. 
George  Cedrenus,  historian. 


Michael  Psellus,  a  celebrated 
Greek  philosopher  and  his- 
torian. 


English  parents  prohibited  by 
law  from  selling  their  chil- 
dren. 


First  age  of  scholastic  philoso 
phy. 


1038.  The  Pope,  for  his  scan- 
dalous conduct,  driven  from 
Rome,  but  re-established  by 
the  emperor,  Conrad. 


1044.  — again  driven  from  the 
throne,  and  succeeded  by 
Sylvester  HI.  After  three 
months  Benedict  is  restored 
by  the  Counts  of  Tusculum. 
But  finding  the  people  will 
not  tolerate  his  crimes,  he 
sells  the  papal  chair  to  Gre- 
gory. 

— deposed  for  simony,  by 
a  council  called  by  Henry 
III. 

1046.  Pope  Clement  II. 

1048.  Damascus  II.,  23  days. 
"      Leo  IX.,  the  first  who 
kept  a  regular  army. 


1053.  — is  defeated  and  taken 
prisoner  by  the  Normans. 

1054.  The  papal  chair  vacant 
one  year. 

Excommunication  of  the 
Patriarch  of  Constantinople, 
and  the  Greeks. 


1055.  Pope  Victor  11. 

Hildebrand,  the  real 
head  of  the  church  from  the 
time  of  Leo  IX.  The  church 
improving  in  piety  and  dis- 
cipline. 

105".  Pope  Stephen  IX. 

1058.  Nicholas  II. 
Benedict  X..  (antipope). 
The    election  of    pope 

transferred  to  a  conclave  of 
cardinals. 

1059.  Quarrel  between  the 
popes  and  the  German  em- 
perors, respecting  investi- 
tures and  nomination  to  the 
Holy  See. 

1061.  Pope  Alexander  11. 

1062.  Berenger,  a  celebrated 
French  ecclesiastic. 

Alexander  forbids  the 
massacre  of  the  Jews. 

1066.  Alexander  deposes  Ha- 
rold, and  gives  England  to 
William  the  Conqueror, 
duke  of  Normandy. 


France,  Germany,  &c. 


1039.  Ger.  :-HenryIII.^ 

— defeats  the  Bohemians 
and  Hungarians — clai&s  the 
right  of  nominating  to  the 
papal  chair. 


1046.  France :— Dispute  be- 
tween William  the  Con- 
queror and  William  of 
Arques,  for  the  duchy  o) 
Normandy. 


1053.  Germany :— Henry  III. 
causes  his  son,  Henry,  to  be 
proclaimed  king  of  the  Ro- 
mans. This  ti:le  was  ap- 
plied, for  several  centuries, 
to  the  king's  eldest  son. 


Ger.  :-Henry  IV. ^ 
—(the  Great),  aged  six  years, 
under  tire  tutelage  of  his 
mother. 
1058.  Roger,  duke  of  Apulia, 
becomes  a  vassal  of  the 
pope. 


1060.  Fr. :— P  h  i  I  i  p  I  .W— 


"Charlemagne  to  William  /.] 


THE    world's    progress. 


85 


A.D. 

1038 

1041 

1042 
1042 

1043 


1054 
1054 
1056 
1057 


Eastern  Empire. 


Earthquakes    and   famine    at 
Constanlinople. 

M  i  c  h  a  e  1 

(Calaphales). 

— Z  oe&Theodora. 

— C  onstantine  X 

(Monomarchus). 
First  invasion  of  the  Seljuk 

Turks. 
Tlie  Russians  invade  Tiirace 

vfith  100,000  men,  and  are 

repeatedly  deleated  by  tlie 

Greeks. 


The o do  ra,^g 

the  last  of  Macedonian  dy- 
nasty. 

The  Greek  church  becomes 
independent. 

Michael    VI. ,^ 

(Stra'iotichus). 

1  s  a  a  c^^ 


(Comnenus). 


-C onstantine 
— (Ducas). 


England,  &c. 


1039.  -Hardicanute.W- 

Scot'd.  :— Macbeth  mur- 
ders Duncan,  and  usurps  the 
throne. 

The  Saxon  line  restored 
under  ^.^ 

1042.  E  d  w  a  r  d^ 

(the  Confessor).  The  coun- 
try prospers  under  his  mild 
sway. 


1051.  Rebellion  of  Earl  God- 
win and  his  sons. 

William,  duke  of  Nor- 
mandy, visits  Edward. 

1053.  The  Dane-gelt  abolished. 

Earl  Godwin  dies. 

The  Welch  and  the  Irish 
several  times  invade  Eng- 
land, but  are  repressed  by 
Harold,  son  of  Godwin. 

1054.  Macbeth  defeated  and 
killed  at  Langfanan,  by 
Siward,  earl  of  Northum- 
berland. 


1057.  Scotland :— Malcolm  III. 


1066.  —Harold    II.,  M- 
elected  king;   killed  at  the 
BATTLE  of  HASTINGS. 

— WILLIAM  I  ,W- 
duke  of  Normandy,  styled 
"  the  Conqueror." 

End  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxon    dynasty. 

Edgar  Atheling  flies  to 
Scotland. 


The  World,  elsewhere. 


1042.    Denmark :  —  Magnus, 
(the  Good,)  of  Norway,  king. 


1047.   Denmark  :— Sweyn  Es- 
tritson,  or  Suenon  U. 


1050.  The  Pisans  and  Genoese 
take  Sardinia  and  Corsica 
from  the  Saracens. 


1055.  The  Turks  reduce  Bag- 
dad, and  overturn  the  em- 
pire of  the  caliphs. 


1059.  Sweden:  —  Ineeldus  or 
Ingo  I.,  the  first  Christian 
king. 

1060.  Robert  Guiscard,  the 
Norman,  is  created  by  the 
pope,  duke  of  Apulia. 

1062.  70,000  Europeans  are 
killed,  or  made  prisoners  by 
the  Turks  in  Palestine. 

1065.  Jerusalem  taken  by  tha 
Saracens. 

1065.  Castile  and  Leon:— Al 
phonzo,  king. 


86 


THE    world's    progress. 

PERIOD.  VI.— TAe  MiddU  J.^e5.— (Continued.)- 


A.D.    Progress  of  Society,  etc. 


Feudal  System  introduced  in 
England  by  the  Normans 


Surnames  first  used  among 
the  English  nobility. 


Knights  errant  in  Spain. 

Ingulphus,  historian,  secre- 
tary to  William  the  Con- 
queror. 

Marianus  Scotus. 

Booksellers  first  heard  of. 


London  Bridge  and  Westmin- 
ster Hall  built. 


Lanfranc,  archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury. 

Doomsday  Book  compiled  by 
order  of  William  the  Con- 
queror. 


William  of  Spires,  mathema- 
tician. 

A  rigid  police  established  in 
England. — The  curfew. 

Norman  French  taught  in  all 
the  schools,  and  made  use  of 
in  all  legal  proceedings. 

Literature  patronized  in  the 
East  by  Melek  Shah. 


Fortress  of  Newcastle,  and  of 
Carlisle  built. 


Ecclesiastical. 


Popery  at  the  height 
of  its  power,  claiming 
supreme  dominion,  tem- 
poral and  spiritual,  over 
all  the  states  of  Christen- 
dom. 


France,  Germany,  &  Spain. 


1066.  William,  Duke  of  Nor- 
mandy, claims  the  crown  of 
England,  and  makes  war 
upon  Harold  to  obtain  it. 


1071.  Philip  engages  in  a 
war  with  Robert,  count  of 
Holland. 


1072.  Henry  IV.  of  Germany, 
summoned  before  the  pope, 
for  selling  the  investiture  of 
bishops.  Treats  tlie  man- 
date with  contempt. 

1073.  — summoned  again  by 
Gregory  VH. 


1073.  Pope  Gregory  VII., 
(Hildebrand,)  who  attempts 
to  free  all  the  clergy  from 
the  civil  jurisdiction.  He 
quarrels  with  the  emperor. 

1074.  Simony  and  celibacy 
forbidden. 

1075.  The  pope  sends  legates 
to  the  various  courts  of  Eu- 
rope. 

1076.  —sends  an  ambassador  to 
to  depose  the  pope — is  excom  municated  by  Gregory.  Goes 
barefoot  to  his  holiness,  makes  humble  submission,  and  kisses 
his  feet. 

1076.  Tuscany  and  Genoa  be  queathed  to  the  Holy  See  by 
the  Empress  Blatilda. 

1076.  Spain :— The  Cid. 

1078.  The  pope  sets  up  Ru  dolph,  of  Bavaria,  as  anti- 
emperor.  Rudolph  dies  in 
1080.  Ger. :— Henry  IV.  de- 
grades Gregory  for  his  in  trigues  against  him,  and  makes 
an  expedition  into  Italy,  and  procures  another  pope  to  be 
elected.     The  war  continues  till 

1084,  when  Henry  triumphs 
over  Gregory,  who  flees  to  Sa  lerno,  and  dies  in  exile  in  1085. 


1084.  The  order  of  the  Carthu- 
sians instituted  by  Bruno. 


1086.  Pope  Victor  III. 


Urban  11. 


1085.  Spain  :— Toledo  taken 
from  the  Moors,  by  Don 
Rodrigo,  the  Cid,  assisted  by 
Raymond,  count  of  Tou- 
louse. 

1086.  Spain:— The    battle   of 

1087.  France  :  —  War  with 
England :  Robert,  duke  o< 
Normandy,  opposes  Wil- 
liam Rufus. 


THE    world's    progress. 
1066-1299. —  William  the  Conqueror  to  Othvimi  I. 


87 


1071 


Eastern  Empire. 


Eudocia.^^ — 


1074 


1078 
1081 


She  marries 

Romanus  III.,  ^^ 

(Diogenes.)  He  valiaiiily 
but  vainly  opposes  the 
Turks  —  is  defeated  and 
taken  prisoner  by  Alp  Ars 
Ian,  Emir  of  Omrah. 


Michael  VII.,' 

(Parapinaces). 

Andronicus  I. 


-Constantine  XII, 


Syria  and  Palestine  subdued 
by  Melek  Shah. 


Nicephorus,  ^§ • 

(Botoniates). 

—  Alexius  1.^5 (Com- 

nenus).  The  empire  in- 
vaded by  Robert  Guiscard, 
ihe  Norman,  who  defeats 
Alexius  at  Durazzo. 


England  &  Scotland. 


After  the  capture  of  Jerusa- 
lem, by  the  Turks,  the  Chris- 
tian pilgrims  are  insulted, 
robbed  and  oppressed,  which 
gives  rise  to  the  crusades. 
— Great  struggle  between 
Christianity  and  Mohamme- 
danism. 


1066.  —William   I.,W- 

"  THE  CONaUBROR,"  first  of 

the  Norman  line. 


1068.  Edgar  Atheling,  heir  of 
the  Saxon  line,  takes  refuge 
in  Scotland.  His  sister, 
Margaret,  marries  Malcolm 
III. 

1070.  The  feudal  system  in- 
troduced by  the  king.  All 
the  offices  of  the  got^ernment 
placed  in  the  hands  of  Nor- 
mans. The  Norman  lan- 
guase  introduced. 

Malcolm  III.  of  Scotland, 
ravages  Durham. 

1072.  Peace  between  the  Nor- 
mans and  the  Scots 


The  World,  elsewhere. 


1067.  Poland  :  —  Boleslas  II., 
— he  conquers  Russia. 


1068.  Poland : — Romanus  Dio- 
genes. 


1070.  Norway :  — Bergen  built. 


1076.  Robert,  the  king's  son, 
raises  a  rebellion  in  Nor- 
mandy . 


1087.  William  invades  France, 
and  is  killed  at  Mantes. 

1037.  —William    II., @ 
(Rufus). 

Revolt  of  the  Norman 
nobles. 


1074.  Syria:  — Melek  Shah, 
(Emir,)  extends  his  domin- 
ions from  the  Jaxartes  to  the 
Mediterranean. 

1076.  Denmark :— Harold  IV. 

Palestine  invaded  and 
subdued  by  Melek  Shah. — 
Jerusalem  taken. 


1077.  Hungary:  —Ladislas  I. 

1079.  Poland :— Stanislas,  bi- 
shop of  Cracow,  murdered. 
The  king  excommunicated 
and  dethroned. 

1079.  Poland :— Uladislas  I. 


1083.  Italy :  —  Rome  taken 
after  a  siege  of  two  years, 
by  Henry  IV. 

1084.  BOHEMIA  erected  into 
a  kingdom  by  the  empereor 
Henry  IV. 


1090.  Sicily  conquered  by 
Roger  the  Norman,  after  a 
war  of  thirty  years  with  itg 
masters,  the  Saracens. 


68 


THE    world's    progress. 


[Period  VI.— The  Middle  Ages.— 


A..D.     Progress  of  Society,  etc. 


1093 


1096 


1099 


1100 


1118 


Ecclesiastical. 


France,  Germany  &  Spain 


1093.  Conrad,  son  of  the  em- 
peror, rebels. 

The  popes  continue  to  struggle  against  the  empire. 

1094.  Spain :— Pedro  I.,    k. 
— of  Navarre  and  Arragon. 

The    Crusades :— Peter,    the  Hermit,  preaches  against  the  Turks  in  all  the  countries  of 
Christendom.  i  '  . 

I  The  Council  op  Clermont. 

The    FIRST    CRUSADE  ;—  P  e  t  e  r     the     H  e  r  m  i  t ,  and  Walter,  the  Pennyless,  eel 
out  with  a  vast  rabble,  3(30,  000  of  whom  perish  before  the  virarriors  are  ready  to  start. 

The    chieftains  of    the  first  crusade  were, 

I.Godfrey    of   Bcuillor 
or  Boulogne. 

2.  Hugh  of  Vermandois. 

3.  R  o  b  e  r  t    of  Normandy 

4.  Robert  of  Flanders. 

5.  Stephen  of  Chartrcs. 

6.  Raymond  of  Toulouse. 

7.  Bohemond. 

8.  Tancred. 
600,000  warriors,  100,000 

cavalry. 


Nathan  Ben  Jechiel,  learned 
Jew. 


Knights  of  St.   John   insti 

tuted. 
Anna  Comnena,  daughter  of 

Alexius  I.,  Eastern  emperor 

historian. 
Witliatn  of  Poitouy  first  trou 

badour. 


Abelard,  French  scholastic. 
Jeffrey  of  Monmouth,    histo- 
rian. 


The  Knights  Templars. 


Tograi,  Hairi,  and  Abdallah 
Sharfaddin,  Arabian  poets. 

Scholastic  Philosophy  attains 
its  highest  point  by  the 
writings  of  Peter  Abelard. 

Peter,  the  Lombard,  (master 
of  sentences). 


1099.  Pope  Paschal  II. 


1118.  Pope  Gelasius  II. 

1119.  "     Calistus  II. 


U23.  First  Lateran,  or  ninth 

general  council. 
1124.  Honorius  II. 


1104.  Spain :— Alfonzo  I.,  king 
of  Navarre  and  Arragon. 

1106.  Ger. :— H  e  n  r  y  V  .^ 
— maintains  the  right  of  in- 
vestiture. 


II08.Fr.:— Louis  VI., ^ 
— Le  Gros.  Abbe  Sugar, 
minister. 

1109.  Germany: — Henry  en- 
ters Italy,  takes  the  pope 
prisoner,  and  compels  him 
to  crown  him. 

1114.  Henry  V.  marries  Ma- 
tilda, of  England. 


1118.  Spain  :—AJ£cnso  I.  cap. 
tures  Saragossa. 


1120.  Rivalry  between  Eng- 
land and  France  com- 
mences. 


1125.  Germany: — Lothaire 

1 1  .^^ opposed  by  Fre. 

deric,   and  Conrad,  duke  of 
Suabia. 


1066-1229— Continued.] 


THE    WOKLD'S    PROGRESS. 


8y 


1099 


1109 
1111 


1118 


Eastern  Empire. 


England  &  Scotland. 


Order,  learning,  and  com 
merce  revive. 

By  the  courage  and  talents  of 
the  Comneni,  the  empire  is 
feared  or  respected  by  the 
nations  of  Asia  and  Europe. 

Invasion  by  tlie  crusaders : 
great  numbers  pass  through 
Constantinople. 


Battle  of  Dorylaeum,  which 
secures  the  march  of  the 
crusaders  through  Asia  Mi- 
nor. 


Acre  taken  by  the  crusaders. 


Tripolis  taken  by  crusaders. 


Berytus  and  Sidon  taken  by  the 
crusaders. 


— John  I.,  ^^ (Comne- 

nus),a  noble  prince ;  reforms 
the  manners  of  his  people. 


Tyre  taken  by  the  crusaders. 


1093.  Scotland :— Malcolm  III. 
invades  England,  and  is 
slain  near  Alnwick  Castle  by 
Roger  de  Mowbray. 

1094.  Scot. :— Donald  Bane, 
king. 

William  again  invades 
Normandy. 

Sct'd. : — Duncan  usurps 
the  crown. 

William  quarrels  with 
Anselm,  archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury. 


1098.  Scotland :— Edgar  puts 
out  Donald's  eyes  and  de 
thrones  him. 


1100.  William  II.  accidentally 
shot  by  Sir  Walter  Tyrel.  ' 

— H  e  n  r  y    I .  ,^g — 

(Beauclerc,)  grants  the  Eng- 
lish a  charter,  and  marries 
Maud,  a  Saxon,  thus  uniting 
the  "Norman  and  Saxon  in- 
terests. 

1101.  Robert,  duke  of    Nor- 
mandy, invades  England. 


1106.  Henry  invades  Norman- 
dy; takes  Robert  prisoner 
at  the  battle  of  Tinchebrai. 

Scotland : — Alexander  I. 

1107.  Henry  quarrels  with  An- 
selm. 


The  World,  elsewhere. 


1120.  Shipwreck  and  death  of 
Prince  William  and  140  no- 
blemen. 

1124.  Insurrection  in  Norman- 
dy suppressed. 

Scotland :— David  I.  pro- 
motes civilization. 


1095.  Hungary : — Coloman. 


1096.  Egypt :  —  Mustali,  tha 
eighth  Fatimite  caliph.  Ha 
takes  Jerusalem. 

1097.  Baldwin  founds  the 
principality  of  Edessa. 


1099.  Jerusalem  taken  by  tha 
crusaders,  under  Godfrey 
who  is  elected  king. 


1102.  Poland  :—Bolesla3  III. 


1 105.  Denmark :  —  Nicholas. 

1106.  Italy: — Venice,  Genoa, 
and  Pisa  greatly  enriched 
by  the  crusades. 


1109.  Norway  :—Segurd's  ex- 
pedition to  Palestine. 


1117.  Persia  :—Sanjar  subdues 
Khorasan  and  Samarkand. 

1119.  War  between  Pisa  and 
Genoa. 

1120.  Italy:  — Rise    of    the 
house  of  Guelph. 

Zengi,  governor  of  Mo- 
sul, a  great  prince. 


90 


THE    world's    progress. 


[Period  VI.— The  Middle  Ages.- 


A.D.    Pro&ress  op  Society,  etc. 


1137. 


1140 


1558 


Aristotle's    logic    comes   into 
repute. 


Pandects  of  the  Roman  law, 
(Justinian,)  discovered  at 
Amalfi,  and  the  study  oi\he 
civil  law  revived. 


Gratian  collects  the  canon  law. 

William  of  Malmsbury,  Eng- 
lish historian. 

Vacarius  teaches  civil  law  at 
Oxford. 

Otho,  bishop  of  Friesengen, 
historian,  introduces  the  pe- 
ripatetic philosophy  into 
Germany. 

Benjamin  of  Tudela,  a  Jew, 
travels  from  Spain  to  India, 
by  Constantinople,  and  re- 
turns through  Egypt. 


The  magnetic  needle  known 

in  Italy. 
Suidas.  lexicographer. 
£Jben  Ezra,  of  Toledo,  Jewish 

historian. 


Arnold,  of  Brescia,  condemn- 
ed and  burnt. 

Eustathius,  co'pmentator  on 
Homer  and  Dionysius  Per. 


Banh  of  Venice  established. — 
Pairs  at  Lcipsic. 

London  contains  40,0(X)  inha- 
bitants 


Poem  of  the  Cid. 


College?  of  theology,  philoso- 
phy and  law  at  Paris. 

English  commerce  confined  to 
the  exportation  of  wool. — A 
woollen  manufactoiy  esta- 
blished at  Worsted,  and  soon 
after  at  Norwich 


Ecclesiastical. 


France,  Germany  &  Spmn. 


1127.  — makes  war  against 
Roger,  king  of  Sicily. 

1130.  Innocent  II.  and  Anacle 
tus,  rival  popes. 


1137.  A  pretended  Messiah  in 
France. 

1138.  — another  in  Persia. 


1139.  Second  Lateran,  or  tenth 
general  council. 


1143.  Pope  Celestin  II. 

1 144.  "     Lucius  11. 

1145.  "     Eugenius  III. 


1147.TheS  e  CO  nd  Crusade  excited  by  St.  Bernard, 
and  joined  by  the  emperor  Conrad  and  his  nephew  Fre- 
deric Barbarossa,  and  Louis  VII.  of  France. 

1149.  France : — Louis  divorces 
his  queen,  Eleanor,  who 
marries  Henry  of  Anjou.  af- 
terwards king  of  England ; 
thus  Guienne  and  Poitou  are 
lost  to  France. 

11-50.  Spain  : — Sancho  V.,  king 
ot  Navarre. 

1152.   Germany  and  Italy : — 


1112.    Spain:— Alfonzo  VIL, 
king,  Leon  and  Castile. 


1134.  Spain :— Garcia  IV.,  king 
of  Navarre. 

Ramiro  II. ,  king  of  Arra- 
gon. 

1135.  Lothaire  in  Italy— cap- 
ture of  Amalfi. 

1137.  Fr.  :— Louis  VII. ^ 

— (le  Jeune). 
1133.     Germany :  —  House 

of    Suabia: 

— Conrad    I.^J 

1139.  Portugal  becomes  a  king- 
dom.— Henry  of  Besancon, 
king. 
1141.  Germany  and  Italy:  — 
Dissensions  of  the  G  u  e  1  fs 
and  G  h  i  b  e  1  i  n  e  s . 


11.53.  Pope  Anastasius  IV. 

1154.  Pope  Adrian  IV.  (an  Eng- 
lishman, Nicholas  Breaks- 
peare). 


U59.  Pope  Alexander  III. 
Victor  IV.,  antipope. 
1160.  Order  of  the  Carmelites 
instituted. 

The  Waldenses  and 
Albigenses  begin  to  ap- 
pear. 
1164.  Pascal  III.,  antipope. 

1167.  Rome  taken  by  Frederic  Babarossa. 


116S.  Calistus  HI.,  antipope. 


Frederic    I. 
(Barbarossa). 


1157.  Spain  :  —  Castile  and 
Leon  divided  under  Ferdi- 
nand II.  and  Sancho  II. 

1158.  Germany :— The  empe- 
ror Frederic  receives  the 
title  of  king  of  Bohemia  at 
the  diet  of  Ratisbon: — con- 
quers Poland,  and  makes  it 
tributary. 


1162,  Frederic  destroys  Milan. 
Spain  :  —  Alfonzc      II., 
king  of  Arragon. 


1066-1229.— Continued.] 


THE    world's    PROGPvESS. 


91 


1155 
1156 


Eastern  Empire. 


— Manuel  Coinmenus.  ^m — 


Edessa  being  retaken  by  the 
Turks,  gives  rise  to  the 
second  crusade. 

The  Normans,  under  Roger, 
arrive  before  Constantino- 
ple ;  are  repulsed  by  Manuel. 


The  Greeks  reduce  Apulia 
and  Calabria. 

Manuel  forms  the  design  of 
conquering  Italy  and  the 
western  empire,  but  fails. 


England  &  Scotland. 


Kelso,  Melrose,  and  Holy- 
rood  house  founded. 
1127.     Matilda,     the     king's 
daughter,  marries  Geoffrey 
Plantagenet. 


1135.  Stephen^^ — 

of  Blois. 

1136.  Matilda  asserts  her  right 
CO  the  throne ; 

David,  king  of  Scotland. 
assists  her. 
1138.  — is  defeated  in  the  "  bat 
tie  of  the  Standard." 


1141.  Stephen  made  prisoner 
at  the  battle  of  Lincoln. 


Civil  war:  Stephen  and 
Matilda. 


1149.   Henry    Plantagenet  in- 
vades England. 


1154.  —Henry    II. 
(Plantagenet). 


1158-  Thomas  a  Becket  intro- 
duced to  the  king's  notice  by 
Theobold,  archbishop  of 
Canterbury— becomes  chan- 
cellor and  preceptor  of  the 
prince. 

1159.  Becket  sent  as  ambassa- 
dor to  France. 


1162.  —made    archbishop    of 

Canterbury  —  opposes    the 

king. 
1164.  —resists  the  constitutions 

of     Clarendon  - —  flies     to 

France. 
1166.  Scotland  :— William. 


The  World,  elsewhere. 


1130.  Sweden :— Ragwald  I. 
1133.       "  Magnus  I. 


1139.  PORTUGAL  becomes  a 
kingdom, under  Alfonso  l.^g 

Sweden : — Suercher  II. 


1147.     Russia:  —  the  city   of 
Moscow  founded. 


1150.    Denmark  : — The  coasts 

infested  with  pirates. 
1150.  Sweden :— Eric  X. 


1157.  Denmark :  Waldemar  I. 

1158.  Venice  a  great  maritime 
power. 


1162.  Sweden  :— Charles  VII. 


1167.  Italy :— League  of  the 
Italian  cities  to  preserTe 
their  liberties. 


92 


THE    world's    progress. 


\Pe)iod  VI.— The  Middle  Ages.— 


A.D.     Progress  op  Society,  etc. 


1175 
1177 


1178 


1189 
1190 


1198 


Ecclesiastical. 


Foundation  of    the    military 
order  of  Santiago. 

Circuit  Judges  appointed    in 
England. 

117S.  //iraocenMII.,  antipope. 

The  pope  Alexander,  by  a  special  act,  relieves  the  clergy 
of  Berkshire  from  keeping  the  archdeacon's  dogs  and  hawks 
during  his  visitation. 

The  Waldenses  spread  over  the  valley  of  Piedmont.  They 
circulated  the  Sacred  Scrip  tures.  They  were  the  fore- 
runners of  Protestantism.  Con  demned  by  the  Eleventh  Gene- 
ral Council,  and  severely  per  secuted. 

1179.  Third  Lateran,  or  Ele- 
venth General  Council. 
Robert  Wace,  first  French 
poet.  Translation  of  his 
Mist,  des  Rois  d' Atigleterre, 
by  Layamon,  the  first  Eng- 
lish composition. 

John  Tzetes,  Greek  gramma- 
rian. 


Maimonides,  of  Cordova,  one 
of  the  most  learned  of  the 
Jews. 

Henry,  of  Huntington,  and 
William,  of  Newbury,  his- 
torians. 

Rainulph  de  Glanville  makes 
a  digest  of  laws  and  customs 
of  England. 


Dreadful  massacre  of  the  Jews 
at  the  coronation  of  Richard 
I. 

Teutonic  order  instituted. 

Boahoddi  Ibu  Shadad,  author 
of  a  Life  of  Saladin,  in  Ara- 
bic. 


The  Jews  become  the  princi- 
pal bankers  of  the  world. 

Order  of  the  Holy  Trinity  in- 
stituted in  Germany. 


USl.  Pope  Lucius  III. 


1185.  Pope  Urban  III. 


1187.  Pope  Gregory  VIII. 
1187.        "     Clement  III. 


France,  Germany,  &  Spain. 


170.  France :— The  Walden- 
ses. They  derived  their 
name  from  Peter  Waldo,  a 
merchant  of  Lyons. 


1174.  Frederick's  fourth  expe- 
dition into  Italy. 


1176.  Frederick  defeated  at  the 
battle  of  Legnano. 


1178.  Henry,  the  Lion,  duke 
of  Saxony,  deposed,  and 
Saxony  divided. 


1180.Fr.:— Philip  II. 
(Auguste). 


1183.  The  Peace  of  Constance 
re-establishes  the  independ- 
ence of  Italian  republics. 


1188.   Spain :  —  Alfonzo   IX. 
king  of  Leon. 


1190.    Third     O  r  u  s  a  d  e  led  by    Philip  Augustus,    of 
France,  and  Richard,  of  Eng  land,   and   Frederick    Barba- 


1191.  Pope  Celestinelll. 


1198.  Pope  Innocent  III. 


J 190.  Ger. :— H  e  n  r  y  V I  .'^ 
emperor  and  king  of  Italy 
and  the  Sicilies. 


1196.  Richard  Coeur  de  Lion 
seized  and  retained  in  cap- 
tivity. 

1198.  Philip,  of  Suabia,  and 
Otho,  of  Saxony,  dispute  the 
crown ;  the  former  sup- 
ported by  the  Ghibelines, 
and  the  latter  by  the  Gutlfs. 


1066-1299.— Continued.] 


THE    WORLD  S    PROGRESS. 


93 


1183 


1185 


Eastern  Empire. 


-Alexius  II.' 


Andronicus  I. 


-Isaac  II. 


(Angelus). 


The  empire  invaded  by    the 
Bulgarians. 


Iconium  taken  by  Frederick 
Barbarossa,  bu*.  afterwards 
restored. 


— Alexius  Angeltis,^ 
usurper  and  tyrant. 


England  &  Scotland. 


1170.  Becket  returns  to  Eng- 
land, and  is  murdered  at  the 
altar. 

1172.  Henry  conquers 
Ireland. 


1174.  Treaty  of  Falaise,  in 
which  William  agrees  to  do 
homage  for  Scotland. 

Henry  makes  a  pilgri- 
mage to  the  shrine  of  Becket. 


The  World,  elsewhere. 


1189.— Richard  1.^ 

(Coeur  de  Lion).      He  en- 
gages in  the  third  crusade. 


1171.  Egypt  :—Saladin,  euI 
tan. 

— He  extends  his  domi- 
nions in  Egypt,  and  con- 
quers Syria,  Assyria,  Meso- 
potamia, and  Arabia. 

1174.  Poland :— Miecislaus  III. 

1175.  Portugal— a  fief  of  the 
Holy  See. 


1178.  Poland  :—Casimir,  (the 
Just 


1182.  Denmark :— Canute. 

1183.  Saladin  takes  Aleppo, 
and  deposes  the  sultan  of 
Mosul. 


1185.  Portugal :— Sancho  I. 

1186.  Saladin  directs  all    his 
efforts  against  the  crusaders. 


1187.  — gains  the  victory  of 
Tiberias,  and  takes  Jerusa- 
lem, which  leads  to 

1190.  The  third  crusade. 


1191.  Kingdom  of  Cyprus 
founded. 

1191.  Acre  taken  by  the  cru- 
saders. 


1193.  Richard  defeats  Saladin  in  the  battle  of  Ascalon ;  but, 
abandoned  by  his  associates,  concludes   a  truce    of    ,hice 

years. 


1193.  John  attempts  to  seize 
the  crown  in  the  absence  of 
Richard. 


1193.  Saladin  dies. 


94  THE  world's  progress.  [Period  VI.-~T/ie  Middle  Ages.— 


A,D.     Progress  op  Society,  etc.      .       Ecclesiastical.  France,  Germany  &  Spain, 


Ji06 


1222 


The  power  of  the  pope  supre  me  —  Rome  mistress   of  the  world,  ami  kings  her  vassals 


The  University    of    Bologna 
contains  10,000  students. 


Ville  Hardouin,  historian. 
Saxo  Grammaticus, \dsiox\a.n. 


University  of  Paris  founded. 


The  order  of  Franciscan  fri  ars  instituted. 


1200.  The  pope  excommunica  tes  Philip  of  France. 

1202.  The  fourth  crusade  by  the  French,  Germans,  and 
Venetians  under  the  Marquis  of  Monserrat.  They  take 
Constantinople. 


1204.  The  Inquisition  in  Fran  ce 


The  works  of  Aristotle,  im- 
ported from  Constantinople, 
condemned  by  the  council 
of  Paris. 


Period  of  the  Troubadours  in 
France ;  the  Minstrels  in 
England;  and  the  Minne- 
singers in  Germany. 


University  of  Padua  founded. 


Stephen  Langton,  archbishop 
of  Canierbui-y. 


Bitter  persecution  of  the 

Albisenses. 


The  doctrine  of  transub- 
stantiation  and  auricular 
conlession  established. 


1215.  Fourth  Lateran,  and 
twelfth  General  Council 
against  the  Albigenses,  and 
all  heretics. 

1216.  Pope  Honorius  III. 

1217.  The  fifth  crusade  by 
Andrew  11.,  king  of  Huti- 
gary. 


1227.  Pope  Gregory  IX. 


1229.  The  Inquisition  at  Tou- 
louse. 

The  Scriptures  forbid- 
den to  all  layinen. 


Normandy  reunited   to 
France. 


1210.  Germany  :— Otho  place  J 
under  the  ban  of  the  pope. 


1212. — F  rederickll.l 


Spain :— The  Christians 
gain  the  battle  of  Navas  de 
Tolosa. 


1215.  Otho  loses  the  battle  of 

Bovines. 


1217.  Spain-.— Ferdinand, king 
of  Castile. 


1223.  Fr.  :  Louis  VIII. ^ 

(The  Lion). 

Crusade  against  the  Al- 
bigenses. 

1226.  Fr. :  Louis  IX.  ^ 
(Saint). 

1227.  Germany :— Crusade  of 
the  emperor  after  being  ex- 
communicated. 

1230.  Spain :  —  Castile  and 
Leon  united  by  Ferdinand 
III.,  who  takes  Cordova.,  Se- 
ville, Cadiz,  fee.  from  the 
Moors. 


1066-1299.— Continued.] 


THE    world's    progress. 


95 


1204 


Eastern  Empire. 


England  &  Scotland.  The  World,  elsewhere 


— Alexius    IV.  ^^ 

The  crusaders   plunder  Con- 
stantinople. 
Baldwin,  count  of  Flanders. 

Henry  II.  ^^ 


Richard,  returning  home 
in  disguise,  through  Ger- 
many, is  imprisoned.  Is 
ransomed  by  his  subjects  for 
10,000  marks. 

— declares  war   against 
France. 
1199.  Richard  dies. 


1200. John,  ' 

(Lackland.) 


1201.  Prince  Arthur  supported 
by  France. 


1221 


1237 


•  Peter 


Robert  ^M — 


— John  of  Brienne,^^ 

king  of  Jerusalem,  and  em- 
peror. 


1207.  The  kingdom  laid  under 
an  interdict, 

1208.  John  excommunicated. 
London  obtaiAs  the  right 

to  elect  its  own  Loi'd  Mayor. 


1213.  The  pope  declares  John 
a  usurper.  John  submits  to 
hold  his  crown  as  a  vassal  of 
the  pope. 

1214.  Scotland :— Alexander  II 


1215.  Magna  Charta  signed  at 
Runnymede. 


1216. —Henry  1 11.^ 

(4th  Plantagenet.) 

Earl  of  Pembroke,  pro- 
tector. 


1224.  Henry's  province  of 
Poitou  seized  by  the  king  of 
France. 


1229.  First  expedition  of  Henry 
into  France  for  the  recovery 
of  his  estates. 


123.3.  First  discovery  of  coal   1236.    Dreadful    invasior 
at  Nevvciistle.  Europe  by  the  Mongol.*, 

der  Batu  Khan. 


1202.  Denmark :  —  Waldemar 
IL 

Poland  :  —  Lesco,  (the 
white). 

Livonia : — Institution  of 
the  order  of  short  swords  to 
conquer  the  Prussians. 


1206.    Genghis     Khan 
subdues  the  north  of  China. 


1210.  Italy  :— First  war  of  Ve- 
nice and  Genoa. 


1213.  Russia : — Jurje  II. 


1214.  Frederick  cedes  to  Den- 
mark all  the  provinces  be- 
yond the  Elbe  and  Eiser. 


1216.  Tartary  :— Overrun  by 
the  hordes  of  Genghis  Khan. 

1217.  Norway  :—Haco  V. 


1222.  Two  Greek  kingdoms  in 
Asia,  Nice  and  Trebizond. 

John  Ducas,  emperor  of 
Nice. 

Hungary  :  —  Charter  of 
Andrewll.  Foundation  of 
the  national  liberty. 


1234.  Italy :— Warof  the  Lom- 
bard cities  with  Frederick  nl 
Germany. 


96 


THE   WORLD  S    PROGRESS. 


[Period  VI.— The  Middle  Ages. 


A.D.    Progress  op  Society,  etc. 


RobertyOf  Gloucester,  the  first 
English  writer  in  rhyme. 


First  war  fleet  in  Spain  at  the 
conquest  of  Seville. 

Foundation  of  the  Alhambra 
near  Granada. 

St.  Edmund,  of  Canterbury, 
dies. 

The  University  of  Salaman- 
ca founded. 


Silk  manufactory  in  Lucca  ; 
woollen  in  Milan  and  Tus- 
cany. 

Peter,  of  Albano,  astrologer, 
physician,  and  naturalist. 

Rubruquis  travels  among  the 
Mongols. 


Private  war  and  judicial  com- 
bats suppressed  in  France 
by  the  laws  of  St.  Louis. 


Parliament  in  England. 


The  monastic  orders,  by  their 
wealth,  rigid  discipline, 
and  popular  influence,  be- 
come powerful  aids  to  pon- 
tifical ainbition. 


Ecclesiastical. 


1241.  Pope  Celestine  IV. 


1213.  Pope  Innocent  IV. 

Continual  struggles  with 
the  emperor  Frederic. 

Sect  of  the  Plag,ella7its. 


1254.  Pope  Alexander  IV. 

The  Jews  every  where 
persecuted. 


1261.  Pope  Urban  IV. 

The  popes  claim  the 
right  of  presenting  to  every 
benefice  in  the  world. 


France,  Germany  &  Spain. 


123S.     Germany :  —  Frederic 
again  excommunicated. 


1243.  The  Hanseatic 
1  e  a  g  u  e— the  chief  towns 
are  Lubec,  Cologne,  Bruns- 
wick, and  Dantzic. 

1246.  Henry  of  Thuringia  set 
up  for  emperor  by  the  pope, 
and 

1247.  William,  of  Holland. 

1248.  France  :— Louis  sets  out 
on  the  seventh  crusade. 


1250.  Germany: — 

Conrad  IV.^g — 

1252.    Spain:  — Alfonso  X. 
king  of  Castile  and  Leon. 


1261.  France :— Burgundy  falls 
to  the  crown. 


1265.    The  pope  succeeds  in  his  long  struggle  for  the  do- 
minion of  Italy,  and   places  CharlesofAnjou  on  the  throne 

of  Naples. 

1265.  Pope  Clement  IV. 

1266.  Henry    of    Castile,    a  Roman   senator. 

1268.  Pragmatic  sanction- 
foundation  of  the  liberties  of 
the  Gallican  church. 


1268.  No  pope  for  about  three 
years. 

1271.  Pope  Gregory  X. 


1270.  France  :— Louis  IX.  sets, 
out  on  the  eighth  and  last 
crusade,  and  dies  before 
Tunis — succeeded  by 

— Philip  III.^ — 
(The  Hardy). 


1066-1299.— Continued.] 


THE    WORLD  S    PROGRESS. 


97 


Eastern  Empire. 


England   &  Scotland.  The  World,  elsewhere. 


1260 
1261 


lass 


1240.  Richard,  earl  of  Corn- 
wall, heads  the  sixth  cru- 
sade, and  redeems  Jerusa- 
lem. 


1342.  Second  expedition  into 
France — defeated  and  com- 
pelled to  make  peace. 


1246.  Henry  marries  Eleanor, 
of  Provence. 


1249.  Scot.  :  Alexander  KI. 

— Repulses  Haco,  king 
of  Norway  —  obtains  the 
Scottish  Isles. 


1241.  Denmark :— Eric  VI. 


— Michael  Palaeologus.^^- 
recovers  Constantinople. 


The  Mongols  in  Asia  Minor. 


The  Mongols  take  Antioch. 


1258.  Famous  parliament  at 

Oxford. Simon     d  e 

M  o  n  t  f  o  r  t . 

1259.  Peace  with  France. 


1265.  First  regular  parlia- 
ment.— Civil  war — the  king 
made  prisoner  at  Lewes— is 
released,  and  gains  the  bat- 
tle of  Evesham. 


1270.  Prince  Edward  joins  the 
eighth  crusade. 


1249.  The  Hanse  towns  cap- 
ture Copenhagen. 

1250.  Egypt :— The  Mame- 
lukes rule — take  Damas- 
cus and  Aleppo. 


1255.  Nice  :— Theodore  Lasca- 
ris,  emperor. 

1256.  Hulaku  enters  Persia, 
becomes  sultan — takes  Bag- 
dad, and  puts  an  end  to 
the    caliphate. 

1258.  Italy  :— Dreadful  naval 
war  between  Venice  and 
Genoa. 

1259.  China:— Kublai  Khan 
builds  Pekin,  and  makes  it 
his  capital. 


1261.  Norway ; — Iceland  sub- 
jected. 

Italy  :— Charles  I. 

1262.  — becomes  a  papal  fief. 
Greenland  tributai-y  to 

Norway. 

Norway : 

Magnus  11.^^ 

1265.  Abaka  Khan  of  Persia. 


1266.  Magnus,  of  Norway, 
cedes  to  Scotland  the  He 
brides  and  the  Isle  of  Man. 


1270.  Hungary: 

Stephen  V, ' 


98 


THE    world's    progress. 


[Period  VI.— The  Middle  Ages.— 


A.D.     Progress  of  Society,  etc. 


Marco   Polo    travels    in   the 
East  as  far  as  Pekin. 


First  patent  of  nobility  grant- 
ed to  his  goldsmith  by  the 
king  of  France.  This  was 
designed  as  an  attack  upon 
the  feudal  barons,  and  all 
the  landed  and  hereditary 
aristocracy. 


Literature  and  science  iiourish 
in  Spain,  under  Alfonzo,  the 
learned. 


Chivalry  and  the  tournaments 
introduced  into  Sweden. 


University  of  Lisbon  founded. 


Roger  Bacon,  of  Oxford,  the 
most  learned  man  of  the 
middle  ages. 


Institution  of  the  three  great 
courts  of  law  in  England. 


Ecclesiastical. 


France,  Germany,  &  Spaim. 


1272.  Languedoc  falls  to   the 
crown. 


1273.  Ger.  :-RodoIph.^ 

founds     the    house    of 
Hapsburg. 


1274.    14th    General    Council  at   Lyons ;    first   re-union   of 
the     Eastern     and    Western  Churches. 


1276.  Pope  Innocent  V.,  4  mos. 
"    Adrian  V.,  1  mo. 
"    John  XXI.,  8  mos. 


1277.  Nicholas  III.,  enriching 
his  family  at  the  expense  of 
the  church — he  introduces 
Nepotism. 


1281.  Pope  Martin  IV. 


1285.  Pope  Honorius  IV. 


1288.  Pope  Nicholas  IV. 


Nicholas  IV.  patronizes  civil  and  religious  literature,  aad 
improves     and     embellishes  Rome. 


Albert,  the  mathematician,  and 
Provengal  poet. 


1276   France  at  war  with  Cas- 
tile. 


1283.    Germany Rodc.ph 

makes  his  son,  Albert,  duke 
of  Austria. 


1285.  Fr.:— Philip  IV. 
(the  Fair.) 


1286.  Spain :— Alfonzo  111 
king  of  Arragon. 


1066-1299.— Continued.] 


THE    WORLD  S    PROGRESS. 


99 


1273 


Eastern  Empire. 


-^^  Andronicas, 
(the  Elder.) 


Union  with  the  Latin  church. 


Persecution  of  tlie  Greeka. 


1281 


England  &  Scotland. 


1272. —  Edward    I. 


1276.   War  hetween  England 
and  Wales. 


Othman  establishes  an  inde 
pendent  rule,  as  chief  of 
400  families,  in  the  north  of 
Asia  Minor. 


1283.  Edward  has  a  son  born 
at  Caernarvon,  from  which 
the  title.  Prince  of  Wales 
descends  to  the  eldest  son  of 
the  king. 

Scotland  :— Robert  Bruce  and 
John  Balliol  contend  for  the 
crown. 


The  World,  elsewhere. 


1272   Hungary: ■ 

— Vladislas  VI.  W — ■ 


1276.    Sweden  :  —  Magnus    I. 


Russia : — Hanseatic  set- 
tlement at  Novogorod. 

1279.  China  :-KubIia  Khan 
subdues  the  southern  king- 
dom, and  becomes  the  Great 
Khan. 

China  visited  by  Marco 
Polo.  ^ 

1279.  Poland :— Lesco  II.®— 

1279.  Portugal :— Dennis,^^ 
the  father  of  his  coun- 
try. 

1280.  Norway  :— Eric  II. ^g — 


1282.  Sicilian  vespers. 
1282.   Denmark  :— Parliament 
at  Wurtemburg. 
First  Handvesle. 


1286.  Denmark :— Eric  VI.' 


1289.  Last  payment  of  tiibute  1289.    The   Mongols    invade 
to  the  pope.  Hungary  and  Poland. 

1290.  Hungary :  —Andrew  III. 


the  Venetian. 

Poland  : Wenceslas, 

king  of  Bohemia,  takes  Cra- 
cow, and  becomes  duke  o 
Lesser  Poland. 


100 


THE   world's   progress. 


[Period  VI.—  Tlie  Middle  Ages  — 


Progress  of  Society,  etc. 


Peter,  of  Albano,  astrologer, 
physician,  and  naturalistT 


John  Holywood.  of  England 
astronomer. 


Richard  Middleton. 


Cimabue,  the  first  of  nmodern 
painters  at  Florence. 


Arnolf  di  Lapo,  the  father  of 
modem  Italian  architecture 


Ecclesiastical. 


France,  Germany  &  Spain. 


1292.    Celestine  V.— he    abdi 

cates. 
1292.  The  papal  chair  vacant 

two  years  and  three  months 
Institution  of  the  order 

of  the  Celeslines. 


1294.  Pope  Boniface  VIII. 


1296.  Struggles  with  France. 


1297.    Canonization  of  Louis 
IX. 


The   Influence  of  the 
crusades  was  great 

expanding     the 

mind  of  Eur  op  e — r  e  - 
fining  the  general 
manner  s  —  exciti  ng 
a  spirit  of  geogra- 
phical research  and 
adventure — and  pro- 
moting improvement 
in  the  arts  and  sci- 
ences—  thus  under  mining  instead  of 
strengthening     the 


First  letters  of  marque  grant- 
ed by  Edward  III.  against 
the  Portuguese. 


pow  er  of  p ap  alJlome, 
by  adiiancing  libe- 
ral ideas  and  fr e e  - 
d 0 m    of   thought. 


1291.  Germany: 

—  AdolphuE  ,^J — 
of  Nassau. 


Spain: — James II.  k.  of 
Arragon. 


1295.  Spain  :  -  Ferdinand  IV. 
in  Castile  ar  d  Leon. 


Philip  successfully    in- 
vades Flanders. 


1298.  Germany :  —  Adolphus 
deposed  by  a  Diet,  whic'j 
elects 

—  Albert  I.W — 
son  of  Rodolph.— Adolphus 
slain  in  the  struggle  which 


1066-1299.— Continued.] 


THE    world's    progress. 


101 


1299 


Eastern  Empire. 


Capture  of  Acre  by  the  Ma- 
melukes— end  of  the  king- 
dom of  Jerusalem. 

The  Mongols  drive  the  last 
sultan  of  Iconium  from  his 
throne. 


The  Genoese  obtain  the  trade 
of  the  Black  Sea,  and  rise  to 
great  power. 


Othraan  invades  Nicomedia, 
and  establishes  the  Ottoman 
empire. 


England  &  Scotland.  The  World,  elsewhere. 


1291.  Edward  decides  the 
Scottish  dispute  in  favor  of 
Baliol. 

1292.  A  piratical  warfare  be- 
tween England  and  France. 
— Philip  gets  possession  of 
Guienne. 


1292.  Hungary:— The  pope 
sets  up  Charles  Martel, 
crown  prince  ot  Naples,  as 
king. 


1294.  China:— Tymui  Khan. 


1295.    Poland  :- 


1296.    Ball    1    defeated; 
mits  to  Edward. 


1297.  Scotland  :-S  i  r  W  i  1 
liam  Wallace  . — S  i  r 
William  Douglas, 
Robert  Bruce,  and 
other  chiefs  head  a  rebellion 
against  the  English. 


1299.  — they  are   defeated    at 
Falkirk  by  king  Edward  I. 


— Premislas   II. 


1296.  Poland:— Leas  II. W— 


1299.  Foundation  of  the 
OTTOMAN  or  TURKISH 
EMPIRE  in  Bythinia,  un- 
der Othman  I. 


102 


THE    WORLD  S    PROGRESS. 


PERIOD  YIL— The  Middle  Aires.~1299  to  1453.— 


A..D.    Progress  op  Society,  etc. 


University  at  Lyons  founded. 
— Rapid  advances  in  civili- 
zation.— Revival  of  ancient 
learning. — Improvements  in 
the  arts  and  sciences — and 
progress  of  liberty. 

The  Mariner's  Com- 
pass invented  at  Naples, 
by  Gioia,  native  of  Amalii. 

University  at  Avignon. 

Z)ante,\\ie  father  of  modern 
Italian  poetry,  flourishes. 

Amid  the  struggles  of  the 
Guelfs  and  Ghibelines, 
Italy  becomes  the  cradle  of 
modern  literature  and  im- 
proving civilization. 

University  at  Orleans. 


University  at  Perugia. 


University  at  Coimbra. 


Knights  of  St.  John  at 
Rhodes. 

Order  of  Knights  Templar 
abolished. — The  barons  in 
England  extort  from  Ed- 
ward II.  a  reformation  of 
abuses.  Parliaments  are  to 
be  held  every  year,  and  to 
appoint  to  all  impicrtant 
offices. 


Ecclesiastical. 


France,  Germany,  &  Spain. 


1302.  First  convocation  of  the 
States-general  in  France. 

Guienne  restored  to  Eng- 
land. 


1304.    France    at    war    with 
Flanders. 

Germany  : —  The  Swiss 
towns  rise  into  importance 
— oppressed  by  the  House  of 
Hapsburg. 


130.3.  Pope  Boniface  VIII. 

Council  of  Paris. 

Bull  unam  sanctum. 

Pope  Benedict  XI. 

Vacancy  in  the  papal 
chair  nearly  eleven  monihs. 

— The  papal  power  de- 
clines. 

1305.  Pope  Clement  V. 

Seat  of  the  popes  transferred   to    Avig- 
non. 
1306.  Persecution  of  the  Jews 
in  France. 

Germany  -  —  Rudolf 


1311.  General  Council  at  Vien- 
na. 

Another  vacancy  in  the 
papal  chair  of  more  than 
two  years. 


1316.  Pope  John  XXII. 

Taxes  imposed  upon  all 
the  countries  of  Europe,  to 
enrich  the  treasury  of  the 
church. 


of  Austria. 


the 


1307.  Persecution     of 
Knights  Templar. 

Ger. :  —  William    Tell 
shoots  Gesler. 

1308.  Germany : H  e  n  r  y 

of  Luxemburg,  ^g 

General  insurrection  in 
Switzerland. 

1309.  Spain:— Ferdinand  IV. 
takes  Gibraltar. 


1311.  Lyons  united  to  France. 

1312.  Spain :— Alfonzo  XI. 
of  Castile  and  Leon. 

1314.  Fr. :— Louis  X.^— 
(Hutin.) 

Ger. : — Louis  of  Bava- 
ria, and  Frederick  of  Aus- 
tria, contend  for  the  crown. 

1315.  Fr. :— Edict  for  the  eu- 
franchisement  of  slaves. 

BattleofMorgarten— ihe 
Austrians  defeated  by  the 
Swiss. 

1316.  Fr.  :— P  h  i  1  i  p  V.^- 
(the  Long.)  He  succeeds  by 
virtue  of  the  Salique  law 
now  first  established. 


THE    world's    PllOGRESS. 
154  years.— Olhjiian  to  the  Fall  of  the  Eastern  Evipire. 


103 


1303 


Eastern  Empire. 


War  of  the  Catalans,  under 
Roger  de  Flor. 

Othraan  increases  his  posses- 
sions ;  abandons  the  pasto- 
ral life,  and  fortifies  towns 
and  castles. 


1310 


The  Knights  of  St.  John  of 
Jerusalem,  established  at 
RhDdes. 


England  &  Scotland.  The  World,  elsewhere. 


1303.  Edward  invades  Scot- 
land. —  Wallace  betrayed 
and  beheaded. — Scotland 
submits. 

Edward  recovers   Gui- 
enne. 


1306.  Scotland  :  —  R  o  b  e  r  t 
Bruce  proclaimed  king 
— is  obliged  to  flee ;  but, 
Edward  dying,  resumes  his 
position. 

l307.En?.  rEdwardll.^ 
Scot.  : — Bruce  strength- 
ens himself  by  repeated  ad- 
vantages and  prudent  con- 
duct. 


1314.  Edward  invades  Scot- 
land, and  is  defeated  at  the 
Battle  of  Bannock- 
burn. 

The  Scots  invade  Eng- 
land and  Ireland. 


1301.  Hungary  : — Andrew,  the 

Venetian.  ^P 


Extinction  of  the  house 
of  Arpad. 

— Wenceslas  III.  of  Bu 


1304.  — Otto    v.,    of    Bava- 
ria. ^P 


1305.  Polai  il :— Vladislas  IV., 
in  Litile  Poland,  and 

Duke  Henry,  of  Glogau, 
in  Great  Poland. 

Russia    subject    to    the 
Khan  of  Tartary. 


1307.  Switzerland: 

W  m .  Tell  escapes  from 

SWISS  Republics 
founded,  Nov.  7. 

1308.  Hungary :— Carobert,  of 

Anj  ou,  ^g 

1309.  Poland  united  into  one 
monarchy  under  Vladislas 
IV. 

Naples  : —  Robert,  the 
Good.  He  aspires  to  the 
dominion  of  Italy. 

1310.  Italy:— The  Council  of 
Ten  established  at  Venice. 


1313.  Italy;— MatteoVisconti. 

1314.  Tunis  made  tributary  to 
Spain. 


1316.  Italy  :— Castruccio,  Lord 
of  Lucca  and  Pisa. 

1317.  Robert,  the  Good,  a  sena- 
tor of  Rome,  and 

1318.  —lord  of  Genoa. 

1319.  Final  establishmen   of 
the  oligarchy  at  Venice. 


104 


THE   world's    progress.  [Period  VII.— The  Middle  Agei.- 


A.D.     Progress  op  Society,  etc. 


1321 


1323 


1325 
1326 


1334 
1335 

1337 
1310 


1347 


1.156 


Dante,  dies. 


John  de  Maris  introduces 
notes  of  dilTerent  length  into 
music — and  the  method  of 
distinguishing  them. 

Romance  poetry  of  the  middle 
ages  flourishes. 

Mayronis  commences  the  cele- 
brated disputations  in  the 
Sorbonne. 

Clock  constructed  on  mathe- 
matical principles,  by  Rich- 
ard Valigfort. 

Linna,  a  monk,  and  astrono- 
mer of  Oxford,  constructs  a 
map  of  the  northern  seas. 

Thomas,of  Bradwardine,  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury. 


Giotto,  a  shepherd  boy,  the 
first  who  drew  portraits 
from  life. 

Greek  literature  revives. — 
Barlaam  teaches  Petrarch. 
— Leontiiis  lectures  on  Ho- 
mer at  Florence. 

First  comet,  whose  course  has 
been  accurately  described. 

GUNPOWDER  in  use  at 
the  battle  of  Creasy. 

Lippo  Memmi  Giotino,  Flo- 
rentine painter. 

First  bank  at  Genoa. 


Ecclesiastical.  France,  Germany,  &  Spain, 


1324.    Contest  of    the  popes 
with  Louis  of  Bavaria. 


1328.  Crusade  preached  againsi 
Louis,  who  sets  up  Nicholas 
V.  as  anti-pope. 


1334.  Pope  Benedict  XII. 


1.3.39.  Struggles  in  Rome  be- 
tween the  Colonna  and  the 
Ursini. 


1342.  Pope  Clement  VI. 


Democracy  at  Rome,    under  Rienzi,  the  last  of  the    Tri- 
bunes. 


Manufactures  improve  in 
England.  —  Commerce  in- 
creases. 

Bartolus  and  Baldus,  cele- 
brated jurists 


Merino  sheep  introduced  into 
Spain,  by  Peter  IV.  of  Ara- 
gon. 

Sir  John  Mandeville's  Tra- 
vels, the  first  English  book 
in  prose. 


1352.  Pope  Innocent  VI. 

1354.  Rienzi  killed.— Albemoz, 
cardinal  legate,  restores  the 
papal  dominion. 


1322.  France :  —  C  h  a  r  1  e  a 

I  V.^— (the  Fair.) 

Germany :— Frederic,  of 
Austria  defeated  and  taken 
prisoner. 
1324.  Germany :  —  Louis  ex- 
communicated by  John  XII. 
— appeals  to  a  general  coun- 
cil. 


1328.  France  :— P  h  i  1  i  p  VI 
of   V  a  1  o  i  s  .^M 


1332.  France  :— The  Flemings 
revolt  and  acknowledge  Ed- 
ward III.  as  king  of  France. 


1338.  France :- War  with  Eng- 
land. 

Germany  : — Declaration 
of  the  Diet  of  Frankfort, 
that  the  pope  had  no  tempo- 
ral power  in  the  empire. 

Louis  sides  with  the 
English  against  France. 


1346.  France:  —  Normandy 
overrun  by  Edward,  with 
his  son,  the  Black  Prince. — 
French  defeated  at  Cressy. 

Germany  : — O  h  a  r  1  e  s 
IV.,  king  of  Bohemia. 

The  empire  otfered  to 
Edward  III.,  who  declines. 

1350.  France  :— J  o  h  n  ,^g  — 
(the  Good.) 


1355.  Germany  :  —  Promulga- 
tion of  the  golden  Bull. 

1356.  France  :— King  John  de- 
feated and  taken  prisoner  at 
Poitiers. — Charles  the  dau- 
phin regent. 

Insurrection  in  Pans. 


1360.  France  : — John  regains 
his  liberty — cedes  much  ter- 
ritory to  England. 


1299-1453 — 154  years. — Continued.] 


THE    world's    fROGRESS. 


105 


1320 


Eastern  Empire. 


1326 
1328 


1341 


1348 


1355 


Disputes  and  civil  war  be- 
tween the  emperor  and  his 
son,  Michael. 


England  &  Scotland. 


1322.  Lancaster  executed. 

1323.  Conspiracy  against  the 


Orkhan,  sultan  of  the  Turks, 
makes  Prusa  his  capital. 


Andronicus, 

(the  younger.) 


-John  Cantacuzeue. 


War  with  the  Genoese,  defeat 
of  the  Greeks  and  Venetians. 


-John  Palaeulosus.' 


Amurath    I.,    Sultan    of    the 
Turks. 


The  World,  elsewhere. 


1320.  Russia :  —  The  grand 
duchy  of  Wladimir  confer- 
red on  Ivan  Danilovitsch. 


1327.  Peace  between  Scotland 
and  England.  —  The  inde- 
pendence of  Scotland  ac- 
knowledged. 

— Ed  ward  Ill.^g  — 
1329.  Scotland  :— David  11. 

1332.  Edward  invades  Scot- 
land.— Balliol  crowned,  but 
soon  expelled. 

1333.  Battle  of  Halidon  Hill. 
— Balliol  restored — does  ho- 
mage to  Edward. 


1338.  Struggle  for  the  French 
crown,which  lasts  120  years. 


1340.  The  victory  of  Helvoet 
Sluys  —  gives  spirit  to  the 
English  navy. 

David,  of  Scotland,  in- 
vades England. 

1346.  Battle  ofCressy. 

1347.  Siege  and  capture  of 
Calais. 


1350.  Victory  over  the  Spanish 
fleet.  —  Parliament  divided 
into  two  chambers,  lords 
spiritual  and  temporal. 


1356.  Edward,  the 
Black  Prince, 
gains  the  battle  of 
Poitiers.  —  John  made 
prisoner.— Two  years'  truce. 
— Edward  again  invades 
Scotland — is  obliged  to  re- 
treat. 

1358.  — again  invades  France. 

1360.  Peace  of  Bretigni. 


1326.  Tartary  : —  Tamer- 
lane   born  at  Kesh. 

1327.  Italy :— Invaded  by  Louis, 
emperor  of  Germany. 


1333.  Poland :  — Casimir    the 
Great.  ^^ 


1339.  Italy : — Simon  Cocane- 
gra,  doge  of  Genoa. 

1340.  Denmark  :  —  Waldemar 
IV.  restorer  of  the  kingdom. 

1342.  Hungary  :  —  Louis  the 
Great. 

1343.  Italy : Commercial 

treaty  between  Venice  and 
the  sultan  of  Egypt  and 
Syria. 

1347.  Italy :— R  i  e  n  z  i ,  the 
last  of  the  Tribunes,  rules 
at  Rome. 


1350.  Italy  : — Naval  war  be- 
tween Venice  and  Genoa. 

1353.  Establishment  of  the  Ot- 
tomans in  Europe. 

1354.  Italy  :—Rienzi  killed— 
papal  flower  restored. 

1356.  First  war  between  Hun- 
gary and  Venice. 


1359.  Hungary  :— Conquest  of 
the  principalities  lying  on 
the  Danube. 


106 


THE    WORLD  S   PROGRESS. 


[Period  VII.— The  Middle  Ages.— 


A.D.    Progress  op  Society,  etc. 


1365 


Petrarch  and  Boccacio. 


Charles  V.  founds  a  college  of 
medicine  and  astrology  at 
Paris. 


Foundation  of  the  University 
of  Vienna. 


Geof.  Chaucer,  father 
of  English   poetry. 


1380 


1383 


1390 


1392 


1402 


Mysteries  played  in  France. 


Wickliffe's  translation  of  the 
Bible. 


University     of     Heidelberg 

founded. 
Froissart's  Chronicles. 
John  Van  Eyck,  invented  oil 

painting  —  founder  of   the 

Flemish  school. 


The  first  mill  in  Germany  for 
the    manufacture  of    linen 


Revival  of  Greek  literature  in 
Italy. 


John  Gower,  English  poet. 


Ecclesiastical. 


1362.  Pope  Urban  V.  at  Avig- 
non—beautifies the  city  of 
Rome— presents  the  right 
arm  of  Thomas  Aquinas  to 
Charles  V.  of  France,  as  an 
object  of  worship. 


1370.  Pope  Gregory  IX. 


1378.  "  Schism  of  the  West :" 
Pope    Urban    VI.     ac- 
knowledged  in  the  empire 
and  England. 

Clement  VII.  acknow- 
ledged in  France,  Spain,  and 
Scotland. 


1389.    Pope   Boniface  IX. 
Rome. 

1391.  The  English  clergy  for- 
bidden to  cross  the  sea  for 
benefices. 

1394.  Pope  Benedict  XIII. 


France,  Germany  &  Spain, 


1364.  Fr.  :— Charles  V. 
— -(the  Wise.) 


1365.  War  with  Navarre- bat- 
tle of  Amoy. 


1378.  Germany:— We nces- 
las,  (king  of  Bohemia), 
emperor. 


1380.  Fr. :  CharlesVI.^ 
(the  Maniac). 

1382.  Battle  of  Rosbecq— the 
Flemings  defeated  — Arte- 
velde  killed. 


1386.  France :— Fruitless  at- 
tempt to  invade  England. 


1392.  —Charles  seized  with 
madness. 

1394.  Germany  :— The  emper- 
or imprisoned  by  the  people 
of  Prague. 


1400.  Ger. :— R  o  b  e  r  t , 
(Count  Palatine). 


1299-1453.— 154  2/e«rs.— Continued.]  THE  world's  progress. 


107 


Eastern  Empire. 


1373 


1389 
1391 


1402 


Treaty  with  Murad,  the  Otto- 
man emperor. 


Bajazel  1.,  sultan  of  the  Turks. 


•  Manuel  II.' 


England  &  Scotland. 


The  World,  elsewhere. 


Victory  of  Nicopolis.— Sigis- 
mond,  of  Hungary,  defeated 
by  Bajazet  I. 


Bajazet  defeated  and  made 
prisoner  by  Tamerlane,  at 
the  battle  of  Angora. 


1362.  The  Black  Prince  aids 
Peter  the  Cruel,  of  Castile, 
to  recover  his  throne. 


1369.  A  new  war  with  France ; 
unsuccessful. 


1371.  Scotland  :— Robert  II.— 

the  House  of  Stuart. 
1376.    Death   of     the    Black 

Prince. 

1377.— Richard  11.  @— 
First  Speaker  of  the  House 
of  Commons. 


1378.    Fruitless   invasion    of 
France. 

Insurrection  of  Wat  Ty- 
ler. 


1382.  The  king  marries  Anne, 
daughter  of  Charles  IV. 

1384.  The  Scots,  assisted  by 
France,  invade  England. 

1385.  The  English  burn  Edin- 
burgh. 


1388.  Battle  of  Olterbourne. 

1390.  Scotland  :  Robert  III. 
Persecution  of  the  Wick- 
lifites. 


1398.  Henry,  of  Lancaster, 
banished. 

House  of  Lancas- 

1399.  —Henry  IV.^ — 
Richard  II.  deposed. 

1401.  Rebellion  of  Owen  Glen- 
dower,  and 

1403.  of  the  Percys,  who  are 
defeated  at  the  battle  of 
Shrewsbury. 


1362.    Italy  :  —  War  between 
Pisa  and  Florence. 


1369.  Tartary  :  —  Tamerlana 
makes  Samarcand  the  capi- 
tal of  his  new  empire. 

1370.  Poland  :— Extinction  of 
the  royal  race  of  Piasts. 


1378.  Italy :— Silvester  de  Me- 
dici, gonfaloniere  of  Flo- 
rence. 


1380.  Russia :— Dimitri  Ivano- 
vitsch  victorious  over  the 
Tartars,  near  the  Don. 

1382.  The  Tartars  sack  Mos- 
cow. 

1384.  Persia:  —  Invaded  by 
Tamerlane ;  Ispahan  taken. 
— Pyramids  of  human  heads. 

1385.  War  between  Austria 
and  Switzerland. 

1386.  Battle  of  Sempach:— 
the  Austrians  defeated. 

1387.  Denmark  &  Norway  :— 

Margaret,  ^^ the  Semi- 

ramis  of  the  north. 
1391.  Italy  :— Pisa  falls  under 
the  yoke  of  the  Visconti. 


1395.  Tamerlane  overruns 
Kipchak  and  Russia. 

1397.  Union  of  Calmar,  form- 
ing Denmark,  Sweden,  and 
Norway  into  a  single  mo- 
narchy. 

1399.  Invasion  of  India  by 
Tamerlane. 


108 


THE  world's   progress.  [Pe?iod  VII.— Tke  Middle  Ages.- 


A.D.     Pkogress  op  Society,  etc. 


1407 
1409 


Rodrigo,  of  Zamora,  Spanish 
historian. 

University  of  Leipsic  found- 
ed. 


Thomas  a  Kempis. 


John  Suss. 
Jerome,  of  Prague. 


Ecclesiastical. 


First  Portuguese  colonies  on 
the  coast  of  Africa,  Madei- 
ra, &c. 


George  of  Peurback,  astrono- 
mer at  Vienna. 


Peter  d'Ailti/,  theologian. 


The  arts  promoted  in  Italy  by 
Cosmo  de  Medici. 


England  increases  her   trade 
with  the  Mediterranean. 


Micliael  Walhgemuth,  Ger 
man  painter,  (teacher  of 
Durer). 

Fra.  Pilippo  Lippi,  painter. 


INVENTION  OF  PRINT- 
ING at  Mayence. 

John  MuUer  Regiomontanus, 
German  astronomer  and 
mathematician. 


1404.  Pope  Innocent  VII. 
1406.      "     Gregory  XII. 


1409.  The  council  of  Pisa  de- 
poses Gregory  and  Bene- 
dict, and  elects  Alexander 
V.  ; — neither  will  yield,  so 
that  there  are  three  popes  at 
once. 

1410.  Pope  John  XXIII. 


France,  Germany,  &  Spain 


1414.   Council  of  Constance. 


1416.  John  Huss,  and  Jerome, 
of  Prague,  burnt  by  the 
Council  of  Constance. 

1417.  Pope  Martin  V. 


1429.  Pope  Clement  VIII.  at 
Avignon,  resigns,  and  ends 
the  "Schism  of  the  West." 


1431.  Pope  Eiigenius  IV. 
Council  of  Basle. 


1407.    France  :  —  Murder  of 
Louis,  Duke  of  Orleans. 

Spain:— John    II.,  king 
of  Castile. 


1410.  Spain :— Ferdinand,  king 

of  Arragon.  —  Yussef  III., 

king  of  Granada. 
1410.  Fr. : — Civil  war  between 

the  parties  of  Orleans  and 

Burgundy. 

Germany  :  —  Death   of 

Robert. 
1111.  S  i  g  i  s  m  u  n  d  ,  (king 

of  Hungary),^g empe- 
ror. 
L413.    France:  — The  French 
defeated  by    Henry  V.,    of 
England,  at  Agincourt. 

1416.  Spain : — Alfonzo  V.,  king 
of  Arragon  and  Sicily. 


1419.  Sigismund    succeeds  to 
the  Bohemian  crown. 


1422.  France  :— Death  of  Char- 
les VI  —  Henry  VI.  pro- 
claimed at  Paris  king  of 
France  and  England. 

— Charles  VII.  ^ — 
at  Poitiers. 

1427.  Orleans  besieged  by  the 
English. 

1429.  — saved  by  J  o  a  n  of 
Arc. 

■:  Charles  crowned  at 
Rheims ;  makes  a  vain  at- 
tempt to  gain  Paris. 

1431.  Joan  of  Arc  taken  pri- 
soner and  burnt  as  a  witch. 

1431.  Germany :  —  Sigismund 
visits  Italy,  and  is  crowned 
emperor  by  Pope  Eugenius 
IV. 

1435.  Peace  of  Arras,  between 
France  and  Burgundy. 


1436.    France  : — Recovery   of 
Paris. 


1438.   Pragmatic  sanction   of  Bruges,  establishes  the  liber 
ties  of  the  French  church. 


1299-1453 :— 154  ymr^.— Continued.]         THE  world's  progress. 


109 


Eastern  Empire. 


Solyman    I.,    Sultan    of    the 
Turks. 


England  &  Scotland. 


1406.  Scotland  :— James  I. 


The  World,  elsewhere. 


1406.  Italy  : —  Pisa  conquered 
by  Florence.—  Subjugation 
of  Padua  and  Verona  by 
Venice. 


1413  Mohammed  I.,  Sultan  of  the 
Turks. 


1438 


Amu  rath  II.,  Sultan    of   the 
Turks. 


John  VII. ' 

peror. 


1413.  —Henry    V  .^ — 

1414.  —  claims     the    French 
crown. 

1415.  —  gains    the    battle 
of    Agincourt. 


1420.  Treaty  of  Troyes.-Henry 
marries  Catharine,  daughter 
of  Charles  VI.,  and  is  de- 
clared heir  to  the  French 
crown. 

1422.  Death  of  Henry  V. 

— Henry    V  I  .^^ — 

1434.  The  Duke  of  Bedford 
defeats  the  French  at  Ver- 
neuil. 


The  emperor  visits  Italy  to 
obtain  help  against  the 
Turks— submits  to  the  pope. 


1427.  —besieges  Orleans. 

1429.  The  siege  raised  by  the 
Maid  of  Orleans. 


1431.  — she  is  taken  prisoner 
and  burnt. 


1435.  Death  of  the  Duke  of 
Bedford,  followed  by  the 
loss  of  all  the  English  pos- 
sessions in  France,  except 
Calais. 

1436.  War  with  Scotland. 

1437.  Scotland  :— James  II. 


1412.  Italy:— Sack  of  Rome 
by  Ladislas,  king  of  Naples. 
Denmark,  Norway,  &c. : 

Eric  VII.,  of  Pomerania.^^ 
1415.  Conquest  of  Ceuta,   by 

the  Portuguese. 
1419.  Bohemia : — Hussite  war. 


1420.    Discovery  of  Madeira 
by  the  Portuguese. 


1424.  Bohemia  :-Death  of  John 
Ziska,  the  Hussite  leader. 

Italy  :— War  of  the  Duke 
of  Milan  against  Florence. 


1429.  Florence:— Cosmo  di 
Medici,  patron  of  the 
arts  and  sciences. 


1431.   Italy  :— Second  war  of 
Venice  and  Milan. 


1434.  Poland  :-Vladislas  III. 


1436.  Italy:— Third  war   be- 
tween Venice  and  Milan. 

1437.  Portugal :  —  Expedition 
into  Africa. 

1438.  Portugal :— Alfonso  V., 


king.® 


110 


THE    world's   progress. 


[Period  VJI.—  Tlie  Middle  Ages.- 


Progress  op  Society,  etc. 


Ecclesiastical. 


1446 


Leonardo  da  Vinci,  sculptor, 
architect,  and  painter — dis- 
covers perspective. 


Pet.  Perugino,  founder  of  the 
Roman  school  of  painting, 
teacher  of  Raphael. 


Library  of  the  Vatican,  found- 
ed. 


The  Azores  discovered. 
Alain  Chartica.  French  poet. 


Flourishing  period  of  Flan 
ders'  trade. — All  European 
nations  have  warehouses  at 
Bruges  and  Ghent. — Boo/c 
trade  at  MoA/ence. 


1447.  Pope  Nicholas  V. 


1448-  Concordat  of  Aschaffen 
berg,  by  which  the  liberties 
of  the  German  church  are 
compromised. 


France,  Germany  &  Spain. 


1438.    Germany :  —House 
of   Austria: 

—  Albert  II.® — 
(king  of  Bohemia  and  Hun- 
gary.) 


1440.  Ger.  :-Frederic  III 


France :— The  dauphin, 
(Louis  XL),  rebels— but  is 
pardoned. 


1444.  — establishment  of  the 
companies  of  Archers,  the 
first  national  standing  army. 


1446.  Germany  :— War  with 
Hungary,  for  refusing  to 
give  up  the  young  prince, 
Vladislas. 


1451.  Expedition  of  Frederic 
to  Rome. 


1453.  Austria  made  an  heradi- 
tary  duchy  by  Frederic. 

End  of  the  French  and 
English  wars. 


1299-1453.— 154  years.— Continued.]  THE  world's  progress.  Ill 


1443 


1444 


Eastern  Empire. 


Insurrection  of  Scandeberg — 
victory  over  the  Turks  near 
Nissa. 


Battle  of  Varna  —  Vladislas, 
king  of  Poland,  defeated  and 
killed  by  the  Turks. 


1448 


1451 


1453 


— Constantine  XII.  ^m- 
(Palaeologus,)  the  last  of  the 
Greek  emperors. 


Mohammed  II.,  Sultan  of  the 
Turks. 


Siege  and  capture 
of  Constantinople 
by    the    Turks: 

END  OF  THE  EAST- 
ERN   EMPIRE. 


England  <fe  Scotland.  The  World,  elsevyhere 


1444.  Truce  with  France.— 
Marriage  of  Henry  to  Mar- 
garet, of  Anjou. 


1447.  Gloucester  arrested  for 
treason— dies  suddenly. 


1450.  Insurrection  of  Jack 
Cat^e— calling  himself  Mor 
timer. 

Civil     Wars      of 
"the    Roses:'' 

Richard,  duke  of  York, 
claims  the  throne. 


Scotland  :~StruggIes  be- 
tween the  king  and  aristo- 
cracy for  power. 


1440.  Hungary :  —  Vladislas 
chosen  king.^g 

1441.  Italy :— Peace  of  Marti- 
nego. 

1443.  Alfonso  V.,  of  Arragon, 
unites  the  crown  of  the  Two 
Sicilies. 


1445.  Poland  :  Casimir  IV. '^ 

1446.  Tartaty  :  —  Ulugh  Beg, 
patron  of  astronomy  and 
geography. 


1448.  Denmark  :— Christian  I 
of  Odenburg.^^ 

Sweden :— Charles  V1II.@ 

1450.  Italy :— Francesco  Sfor- 
za,  duke  of  Milan. 

Norway : Christian 

crowned  at  Drontheim.^g 

Delhi :— Behol  Lodi  en- 
larges the  kingdom. 
1453.  Poland :  —Confirmation 
of  the  national  liberty  in  the 
Diet  of  Petrikan. 


112 


THE   world's    progress. 


PERIOD  Vin.— 1453-1598.— 


1460 


1464 


1466 


1470 


Pro&ress  of  Society,  etc. 


1477 


1481 


1484 


Philip  de    Comines,  French 
hiscorian. 


Wood  engraving  invented. 


Post-offices  in    France    and 
England. 


Faiist  dies  at  Paris,  whither 
he  journeys  twice  to  sell  his 
Latin  Bible. 


Beerhard  invents  the  pedal  to 
the  organ. 


Printing  in  England— Cax- 
ton. 


Printed  musical  notes. 

Hungary  : —  Mathias  patroni- 
zes literature  and  the  arts. 

Large  library  at  O  fen— 300 
copyists  of  manuscripts. 


German  ballads— war  songs  of 
Veit  Weber. 


TFa^cAes  first  made  at  Nurem- 

burg. 
Mikrond  and  Rondemir,  great 

Persian  historians. 


Lady  Juliana  Berners,  one  of 
the  earliest  female  writers 
of  England. 


Hans  Holbein,  painter. 


Franchino  Gafurid,  teacher  in 
the  first  public  school  of 
music  at  Milan. 


Josquin  de  Prez,  greatest  mu- 
sical genius  of  his  age. 


England. 


1455.  Battle  of 
St.  Albans. 

House 
of   York : 
1461.  — -Ed- 
ward IV. 

^g —  gains 
the  battle  of 
Towton. 


1469.Warwick 
banished. 


1471.  Battle  of 
Bamet  :- 
Warwick 
slain— Hen- 
ry VI.  dies  in 
the  Tower, 


1483. Ed- 
ward   V 


Richard, 
Protector.  — 
The  king  & 
his  brother 
murdered  in 
the  Tower. 

— R  i  c  h  - 
ard    III. 


1485.  -Henry, 
earl  of  Rich- 
mond, lands 
at  Millbrd 
Haven. 

Battle 
o  f  B  o  s- 
worth 
Field: 

Richard 

defeated  and 
slain. 


Scotland. 


1460. 
III. 


James 


France. 


1479.  War  with 
England .  — 
Conspiracy 
of  the  no- 
bles ;  —  they 
take  the  kinj 
prisoner. 


146].  Louis 

Civil  war.— 
— Peace  of 
Conflans. 


Spain  and 
Portugal. 


1475.  War  be- 
tween Louis 
and  Charles 
of  Burgun- 
dy, 

1476.  — who  is 
defeated  at 
Granson  and 
Morat,  and 

1477. —slain  at 

Nancy. 

Artois     and 
Burgundy 
united  to  the 

French 
crown. 


1483.— Char 
les  VIII 


1454.  Spain  :— 
Henry  IV.  of 

Castile.  ^M 


1469.  Marriage 
ofFerdinand, 
of  Arragon, 
with  Isabel- 
la, of  Cas- 
tile. 


1479.  Union 
of  Castile 
and  Arra- 
gon   under 

Ferdinand 
1 1 .  and  Isa- 
bella. 

1480.TheIn- 

qu  isi  tion. 
— X  i  m  e  - 
n  e  s ,  bishop 
of  Toledo. 

1481.  Port.  :— 

John  11.^ 

1484.  First  au- 
da-fe  at  Se- 
ville. 


THE    world's    progress. 
Othman  to  the  Edict  of  Nantes. 


113 


1462 


1469 


Germany. 


The  emperor  besieged  in  liis 
court  at  Vienna — delivered 
by  G.  Podiebrad,  of  Bohe- 
mia. 


Invasions  of  the  Turks. 


University  of  Ingoldstodt. 


1477  Marriage  of  Maximilian  and 
Maria  of  Burgundy. 


Ottoman 
Empire.  The  World,  elsewhere. 


1455.  Turks  re- 
pulsed at  Bel- 
grade. 


1454.  Struggle 
between  Cos- 
mod  da  Me- 
dici and  the 
aristocracy. 

1458.  The 
French  rule 
in  Genoa. 

Pope  Pi- 
us II. 

1463.  War  of 
Venice  with  the  Turks. 


1464.  Pietro  de 
Medici  at 
Florence. 

Pope  Paul 
11. 

1466.  Galeaz- 
zo,  duke  of 
Milan. 

1469.  L  o  r  e  n  ■ 
zo  de  Me- 
dici, suc- 
ceeds Pietro. 

1471.  Sixtus 
IV.  pope. 

Power  of 
the  Medici 
increases. 

Learnin 
flourishes. 


1464.  War  with 
Hungary. 


1478.  Conspi- 
racy of  the 
Pazzi  at  Flo- 
rence.—Giu- 
lio,  brother 
of  Lorenzo 
de  Medici, 
slain. 


1484.  Innocent 
VIII.,  pope. 


of 


1454.  Poland  :— War  with  the 
Teutonic  Order. 


1458.    Hungary : Mathias 

Corvin,^g -.-aakes  his 

country  formidable   to  her 
neighbors. 

1462.  Russia  .-—Ivan  I.@  — 
the  Great — takes  the  tide  of 
Czar. 

1466.  Peace  of  Thorn.— East 
Prussia  a  fief  of  Poland.— 
West  Prussia  ceded  to  Po- 
land. 

1468.  Uzun  Hasan,  master  of 
all  Persia. 


1470.  —forms  an  alliance  with 
the  Venetians  and  the  duke 
Burgun  dy  against  the  Turks— con- 
quers Bagdad. 

1472.  Russia  : — Ivan  marries 
Sophia,  niece  of  the  Greek 
emperor. 

1474.  —shakes  off  the  Tartar 
yoke,  and  captures  Novo- 
gorod. 

1477.  Hungary  — War  with 
Frederic  III. 


1479.  Fruitless 
attempt  upon 
Rhodes. 


1480.  -capture 
and  destroy 
Otranto. 

1481.  Bajazet 


1481.  Denmark :— John,  W 
partially  acknowledged 
Sweden. 


1488.   Hungary :  —  —  Mathiai 
takes  Vienna. 


il4 


THE    world's    progress. 


[Period  VIJI.~ 


Scot-         _  Spain  and 

A.D.     Prooress  OP  Society,  etc.  England.  land.         France.         Portugal. 


1490 


1493 


1497 

-8 


1498 


1499 
1502 


1515 


1517 


Martini  Behaim,  (Nurem- 
burg,)  publishes  a  map  of 
the  world. 

DISCO VER Y  OF 
AMERICA. 

First  printing  press  at  Copen- 
hagen. 

Tlie  second  voyage  of  Colum- 
bus.— A  Spanish  colony  at 
Hispaniola. 

The  discoveries  of  John  and 
Sebastian  Cabot. 

Third  voyage  of  Columbus. 
He  discovers  Trinidad  and 
the  Continent. 

Lisbon,  the  great  seat  of  trade. 
— Venice  declines. 

Maritime  enterprises  greatly 
extended. 

Sir  Thomas  More's  Utopia, 
published. 

Nicholas  Machiavelli,  states- 
man and  historian. 

Amerigo  Vespucius's  voyage. 

Fourth  voyage  of  Columbus. 

Raphael,  Michael  Angelo,  Ti- 
tian, Corregio,  painters. 

St.  Peter's,  and  other  magni- 
ficent churches  built. 


The  celebrated  tapestry,  after 
Raphael ; — Cartoons  woven 
in  the  Netherlands. 

L  UTHER, E  I- SLsmtis, 
MelancthoB  ,  and  other 
reformers. 

Roger  Ascham,  tutor  of  queen 
Elizabeth. 

Hans  Sachs,  founder  of  Ger- 
man drama. 

Copernicus,  discovers 
the  true  system  of  the  Uni- 
verse— his  great  work,  De 
Orbium  Cffilestium  Revolu- 
tionibus. 

First  complete  circumnavi- 
gation of  the  globe,  by  Ma- 
gellan 


House      o  ; 
Tudor: — 
— Henrv  VII. 


1486.   Imposture    of 
Lambert  Syranel. 
The  Star  Cham- 
ber established. 


1493.  Perkin  War- 
beck,  pretends  to 
be  Richard,  duke 
of  York — defeated 
on  Blackheath. 


1497.  Cabot  makes 
discoveries  in  A- 
merica. 

1499.  Earl  of 
Warwick,  last 
of  the  Plantage- 
nets,  executed. 


1509.    H  6  n  r  y 

VIII  .W — - 

joins  the  League 
of  Cambray. 

1513.  Invasion  of  the 
Scots.  —  Battle  of 
Flodden — the  king 
and  chief  Scots 
killed. 

1515.  W  o  1  s  e  y  , 
chancellor  and  car- 
dinal. 

1520.  The  Emperor 
visits  England.  — 
Meeting  of  Henry 
and  Francis  at  the 
•'Field  of  the  Cloth 
of  Gold." 

1521.  The  Reformed 
doctrines  opposed 
by  Henry,  in  his 
book  on  the  Seven 
Sacraments  —  he 
receives  the  title 
of  "  Defender  of 
the  Faith." 


1487.:- 

James 

IV. 


1503. :  - 
James 
marries 
Marga- 
ret, of 
Eng- 
land. 


1513.:- 

James 

V. 


1491.  Bretag- 
ne  united  to 
the  crown 
by  the  king's 
marriage 
with  Anne. 

1494.  Invasion 
of  Italy. 


1498.— Louis 

XII.W— 


1500.  Treaty 
with  Ferdi- 
nand, of  Ara- 
gon,  for  the 
conquest  and 
partition  of 
Naples. 


1510.  The 
Council     of 
Tours,  to 
support  the 
king  against 
the    Holy 
League. 


1515.— Fran- 
cis l.^m  — 
— invades 

Italy—  victory 
of  Marigna- 
no —  Genoa 
and  Milan 
submit. 

1516.  Concor- 
dat with  the 
pope,  instead 
of  pragma- 
tic sanction. 

1521.  First  war 
with  Char- 
les V. 


1492.  C  c  ."  - 
quest  o { 
Granad  a, 
by  Gonzalo 
de  Cordova. 

Discovery 
o  f  Ameri- 
ca, by  Co- 
lumbus . 

1498.  Vasco 
d  e  G  a  m  a 
doubles  the 
Cape  of 
Good  Hope, 
and  reaches 
India. 


1506.  Colum- 
bus dies  at 
Valladolid. 

1507.  Cardinal 
Xim,enes. 

Board  ol 
American 
trade  at  Se- 
ville. 


1516.— Char- 
king  ol  all 
Spain,  and 
the  Nether- 
lands. 

1519.  Con- 
quest o  ( 
Mexico, 
by  C  o  r  t  e  5 


1453-1598,] 


THE   world's    progress. 


116 


149.'; 


— M  a  X  i  m  i  1  i  a  n    I . 


502 


1508 


1517 
1518 

1519 
152) 


University  of  Wittenbui-g 


Maximilian  enters  Italy  to  be 
crowned  by  the  pope. 

— ^joins  the  League  of  Cam- 
bray. 

— divides  the  empire  into  ten 
circles. 


Commencement  of 
THE   Reformation. 

Luther  summoned  before  the 
diet  of  Augsburg. 

-Charles   V  .^^ — 
of  Spain. 

The  archduke  Ferdinand,  mar- 
ries Anne,  sister  of  Louis — 
whence  the  accession  of 
Bohemia  and  Hungary 
the  House  of  Hapsburg. 

Diet  of  Worms. 


1492.  Pietro  II. 
succeeds  his 
father,  Lo- 
renzo, in  Flo- 
rence. 

Pope  Alex- 
ander VI., 
(Borgia.) 

1494.  Expedi- 
tion of  Char- 
les VIII.  in- 
to Italy. 

1499.  Amerigo 
Vespucius's 
voyage  to 
America. 

1500.  Partition 
of  Naples 
between 
France    and 
Spain. 

1502.  Florence: 
Machiavelli, 
Secretary  of 
State. 

1503.  Naples 
annexed  to 
the  Spanish 
Crown. 

Pope  Pius 
III. 

Pope  Ju 
lius  II. 
1508.  League 
of  Cambray 
against  Ve- 
nice. 

1510.  Holy 
League  i 
expel  the 
French. 

1511.  Council 
of  Pisa. 

1513.  Pope 
Leo    X  . 
(de  Medici,) 
patron  of  li- 
terature and 
arts. 

The  build- 
ing of  St. 
Peter's  com- 
menced. 

1519.  Cardinal 
de  Medici 
holds  rule  in 
Florence. 

1522.  Po.pe 
Adrian  VI, 


Ottoman 
Empire, 


1493.  Wars 
with  Egypt, 
Hungary, 
and  Venice, 


The  World,  elsewhere. 


1503.  Peace 
with  Venice. 

1505,  War  with 
Persia. 


1512.  Selim  I., 

thrones  and 
puts  to  death 
his  father 

1514.  The  Per- 
sians defeat 
ed  at  Kalde 
roon. —  Me 
sopotamia 
and  Kurdis- 
tan added  to 
the  empire. 

1516.  Cairo 
taken  by 
storm.— Ma- 
meluke do- 
minions an- 
nexed to  the 
empire. 

1520.  Soliman, 

Magnificent.) 

1521.  Belgrade 
taken  by 
storm. 

1522.  Rhodes 
capitulates. 


1488.   India :—  Sekander  Lodi, 

king  of  Delhi. 
1492.  Poland:— John  Albert. 


AMERICA  discovered  by  Co- 
lumbus. 


1493.  Spanish  colony  at  His 
paniola. 


1499.  Voyage  of  Amerigo  Ves- 
pucius. —  South  American 
coast  explored. 


1501. Poland :— Alexander. 


1 502,  Ismail  Shah  Soofi  makes 
himself  sole  sovereign  of 
Persia. 


1506.   Poland  :—Sigismund  1. 
^J (the  Great.) 


1509.  Bohemia :— Louis,^g— 
3  years  old. 

1510.  America :  —  Settlement 
at  Darien. 

1511.  America  :— C  u  b  a  con- 
quered, 

1512.  America:  —  Florida 
discovered. 

1513.  South  Sea  first  reached 
by  Balboa. 

1516.  Hungary  and  Bohemia : 
—Louis  II.  ^g 

1517.  India  :— Ibrahim  Lodi, 
king  of  Delhi 

1517.  Xmenca.:— Fir  St  patent 
for  importing  Negroes — 
granted  by  Spain. 

1518.  Corsairs  in  Algiers. 

1519.  MEXICO  conquered  by 
the  Spaniards,  under  Cor- 
tes. 


116 


THE    world's   progress. 


{Period  VIII.- 


Progress  op  Society,  etc. 


Xavier  plants  Christianity  in 
India. 


Ariosto^  Italian  poet. 


1^27  Albert  Durer. 

F.fst  work  on  military  archi- 
tecture. 


Jorgens  invents  the  spinning 

wheel  for  spinning  flax. 
Rabelais,  French  humorist. 


Botanic  Gardens  at  Padua. 


Ignatius  Loyola  founds  the 
order  of  the  Jesuits. 


Papal  bull  declaring  the  Ame- 
rican natives  to  be  rational 
beings. 

The  diving  bell  invented. 

Calvin  founds  the  Univer- 
sity of  Geneva. 

Pins  first  used  by  Catharine 
Howard,  queen  of  England. 

John  Knox,  Scottish  Refor- 
mer. 

A  commercial  treaty  between 
Portugal  and  Japan. 


Needles  first  made. 
Vasalius's  work  on  Anatomy. 


Revival  of  Stoicism,  by  Justus 

Lipsius. 
Palestrina,  founder  of  Italian 

church  music. 

Giacomo  Carisimi. 

Orange  trees  introduced  into 
Europe. 


1529.  Sir  Tfiomas 
More,  Lord  Chan- 
cellor. —  Rise  of 
Cranmer,  archbi- 
shop of  Canter- 
bury. 


1532.  The  king  mar- 
ries Anne  Boleyn. 


1535.  Bishop  Fisher 
and  Sir  Thomas 
More  beheaded. 

Henry  e.xcom- 
municated  by  the 
Pope 

1536.  —marries  Jane 
Seymour. —  Sup- 
pression of  the 
smaller  monaste- 
ries. 


1543.  Henry  invades 

France takes 

Boulogne. 

1544.  French  fleet 
gain  a  victory  over 
the  English,  ofl" 
the  Isle  of  Wight. 

1547.  — Edward 

Somerset  invades 
Scotland  — defeats 
the  Scots  at  Pin- 
kie. 

Formal  esta- 
blishment of  Pro- 
testantism. 


Scot- 
land. 


1536. :  — 
Spread 
ot  the 
Refor- 
mation. 
—Pro- 
testants 
persecu- 
ted. 

1542. :  — 
Mary. 


Earl  of 

Arran, 

regent. 


Spain  and 
Portugal. 


1525.     Francis 
defeated  and 
taken   pri- 
soner at  Pa- 


1527.  Second 
war  with 
Charles  V. 

1529.  Treaty  of 
Cambray. — 
Great  en- 
couragement 
given  to  arts 
and  sciences. 
—The  Lou- 
vre com- 
menced. 

1532.    Calvin 
preaches. 
Third 
French  war. 
— Siege    of 
Marseilles. 


1538.  Truce  of 
Nice— for  10 
years. 

Attempt  to 
recover  pow- 
er in  Italy; 
hence  the 

1542.  Fourth 
French  war. 


1544.  Peace  of 
Crespy. 
France  gives 
up  Italy. 

1547.  Henry 

'  The    fa- 
mous Catha- 
rine     d  e 
Medici, 
queen. 


1536.  Acquisi- 
tion of  Mi- 
lan. 


1540.   Portu- 
gal :  —  Lis- 
bon,the  mar- 
ket  of     the 
world. 

1542.   Com- 
mercial trea- 
ty   between 
Portugal  and 
Japan. 


1453-1598.J 


THE    WORLD'S    PROGRESS. 


117 


1525 


1526 


1529 


1543 


1545 
1546 


1547 


General  insurrections  of  the 
peasantry,  under  Thomas 
Miinzer. 


Charles  marries  Isabella,    of 

Portugal. 
Death  of  Frederic,  of  Saxony 

The  Turks  invade  Germany 
— Diet  of  Spires.— Luther- 
ans first  called  Protestants. 

League  of  Smalcald. 


Ottoman  ^ 

Italy.  Empire.  The  World,  elsewhere. 


Congress  of  Nice  between  the 
Emperor,  the  Pope,  and  the 
king  of  France. 


War  m  alliance  with  England 
against  France. 


Diet  of  Worms. 

War  of  the  Smalcaldists. 


Duke  Maurice,  elector  of  Saxo- 
ny. 


1523.  Clement 
VII. ,  pope. 


1525.  Spain  ac- 
quires     the 
ascendency 
by  the  victo- 
ry of  Pavia. 


1527.  The  Me- 
dici expelled 
from    Flo- 
rence. 


1530.  Medici 
restored. — 
Charles    V. 
crowned    at 
Bologna. 


1534.  Paul  IIL, 
pope. 


1537.  Cosmo 
de  Medici, 
duke  of  Tus- 
cany. 

1540.  Investi- 
ture of  Mi- 
Ian  confer- 
red by  Char- 
les V.  on 
Philip. 


1545.    Council 
of  Trent. 


1526.  Invasion 
of  Hungary. 


1529.  Invasion 
ofGermany. 
— Siege  of 
Vienna. 

The  Otto- 
man   na  vy 
formidable 
under    the 
command  of 
Barbarossa  : 


1535.  —who 
seizes  Tu 
nis.  —  The 
emperor, 
Charles  V., 
restores  the 
Moorish 
king. 


1541.  Destruc- 
tion of  an  ar- 
mament, led 
by  Charles 
V.  against 
Algiers. 


1523.  Sweden :— Revolt  under 
Gustavus  Vasa . — Tlie 
Danes  expelled. — Union  of 
Calmar  dissolved. 

Denmark  and  Norway : 

—Frederic  I.^^ 

1525.  Albert,  duke  of  Prussia. 


1547.   The 
Turks    in- 
vade Persia, 
and  capture 
Ispahan. 


1530.     Malta    givec     to     the 
knights  of  Rhodes 


1532.  Union  of  Norway  and 
Denmark. 


1533.   Conquest   of    Pe- 
r  u ,    by  Cortes. 


Russia:— Ivan  IV.,  (the 
Terrible). 


1536.  Cortes  discovers  Califor- 
nia. 


1543.  First  standing  army  in 
Sweden. 


1545.  South  America :— Mmes 
of  Potosi  discovered. 


1548.  Poland  :— Sigismund  H. 
^g (Augustus). 


118 


THE   world's    progress. 


[Period  VIIL— 


Progress  op  Society,  etc. 


Scaiiger,  Philologist. 
Montaigne,  French  Essayist. 


Cardan,  Italian  philosopher. 


1558  Sealing  wax  comes  into  use 
in  Europe. 


Foundation  of  Jesuit  Colleges 
in  opposition  to  Protestant 
Schools.  The  first  at  Co- 
imbra,  in  Portugal. 


Only  two  carriages  in  Paris — 
horses  and  litters  generally 
used. 


1560  Snuff  first  brought  into  France. 
— Knives  first  made  in  Eng- 
land. 


Torquato     Tasso,    Guarini. 
poets. 


Camoens,  Portuguese  poet. 


Thomas  Talti's,  English  mu- 
sician. 


England. 


1549.  The  English 
Liturgy  comple- 
ted and  establish- 
ed by  act  of  Par- 
liament. 

1553.  Northumber- 
land intrigues  to 
settle  the  crown  on 
Lady  Jane  Grey, 
his  daughter-in- 
law. 

—  Mary  .^g — 

Catholicism  re- 
stored. 

1554.  The  queen 
marries  Philip,  of 

Spain. — Lord  Dud- 
ley and  Lady  Jane 
Grey  executed. 

1555.  Bloody  perse- 
cution of  Protes- 
tants. 

1557.  War  with 
France  to  support 
Spain.— Calais 
lost. 

1558.  —  Eliza- 
beth. ^M 


Cecil,  Lord 
Burleigh,  Secreta- 
tary  of  State. 

Protestantism 
established. 

The  Puritans 
begin  to  rise. 


1568.  —Mary,  queen 
of  Scots,  takes  re 
fuge  in  England— 
and  is  imprisoned. 

1570.  Civil  wars  of 
the  Desmonds  in 
in  Ireland. 


Scot. 

LAND. 


1560.  Ca- 
tholic- 
ism abo- 
lished 
by    par- 
liament. 
1565. :  — 
Mary 
marries 
Lord 
Darn- 
ley. 

1565. : — 
Revolt 
of  Pro- 
testants 
1567. :  — 
Darnley 
murder- 
ed— the 
queen 
marries 
earl  of 
Both- 
well — is 
dethron- 
ed  and 
impri- 
soned at 
Lochle- 
ven. 

James 


1570.  :— 
Lennox 
regent. 


1552.  Fifth  war 
with  Char- 
les V. 


1557.  The 

French  defeat- 
ed at  St. 

Quentin. 

1558.— at  Gra- 
velines. 

1559.  Peace  of 

Chateau — 

Cambresis. 

F  r  a  n  c  i  s 

Duke    of 
Guise,  min- 
ister. 
1560.— Char - 

lesIX.^ 

1562.  Religious 
liberty  grant- 
ed 10  the  Hu- 


First  civil 
religious    war 
—Huguenots 
supported    by 
England  — de- 
feated at 
Dreux. 
1567.   The  se 
cond  war. — 
Huguenots 
defeated    i 
St.  Denys. 


1569.  — routed 
at  Jarnac- 
C  o  n  d  e 
killed. 


Spain  and 
Portugal. 


1554.    Ccvcar.; 

in  India,  lost. 

1556.  Charles 

abdicates — 

Philip    n.^ 


1557. 


Portu- 
— Sebas- 


tian. ISSf — 


1564.  Acquisi- 
tion of  the 
Philippines. 


1567.  Duke  o{ 
Alva,  gover- 
nor of  the 
Netherlands. 


1570.    War 
with  the 
Turks.— Na- 
val   victory 
at  Lepanto. 


1453-1598.] 


THE    world's    progress. 


119 


Treaty  of  Passau  secures  reli- 
gious liberty  to  the  Protes- 
tants. 

Fruitless  siege  of  Mentz. 


Charles  abdicates. 


— F  erdinand  I  .^g — 
king  of  Hungary  and  Bohe 
mia. 

Coronation  by  the  pope  relin- 
quished. 


— M aximilian  II.  ^^— 


^  Ottoman 

Italy.  Empire.  The  World,  elsewhere. 


1550.  Julius 
III.,  pope. 


1555.    Marcel- 
lusII.,pope. 
Paul  IV., 
(Caraffa) 
pope. 


1559.  Pius  IV. 
(Medici) 
pope. 

Peace  of 
Chateau    — 
Cambresis 
terminates 
the    French 
wars  in  Italy. 
Tranquil- 
lity for  ee 
years. 

1562.  Council 
of  Trent  re- 
assembled. 

1566.  Pius  v., 
pope. 

1569.  Florence, 
a  grand  du- 
chy. 

Cosmo 
d  e  Medi- 
c  i ,  declared 
grand  duke 
of  Tuscany, 
by  Pius  V, 


1551.  Tripoli 
taken  from 
the  Maltese 
knights. 

1552.  Invasion 
of  Hungary. 

1553.  War  with 
Persia. 

Building  of 
t  he   mosque 
of  Solyman 
yah,  at  Con 
stantinople. 


1559.    Naval 
victory    of 
Galves,  gain- 
ed by    Dra- 
gut. 

Military 
power  of 
the  Turks  at 
its  greatest 
height,  un 
derSoliman 


1565.  Unsuc- 
cessful siege 
of  Malta. 

1566.  Beath  of 
Soliman 
the  siege  of 
Sigeth. 

Selim  II, 


1570. 


War  of  Venice      with 

the  Porte. 
Cyprus  reduced  by  the 
I     Turks. 
I  Batile  ofi 

Lepanto. 


1553.  New  Mexico  discoveied 
by  the  Spaniards. 


1456.  India:— Jelaleddin  Ak- 
bar,  a  patron  of  science  and 
literature,  aided  by  his  min- 
isters, Abu  Fazl  and  Sheikh 
Faizi. 

—raises  the  Mogul  em- 
pire to  its  greatest  splendor. 


1559.  Denmark  and  Norway  : 

— Frederic  11.^^ 

Decrease  of  the  influence 
of  the  Hanse  towns. 

1560.  Sweden :— Eric  XIV.  W 


1562.  War  with  Russia  and 
Poland.— An  English  am- 
bassador in  Persia. 

1564.  Coligny  sends  a  colony 
of  Huguenots  to  Florida — 
destroyed  by  the  Spaniards. 

1568.  Prussia :— Albert  Frede 


Sweden  .-—John  III.^^— 


1270.  Peace  of  Stetin,  between 

Denmark,     Norway,     and 

Sweden. 
1571    Russia  devastated  by  the 

khan  of   Crim    Tanary  — 

Moscow  burnt- 


120 


THE   world's    progress. 


[Period  VIIL- 


ScoT-  Spain  and 

A.D.    Progrkss  of  Society,  etc.  England.  land.         France.         Portugal. 


Cervantes,    author    of    Don 

Quixotte. 
Titian,  and  Paolo  Veronese, 

painters. 


Sir  Francis  Drake's  voyage 
round  the  world. 


Sir  Philip  Sydney's  Arcadia. 


Gregorian  Reformation  of  the 
Calendar. 


Greenland  discovered  by  Sir 
-   Francis  Drake. 


Tobacco  first  brought  lo  Eu- 
rope. 


First  newspaper  in  England. 


Telescopes   invented  by  Jan 
sen,  a  German. 


Tasso,  Italian  poet. 
The  Carracci,  celebrated  pain- 
ters. 

In  England  -.—Spenser, 
Shakspeare,  Beau- 
mont &  Fletcher,  Ben  Jon- 
son. — Napier  invents  loga- 
rithms. 


Lord  Bacon,  celebrated  phi- 
losopher. 

Lope  de    Vega,  dramas   and 
novels. 

\  Kepler,   Tycho  Brake,  astro- 
I     nomers. 


1578.  The  queen 
sends  help  to  the 
revolted  Nether- 
lands. 


1583.  Levant  Com- 
pany chartered. 

1584.  Raleigh's  co- 
lony in  Virginia. 

15S5.   War  with 
Spain. 

1586.  Sir  Philip 
Sidney  killed  at 
Zutphen. 

1587.  The  Queen  of 
Scots  beheaded. 

1588.  The  Spanish 
armada  destroyed. 

1589.  Alliance  with 
Henry  II.  in  aid 
of  Protestantism. 
— Troops  sent  to 
France. 


1593.    Act   for    reli- 
gious conformity. 

159-1.  Sir  John  Haw- 
kins's Voyages. 


1596.  Cadiz  taken, 
and  the  Spanish 
fleet  burnt,  by  the 
earl  of  Essex. 
Sir  Robert  Cecil, 
minister. 


1599.  Troubles  in 
Ireland  :  —  Revolt 
of  O'Neill,  earl  of 
Tyrone. 


1581.  :— 
Gow- 
rie's 
conspi- 
racy 
against 
the  kins 


1590.  :— 
The 
king 
marries 
Anne,  of 
Den- 
mark. 


1572.  Massacre 
of  St.  Bar- 
tholomew. 

1573.  Peace  of 
Rochelle. 

1574.  — H  e  n  - 

rylll.® 
Fifth  war 
with   the  Hu- 
guenots. 

1576,  The  Ca- 
tholic 
League. 

1577.  Sixth  re- 
ligious war. 


1588.  Revolt  of 
Paris. 

1589.  House 
of  Bour- 
bon: 

— H  E  N  R  Y 

1590.  Siege  of 
Paris,  raised 
by  the  Spa- 
niards. 

1593.  Henry 
abjures      Pro- 
testantism. 

1594.  Jesuits 
banished. 

1595.  War  with 
Spain  con- 
tinued. 

1598.  Peace  of 
Vervius. 

Ministry  of 
Sully: — 
restoration 
of  order. 
Edict  op 
Nantes 
— granting 
toleration  to 
Protestants. 


1578.   Port.  :- 

Henry,  ^g- 

1580.  Portugal 
falls  under 
Spanish  do- 
minion. 


1588.  Defeat  of 
the  Spanish 
armada. 

1589.  English 
volunteers 
under  Drake 
and    Norris, 
repulsed 
from  Lisbon. 


1598.  Philip 

m.  W — 


1453-1598.] 


THE    WORLD'S    PROGRESS. 


121 


1576 


Germany. 


— R  0  d  0  1  p  h  II  .^ — 
king  of  Bohemia  ami  Hun- 
gary. 


The  imperial  authority  disre- 
garded by  the  princes  of  the 
empire,  who  wage  war 
among  themselves. 


Union  of  Protestants  at  Heil- 
hronn. 


Ottoman  ^       T,r  ,       , 

Italy.  Empire.  The  World,  elsewhere. 


1572.  Gregory 
Xlll.,  pope. 

1573.  Cyprus 
yielded  to 
the     Porte ; 

1574. Florence: 
— Frances  Ma- 
ria succeeds 
Cosmo. 


1580.  Charles 
Emmanuel, 
duke  of  Sa- 
voy. 


1585.   Sixtus 
v.,  pope, 
active    and 
energetic — 
corrects 
abuses  in 
the  church ; 
I'estores   the 
Vatican     li- 
brary. 


1500.   Urban 
VII.,  pope. 

Gregory 
XIV.,  pope. 

1591.  Innocent 
IX.,  pope, 
two  months. 

Clement 
VIII.,  pope. 

1592.  The  Ri- 
alto  and  Pi- 
azza di  San 
Marco  built 
at  Venice. 


peace  with  Ve- 
nice. 
1574.  — Murad 


1576.  War  with 
Persia. 


1580.  War  with 
the  Druses 
in  Syria. 

1583.   First 
trade  with 
England. 


1589.  Predato- 
ry incur- 
sions of  the 
Cos.^acks. 

Revolt  of 
the  Janiza- 
ries. 

1593.  War  with 
the    Empire 

.  in  Hungary. 

1594.  Tlie" 
Grand    Vi- 
zier takes 
Raab. 

1595.  Moham- 
med III.^ 

Turkii^h 
power  in 
Hungary  de- 
clines ;     de- 
feated at 
Gran — re- 
volt of  Wal- 
lachia. 
1597.   Moham- 
med leads  his 
troops,   and 
defeats   the 
Germans  at 
Agria. 


1574  Poland :— Henry,  of  Va- 

1575  Poland : — Stephen    Ba- 


1578.  Alliance  of  Sweden  and 
Poland  against  Russia. 

iy79.  Commencement 
of  the  Republic  of 
HOLLAND,  by  the  union 
at  Utrecht: 

William,  Prince 
of  Orange,  stadthol- 
der. 

1584.  North  America: 
— First  English  colony  found- 
ed in  Virginia,  by  Sir  W. 
Raleigh. 

1585.  Persia  acquires  power 
under  Abbas  the  Great. 

Holland :  —  Maurice,  of 
Orange,  stadtholder. 

1586.  Battle  of  Zutphen:  death 
of  Sir  Philip  Sidney, 

1588.   Denn:iark  :  — Christian 


1592.   Sweden  :  — Sigisniund, 
king  of  Poland. 

India : — Mizam  Shah,  re- 
pulsed from  Choul,  by  the 
Portuguese. 

1.594.  The  Falkland  Isles  dis- 
covered by  Hawkins. 

1595.  The  Dutch  first  in  India. 
Sweden  : — The  regent  as- 
sumes   independent  autho- 
rity. 


1598.   Russia: — Boris    Godii 

nov,^g begins  a  nevii 

dynasty. 

Sigismund  lands  in  Swe 
den,  to  re-establish  his  pow- 
er— but  is  defeated,  and  re- 
turns lo  Poland. 


122 


THE   world's   progress. 


PERIOD  IX.— 120  years,- 


Frogress  op  Society,  etc. 


1624 
LtJ2o 


English  East    India    Compa- 
ny IbundeJ. 


Exportation  of  Eng.ish  wool 
prohibited. 

Conference  at  Hampton  Court. 

NeiB  Trnnslation  of  the  Bi- 
ble begun;  (published  1611). 

Dr.  Gilbert  discovers  the  pow- 
er of  electricity,  and  of  con- 
ductors and  non-conductors. 


Telescopes  invented  by  Gali- 
leo. 


Coffee  at  Venice. 
Tobacco  in  Virginia. 

Bacon's  Inductive  Philoso- 
jphy. 

Harvey  discovers  the  circula- 
tion of  the  blood. 

Thermometers  invented  by 
Drebel. 

Inigo  Jones,  celebrated  archi- 
tect. 

Martin  Opitz,  German  poet. 

Negro  Slavery  co'ijmenced  in 
Virginia. 


Peter  Paul  Rubens,  painter. 

Massinger,  the  dramatist. 

Kepler's  "  Astronomia  Nova 
Celestis." 

Torricelli  invents  the  barome- 
ter. 

The  Parian  marbles  brought 
to  England  by  the  earl  of 
Arundel. 


Gazettes   first    published    in 
Venice. 


1604.  — Acadia  co- 
lonized by  the 
French. 


1605.  —  Discovery 
of  Hudson's  Bay. 

1607.— E  n  g  1  i  s  h 
se  ttleme  nt  a  t 
Jamestown, 
(1st  permanent 
one  in  N.  Ame- 
rica.) 

1608.  —  auebec 
founded. 

1609. — Jesuit  mis- 
sions in  Para- 
guay. 


1616.— The  Tobac- 
co plant  introdu- 
ced   into   Virgi- 


1620.— Negro 
slaves    first    im- 
ported to  Virgi- 
ni.a. 

Emigra- 
tion  of   Pu- 
ritans   to 
New       Eng- 
land. 

1621.  —John  Car- 
ver, 1st  Gover- 
nor of  N.  E. 

1624.  New  Am- 
sterdam set- 
tled by  the  Dutch. 


1627.  Boston  found- 
ed. 


1629.  Wouter  Van 
Twiller,  gover 
nor  of  New  Am- 
sterdam. 


1601.  Earl  of  Essex  be- 
headed. 

1603.— James    I.^— 
Union    of    the 
English     and 
Scotch     crowns. 

1605.    The     Gunpowder 
Plot. 


1612.  English  factories  at 
Sural. 


16i£.  Ministry  of  Villiers, 
duke  of  Buckingham. 

1617.  Sir  Francis  Bacon, 
lord  chancellor. 

1618.  Sir    Walter     Ra- 
leigh's   unsuccessful 
voyage    to    America — 
he  is  beheaded  on  his 
return. 


1625. — C  harles  1.^ 

,  Buckingham,  prime 
mmister. 


France. 


1610.    Assassi- 
nation of 
Henry    IV., 
by     Ravail- 
lac. 

Louis 

XIII, .W 

(9  years  old). 
Mary  de  Me- 
dici, regent. 

1614.  Last  as- 
sembly of  the 

States-gene- 
ral. 

1615.  The  king 
marries 
Anne,  of 

Austria. • 

Civil  war  :— 
C  o  n  d  e 
heads  the 
Hugue- 
nots. 


1624.  Ministry 
of  Cardinal 
Riche- 
lieu. 


1627.  War  with  France,  in  support  ol 
the  Hugue- 
nots. 

Roehelle 

1629.  No  parliament  for      reduced    by 
eleven  years.  famine  — af- 

1630.  Peace  with  France.  ter  a  siege  o< 
ten  mon'hs. 


THE  world's  progress.  123 

1598-1718. — Edict  of  Nantes  to  the  death  of  Charles  XII.,  of  Sweden. 


Spain 

AND 

Portu- 
gal. 


Expul- 
sion of 

the 
Moors. 

War    of 

the 
Mont- 
ferrat 
succes- 
sion in 
Italy. 


Dutch 
war.— 
Spain 
sup- 
ports 
Austria . 
Philip 

Defeat 
of  Span- 
fleet  off 
Lima, 
hy  the 
Dutch. 
Naval 
war 
with 
Eng- 
land. 
Peace 
with 
Eng- 
land. 


1606.   Truce  of  Co- 
morra,  for  twenty 
years,  with  the 
Porte. 

1608.    Protestant 
union,  under  Fre- 
deric, the    elector 
palatine. 

1610.  The  Catholic 
League,  under  the 
duke  of  Bavaria. 

1612.  Matthias. 


1615.  Truce  of  Co- 
morra  confirmed. 

1618.  The  Thirty 
Years'  War 
begins. 

1619.— Ferdinand 

1620.  Victory  of  the 
White    Mountain, 

near    Prague. 

Massacre    of 
Prague.— The  Pro- 
testant religion  to- 
tally suppressed. 


1626.  Victory  of  Til- 
ly over  Christian 
IV.,  of  Denmark, 
at  Lutter. 

1628.Wallen  stein 
recovers  all  the 
shores  of  the  Bal- 
tic, except  Stral- 
sund. 

1629.  Gustavus  Adol- 
phus  lands  in  Ger- 
many. —  Diet  of 
Ratisbon.  — Wal 
lenstein  dismissed, 
succeeded  by  Til 
!y, 


Italy. 


1605.  Leo  XI., 
pope. 

Paul  v., 
pope. 


1609.Tuscany : 
— Cosmo  II. 


Leghorn, 
tlie  empori- 
um  of    the 
Levant  trade. 


1618.  Conspi- 
racy of  Bed- 
mar,  the 
Spanish  en- 
voy, to  re- 
duce Venice 
under  sub- 
jection to 
Spain. 

1621.  Gregory 
XV.,  pope. 
Tuscany  :  — 
Ferdinand  II. 

162.3.  The  fa- 
mous library 
of  the  Pala- 
tine at  Hei- 
delberg, sent 

-  to  Rome. 

1623.  General 
Italian  war 
on  the  death 
of  the  duke 
ofMantua. 


Ottoman 

Empire. 


1605.  Revolt  in 
Syria  and 
Caramania, 
under  the 
pasha  of 
Aleppo. 

1606.  Com- 
mercial 
treaty  with 
France    and 
Holland. 

Tobacco 
first  brought 
to  Turkey. 


1617.  — Musla- 
pha  1.^5 — 

1618.  — Osman 

Great  Per- 
sian victory 
at  Shibli. 
1620.  War  with 
Poland,  and 
unsuccess- 
ful invasion 
of  Poland. 

1623.    Miirad 

restores  tran- 
quillity. 

1625.   Truce 
with  the  em- 
pire  renew- 
ed. 


The  World,  elsewhere. 


1604.  Sweden  :  Charles  IX. 


1605.    India :  — Jehangir,   sul- 
tan. 


1609.  India  :— Arrival  of  Haw- 
kins,    first    English    envoy 
from  the   East  India  Com- 
pany. 
Sweden :  — G  u  s  t  a  v  u  s 

A  d  0  1  p  h  u  s  .  ^M 

16U.  Sweden :  — War  with 
Denmark.— Calmar  and  Ris- 
by  lost.— Axel  Oxenstiern, 
minister. — Russia  devasta- 
ted by  Poles  and  Tartars. 

Russia  : — Michael   Ro- 
manoff, czar. 

1615.  Denmark :— First  stand- 
ing army. 

1616.  India :— Sir  Thomas  Roe, 
ambassador  from  James  I., 
of  England. 

Sweden  predominates  in 
the  north. 
1618.   The  Synod  of  Dort— 
Arniiniiis  condemned. 

Settlement  of  Tanquebar, 
in  Coromandel. 

1621,  Dutch  West  India  Com- 
pany incorporated. 

1622.  Persia  :— Ormuz  gained 
from  the  Portuguese  by  the 
help  of  the  English. 

1625.  Netherlands :  —  Henry 
Frederic— Breda,  taken  bj 
Spinola. 

1627.  Persia :— Shah  Soofi  I. 
1629.  Peace  of  Lubeck. 


124 


THE   world's    progress. 


[Period  IX.— 


1630 
1631 


Progress  op  Society,  etc. 


Lotteries  for  money  first  men- 
tioned. 

Calico  first  imported  into  Eng- 
land. 


Edward  Coke,  the  great  ju- 
rist. 

1636  Pedro  Calderon  de  la  Barca, 
Spanish  dramatist. 

Flourishing  period  of  flower 
trade  in  the  Dutch  cities. 


Rembrandt,  Van  Dyke,  pain- 
ters. 


1638  The  Jansenists,  founded  by 
.Jansenlus,  bishop  of  Ypres. 

1639  Printing  in  America. 

First  Swedish  manufactories. 
Persin,  Caspar,  Daghet,  and 

Claude   Lorraine,    French 

painters. 


1641 


1643 


Coffee  brought  to  England  by 
Nat.  Conopius. 


The  Dutch  sole 
masters  of  Bra- 
zil. 
1632.  Maryland 
settled  by  a  colo- 
ny under  Lord 
Baltimore. 


1635.  Connecticut 
settled.  — Guada- 
loupe  and  Mar- 
tinique, by  the 
French. 


1637.  Maine  and 
New  Hampshire 
colonized. 

Harvard  Col- 
lege founded. 


Conde  and  Turenne,  the  great- 
est generals  of  the  age. 


1639.  First  print- 
ing office  in  Ame- 
rica,   at     Cam- 
bridge, by  Sam. 
Green. 

1640.  Whole  num- 
ber of  emigrants 
to  New  England 
previous  to  this, 
21,000. 


1643.      Confedera- 
tion of  the  colo- 
nies   of    New 
England,    for 
mutual  defence. 


1630.  Wentworth,  earl  of 

Strafford,  minister. 
Laud,  archbishop  of 

Canterbury. 
1633.    The     king    visits 

Scotland  —  is  crowned 

at  Edinburgh. 


1637.  Trctbles  in  Scot- 
land, caused  by  Char- 
les's plan  to  overthrow 
the  Scotch  presbyterian 
church,  and  enforce 
episcopacy. 

1639.  War  with  Scotland. 

1640.  Parliament  assem- 
bled—  dissolved  with- 
out effecting  any  thing. 

The  Scotch  invade 
England— take  posses- 
sion of  Newcastle. 

The  Long  Parlia- 
ment, Nov.  3. 
Impeachment  of  Straf- 
ford and  Laud. 


1641.  Strafford  beheaded. 
— Courts  of  Star  Cham- 
ber and  High  Commis- 
sion abolished. — Rebel- 
lion of  Roger  Moore  in 
Ireland. — Massacre  of 
Protestants  by  Irish  Ca- 
tholics. 

1642.  C  i  V  i  1  W  a  1  and 
Revolution  .- 
Rise  of  Roundheads 
and  Cavaliers,  both  of 
the  popular  party. — 
Battle  of  Edgehill,  inde- 
cisive. 

1643.  Royalists  victorious 
at  Carlsgrane — defeated 
at  Newbury. — Solemn 
league  and  covenant  be- 
tween the  Scotch  and 
English  parliaments. 


1631.  Treaty 
with  Swe- 
den  and  the 
popular  prin- 
ces against 
the  emper- 
or. 

1635.  Alliance 
With  Holland 

against  Spain, 
for  the  par- 
tition of  (he 
Austrian  Ne- 
therlands. 

1636.  Alliance 
with  Sweden 
against  Aus- 
tria. 

Invasion  of 
Oascony   by 
the    Span- 
iards, and  of 
Picardy,   by 
the     Impe- 
rialists, who 
threaten  Pa- 
ris. 
1638.  Invasior 
of  Spain, 
siege  olFon- 
tarabia. 

1640.  Turin  ta- 
ken by  the 
French. 

The  first 
Louis  d'ors 
struck. 

1641.  Alliance 
with  Portu- 
gal against 
Spain.— Ca- 
talonia and 
Rousillon  re- 
volt, and  sub- 
mit to  France. 

1642.  Cinq 
Mars  and  de 
Thou    be- 
headed. 

1643. -L  o  u  1  s 

XIV.^— 
(the  Great.) 

Anne,  of 
Austria,  re- 
gent. 

Victory  of 
Roscroi  over 
the   Span- 
iards,  by 
Conde. 

Ministry  ol 
Cardinal  Ma 
zarine. 


1598-1718.] 


THE    world's    progress. 


i25 


Spain 

AND 

Portu- 
gal. 


1631.  Sack  of  Mag- 
deburg, by  Tilly. 
— Gustavus  Adol- 
phus   takes   Blay- 

1632.  Defeat  and 
death  of  Tilly,  at 
Lech.  —  Gustavus 
takes  Munich. — 
Wallensiein  again 
in  command. — Bat- 
tle of  Lutzen. — 
Victory  and  death 
of  Gustavus  Adol- 
phus. 

1635.Peace  of  Prague 
with  Saxony. 

1636.  Swedes  victo- 
rious atWittstock. 

1637.— Ferdinand 

Galas  successful 
against  the  Swedes. 
163s.  Bernhard.  of 
Saxe  Weimar,  de- 
feats the  Imperial- 
ists at  Bheinfield — 
takes  Brisac. 

1639.  Battles  of  Ol- 
nitz  and  Brandiez, 
gained  by  the  Swe- 
dish general,  Ban- 
ner. 

1640.  Prussia' — Fre- 
deric William. 


1642.  The  Swedes  de- 
feat the  Austrians 
at  Leipsic. 


1643.  —invade  Hol- 
stein,  and  compel 
the  Danes  to  desert 
Austria. 


Italy. 


1631.  Peace  of 
Chierasco. — 
The      influ- 
ence of  France 
.  increases. 


Ottoman 

Empire. 


1634.Muradin 
vades  Per 
sia  —  takes 
Falreeze. 


1636.  Peace 
with  Poland 
renewed. 

1637.  Troubles 
on  the  Tar- 
tar frontier; 
Azoph  taken 
by  the  Cos- 
sacks. 

Bagdad  ta- 
ken by  ihe 
Turks. 
All  the  con- 
questsof  Ab- 
bas recover- 
ed. 


1640.  Ibrahim. 


1642.  Recap- 
ture of  Azoph 
from  the  Cos- 
sacks. 


The  World,  elsewhere. 


1632.    Sweden  :  —  Christina, 

queen.  ^^ 

1632.  Sweden : —  Oxenstiem, 
regent. 

Russia : — War  with  Po- 
land ;  twc  years'  siege  of 
Smolensko.  —  Russian  army 
capitulates,  and  the  Polish 
king  advance.s  to  Moscow. 

1634.  Peace  of  Wiasma,  disad- 
vantageous to  Russia. 


1639.  Holland.  —Great  naval 
victory  by  Van  Trmnp,  over 
the  Spanish  fleet  in  tiie 
Downs. 


1640.  India :— Madras  founded 
by  the  English. 


126 


THE    world's    progress. 


[Pe?  iod  IX. — 120  yeai  s.— 


Progress  op  Society,  etc. 


Des  Cartes,  French  philoso- 
pher. 


Air  gujis  invented. 


Engraving  iti  mezzotinto,  im- 
proved by  Prince  Rupert. 


Railroads  with  wooden  rails, 
near  Newcastle. 


Jeremy   Taylor,  Alger.   Sid- 
ney, English  writers. 


Le  Seur  and  Le  Brun,  French 
painters. 


Air  pumps  invented. 


About  this  time  flourish  Mo- 
Here,  La  Fontaine,  Cor- 
neille,  Madame  de  Sevig- 
ne,  Rochefoucault,  Racine. 
Boileau,  and  Pascal,  in 
France. 

Velasquez  and  MuriUo,  Span- 
ish painters. 


1646.  Thomas 
Mayhew,  preach- 
er to  the  Indians, 
shipwrecked. 

1647.  Peter  Stuy- 
vesant,  governor 
of  New  Amster- 
dam. 


1648.   Cambridge 
platform    adopt- 
ed. 


1649.  J.  Winthrop, 
governor  of  Con- 
necticut. 


1650.  Settlement  of 
North  Carolina, 


1652.  John  Cotton 
died. 


1655.  E.   Winslow 
died. 


Great  Britain. 


1644.  Battle  of  Marston 
Moor — royalists  defeat- 
ed. 

1645.  Battle  of  Naseby. 

1646.  The  king  seeks  re- 
fuge in  the  Scottish 
camp. 

1647.  — is  delivered  up  to 
parliament  for  £400,000. 


164S.  Cromwell  routs  the 
Scotch,  under  Hamil- 
ton.  The  Presbyte- 
rians expelled  from 
parliament,  which  re- 
ceives the  name  of"  the 
Rump." 

1649.  Trial  and  execution 
of  the  king. 

The  Commonwealth. 

1650.  Cromwell  subdues 
Ireland. 

The  Scots  proclaim 
Charles  II.    He 

1651.  enters  England — is 
defeated  at  Worcester, 
and  escapes  to  France. 

1652.  Naval    war    with 

Holland. Blake, 

A  s  c  o  u  g  h  ,    and 

P  e  n  n  ,  English  ad- 
mirals. 

1653.  Long  parliament 
dissolved  by  Crom- 
well.— "  Barebone's  par- 
liament" summoned. 

Oliver  Crom- 
well,Lord  Pro- 
tector. 

Milton,  private  secre- 
tary to  Cromwell. 

1654.  Peace  of  Westmin- 
ster.  Alliance    with 

Holland. 


1655.  War  with  Spain. — 
Jamaica  conquered  by 
Penn. 

1658.  Death  of  Cromwell. 
— R ichard  Crom- 
well, Protector. 


1645.: — Mar. 
shalTurenna 
takes  Treves. 


1648.  Factions 
of  the  Fron- 
de ;  dissen- 
sions foment- 
ed by  Cardi- 
nal d  e  R  e  t  z . 

1649.  Court  re- 
moves to  St. 
Germains. — 
Siege  of  Pa- 
ris. 

1650.  Conde, 
C  o  n  t  i , and 
Longue- 
ville,  im- 
prisoned.— 
Turenne 
flees  to  the 
Spaniards. 

165a.  Maza- 
rine retires 
to  Sedan. 
Cond6    flies 
to  Spain. 

1653.  Mazarine 
enters  Paris 
in  triumph. 


1659.  Peace  of 
the  Pyre- 
nees.—  Mar- 
riage of  Lou- 
is XIV.  to 
Maria  The- 
resa, of  Spain. 


1598-1718.] 


THE    WORLD'S    PROGRESS. 


127 


Spain 

AND 

Portu- 
gal. 


1654 


Brazil 
recover- 
ed from 

tlie 
Dutch. 
War 
with 
Eng- 
land. 


1644.  Invasion  of 
Hungary,  by  Ra- 
coezi— ilie  empe- 
ror forced  to  yield 
to  the  demands  of 
the  protesiants. 


1648.  Peace  of 
Westpha- 
lia, signed  at 
Munster,  between 
France,  tlie  em- 
pire, and  Sweden. 
— The  principle  ol 
a  balance  of'  poiv- 
er  in  Europe  first 
recognized. 


1657.  —Leopold 


1644.  Innocent 
X.,  pope. 


1646.  Revolt  of 
Naples,   mi 
der     Mas 
saniell  o, 


1655.    Alexan- 
der VII., 
pope. 


Ottoman 
Empire. 


1645.  War  with 
Venice. 
Candia,   the 
theatre  of 


1648.   Moham- 
med IV. 


1650.  Moham- 
med Riopri- 
li,  grand  vi- 
zier. 


1653.Naval  de- 
feat by  the 
Venetians  in 
the  Archipe- 


Thb  World,  elsewhere. 


1644.  Naval  victory  of  the 
Swedes  over  the  Danish 
fleet. 

1645.  Sweden: — Peace  of 
Briinisebro  with  Denmark. 


1647.  Netherlands:— William 
II. 

China: — The  Taruir; 
place  a  prince  of  their  own 
on  the  throne — the  first  nl 
the  present  dynasty  of  Tsing. 

1648.  Poland:— Tlie  Ukraine 
Cossacks  revolt,  and  cut  the 
Polish  army  to  pieces. 

— John  Cassimir.^g  — 


1657.  War  with 
Racoezi,  for 
aiding  Swe- 
den against 
Poland. 


1653.  Holland : — J  o  h  n  d  e 
Witt,  Grand  Pensionary  ; 
D  e    R  u  y  t  e  r  ,    admiral. 


1654.  Defeat  and  death  of 
Tromp. 

Sweden :— Christina  re- 
signs.— Charles    X.,   1st   of 

the  House  of  Deux  Ponts.^g 
Poland : — War  with  Rus- 
sia. 

1657.  Denmark  :— War  against 
the  Swedes,  who  overrun 
Denmark,  and  menace  Co- 
penhagen. 

1658.  Denmark  : — Naval  vic- 
tory over  the  Swedes. 

Denmark :— Peace  of  Ros 
kilde. 


128 


THE    WOR^d';     PROGRESS. 


[Period  IX. — 120  years.— 


Peogress  op  Society,  etc. 


Logwood  first  cut  in  the  bay 
of  Honduras. 


Salvalor     Rosa,      landscape 
painter. 


Huygens,  Dutch  astronomer. 

Persecution  of  Janscnists  in 
France. 

Chain  shot  invented  by  De 
Wilt. 

Canal  of  Languedoc,  from  the 
Mediterranean  to  the  Atlan- 
tic. 


Gobelin  tapestry  manufactory 
in  Paris. 


Bayonets  invented  at  Bay- 
onne. 

Orrery  invented. 

Foundation  of  the  Academy 
of  Architecture,  and  the 
Hotel  des  Invalides,  at  Pa- 
ris. 

Cassini,  Italian  astronomer 
and  mathematician. 

D'Herbelot,  Pascal,  Bour- 
daloue.  La  Bruyere,  Mai- 
branclie,  French  writers. 

(Christopher  Wren,  architect, 
commences  St.  Paul's. 

Ruysdael,  celebrated  Dutch 
painter. 

William  Temple,  historian. 

Butler,  Waller,  and  Dryden, 
English  poets;  Henry 
More,  Leighton,  Baxter, 
Boyle. 

Mansart,  architect ;  Giradon, 
sculptor,  of  France. 


1663.  Canada  made 
a  royal  colony. 

1663.  Elliot's  In- 
dian  Bible  prin- 
ted. 

1664.  New  York 
occupied  by  the 
English. 


1667.  — ceded  to 
them  by  the 
peace  of  Breda 


1670.  Conclusion  of 
the  '  American 
treaty  '    between 
England  and 
Spain. 


Enqland. 


1675.  King  Phi- 
lip's War  in 
New  Ensland. 


1677.  M  a  i  n  e  pur- 
chased by  Massa- 
chusetts. 


1659.  Ricliard  resigns. — 
Kump  parliament  call- 
ed, but  soon  expelled. 

Restoration    of 
the    Stuarts. 

1660.— Charles  II. i 
Hyde,     earl 
Clarendon,    chancellor 
and  prime  minister. 

1661.  New  parliament. — 
Alliance  with  Portugal. 

1662.  Marriage  with  Ca- 
therine, of  Portugal. 

Act  of  Uniformity. 
Dunkirk  sold  to 
France. 

1664.  War  with  Holland. 

1663.  Naval  victory  by  the 
duke  of  York. 

Great    Plague    in 
London. 

1666.  Great  Fire  in  Lon- 
don. 


1667.  Peace  of  Breda. — 
New  York  ceded  to 
England. 

Banishment  of  the 
earl  of  Clarendon. 

166S.Triple  league— Eng- 
land, Sweden,  and  Hol- 
land, against  France. 

1670.   The     Cabal    min- 
istry.—Secret    treaty 
with  France. 


1672.  War  with  Holland 
in  conjunction   with 
France. 

1673.  Ministry  of  Danby. 
Test  Act  pas.sed. 

1674.  Peace  with  Holland. 


1678.  The  Popish  Plot. 


France. 


1661.  Death  oi 
Mazarine. 

Colbert, 
comptroller- 
general   of 
finance. 

Lyonne. 
Le  Tellier.  ' 

1662.  Disputes 
with  the  pope. 

—6000  troops 
sent  against 
the  Turks  in 
Hungary. 
1664.   Frencli 
East  India 
Company. 

1666.  Acade- 
mie  des  Sci- 
ences Louvois. 

1667.  War  with 
Spain.  Lou- 
is claims 
Spanish  Ne- 
therlands for 
his  wife — in- 
vades Bel- 
gium. 

1668.  Peace  of 
Aix  la  Cha- 
pelle    with 
Spain. 

1672.  War  with 
Holland. 

1673.  French 
ambassador 
at  Ispahan. 

1674.  The 
Dutch    de- 
feated at  the 
battles  of 
Sinsheim 
and  Mulhau- 
sen.— Tu- 
renne    rava- 
ges the  Pala- 
tinate. 

1675.  Death  of 
Turenne  ai 
Sasbach. 

Influence 
of  Pere  la 
Chaise,  the 
king's  con- 
fessor. 

1677.  Victory 
over  the 
Prince    of 
Orange  at 
Mont-Cassel. 

1678.  Peace 
of  Ni  me- 
guen  with 
Holland  and 
Spain — re- 
stores tran 
quillity  to 
Europe. 


1598-1718.] 


THE   world's    progress. 


129 


Spain 

AND 

Portu- 
gal. 


Invasion 
of  Por- 
tueual. 


Victory 
of  the 
Portu- 
guese 
over  the 
Span- 
iards   at 
Estre- 
mas. 
Spain :  - 
Charles 


Portu- 
gal : — 
Revolu- 
tion at 
Lisbon. 
King  de- 
posed. 
Pedro 

Peace  of 
Lisbon 
with 
Spain. 
Nitard, 
the  Je- 
suit, dri- 
ven 
from 
Spain. 
War 
with 
France 
to   pro- 
tect Hol- 
land. 


Italy. 


1663.  The  Diet  per- 
manent at  Ratis- 
bon. 

1664.  Montecuculi 
victorious  over  the 
Turks  at  St.    Go- 
thard. 


1665.  The  Tyrol  uni- 
ted to  Austria. 


1673.  War  of  Austria 
.nnd  France. 

1675.  Turenne    and 
Montecuculi    op- 
posed on   the 
Rhine.  —  Victory 
of   Consarbriick 
over  the    French, 
under    Crequi. — 
Treves  taken. 

1676.  General  revolt 
of  Hungarians  un- 
der Eraeric. 


Ottoman 
Empire. 


1661.  War 
with    Aus- 
tria. 


1662.  Invasion 
of  Hungary. 


The  World,  elsewhere. 


1667.   Clement 

IX.,  pope. 
1669.     Candia  taken  from  Ve- 
I     nice  by  Kio- 
prili. 

Peace  with  the  Porte. 


1670.  Cosmo 
III.,  grand 
duke  of  Tus- 
cany.— War 
between  Ge- 
noa and  Sa- 
voy. 

Clement  X., 
pope. 

1674.  Revolt  of 
Messina  in 
favor  of 
France. 

1676.    Messina 
blockaded  by 
the  Dutch 
and  Spanish 
fleets. 

Death  of  De 
Ruyter. 
Innocent  XI. 
pope. 

Death  of  the 
atheist,  Spi- 
noza. 


1672.  The  Sul- 
tan invades 
Poland. 

1673.  —defeat- 
ed   by    Zo- 
briski,    at 
Choezim. 


1676.  Peace  of 
Zurawno 
with  Poland. 


1678.  First  war 
with  Russia, 
on  account 
of  the  Cos- 
sacks. 


1660.  Demark  : — Peace  of  Co- 
penhagen. —  The    Swedes 
restore  Bornholm,  and  Dron- 
theim. 
Revolution  in  Denmark. 

Sweden  .'—Charles   XI.  ^^ 

Peace  of  Oliva. 

Prussia  acknowledged  in- 
dependent. 
1660.  Poland  :— Great  victory 
of  Marshal    John     S  o  - 
b  i  e  3  k  i  over  the  Tartars. 


1667.  Holland  :— Peace  of  Bre- 
da :  loss  of  New  Nether- 
lands. 

1668.  First  embassies  from 
Russia  to  France  and  Spain. 

India :— Rise  of  the  Mah- 
ratta  power.— Sevajee  taKcs 
and  sacks  Surat. 

1670.  Den.  :— Christian  V.  W 


1672.  Sea  iight  between  the 
Dutch  ileet,  under  De  Witt 
and  De  Ruyter,  and  the 
English  and  French  fleets- 
Dutch  defeated. 

Den.  :— William  III.® 

1674.    Poland:— John   Sobies- 


1675.  The  Swedes  invade 
Brandenburg. 

1677.  Battle  of  the  Lund,  be- 
tween the  Swedes  and  Danes. 


130 


THE    world's    progress. 


[Period  /JC— 120  years.^ 


1681 
1683 


C86 
16S7 


1690 


1692 


1693 
1692 


1693 


Progress  op  Society,  etc. 


Bernini,  Italian  sculptor. 

Museum  for  Natural  History, 
at  London. 

Jardin  des  Plantes,  at  Paris. 

Penny  post  established  in  Lon- 
don. 

Kempfer's  travels  in  Japan. 

John  Bunyati,,  "  Pilgrim's 
Progress." 


Otto  Von  Guerickz,  inven- 
tor of  the  air-pump  and 
electrical  machine,  died. 

Telegraphs  invented. 

Newton's  Principia,  publish- 
ed. 

G.  Batt.  Lulbj,  from  Flo- 
rence, founder  of  French 
opera  music. 

Arch.  Corelli,  celebrated  vio- 
linist and  composer  at  Rome. 

White  paper  first  made  in 
England. 

Leibnitz,  German  philoso- 
pher, founds  the  Academy  of 
Sciences  at  Berlin. 

First  opera  in  London. 

Purcell,  English  musician. 

Bank  of  England. 

Telescopes,  first  reflecting 
one  made  on  the  principles 
of  Sir  Isaac  Nevi'ton. 


1686.  Sir  Edmund 
Andros,  governor 
of  NewT  England. 

1688-  General  sup- 
pression of  char- 
ter governments. 

1689.  Montreal  de- 
stroyed by  the 
Five  nations. 

Leisler  usurps  the 
government  of 
New  York. 

1690.  The  English 
settlements    of 
Schenectady,  N. 
York,  Casco,  Me. 

and  Salmon  Falls, 
N.  H.,  destroyed 
by  a  party  of 
French. 

Port  Royal,  No- 
va Scotia,  redu- 
ced by  Sir  Wil- 
liam Phipps. — 
Expedition  against 
Canada,  unsuc- 
cessful. 

1691.  Schuyler 
defeats  the  French 

at  La  Prairie. 


Witchcraft    superstition    in  New-England. 


John  Locke    and    Sir    Isaac 

Newton  in  England. 
Boileau,  Fenelon,  and  Bayle, 

in  France. 
Bank  of  England. 


Phosjikorus  discovered. 


1692.  New  Hamp- 
shire purchased 
by  Allen. 

N.  York :  Leis- 
ler executed. 

1693.  N.  York:— 
Episcopacy  in- 
troduced. 

William    and 
Mary's     College 
founded. 
1697.   Kidd's  pira- 
cies. 


1699.  French  colo- 
ny in  Louisiana. 
— Gold  mines  in 
Brazil. 


Great  Britain. 


Rise  of  the  names  of 
Whigs  and  Tories. 


1683.  «  Ryehouse  Plot." 
Execution  of  Lord 
Russel   and    Algernon 
Sydney. 

In  this  reigir  the  Roy- 
al Society  of  London 
was  instituted  by  Wil- 
kins,  bishop  of  Chester. 
— Bombay  ceded  to 
England. 

1685. — James    II  .^a 

Rebellion  of  Mon- 
mouth, in  England,  and 
Argyle,  in  Scotland, 
both  defeated  and  exe- 
cuted. 
Judge  Jeffries. 

1686.  The  king  favors  the 
Catholics. 

1687.  — re-establishes  the 
Court  of  High  Com- 
mission. 

1638.  "Revolution 
0  F  1683."— The  Whigs 
and  Tories  unite  in  ap- 
plying to  the  Prince  of 
Orange,  who  lands  in 
England  with  15,000 
men — the  king  flees  to 
France. 

1689.— William   III. 

and  Mary  II  .^J— 
War  with  France. 
James    II.    lands   in 
Ireland— besieges  Lon- 
donderry. 

1690.  William  in  Ireland. 
— Battle  of  the  Boyne. 
James  defeated,  returns 
to  France. 

1691.  Limerick  taken,  and 
William  acknowledged. 

1692.  Invasion  of  Eng- 
land undertaken  by  the 
French  in  favor  of 
James. — Naval  victory 
by  the  Dutch  and  Eng- 
lish. 

1693.  Bank  of  England  in- 
corporated. 

1694.  Death  of  queen 
Mary. 

1697.  General  peace 
1698.First  partition  treaty, 
between  France,  Eng- 
land, and  the  Empire  to 
dispose  of  the  crown  of 
Spain. 
1699.  Visit  of  Peter  the 
Great. 


France,    the 
most  formi- 
dable power 
in  Europe. 

1683.  Invasion 
of  the  Span- 
ish Nether- 
lands. 

1684.  Truce  of 
Ratisbon  for 
twenty  years 
with  Spain. 


1685.  Revo- 
cation of 
the   Edict 

of  Nantes. 


1688.  War   ol 
Spain  — the 

Empire,  Hol- 
land, Savoy, 
and  England 
against 
France. 

1689.  Grand  al- 
liance against 
France,  head- 
ed by  Wil- 
liam III. 

1690.  Naval 
victory  over 
the   Dutch 
and  English 
off  Dieppe. 
Victory    of 
Luxemburg; 
at  Fleurus. 

1692.  Marshal 
Luxem- 
burg   de- 
feats William 

at  Steenkirk, 
and 

1693.  —at  Ne- 
uvinden. 
Institution  of 
the  order  of 
St.  Louis. 

of  Ry  s  wick 
— between 
France    and 
the  allies. 


1598-1718.] 


THE    world's    progress. 


131 


Spain 

AND 

Portu- 
gal. 


1680.  Great  part  of 
Alsace  seized  by 
France. 

1683,  Turkish  war, 
siege  of  Vienna  by 
the  Turks— victory 
of  tliG  Germans 
and  Poles,  under 
Charles,  of  Lor- 
raine, and  John 
Sobieski. 

Treaty     of    the 
Hague    against 
France. 


1686.  League  of 
Augsburg  against 
France. 

1686.  Buda  taken  af- 
ter being  held  by 
the  Turks  145 
years. 

1687.  Decisive  victo- 
ry of  Mohaez : 
Croatia  and  Tran- 
sylvania subdued. 

Joseph  I.  crown- 
ed king  of  Hun- 
gary. 
1689.  Grand  alliance 
ratified  at  Vienna. 
The  Palatinate 
desolated  by  the 
French. 


1690  Joseph  \.  elect- 
ed king  of  the  Ro- 
mans by  the  Diet 
of  Augsburg. — 
Victori/^s  over  the 
Turks. 


Revolt 
of  Cata- 
lonia in 
favor  of 
France. 


Incur- 
sion of 

the 
French 

into 
Aragon. 


Peace  of   Ryswick. 

In- 
trigues 1697.  Victory  over 
for  the  the  Sultan  Musta- 
succes-  pha  at  Zenta,  by 
sion.  the  Prince  Eugene 


Ottoman 
Empire. 


1682.  War  with 
Austria. 

1683.  Total 
rout    before 
Vienna. 


1684.  Alliance  of  Venice  with 
Poland,  and  the     Empire 
against    the  Porte. 


1689.    Alexan- 
der Vlll., 
pope. 


1691.  Innocent 
XII.,  pope. 


1693.  Battle  of 
Marsaglia  — 
the  allies  in 
Italy  defeat- 
ed by  the 
Marshal  Ca- 
tiriat. 


1686.  Russia 
declares  war. 

1687.  Revolu- 
tion in  Con- 
stantinople, 
Mohammed 
dethroned. 

Solyman 


1689.  Defeat  at 
Nisa. 

1690.  Musta- 
pha  Kiopri- 
ii  drives  the 
Austrians 
across  the 
Danube — re- 
covers   Bel- 
grade. 

1691.  Ahmud 

Deleat  and 
death  ofKio- 
prili. 

1694.  Chio  ta- 
ken by  the 
Venetians. 

1695.  Musta- 

phall.^g  — 

1696.  — leads 
his  own  ar- 
my.—  Victo- 
ry of  Olach. 

1699.  Peace  of 
Carlowiiz. 

The  Otto- 
man po\Yer 
broken. 


The  World,  elsewhere. 


1680.  Sweden :— Diet  of  Stock- 
holm. 

1682.  Russia:— Ivan  and  Pe- 

ter,^P their  sister,  So- 
phia, regent. 

1683.  Denmark  :— The  Code  of 
king  Christian  published. 


1686.  India : — The  Dekkin  con 
quered. 
Golconda  and  Besapore. 


1087.  —The  English  factories 
in  Bengal  suppressed— after- 
wards restored. 

1688.  Prussia  :— Frederic  IIL 


Russia : — Ivan   resigns — 
Sophia  is  confined  in  a  con- 
vent : 
1689. Petbe     the 

Great  .^§ 

1692.  Russia:  —  First  trade 
with  China. 

India : — Height  of  the  Mo- 
gul power,  annual  revenue 
£32,000,000. 

China: — Great  influence 
of  Jesuits. 

1693.  Sweden :— The  king  de- 
clared absolute. 

1695.  Holland  : Bombard- 
ment of  Brussels  by  the 
French,  under  Villeroi. 

1696.  Poland  :— Death  ol  So- 
bieski— succeeded  by 

1697.  — Frederic  Augustus  I. 
Sweden :— C  h  a  r  l  e  s 


XII.l 


-(15  years  old.) 


Russia  :— Introduction  of 
various    manufactures — 
equipment  of  a  fleet,  etc. 

1699.  Den. :— Frederic  IV.  ^g 

Alliance  of  Denmark,  Rus- 
sia, and  Poland,  against 
Charles  XII.  of  Sweden. 


132 


THE    world's    mOGllLBS. 


[Penod  IX.— 120  years.— 


First  manufactories  in  Russia 
and  Denmark. 

Fenelon,  Bossuei,   Masillon, 
in  France. 

National   Deb:    of    England 
commenced. 

Godfrey     Kneller,     English 
painter. 

First  Russian  newspaper. — 
St.  Petei-sburgli  founded. 


Flourishing  period  of  French 
literature. —  Great  splendor 
in  the  B'rench  court. 

A  newspaper  in  America. 


Incorporation  of  the  United 
British  East  India  Com- 
pany. 

Prussic  acid  discovered  by 
Diesbach. 

A  post-office  in  America. 


The  famous  bull  •■  Unigeni- 
ius  "  against  lire  French  Jan- 
senists. 

Rise  of  commerce  in  Austria ; 
first  manufactories.- 


Laic's  bank  at  Paris. 


The  monastery  of  Mafra,  '  the 
wonder  of  Portugal,'  built. 

Prior,  Steele,  De  Foe,  Addi- 
son, fliiurish  in  England. 

First  standing  army  in  Eng- 
land. 

The  coffee  tree  brought  from 
Java  to  Surinam. 


1701.  Yale  College 
founded. 

1702.  Rice  intro- 
duced into  Caro- 
lina from  Mada- 
gascar. 

17U3.     Apalachian 
Indians  subdued. 
Maine  ravaged 
by    French    and 
Indians. 
1704.    Captain 
Church's    expe- 
dition against  the 
Indians. 
Boston  News- 
Letter, first  Ame- 
rican periodiccd. 
170t).  Carolina  in- 
vaded    by     the 
French  and  Span- 
ish. 


1707.  Unsuccessful 
expedition  against 
Port  Royal. 

1708.The  Saybrook 
platform,  form- 
ed. 

1709.  First  paper 
■money  in  New- 
Jersey. 

1710.  First  post- 
office  at  New 
York. 

Fruitless  expe- 
dition against  Ca- 
nada. 
1713.    "Queen 
Anne's  War  " 
closed   by   the 
treaty  of  Utrecht. 


1715.  Indian  virar  in 
South  Carolina. 

1717.  New-Orleans 
settled  by  the 
French. 


Great  Britain. 


1700.  A  British  fleet  sent 
to  assist  Charles  XIl. 
of  Sweden. 

Foundation  of  the 
national  debt  in  this 
reign. 

1701.  War  of  the  Spanish  succession. 

1702.  The  French  invade  Holland,  un- 
der Boufflers — repulsed  by  Marl- 
borough. 


— ■ —  Anne  .^M 

1703.  Methuen  treaty  of 
commerce  with  Portu- 
gal. 

1704.  Marlborough  enters 
gains     the     battle     of 

Gibraltar  taken   by 
Rooke. 
170B.Tr  e  atyofunion 
with    Scotland. 

Battle  of  Ramillies, 
feated. 

1707.  Victory  of  Almanza 
lish  and  Portuguese. 

The  f  i  r  s  t  United 
Parliament     of 
Great       Britain 
meets. 

1708.  Battle  of  Oudenarde, 
feated. 

Sardinia  and  Minor 
the  English. 

Unsuccessful  attempt 
of  the  Pretender  to  land 
in  Scotland. 
1710.  Victory  of  Vendome 
Dr.  Sacheverell's  trial. 
— Collision  of  Whig 
and  Tory  principles. 

1713.  Peace     of    Ut 
Perpetual  separation 

of  France  and  Spain — 
quires  Newfoundland, 
Hudson's  Bay,  also  Mi 
braltar.  The  Rhine  is 
between  Germany  and 

1714.  Factions  at  court — 
disgrace    of   Harley, 
cbancellor  of  the  exche- 
quer. 

Death  of  the  queen. 
— H  ouseolHano- 
y  er: — 

George    I  .^g  — 

Robert  Walpole,  pre- 
mier. 

1715.  Insurrection  of  Ja- 
cobites.— Battles  of  She- 

riff'miiir  and  Preston. 
War  against  Sweden. 


I71S.  Qu  adr  uple  al 
Emperor,  England,  Ho 
France  against  the  desi 


1702.  Revolt  o( 
the    Hugue- 
nots suppress- 
ed by   Mar- 
shal Villars. 
Germany, 
Blenheim. 


Villeroi    de- 
over  the  Eng- 


— French    de- 
ca  captured  by 

atVillaviciosa. 


r  e  c  h  t  . 
of  the  crowns 
England  ac- 
Acadia,  and 
norca  and  Gi- 
the  boundary 
France. 

1714.  Peace  of 
Radstadt :  the 

Emperor  ac- 
knowledges 
Philip  on 
the  cession 
of  Lorabar- 
dy,  Naples, 
and  Sardinia. 

1715.  Louis 

Duke   of 
Orleans    re- 
gent. —  Du- 
bois,  minis- 
ter. 
1  i  a  n  c  e  :    tlw 
Hand,  and 
gns  of  Spain. 


THE    world's    progress. 


133 


Spain 

AND 

Portu- 
gal. 


Death  of 
the  king, 
who 
names 
the  duke 
ol'Anjou 
as  his 
success- 
or. 
Philip 

The 
arch- 
duke 
Charles 
lands  at 
Lisbon, 
and    en- 
ters 
Spain. 
Barcelo- 
na taken 
by  the 
allies. 
Port.  :— 
John  V. 


English 
and  Por- 
tuguese 
enter 
Madrid. 


Charles 
leaves 
Spain  on 
becom- 
ing Em- 
peror. 


Barcelo- 
na taken 
by    Ber- 
wick. 
Albero- 

ni, 
prime 
minis- 
ter of 
Sixain. 


1701.  Grand  alliance 
between  England, 
the  Empire,  to  pre 
of  France  and  Spa 

1702.  Battles  of  Stul- 
hafen,  Hochsledt. 
and  Spires,  gained 
by  the  French. 


1705.  — J  0  s  e  p  h 


1710.  Treaty  of   the 
Hague    between 
England.  Holland, 
and  the  Empire. 

1711.  —  Charles 

Ministry  of  Count 
Linzendorf 

1713.  Pragmatic 
sanction,    vesting 
the  succession    to 
Austria   in    the 
daughters  of  Char- 
les. 

1714.  Peace  of  Ras- 
tadt  and  Baden 
with  France. 


of  the  Hague, 
Holland,  and 
vent  the  union 
in. 

1702.  Victory 
of  Luzzace 
gained  by  the 
Fiench  over 
the  Impe- 
rialists. 


1706.  French 
driven  from 
Italy    by 
prince     Eu- 
gene. 

1707.  All  the 
Spanish  pos- 
sessions in 
Italy  aban- 
doned to  the 
allies. 


Ottoman 
Empire. 


1703. 
HI. 


1709.    Charles 
XII.    takes 
re luge  at 
Bender — 
hence    war 
with  Russia. 


1718.  Quadru- 
ple alliance 
against  Spain. 


1714.     War  of  Venice    with 
the  Porte.      I 


1715.    Corinth  taken    by    the 
Turks  —  the  Emperor  joins 
Venice —  sie  ge  of   Corfu 
raised  on  the  news  of  their 

1716.  defeat  at 
the  battle  of 
Peterwar- 
den. 

1717.  Defeat  of 
Crusca — loss 
of  Belgrade, 

1718.  Peace  of  Passarovvitz, 
between  the  Porte,  Venice, 
and    Hunga  ry. 


The  World,  elsewliere. 


1700.  Russia :— Peter  the  Great 
invades  Ingria — defeated  by 
Charles  XII.,  at  Narva. 

War    of    the    Northern 
Powers. 

1701.  PRUSSIA  erected  into  a 
kingdom  under 

Frederic   I.^S— 

Charles  XII.  invades  Po- 
land— is  victorious  at  Riga. 

1702.  —enters  Warsaw— takes 
Cracow. 

1703.  Victory  of   Pultusk  - 
Poland  :— The  throne  ds- 

clared  vacant,  and 

1704.  Stanislas      Leetzinski 

elected  king.^g 

1706.  The  Swedes  victorious 
over  the  Saxons  and  Rus- 
sians at  Traverstadt. 


1707.  Russia  :— Revolt  of  the 
Cossack  Mazeppa. 

1708.  Charles  invades  Russia, 
crosses  the  Dnieper,  and  is 

1709.  defeated  at  Pultowa. 
Sweden  at  war  with  Den- 
mark. '     ♦ 

Poland :— Frederic  Augus- 
tus re-ascends  the  throne. 

1712.  Victory  of  the  Swedes  at 
Gadebusche. 

1713.  Prussia :— Frederic  Wil 

liam  I.^S — 


1714.  Russia :— Naval  victory 
over  the  Swedes. — Aland  and 
Finland  conquered. 

17 1 5.  Netherlands Barrier 

treaty  of  Antwerp  with  Aus- 
tria. 

Sweden :— Return  of  Char- 
les—Prussia and  Englanci 
join  the  alliance  against  him. 


1718.  Charles  XII.  invades 
Norway ;  is  killed  at  the 
siege  of  Fredericshall. 

Sweden:— Ulrica   Eleo- 


134 


THE    world's    progress. 


PERIOD  X.~97  years.— 


Progress  of  Society,  etc. 


Cotton  Mather,  "Magnolia" 
and  Increase  Mather,  Hist, 
of  War  with  Indians. 


Inoculation  introduced  by 
Lady  INIontague.  The  same 
year  introduced  into  Boston 
by  Dr.  Boylston. 


Academy  of  Sciences  at  Peters- 
burg. 


The  "  Appellants,"  in  France, 
headed  by  the  Cardinal  de 
Noailles,  appeal  from  the 
bull  '"Unigenitus,"  to  a  ge- 
neral council ;  but  without 
effect. 


Behring's  Strait  discovered. 


Balloons  invented  by  Gusmac. 

In  England :  i  In  Fratice  : 
Pope,     Swift,  J.    B.    Rous- 
Young,  seau,    Le 

Thompson,  Sage,  Rolliti, 
Watts,  Lord  Montesquieu. 
Bolinf  broke. 
Doddridge, 
Chesterfield. 


Halley,  astronomer. 

First  Lodge  of  Freetnasons  in  America,  at  Boston. 


1719.  First  Philadelphia  news- 
paper. 


1721.   First  New-York  news- 
paper. 


1723.  Vermont  settled. 

Increase  Mather,  died. 


1724.  Trenton,  N.  J.,  founded. 


1727.     Great    eartliquake    in 
New-England. 


1728.  Cotton  Mather,  died. 

Discovery   of    diamond 
mines  in  Brazil. 


1729.  The  Carolinas  separated. 


1732,  Birth  of  Washington. 

1733.  Savannah  founded. 


Irish  linen  manufactories, 
and  English  steel  and  cutlery 
flourish. 


L,.    Holberg,   Danish  drama- 
tist. 


1740.  Tennessee  first  e.\-plored. 


1742.  Invasion  of  Florida  by 
Indians  and  Spaniards— re- 
pulsed. 


1719.  Unsuccessful  attempt  lo 
invade  Scotland  by  the  Span- 
iards. 

"The  South  Sea  Scheme." 

1720.  "Bursting  of  the  South 
Sea  bubble." 

1721.  Sir  Robert  Walpoie'a 
ministry  continues. 


1725.  Leajt  e  of  Herrenhausen, 

1727.  George  I.  dies  at  Osna- 
burg. 

George    II  .'@ 


1728.    Pesie    of  Pardo   wiiii 
Spain 


1729.    Ireaty    of  Seville,  be 


1731.   Treaty  of  Vienna  with 
Holland  and  the  Empire. 


1739.  War  with  Sspaln. 

1740.  Porto  Bello  taken  by  Ad- 
miral Vernon,  — Anson's  voy- 
age round  the  world,  and 
capture  of  the  Manilla  gal 
leon. 


THE    WORLD  S    PROGRESS. 


135 


1718-1815.— Death  of  Charles  XII.  to  Battle  of  Waterloo. 


1726 


1731 
1740 


1743 


The  king  assumes 
iha  government. 

Duke  de  Bourbon, 
minister. 


Congress  of  Cam- 
bray 

between  England. 
Francs,  Prussia! 
and  Holland. 

Ministry  of  Cardi- 
nal    F  1  e  u  r  y  . 


Congress  of  Sois- 
sons  dissolved, 
without  effecting 
any  thing. 

tween  England, 
France,  and  Hol- 
land. 


War  of  the  Polish 
succession : 
France,     Spain, 
and  Sardii  lia. 

Conquest  of  Lor- 
raine. 

War  of  the  Aus- 
trian succession 
— Marshals  Belle 
isle  and  Broglio : 


— defeated  by  the 
allies  at  Dettin- 
gen. 


Spain 

AND 

Portu- 
gal. 


Germany. 


1725.  :-  . 
Alliance  of    Vienna,    Spam, 
1734.  :—      dnd  Austria. 
Con- 
quest of 
Naples 
and  Sici- 
ly by 
Don 
Carlos. 


1733  War  of  the  Po- 
lish succession ; 
Austria,    Russia, 
and  Denmark. 

1735.  Preliminaries 
of  Vienna:not  con- 
cluded till  1738. 

1740.War  of  the  Aus- 
trian succession. 
Maria    The- 
resa succeeds  to 
the   hereditary 
States. 

1741.  The  French, 
Saxons,  and  Bava- 
nn.-\s,  overrun  Aus- 
tria, take  Prague, 
and  crown  Charles 


1739.  :— 
War 
with 
Eng- 
land, for 
infrac- 
tions of 
the  A  si- 
en  to 
treaty. 


VI.  emperor.^g^ 
Ti'eaty  of  Bres- 
lau  with  Austria. 
1743.  The  French 
driven  across  the 
Rhine. 


The  World,  elsewhere. 


the 


-Sicily    invaded    by 

-Tranquillity 


1719.  Italy : 
Spanish. 

1720.  Peace  of  Stockholm. - 
restored  in  the  ncrth. 

Sweden  : — The  queen  abdicates  in 
favor  of  her  husband. 

1721.  Italy  :— Innocent  Xlll.,  pope. 

Frederic,  ^g 

Peace  of  Nystadt  with  Russia. 
Russia: — Peter    assumes    the  title 
"Emperor  of  all  the  Russias." 
1721.  Turkey : — Mahommed  Effendi,  am- 
bassador to  Paris. 
1723.  China: — Christians  expelled. 
1723.  Italy :— John  Gaston,  (de  Medici), 
grand  duke  of  Tuscany. 

1723.  Turkey  :— The  Turks  and  Russians 
attempt  to  dismember  Persia. 

1724.  Italy :— Benedict  XIII.,  pope. 

1725.  Russia: — Catharine  I.,  widow  of 

Peter.  ^ 

1725.  Turkey  :— Partition  treaty  for  seiz- 
ing the  north  and  west  provinces  of 
Persia. 

1726.  Russia :— Alliance    with    Austria. 

1726.  Turkey :— First  printing  press 
brought  from  Paris  to  Turkey. 

1727.  Russia :— Treaty  with  China. 

Peter  II.® 

1727.  Turkey  :— Peace  of  Bagdad. 

1728.  Denmark :— Fire  at  Copenhagen, 
destroys  the  public  library. 

—colony  of  Danes  in  Greenland. 

1730.  Denmark :— Christian  VI.  ^5 

1730.  Italy  — Clement  XII.,  pope. 

Russia :— Anne.^^ 

1733.  Poland  :— Frederic  Augustus  11.® 
The  diet  elect  Stanislaus,  but  are 

compelled  by  the  Russian  army  to  elect 
Frederic. 

1734.  Stanislaus  besieged  in  Dantzic,  es- 
capes to  Koningsberg. 

1734.  Turkey  :— Turks  diiven  from  Per- 
sia by  Nadir  Shah. 

1736.  —war  with  Russia  and  Austria. 

1737.  Italy  :— Francis,  of  Lorraine,  grand 
duke  of  Tuscany. 

1739.  India  :— Invaded  by  Nadir  Shah, 
who  takes  and  plunders  Delhi. 

1739.  Turkey :— Turks  defeated  near 
Choezim. 

1740.  Italy  :— Benedict  XIV.,  pope. 
Turkey :— The  Turks  invade  Persia 

— are  repulsed  by  Ashraf 
-peace  of  Belgrade. 


136 


THE    WORLD'S    PROGRESb. 


[Period  X. — 97  ytars.~ 


Progress  of  Society,  etc. 


Frederic  the  Great  makes 
great  improvements  in  ■mili- 
tary tactics — introduces^y- 
ing  horse  artillery. 

Durante  and  Leo,  celebrated 
musicians. 

Handel,  and  Seb.  Bach,  musi- 
cal composers. 

■Indigo  first  produced  in  Caro- 
lina. 


Mosheim,  ecclesiastical  histo- 
rian. 

Dr.  Franklin's  discoveries  in 
electricity. 

England  introduces  the  "New 
Style  "  Calendar. 

British  Museum  founded. 


British. 
Allan      Ram- 
say, 
Shenstone, 
Gray, 
Collins, 
Akenside, 
Churchill. 


Helvetius,  Fr. 
Racine,  Fr. 

Gellert,  Ger. 
Winckle- 
inann,  Ger. 


John  Rysbrach,  sculptor. 
Hogarth,    Wilson,  S^  Joshua 

Reynolds,  painters. 
Potatoes      first     planted     in 

France,  by  Turgot. 
Niebuhr's  travels  in  Arabia. 

Wesley  Sj-  Whitefield  preach. 
Philadelphia  Me"dical  School, 

first  in  America. 
Wallis  and  Carteret's  voyage 

of  discovery  in  the  South 

Seas. 


Great  Britain. 


1745.  Louisburg  and  Cape 
Breton  taken  from  France 
by  the  English. 


1747.  David    Brainerd    and 
Benjamin  Coleman,  died. 


1744.  Naval  victory  over  the 
French  and  Spanish  fleets  in 
the  bay  of  Hieres. 

1745.  Scotch  rebellion — Char- 
les Edward  lands  in  Scot- 
land. 

1746.  he  is  defeated  at  Cul- 
loden. 
1747.  Victories  over  the  French 
ofl"     Belle-isle     and     Cape 
Finisterre. 


1749.    English    settlement    in 
Nova  Scotia. 


1752.  Hostilities  between  Eng 

1754.  Washington's  mission  to 
the  French. 

1755.  Defeat  of  Braddock. 

1756.  Oswego  and  Ft.  Granby 
taken  by  the  French. 


1757.  Fort  Wm.  Henry  cap- 
tured. 

I75S.  Repulse  of  Abercrombie 
at  Ticonderoga. 
Fort  Du  Qup.sne  taken. 

1759.  Invasion  of  Canada — 
death  of  Wolfe — Q,uebec 
taken. 

Capture  of  Niagara, 
Crown  Point,  and  Ticonde- 
roga. 


1763.  End  of  the  "  Old  French 

War." 
1765.  "  American  Stamp  Act " 

resisted     in    Massachusetts 

and  Virginia. 
First  Colonial  Congress  at 

New- York. 


1748.  Peace    ofAixla 
mutual  restitution  of  con 


1752.  The  new  style  intro- 
duced ;  the  year  hereafter 
commences  Jan.  1. 

land  and  France  on  the  boun 


1756     "Seven     Years' 
Subsidiary  alliance  with 
Prussia. 

Ministry  of  W  i  1 1  i  a  m 
Pitt,  the  elder. 
1757.  Victory  of  Plassey,  in 
India. 


1759.  Naval  victories  over  the 
Lagros,  and  off  Brest. 

Surat,    in    India,    taken 
from  the  Dutch. 

1760.— G  eorge  III  -Wt— 

1761.  Earl  of  Bute,  premier. 

1762.  War  with  Spain. 
Conquest   of    Havana, 

Trinidad,  and  Manilla. 

1763.  Peace    of    Paris 


1765.  Bengal  ceded  to  the  East 
India  Company  by  the 
treaty  of  Allahabad. 


1718-1815.] 


THE    WORLD  S    PROGRESS 


137 


1744 

1745 
1746 


War     declared 
against  England 
and  Austria. 

Battle  ol"  Fontenoy, 
allies  defeated. 

The  French  victo- 
rious by  land, 
but  unsuccessCul 
by  sea. 

War  with  Holland. 


daries  of  Nova  Sco- 
tia. 
1753  Influence    of    Ma- 
dame de  Pompa- 
I     dour. 
War." 
Capture  of  Minor- 
ca from  the  Eng- 
lish. 


1757 
1758 


1760 
1761 


Invasion  of  Hano- 
ver. 

Defeat  at  Crefeldt. 
on  the  Rhine. 

French    off    Cape 

Attempt  to  invade 
Ireland. 

Loss  of  all  Canada. 

The  Bourbon  Fa- 
mily Compact. 

Siege  and  capture 
of  Belleisle,  by 
the  English. 


between  France, 
Spain  and  Eng- 
land. 

1764  Expulsion  of    the 
Jesuits. 


Spain 

AND 

Portu- 
gal. 


1745.  Charles  dies  at 
Munich. 

House     of 
Lorraine: 

— F  r  a  n  c  i  s  I .  ^g 
husband  of  Maria 
Theresa. 


1748 
pelle ; 
the  on 


Peace  of  Ai.x  la  Cha- 
Spain,   and    Prussia 
ly    gainers  by     the 
war. 

1756.  Seven  Years' 
War  of  Austria 
and  Prussia. 

Invasion  and 
conquest  of  Saxo- 
ny, by  Frederic  II. 

Alliance  with 
France. 

1757.  Prussians  vic- 
torious at  Prague, 
Rossbach,  Lessa, 
and  Breslau. 

The  French  take 
Verdun  and    Bre- 
men. 
175S.French  defeated 
at  Crefeldt, 

1759.  and  at  Minden, 
Victory  at  Max- 
en  over  the  Prus- 
sians.— Dresden  re- 
taken. 

1760.  Great  victory 
at  Torgan,  by  Fre- 
deric. 

1762.Prussians  victo- 
rious at  Freiburg. 

1763.  Peace  of  Hu- 
bertstrug. 

1765.  Joseph    II. 


The  World,  elsewhere. 


1740.  Prussia :— F  rederic  II  .^^ 
(the  Gi-eat.)  Prussia  increases  in  im- 
portance.—War  with  Austria. 

Russia  : — Ivan  V. 

1741.  Sweden  : — War  wilh  Russia. 
Swedes  driven  out  of  Finland, 

Russia  :— Elizabeth.  ^^ 

1743.  —Peace  of  Abo  with  Sweden. 

1743.  Turkey :— War  with  Persia. 
—Defeat  near  Erivan. 

1744.  India :— Hostilities  between  French 
and  English. 

1744.  Italy  :— Savoy  occupied  by  French 
and      Spaniards,  who  take 

1745.  —Parma,  Milan,  and  Placentia. 

— Genoa  bombarded  by  the  English. 

1746.  —French  and  Spaniards  driven  from 
Lombardy. 

1746.  Denmark :—l''rederic  V.@ 

1747.  Netherlands  :— William  IV. 
Persia  :^Revolution:  Nadir. 
Shah  murdered. 

1751.  Holland  :— William  V.  stadtholder. 

Denmark  :— Ministry  of  Count  Bern- 
stnriT. 

Sweden :— House  of  Holstein  Got- 
torp  : — 

Adolphus  Frederic.  ^M 

•1754.  Italy  : — The  Corsicans,  under  Paoli, 

revolt  against  Genoa. 
17.54.  Turkey  :— Othman  HI. 

1755.  First  Prussian  embassy  to  Constan- 
tinople. 

1756.  India :  —Calcutta  taken  by  the  Na- 
bob of  Bengal. 

1757.  Turkey :— Mustapha  III. 

1757.  Prussia  :— Russian  invasion. 

1758.  —victory  of  Londorf 

1758.  Italy  :— Clement  XIII.,  pope. 

1759.  Prussia :— The  king  defeated  at 
Kunnersdorf. 

1760.  —Battle  of  Liegnitz.— Berlin  taken. 
India:— Shah  Alim  II. 

Sie^e  and  capture  of  Pondicherry, 
by  the  English. 

Kingdom    of  Mysore    founded    by 
H  y  d  e  r    A  1  i  . 

1762.   Russia: Peter    III.® (six 

months). 

C  a  t  h  a  r  i  n  e  II  .^S 

1764.  Poland  :— Stanislaus  Poniatowski. 

1765.  India  ,— Treaty  of  Allahabad. 
—Establishment  of  a  British  empire 

1765.  Italy  :— Peter  Leopold,  grand  duke 
of  Tuscany.  g|b, 

1766.  Denmark  :— Christian  VII.  W ■ 

1766.  Power  of  the  Mamelukes  iiHEgypt 

revived  under  Rodvan  and  Ali  Bey. 


138 


THE    world's    progress. 


[Pej  iod  X. — 97  years. — 


:-«3 


1769 
1770 


Progress  of  Society,  etc. 


:774 
1774 

1774 


Fii^t  spinning  machine  in  England. 

Cook's  first  voyage  of  discovery. 

Bruce  discovers  the  source  of  the  Nile. 

Royal  Academy  of  Arts  in  England  ;  Joshua 
Reynolds,  first  president. 

Letters  of  Junius. 

Whitefield  dies  at  Newburyport. 


Captain  Cook  discovers  New  California. 

The  Spinning- JENNY,  invented  by  Robert 
Arkwright. 

The  Improved  Steam  Engine,  by  Watt 
and  Bolton. 


In  England. 

Goldsmith, 

Warburton, 

.Johnson, 

Littleton, 

Lowth, 

Garrick, 

Hume, 

Robertson, 

Blackstone. 

Adam  Smith, 

Home  Tooke. 

Priestley, 

Horsley, 

Burke, 

Pitt, 

Fox, 

Cooper, 

Sheridan, 

McPherson, 

Burns. 

Kaimes, 

Reid. 


France. 
Voltaire, 
Rousseau, 
Diderot, 
Condillac, 
.Jussien, 
Lavoisier, 
La  Harpe, 
Barthetemy, 
Butfon. 


Ger.    Mosh- 

eini, 
Zimmerman, 
Kant, 

Klopstock, 
Lessirig, 
VVieland, 
Herder, 
Goethe, 
Schiller, 
Sw.  Linnaeus, 
It.  Metastasio. 
Rus.  Kheras- 

kov, 
Kostrov. 
Deerhavin, 
Bogdanovich, 
Khemnitzee. 


United  States. 


1768.  Boston  occupied 
by  the  British  troops. 


1769.  Daniel  Boone  ex- 
plores Kentucky. 


1772.  Hancock, S. 
Adams,  and  P  a  • 
trick  Henry, 
promote  the  revolu- 
tion. 

1773.  Tea  destroyed  at 
Boston. 

1774.  Continental  Con- 
gress at  Philadelphia. 


177.5.       AMERICAN 
WAR: 

April  19,  Skirmish   at 

Lexington. 
.June  17,  Battle  of  Bun- 
ker's Hill 

Prescott,  Put- 
nam,&Warren. 
WASHINGTON, 
commander-in-chief. 
Montgomery 
Montreal,  and  falls  at 
1776.  The  British  troops 
evacuate  Boston. 


Moultrie    de 
Sullivan's  Island. 

DECLARA- 
TION   OF    IN- 
DEPENDENCE, 
July  4. 

Americans  (Sul  li- 
V  a  n)  defeated  at 
Flatbush.  Aug. 

Battle  of  White 
Plains. 

Battle  of  Trenton, 
Dec.  26-7. 
1777.  Arrival  of  Lafay- 
ette. 
Capture  of  Ticon 


Great  Britain. 


1766.  American  Stamp 
Act  repealed, — New 
ministry  under  the 
Earl  of  C  h  a  t  h  a  m . 


1767.  First  war  with 
Hyder  Ali  in  Mj"- 
sore. 


1770.  Lord  N  /.  r  t  h  , 
prime  minister. 

1771.  The  Falkland 
Islands  ceded  by 
Spain  to  Great  Bri- 
tain. 


1774.  The  Boston  Port 
Bill  passed. 

1774.  Warren  Hastings, 
governor  general  oi 
India. 

REVOLUTIONARY 

1775.  Lord  North's 
"  conciliatory  mea- 
sures "  rejected  by 
the  colonies. 


takes    St.    Johns     and 

Q,uebec. 

1776.  The  city  of  Lon- 
don     remonstrates 
against  the  American 
war. 

feats    the    English    at 

The  British  army 
takes  possession  of 
New- York. 

Hessians  hired  for 
service  in  America. 


deroga  by  the  British, 
July  5. 


1718-1815.] 


THE    world's    progress. 


139 


Germany. 


The  World,  elsewhere. 


Genoa  cedes  Corsica  to  France. 


Ministry  of  Due  d'Aiquillon. 

Marriage  of  tlie  dauphin  with 
Marie  Antoinette. 


Madame  du   Barri  rules   the 
king. 

—Louis    XVI  .^ 

Marie    Antoinette,   queen  : — 
Maurepas,  prime  minieter. 


N  e  c  k  e  r ,  comptroller-gene- 
ral. 
Franklin  in  Paris. 


1772.  Joseph 
II.  with  the 
Emperors  of 
Russia  and 
Prussia,  dis^ 
member  Po 
land,  divid 
ing  it  be 
tween  them 
selves. 


Discipline  of  the  Ottoman  troops  Im- 
proved by  Baron  de  Tott. 

1767.  Spain :— Jesuits  expelled. 

India: — Hyder    Ali    resists    the    Eng- 
lish. 

1768.  War  between  Russia  and  the  Ottoman 
Empire. 


17G9.  Pope  Clement  XIV. 

The   Russian  army  occupies  Wi-lachia 
and  Moldavia. 

1771.  Sweden  :—Gustavus  III.^^ 

1772.  First  Partition  of  Poland. 


1773.  Ottoman  Empire :— The  Russians  cross- 
ing the  Danube,  are  repulsed  by  Ghazi 
Hassan. 

Pope    Clement  abolishes  the  order    of 
Jesuits. 

1774.  India — Warren  Hastings,  first  British 
governor-general. 

Russia : — Revolt  of  the  Cossack  Pugat- 
schefF,  calling  himself  Czar  Peter. 

Ottoman  Empire  :— Abdul  Hamid.^§ — 

1775.  Pope  Pius  VI. 
Spain  :— Able  ministry  of  Florida  Blan- 


1776.  Bassora  surrendered  to  the  Persians. 
East  Indies  :— Lord  Pigot,  governor-{ 
neral,  imprisoned  by  his  own  council. 


1777.  Portugal :— Maria,  queen. 


140 


THE    world's    progress. 


[Period  X. — 97  years. — i 


Progress  op  Society,  etc. 


United  States. 


Herschel's    discovei-y   u!'   the 
Georgium  Sidus. 


Prussia  acid  obtained  in  a  se- 
parate state,  by  Scheele. 

Air  balloon  of  Montgolfier. 


First    American     vessel 

China. 
Bistitulion  for  the  deaf  and 

dumb  at  Paris,  by  the  Abbe 

de  I'Epee. 
Sunday  schools  established  in 

England,  by  Robert  Rcukes. 
Herschel's  Telescopes. 


Stenography.,  by  Taylor. 

Panoramas  in  London. 
First    spinning   machine 
France. 


Talma,  tlie  celebrated  trage- 
dian. 


Great  Britain. 


Battles   of    Bennington, 
U,  and  S;illwater. 

Philadelphia    taken  by 

lis. Battle    of     German 

ceives  Burgoyne's 
Articles  of  confederation, 
adopted  Nov.  1.5. 

1778.  Alliance  with  France. 
Battle    of     Monmouth, 

Washington  victorious,  June 
28. 

Arrival    of  the    French 
fleet  under  D'Estaing. 
Massacre  of  Wyoming. 

Savannah  taken  by  the 
English. 

1779.  Wayne     recovers 
Sioney  Point. 

Paul  Jones's  Victory  off 

1780.  Battle    near    Camden : 
D  e     K  a  I  b    killed. 

Treason  of  Arnold. 

1781.  Battle  of  Covvpens,  gain- 
ed by    Morgan. 

Surrender     of    Co 
town,     Oct.  17. 


Aug.  16;   Brandywine,  Sept. 

the  English,  under  Cornwal 
town,  Oct.  4.— G  ales  re- 
surrender,    Oct.  17. 


1778.  Capture  of  Pondicherry, 
in  India. 


Scotland. 

1780.  War  with  Hyder  Ali  in 
India. 

War  with  Holland. 


rnwallis     at      York- 

1781.  Victory  off  the  Dogger- 
bank. 


1782.  Treaty  with  Holland,  by 
J.   Adani.s,  Jay,   Frank 
1  i  n  ,     and  Laurens. 

1783.  PEACE    OF    VERSA  ILLES : 

INDEPENDENCE    of  the    UNITED   STATES   ac- 
knowledged  by   Great  Bri- 
tain. 


1781.  New- York  Chamber   of 
Commerce  founded. 


1784,     Pitt,    the    younger, 
premier. 

Peace  with  Tippoo  Saib. 


1785.  John    A  d  a  ra  s  ,  Ist  ambassador  from  the  United 
States  of  America  to  Great 


Britain. 

1786.  Shay's  insurrection   in 
Massachusetts. 

1787.  General  Convention  at 
Philadelphia. 

Federal  Con- 
stitution of  the 
United  States,  adopted. 
1783.  Cotton  planted  in  Geor- 
gia. 
1789.  George  Wash- 
ington, first  Presi- 
dent : 

Jefferson,  Ha- 
milton, Knox,  Ran- 
dolph, and  Jay,  form 
the  cabinet. 

1791.  First  United  States  Bank. 

1792.  Kentucky  admitted 
to  the  Union. 

United  States  Mint  esta- 
blished. 


1783.  Pitt's  Sinking  Fund. 


1788.  The  king  insane.— Deatn 
of  Charles  Edward,  the  last 
pretender. 


Trial  of   Warren  Hast- 
ings. 


1792.  Provision  for  the  gradua. 
abolition  of  the  slave  trade. 


1718-1815.J 


THE    world's    progress. 


141 


1778 


Alliance  with  America. 


1779  Scheme    to    invade    England 
from  Normandy. 


1 78Ci  Rochambeau 
aid  the  Americans. 


1781 
1782 


Necker  resigns. 


Defeat  of  De  Grasse  in  the 
West  Indies,  by  Rodney. 


Peace 

1  e  s  . 


of     V  e  r  s  a  i  1 


1787 


1789 


179. 
1792 


La  Perouse's  voyage  of  disco- 
very. 

Financial  difficulties — New 
taxation :  Colonne,  Brienne, 
and  Necker,  ministers  suc- 
cessively. 

FRENCH    REVOLUTION 

begins. — Bastile  taken   and 
razed,  July   14. — Lafay- 
ette,   commander  of  the 
national   guards. —  M  i  r  a 
beau,    leading  orator. 


Flight  of  the  king  to  Varen- 
nes. — Lafayette  resigns. 


Germany. 


1778.  War  of  the  Bavarian 
succession. — Bavaria  seized 
by  Germany, 


1779.   Congress  and  Peace  of 
Teschen. 


1732.    Punishment    of    death 
abolished. 

The  Pope  visits  the  em- 
peror, to  dissuade  him  from 
hostilities  against  the  church. 


1785.  2,000    religious    houses 
suppressed  by  the  emperor. 


1788.  The   emperor  attempts 
to  control  the  Universities. 


1790.  Leopold    11.^— 
Congress  of  Reichenbach. 

1791.  Conference  of  Pilnitz. 


War  with    Germany  : 


France     declared     a 

republic. 
Girondists  and  Muunlainisis 


1792.  — F  r  a  n  c  i  s  1 1  .  W— 
-The  French    take    Spires,   Mentz, 
and  Longwy — Lafay&lie  im- 
prisoned at  Olmuiz. 


The  World,  elsewhere. 


1780.  Declaration  of  the  armed 
neutrality— to  protect  neu- 
tral flags  from  the  right  ol 
search  claimed  by  Britain. 


1782.  Italy :— Pontine  mai  ehea 
drained. 

India:— Rise  of  Sindia— 
T  i  p  p  o  o  ,    Sultan. 

1783.  —alliance     with     the 
French. 


1786.  Prussia  — Frederic  Wil- 
liam II. 

1787.  Russia :— War  with  the 
Porte. 

1788.  Spain:— Charles  IV. 

1789.  Ottoman  Empire:— Se- 
ll m  II. 

1790.  Tuscany  : — Ferdinand 
III. 


1792.  Sweden:— Gustavus  IV 


142 


THE    WORLD  S    PROGRESS. 


[Period  JC. — 97  years. — 


A.O. 

Progress  op  Society,  etc. 

United  States. 

Great  Britain. 

1793.  Washington  re-elected. 

1793.  First  coalition    against 

Neutrality  in    regard   to 

France,    directed    by   Eng- 

France. 

land — all  Europe,  except 
Sweden,  Denmark,  and  Tur- 

Tom Paine, 

Alfieri,  Italian 

key. 

Fisher  Atnes. 

poet. 

1794.  Commercial  treaty  with  England. 

HannahMore, 

Gluck, 

Commencement 

British    army    defeated 

Gainsboro', 

Haydn, 

of    the    nav  y—6  fri- 

near Dunkirk. 

Moreland. 

Mozart, 
Albrechtsber- 

gates     built. 

Bognslawski, 

gen, 

Krasiki,     Po- 

Beethoven. 

lish  poets. 

1795.  War  with  Holland. 

1796.  Washington  resigns. 

1797.  John    Adams,    2d 

president. 

Difficulties  with  France. 

1798.  Regular  army  organized, 

1798.  Second  coalition  against 

Washington  commander-in- 

France.— Irish  rebellion.  — 

chief. 

Nelson's     victory     at 

1799 

Pestalozzi,  system  of  elemen- 

1799. Death  of  Washington. 

the     Battle     of      the 

tary  education. 

Tennessee   becomes 

Nile. 

Mungu    Park's    travels    in 

a  State. 

.Wilberforce's  motion  to 

Africa,  published. 

abolish  the  slave  trade,  lost, 
87  to  83. 

1800.     Seat     of    government 
transferred  to  Washington, 

1800.  Union  of  Eng- 
land   and    Ireland. 

Iron  railways  in  England. 

D.  C. 

— Malta  taken. 

1801 

1801.  Thomas   Jeffer- 

1801,  Battle  of  Alexandria.— 

Polytechnic  school  in  Paris. 

s  0  n  ,   3d  President. 

Pitt  resigns,  succeeded  by 

Exports  of  United  States, 

Addington. 

ISu-^ 

First  book-fair  in  New-  York. 

$93,000,000. 
1802.  Ohio  joins  the  Union  ; 
it  has  76,000  inhabitants. 

1802.  Peace  of  Amiens. 

1303.  Purchase  of   Louisi- 

1803. Successful  war  in  India. 

ana,    for  $15,000,000. 

U.  States  frigate  Philadel- 

phia, taken  by  the  Tripoli- 

tans. 

\'m 

First  Locomotive  Steatn  En- 

1804. Decatur    recaptures 

1804.  Pitt  again  premier. 

gine  used  on   the   jMerthyn 

the  Philadelphia. 

Tydvil  road  in  Wales. 

Preble  bombards  Tri- 
poli. 

Burr  kills  Hamilton. 

1805.  Jefferson  re-elected  Pre- 

1805. Nelson    defeats  the 

sident  :  George    Clin- 

French and  Spanish  fleets 
off  Trafalgar. 

ton,    of  New-  York,  Vice- 

President. 

1718-1815.J 


THE  world's    progress. 


14? 


The  king  and  queen  beheaded.    1793.  First   Coalition 

against    France. 
Reign    of    Terror. 

Marat  assassinated  by  Char- 
lotte Corday. 

Victories     of    P  i  c  h  e  g  r  u    and    J  o  u  r  d  a  n  —the  allies 
every  where  driven  bact. 

Revolution  of  the  9th  Thermi- 
dor. 

Robespiere    guillotined. 

NAPOLEON  BONA- 
PARTE, commander  of 
the  army  ;  quells  an  insur- 
rection in  Paris. 

War  in  Italy. 

Battle  of  Lodi. 

Bonaparte's  AiistrianCampaig  n — H  o  c  h  e 
and  M  o  r  e  a  u  '  s  cele- 
brated passage  of  the  Rhine. 

Peace    of     Campo    Formic. 


The  World,  elsewhere. 


Bonaparte's  expedition  to 
Egypt  is  defeated  by  Nelson 
at  Aboukir,  Aug.  1. 

The  French  enter  Switzerland 
under  Bernadotte  and 
Jourdan. — Return  of  Bona- 
parte.— R  evolution  of 
the  18th  B  r  u  m  a  i  r  e 
— B  onaparte,  first 
consul. 

Battle    of    Marengo. 


1798.  Second  Coalition  against 
France. 


-M  o  r  e  a  u  '  s     victory     of 
Hohen  linden. 


Peace  of  Lunevile. 


Bonaparte  elected  president  of 

the  Ita'lian  republic. 
Peace    of    Amiens. 
Legion  of  Honor  instituted. 

War  with  England. 
Bank  of  France. 


Duke  D'Enghien  shot. 

Bonaparte  crowned  as  NA- 
POLEON I.,  Emperor  of 
the  French. 

Marshals  Soult,  Murat, 
N  e  y  ,    &c. 

Austrian  Campaign, iBatttle    of     Auster 
■  i  t  z  . 


1804.  The  emperor  of  Ger- 
many assumes  the  tille  of 
emperor  of  AUSTRIA. 


Peace  of 
Napoleon     Protector  of    the 


Pi'esburg. 

Confederal  inn  of  the  Rhinfi. 


1793.  Second  Partition  of  Po- 
land by  Russia  and  Prussia. 

H  a  y  t  i  independent  re- 
public, under  Toi;,'S  saint 
L'Ouverture. 

1794.  Poland :— Revolt  at  Cra- 
cow.— K  osciusko,  ge- 
neral-in-chief — Russians  de- 
feated at  Warsaw. 


1795.  Final  partition 
of  Poland  —  extinction 
of  the  kingdom. 

Batavian  Republic  :— Shi- 
mejpennink. 

1796.  Russia :— Paul  I. 

1797.  Switzerland  : —  General 
Revolution  — The  French 
invade  Berne — Helvetian 
Republic. 

Prussia  ; — Frederic  Wil- 
liam ni.^ 

1798.  India  :— Marquis  Welles- 
ley,  governor-generaj. 

1799.  Russians,  under  S  u  • 
w  a  r  r  o  w  ,  defeated  near 
Milan. 


1800.  Armed  neutrality  of  the 
north. 

Pope  Pius  VII. 
Ionian  Republic  founded. 

1801.  Russia:  Alexander. ^g 

1802.  Italian  Republic— Bona- 
parte president. 


1803.  India :— Great  Mahratta 
War. 


1804.  Russia  :— War  with  Per 

sia. 


144 


THE    world's    progress. 


[Peiiod  X. — 97  years.— 


A.D. 

Progress  of  Society,  etc. 

United  States. 

Great  Britain. 

1806 

Planet  Juno  discovered. 

1806.  Fourth  Coalition  against 

Lewis  Sf    Clark's  expedition 

France. 

to  the  Rocky  Alountains, 

1807 

Fulton's    first     success- 

1807.   Embargo    on    all    the 

1807.  Bill  for  the  abolition  of 

ful     TRIAL     OP     Steam- 

ports of  the  United  States. 

the  slave  trade,  passed. 

boats. 

Trial  of  Aaron  Burr  for 
treason. 

1808 

General  University  established 

Slave  trade  abolished. 

1808.    The     English,     under 

by  Napoleon,  to  superintend 

W  e  1 1  e  s  1  e  y ,  enter  Spain 

national  education. 

as  allies. 

Lithography  invented. 

1809.  James   Madison, 

1809.  Fifth  CoaUtion. 

In  England : 

France : 

4th  President. 

Walcheren  expedition. 

Flaxman, 

Westmacott, 

Chantrey, 

La  Grange, 

Mange, 
Hauy, 

Embargo  repealed ;   the 
non-imercourse  act  passed. 

sculptors. 

Biot. 

B.  St.  Pierre, 
poet. 

1810 

First  steamboat  built  in  Eu- 

1810. War  with  Sweden. 

rope. 

1811.    Engagement     between 

1811  George,  Prince  of  Wales, 

the    '  President '     and    the 

Prince  Regent,  (the  king  be- 

'Little Belt.' 

ing  insane). 

Indians  on  the  Wabash, 

Population  of  Great  Bri- 

defeated by  Gov.  Harrison. 

tain,  12,552,144. 

Population  of  the  United 

States,  7,239,903. 

1812 

American    Board    of    Com- 

1812.       War  with  Great  Britain. 

missioners  for  Foreign  Mis- 

sio?is,  founded. 

Invasion  of  Canada  under  Gen.  Hull. 

Gen.  Hull  surrenders  Detroit  to  the  British. 

18U 

Steam  carriages  in  England. 

The    Constitution  captures    the    Guer- 

Gas    used    lor    lightirrg    the 

r  i  e  r  e  : 

streets  of  London. 

(First  clieck  of  Briti.sh             Lord    Liverpool, 
naval  supremacy.)                     premier. 

1815 

Safety  lamp  invented  by  Sir 

Wool    victorious   at  Q.ueenstown,  Oct.  12. 

Humphrey  Davy. 

Captain  Jones,  in  the  Wasp,  captures  the  Frolic 
Oct.  18. 

In  England : 

H.K.  White, 
Keats, 
Reg.  Heber, 

Bilderdyk, 
Dutch. 

The    •'  United    States,"  Captain  Decatur,  captures  the 
British  frigate  Macedonian. 

The  Constitution,  Captain  Bainbridge,  captures  the  Bri 
tish  fri-iate  Java. 

Shelley, 

Crabbe, 

Sir  W.  Scott, 

Byron, 

Coleridge, 

Lamb, 

Montgomery, 

Hogg. 

German: 

Louisiana  admitted  into 

W.  Schlegel, 
F  Schlegel, 

the  Union. 
1S13.  Perry's   victory 

1813.  Sixth   Coalition  against 

Richter, 

on    Lake    Erie. 

France — Prussia,     Russia, 

Kotzebue : 

Battle  of  the  Thames : 

Sweden,  Great  Britain,  and 

Weber    and 

TecumseJi  killed. 

Austria. 

Spohr,  musi- 
cal    compo- 

1814.    City    of     Washington 
burnt  by  the  BK'''sh. 

1814.  Treaty  of  Chaumont  be- 
tween Austria,  Prussia,  Ru.s- 

France  : 

sers. 

sia,  and  Great  Britain. 

Mad.  de  Stael, 

Russia : 

Peace  of  Ghent,  signed  Dec.  3. 

Mad.  deGenlis, 

Karamsin, 

Chateaubriand 

Somorokor, 

1615.   Battle  of  New-Orleans  ; 

Cuvier. 

Dmitriev, 

British  defeated  by  General 

1815.  Candy  and  Almora  cap- 

Krilov. 

Jackson,  Jan.  8. 

tured. 

Melendez  Val- 

Wellington    vie 

dez,  Spanish 

War  against  Algiers  de- 

torious at  Waterloo.  June  18. 

poet. 

clared. 

1718-1815.J 


THE    WORLD  S    PROGRESS. 


145* 


A.D. 

France. 

Germany. 

The  World,  elsewhere. 

1806 

Victory  of   Jena    over 

the  Prussians. 

1806.  Holland  :— Louis  Napo- 

Berlin   decree. 

leon,  king. 

Prussia  at  war  with  France 

in  alliance  with  Russia. 

ISO? 

War  with  Russia. 

1807. Ottoman  Empire  :— Mus- 

Battle  of  Friedland.— P  e  a  c  e 

taplm  IV. 

of    Tilsit. 

Invasion    of    Portu- 

18(E 

gal. 
French  in  Spain  defeated  at 

1808.  Spain  :— Ferdinand  VII. 

Vienna,  by  S'ir  Arthur  Wel- 

"     Joseph  Napoleon. 

lesley. 

Naples :— Murat. 
Denmark  i-^Frederic  VI. 
Ottoman  Empire :— Mah- 
moud  11. 

1809 

Battle    of  VVagra  m— 

Peace    of    Vienna. 
M  e  1 1  e  r  n  i  c  h  ,    minis- 

1809. Sweden  :— Charles  XHI. 

ter. 

~ 

ISIO 

Napoleon  marries  Maria  Lou- 

1810.   South  America  :  —VE- 

ise.—Continental  peace  ex- 

NEZUELA  declared  inde- 

cept with  Spain. 

pendent. 

ISII 

Birth   of  the   emperor's  son; 

1811.  NEW  GRENADA  de- 

created king  of  Rome. 

clared  independent. 

Soult    victorious  in    Spain- 

\ 

takes  Badajos ;   is  defeated 

by  the  English  at  Albuesa. 

1812 

Russian    Campaign. 
Battles  of  Smolensko  and  Bo- 
rodino. 
Moscow  entered  by  Napoleon's 

1812.  Austria  in  alliance  with 
France  against  Russia. 

1812.    Invasion   of   Russia 
by   Napoleon.— BURNING 

OF  MOSCOW. 

K  u  t  0  s  0  f  f    pursues 

army — and  burr  5d    by   the 
Russians. 

the  retreating  I'rench. 

Poland:— Diet  of  War- 
saw:  the  Poles  declared  a 
nation  by  Napoleon. 

ISI3 

Victories   of    L  u  t  z  e  n  , 

1813.   War  of  German  inde- 

1813.  South  America:— Bo- 

Bautzen, and   Dres- 

pendence. 

ll  V  a  r     drives  the   Span- 

den,   over  the  allies. 

Austria  joins  the  Coali- 
lion. 

iards  from  Caraccas 

Battle  of    Leipsic  — 

Bonaparte     driven     to     the 

1814 

The  allies  enter  Paris. 

Rhine,  loses  his  whole  army. 

1814.   Union  of  Holland    mh.I 

Napoleon  abdicates. 

Belgium. — Peace  of   Kii-I. 

and  retires  to  Elba. 

Sweden,  and  England. 

House     of     Bourbon 

Union    of   Sweden    :ii.  1 

restored: 

Norway  as  two   kingdnni  . 

Louis     XVIII. 

under  one  monarch 

Vdl5 

Bonaparte  returns  from  Elba. 

1815.  German  League. 

1815.   Netherlands :— Willi;uii 

The     hundred    days. 

Congress   of  Vien- 

.»^ 

Napoleon  victorious  at  Lisny. 

n  a . 

I  ^^ 

BATTLE  OF  WATERLOO. 

The     "Holy     Al- 

The allies  enter  Paris. 

liance'  '—Russia,  Priis 

Bonaparte     banish- 

sia, and  Austria. 

ed    to    St      Helena. 

146" 


THE   world's    progress. 

PERIOD  XL— 35  years, 


A.D.    Progress  op  Society,  etc. 


New  corn  law  in  England. 

Polytechnic  institution  at  Vi- 
enna. 

Manufactories  introduced  into 
Poland. 

Tlie  family  of  Rothschilds 
conies  into  notice  at  Frank- 
fort. 

Abolition  of  the  slave  trade  by 
the  congress  of  Vienna. 

Second  United  States  Bank 
chartered  for  20  years,  capi- 
tal $3.5,000,000. 

Public     schools     established 

throughout  Russia. 
Belzoni  penetrates  the  second 

pyramid  of  Gheza. 

Abolition  of  predial  bondage 
in  Bavaria  and  Wirtemberg. 


United  States. 


1816.  United  States  Bank  in- 
corporated. 

Indiana    admitted. 

1817.  James    Monroe, 
5th  President. 

Mississippi     ad- 
mitted. 

1818.  Illinois    admitted. 
War  with  the  Serainoles. 


First  passage  of  the  Atlantic  by  steam,  by  the  Savannah — 
New- York  to  Liverpool. 

1820.  Maine    admitted. 

Rise  of  mechanic  institutions  1821.  Monroe  re-elected. 

in  England.  Missouri    admitted. 

Slavery  compromise. 
Hieroglyphics  deciphered : — 

Cliampollion. — Sir  William 

Herschel  died. 

Huskisson's  free  trade  system 

in  England. 
First  manufactory  in  Egypt, 

established  by  Aleheme^t  Ali. 

Inland  navigation  of  the 
United  Slates :  the  great 
Erie  Canal  opened. 


Mail-posts      in      Prussia. — 

Stea?n   navigation  07i  the 

Rhine. 
General  financial  panic   in 

England. 
Vast    increase    of   periodical 
literature  in  England,  France, 

Germany,  America,  &c. 


1S26  j  Alexander  Volta    dies,  disco- 
verer of  the  Voltaic  battery. 


1824.  Lafayette's  visit. 
Erie  canal  opened. 
Protective  tariff. 


1825.    J.   Q.  Adams,    6th 
President. 


Great  Britain. 


1816.  Bombardment  of  Algiers. 
— The  Dey  compelled  to 
make  peace  and  abolish 
slavery. 

1817.  Lord  Exmouth's  expe- 
dition to  Algiers. 


1820.- -3  e  0  r  g  e    I  V  .  W— 


182.3.    Canning    ministry. 
The  Ashantees  in  Africa 
defeated. 


1825.  Commercial  treaty  wiili 
Prussia. 


1827.    Treaty  of  London    in 
favor  of  Greece. 


1828.    Wellington  ministry. - 
Disturbances  in  Ireland. 


THE    WORLD'S    PROGRESS. 


147* 


1815-1850. 


A.D.  France. 


1118 


1821 


Austria,  &c.  The  World,  elsewhere. 


Congress  of  Aix  la  Chapelle 
— France  joins  the  "  Holy 
Alliance." 


Death  of  Napoleon  at  St.  He- 
lena. 


-Charles    X  . 


Fleet  sent  to  Algiers, 


1821.  Congress  of  monarchs 
at  Laybach. — Insurrection 
in  Moldavia  and  Wallachia. 
— Alexander  Ypsilanti  de- 
feated and  carried  prisoner 
to  Austria. 


1816.  Portugal  r-JchnVI.^ 
in  Brazi. 

Union  of  Naples  and 
Sicily. 

1817.  Republic  of  the  Ionian 
Islands. 

India : — The  cholera  com- 
mences its  ravages. 

1818.  Sweden  :— Charles  XIV. 
(Bernadotte.) 

India:— The  Mahralta 
power  completely  over- 
thrown, and  the  British  suc- 
ceeds. 

1819.  South  America: — Re- 
public of  COLOMBIA:— 
Bolivar,    President. 

1821.  Ilayti :— B  oyer,  em- 
peror. 

South  America :— PERU 
and  GUATEMALA  inde- 
pendent. 

1822.  BRAZIL  declared  inde. 
pendent. 

Mexico : — Iturbide,  em- 
peror. 

Greek  Revolu- 
tion. 

Declaration  of  Indepen- 
dence. 

Massacre  of  Scio. 

1823.  Italy  :— Leo  XII.,  pope, 

1824.  Death  of  Lord  Byron  at 
Missolonghi. 

1825.  Russia  :— N  i  c  h  o  1  a  r 

1820.  —War  with  Persia. 
Greece :  —  Missolonghi 

taken  by  the  Turks. 
;827.  Treaty  between  Russiti 
and    the    Porte    respecting 
Greece. 

Greece :— B  a  1 1 1  e  of 
N  a  V  a  r  i  n  0  . 

Portugal :— Maria  de  Glo- 
ria, queen,  ^g 

—Rebellion  in   favor  ol 
Don  Miguel  as  regent. 
1828.    War    between    Russia 
and  the  Porte. 


148* 


THE    WORLD  S    PROGRESS. 


[Period  XI. — 35  years. — 


In  England  : 

Jeremy  Ben- 
tham, 

Thomas  Chal- 
mers, 

Thomas  Dick, 

W.  Kirby, 

Hallam, 

LiingarrI, 

Wordsworth. 

Southey, 

Campbell, 

Moore, 

Leigh  Hunt, 

Mrs.  Hemans, 

Bulwer, 

"  Barry  Corn- 
wall." 

Russia  : 
Kuramsin, 
Somorokov, 
Dmietriev, 
Krilov. 

U. 
N.   Webster, 
Irving, 
Cooper, 
Flint, 
Wirt, 
Marshall, 


France : 

Citvier, 

Talma,  trage- 
dian, 

Segur, 

La  Place, 

Beranger, 

Lamartiiie. 

Germany  : 
Spohr, 
Mayerbeer, 
Kotzebue, 
Gall, 
Spurzheim. 

Sweden  : 
Tegner, 
Dahlyren. 

Italy  : 
Rossini, 
Paganini. 

5.  A. 

Wlieaton, 

Kent, 

Story, 

Gallatin, 

Livingston, 

Channing. 


Liverpool  and  Manchester 
Railroad  opened. 

The  two  Landers  succeed  in 
tracing  the  Niger  from  Lake 
Tchad  to  the  ocean. 

The  first  newspaper  in  Con- 
stantinople.—  The  Factory 
Bill  in  England,  limiting  the 
hours  of  labor  for  children. 

Reform  Bill  in  England: — 
/Orlcnsion  of  Suffrage. 

Trade  unions  in  England, 
France,  Germany,  Switzer- 
land, <fcc. 

Girard  College,  at  Philadel- 
phia, and  tlie  University  ol 
New-York,  commenced. 

De  Tocqueville's  History  of 
Democracy  in  America. 

Inquisition  abolished  in 
Spaiji. 

Slavery  abolished  in  the 
British  colonies. 

Boston  and  Loicell  Railroad 
completed. 

James  Smithson,  of  London, 
bequeathes  £100,000  to  the 
United  States  for  the  esta- 
blishment of  an  Itistitution 
'■for  the  increase  and  diffu- 
sion of  knowledge  among 
inen." 

The  Luxor  obelisk  erected  at 
Paris. 


1S29.  General  Jack- 
son, 7th  President  of  the 
United  States. 


18-30.     Treaty     between     the 
United  States  and  the  Porte. 


1831.  The  king  of  the  Nether 
North  Eastern  Boundary,  be 

1832.  War  with  the  Winneba- 
goes  and  other  Indian  tribes, 
—Cholera  in  New- York. — 
Nullification  in  South  Caro- 
lina.— General  Jackson's  ce 
lebrated  proclamation. 

1833.  General  Jackson  re-elect- 
ed to  the  Presidency. 

Removal  of  the  Depo 
sites  of  the  United  States 
from  the  U.  S  Bank. 
183-t.  The  President  censured 
by  the  Senate  for  removing 
the  Deposites. 

1835.  Great  Fire  in  New- York. 


183e.  The  national  debt  of  the 
United  States  being  paid,  the 
surplus  reventie  is  divided 
among  the  States. 

Treaty  with  Morocco. 
1837.    The    independence    of 
Texas    acknowledged 

Martin  Van  B  u  r  e  n , 

8th  President. 


1827.    Treaty  of   London   iri 
favor  of  Greece. 


1828.  The  Wellington  minis- 
try.— Disturbances  in  Ire- 
land. 


1829.  Catholic* emancipation. 
Capiain  Ross'  voyage  to 
discover  a  North  West  pas- 
sage. 


18-30.— Wil  Ham  IV,^ 
Earl  Grey,  minister. 
Difficulties  with  China. 

1831.  Lord  John  R  u  s  - 
s  e  1 '  3  Reform  Bill  intro- 
duced. 

Cholera  first  appears  in 
England. 

lands  makes  his  award  on  the 
tween  the  United  States   and 
the  British  provinces. 

1832.  Reform  Bill  passed. 


1833.  Captain  Ross  returna 
from  his  voyage  of  disco- 
very. 


1834.  Sir    Robert   Peel, 
Premier.  —  Difficulties   in 

Canada. 


ia37. 


1815-1850.J 


THE  WORLD  S    PHOGRESS, 


149' 


1827 


1829 


1835 


IS36 


A  French  fleet  sent  to  Algiers. 


Algiers  takeu. 


Three  Days'  Revo- 
lution, t)  Illy  27,  28,  and 
29. 

Lafayette,  commander  of  the 
National  Guard. 

Charles  X   abdicates. 

— L  ouis    Philippe    I. 

(House  of  Orleans.)^§ 


Ministry  of  Marshal   S  o  u  It . 


Death  of  Lafayette. 


Insurreclioa  attempted  by 
Louis  Napoleon  at  Stras- 
burg. 


Austria,  &c. 


1833.  The  Em- 
peror of  Rus- 
sia visits  the 
Emperor  of 
Austria. 


•  F  e  r  d  i 


The  World,  elsewhere. 


1829.  Italy  :— Pius  VIII.,  pope. 

Algiers  taken  by  the  French. 

VENEZUELA    independent,    General 
P  a  e  z  ,    President. 


1830.  BELGIUM   revolts  from  Holland,  and 

is  declared  independent  in  August. 

1830.  Polish  struggle  for  nation- 
ality, begins  November  19. 

Brazil : — Revolution ;  Don  Pedro  11.  ^§ 

1831.  Belgium  :—L  e  o  p  o  1  d    I  .^g 

The  Poles  victorious  at  Prayo. 

Italy :— Gregory  XVI.,  pope. 
Poland :— Warsaw  capitulates  to  Rus- 
sia. 

1832.  The  kingdom  of  GREECE  founded  : 

-O  t  h  o    I  .@— 

Poland  :— The    Insurrection     crushed : 
5000  families  sent  to  Siberia. 

— University  of  Warsaw  abolished. 

1833.  Spain  :— Isabella. ^^ 

— Don  Carlos  claims  the  throne. 
Portugal : — A  constitutional  monarchy. 
Esypt :— Mehemet  All  acknowledged  by 
the  Siiftan. 

Mexico  :— Santa  Anna,  President. 

1834.  Quadruple  alliance— England,  France, 
Spain,  and  Portugal,  against  Don  Miguel 
and  Don  Carlos. 

1835.  The  Plague  in  Egypt. 


1836.  Spain  :— The  Queen  Regent  adopts  (he 
constitution. 


Texas:— Battle  of  San  Jacinto,  Santa 
Anna  taken  prisoner. 


China:— A  decree  to  expel  all  British 
and  other  bai'barian  merchants. 


150* 


THE    WiJRLTi  S    PROGRESS. 


[Pel  iod  XI. — 35  years. — 


1837 


Prooress  of  Society,  etc. 


ISIO 


S-  F.  B.  Morse  takes 
out  a  patent  for  his  Elec- 
tro-magnetic Tele- 
graph, (invented  183"2 ) 

Suspension  of  specie  payments 
by  the  Banks  in  the  United 
States,  in  May. 

The     Daguerreotype 

invented  in  Paris. 
Improvement  of  the  condition 

of  the  Jews  in  Russia. 
An  Antarctic  Continent  disco 


Pennii  postage  system  in  Eng- 
land. 


Persecution  of   the   Jews    at 
Damascus. 


Wheats  tone's   Electric  Tele- 
graph patented  in  England. 


United  States. 


l»4o 
1816 


1838.  The  E.xploring  E.xpedi- 
tion  sails. 

1839.  Disturhannes  on  the 
"disputed  territory,"  be- 
tween Maine  and  New- 
Brunswick. 


vered  by  the    United    States 
Exploring  Expedition. 


The  Cruton  Aqueduct  in  NeW' 
York  completed. 


Bain's  electro-magiietic  Tele- 
graph patented  in  London. 


"  Anti-rentism  "■  coached  in 
the  State  of  Newr-York. 


A  great  defection  hrim  the  Ro- 
mish chm-ch,  under  the 
preaching  of  Ro7ige,  in  Ger- 
many. 

Lord  Rosse's  Telescope. 

Gulta  Percha  in  use. 

Completion  of  the  Thajnes 
Tunnel.  Marcli  2.5. 

The  Planet  Neptune,  pre- 
dicted by  Le  Verrier,  dis- 
covered by  Dr.  Galle,  of 
Berlin,  Sept.  23. 


1811.  W.    H.    Harrison, 

9th  President. 

He  dies  April  •!,  j  ust  one 
month  after  his  inaugura- 
tion. 

John  Tyler,  sue. 
ceedshim,as  lOih  President. 

Congress  meets  in  extra 
session.  May  31. 

Sub-Treasury  Act  re- 
pealed, Aug.  9. 

Bankrupt    Act    passed, 
August  IS. 
1842.  The  Dorr   Insurrection 
in  Rhode  Island. 

Treaty  between  the  Uni 


Great  Britain. 


1839.  The  British  take  posseB- 
sion  of  Gliuzne. 


1810.    The     uniform    Penny 
Postage  system  estai  iished 

Marriage  >  f  Queen  Vic- 
toria to  Prince  Albert  of 
Saxe  Cobourg. 

War  with  Chira,  to  en- 
force the  opium  trade. 

War  in    Syria:— Great 

Britain    taking    part    with 

Austria  and  Turkey.    Lord 

^Palmerston's  foreign 

'  policy  excites  the  ill-will  o/ 

France. 
1841.    The  war   with    China 
ended  :    $0,000,000  received 
as  a  ransom  for  Canton 


1844.  Texas    annexed    to 
the  United  States. 

Anti-rent  riots  in  New- 
York. 

1845.  Treaty  with  China. 
James    K  .     Polk, 

11th  President. 

1846.  War   vr  i  t  h   M  e  x  i  - 
c  o  : 

Hostilities  commence  on 
the  Rio  Grande,  April  24. 

Battle  of  Palo  Alto, 
iMay  8. 

Battle  of  Resaca  de  la 
Palma,  May  9. 


ted  States  and  England,  settling 
the  north-eastern  boundary. 

Treaty  of  peace    with 
China. 

1843.  Great  "Repeal" 
agitation  in  Ireland. 

The  British  gain  posses- 
sion of  Scinde. 

1814.  Daniel  O'ConneIl'3  trial 
and  imprisonment — the  sen- 
tence reversed  by  the  House 
of  Lords. 

1845.  Sir  John  Franklin  .=;ail3 
in  search  of  the  north  west 
passage. 


1815-1850.1 


THE    world's    progress. 


15P 


1838 


iSlO 


Talleyrand  dies. 
Difficulty  with  Mexico  :  cap- 
ture ol'  San  Juan  d'UUoa. 


Prince  Louis  Napoleon  at- 
tempts a  hostile  descent  on 
the  coast  of  France,  near 
Boulogne — is  taken  prisoner, 
and  imprisoned  at  Ilam. 


G  u  i  z  0  t ,  minister  lor  fo- 
reign affairs. 

The  remains  of  Napoleon 
removed  from  St.  Helena, 
and  deposited  with  great 
honors  at  the  Invalides,  in 
Paris. 


18^ 


The  duke  of  Orleans,  heir  to 
the  throne,  killed  by  a  fall 
from  his  carnage. 


The  Duke  de  Nemours  ap 
pointed  Regent,  in  the  event 
of  the  king's  death. 


Austria,  &c. 


1838.  New 
Treaty  of 
commerce 
with  Eng- 
land, July  3. 


Ferdinand 
crowned  at 
Milan,    Sep- 
tember 6. 


1816  Louis  Napoleon  escapes  from 
Ham,  May  26. 


The  World,  elsewhere. 


1838.  Mexico :— The  Castle  of  San  Juan 
d'Ulloa  taken  by  the  French. 

1839.  Peace  between  France  and  Mexico. 
China :— The  Opium  trade  forbidden. 
Turkey  at  war  with  Egvpt. 

India  :— Ghuzne  taken  by  li  e  British. 

1840.  China  :— Canton  blockaded  by  the  Eng- 
lish, to  compel  the  renewal  of  the  opium 
trade. 

Holland  :— William  I.  abdicates  : 

William  H.^ 

Syria:— St.  Jean   d'Acre  taker,  by  the 
English,  Austrians,  and  Turks 


1841.  China:— Canton  capitulates,  66,000,000 
paid  in  one  week,  as  a  ransom  for  the  city. 

Mexico  : — Santa  Anna  enters  the  capi- 
tal, and  places  himself  at  the  head  of  the 
government. 


1812.  India :— Insurrection  in  Affghanistan. 


1843  Temporary  surrender  of  the  Sandwich 
Islands  to  Great  Britain,  compelled  by  Lord 
Geo.  Paulet. 

Greece  : — King  Otho  compelled  to  ac- 
cept a  constitution,  Sept.  15. 

The  Society  Islands  seized  by  a  French 
squailron^resiored  by  the  govpr.iment. 

India: — Scinde  annexed  to  the  British 
empire. 
1846.  Poland  :— A  powerful,  but  unsuccessful 
insurrection  at  Cracow,  Feb.  23. 

Rome  :— Pius IX.,  pope  ;  electedJune  16. 


Poland  :— Cracow  deprived  of  its  inde- 
pendence, Nov.  16. 


152* 


THE    WORLD  S    PROGRESS. 


[Period  XI. — 35  years. — 


Pbogbbss  op  Society,  etc. 


The  cultivation  of  the    Tea 
commenced    by    J.    Smith, 


Suspension  Bridge  at   Nia- 
gara Falls,  opened  July  29. 


United  States. 


1846.  The  Oregon  Trea 
lling  the  North- Western  Bo 

Commodore  Sloat  takes 
possession  of  California, 
July  6. 

New  TarifT  bill  passed, 
establishing  ad  valorem  du- 
ties. 

Battle  of  Monterey,  Sep- 
tember 23. 

Tampico  occupied,  No- 
vember 14. 

1847.  Battle  of  Buena  Vista. 
Feb.  22. 

Battle  of  Sacramento, 
Feb.  26. 

Vera  Cruz  surrenders. 
March  29. 

Battle  of  Cerro  Gordo, 
April  18. 

Battle  of  Contreras,  Au- 
gust 20. 

Armistice,  Aug.  24. 
Hostilities  renewed,  Sep- 
tember 7. 

Battle  of  Molino  del  Rey, 
Sept.  8. 

Battle  of  Chepultepec, 
Sep,  12. 

Mexico  surren- 
ders, Sept.  14. 

1848.  Treaty  of  Peace  with 
Mexico,  signed  at  Guada- 
loupe  Hidalgo,  Feb.  22. 

plant    in  the  United  Stales, 
near  Greenfield,  South  Caro- 
lina. 

Postal  convention  betw 


First  deposit  of  Califor- 
nia gold  in  the  mint,  Dec.  8. 


Great  Britain. 


t  y    with  Great   Britain,  sel- 
undary,    signed    at    Londuiii 
June  18. 


1847.  Severe  famine  in  Ire- 
land. Large  supplii-s  of 
food  sent  from  the  United 
States. 

The  Bogue  forts  in  China 
taken  and  destroyed,  April 
26. 


Emigration  from   Europe    to  America    during    this    year, 
300,090. 


1848.  Civil  war  in  Ireland. 

.  John  Mitchell,  tried  and 
condemned  to  transporta- 
tion. May  26. 

een    the    United    States    and 
Great  Britain. 


Habeas  Corpus  Act  sus- 
pended in  Ireland,  July  25. 


Smith  O'Brien  arrested 
and  condemned,  Aug.  5. 


Return  of  Ross's  expe 
dition,  Nov. 


J  815-1850.] 


THE  world's    progress. 


15c 


Reform    Banquets    in    Stras- 
bui'g,  Chartres,  &c. 


Michelet's  Lectures  interrupt- 
ed by  the  ministers,  Dec. 

Abd-el-Eader   captured,  Dec. 

22. 
Debate  on  the   Reform   Bill, 

Feb.  8. 
Proposed  Banquet  ai    Paris, 

abandoned,  Feb.  'iL 

REV0LUT10^  COM- 
MENCED,   Feo.  22. 

Barricades  erected,  Feb.  23. 

Louis  Philippe  abdicates  and 
iiies,  Feb.  24. 

Provisional  government  esta- 
blished. 

L  a  m  a  r  t  i  n  e  ,  Provisional 
President,  Feb.  24. 

French  Republic  proclaimed, 
Feb.  26. 

Meeting  of  the  National  As- 
sembly, May  4. 

Bloody  Insurrection  in  Paris, 
June  23-25. 

Cavaignac,  military  dictator, 
June  24. 

Paris  in  a  state  of  siege. 

New  Constitution  adopted. 
Nov.  4. 


Louis  Napoleon  Bo- 
naparte, elected  Pre- 
sidrnt,  Dec.  10. 


Austria,  &c. 


1847.  Austria 
takes  posses- 
sion of  Cra- 
cow. 


The  World,  elsewhere. 


1847.    Prussia :— Frederic  William  grants  a 
constitution,  Feb.  S. 

Hayti :— Soulouque,  President,  March  2. 


Algiers  — Abd-el-Kadei  made  a  prisoner 
to  France,  Dec.  22. 

848.    Sardinia : — Charles     Albert     protests 
against   the  encroachment  of   Austria,  and  calls  out  an 
army  of  25,000  men,  Jan  10. 

Naples  : — Rebellion  at  Palermo,  Jan.  12. 
Sardinia  :— Charles  Albert  proclaims  a 
constitution,  Feb.  8. 

Bavaria : — Disturbances  on  account  of 
Lola  Montes — the  king  abdicates  in  favor  of 
his  son, 


-Maximilian  IL  W 


March  22. 


Charles  Albert 


TheBanJella- 
chich    ap- 
pointed gov- 
ernor  of 
Hungary, 
Oct.  3. 

Insurrection  at 
Vienna,  Oct. 
6. 

1848.  The  Em- 
peror leaves 
the  city.  The 
Hungarian 
army  advan- 
ces within  6 
miles  of  Vi- 
enna, Oct.  U. 

Windisch- 
gratz  ap- 
pointed com- 
mander of 
the  imperial 
army. 


enters  Milan,  March  23. 

Denmark  : — Revolt  of  Schleswig-Hol- 
stein,  March  26. 

Sicily  declared  independent,  April  3. 
Holland  receives  a  constitution,  April  17. 

Poland :— Unsuccessful  revolt  at  Cra- 
cow, April  25. 

Sicily :— The  Duke  of  Genoa  elected 
king,  July  10. 

India  : — Insurrection  in  Ceylon,  Aug.  16. 

Armistice  signed  between  Denmark, 
Prussia  and  Sweden,  Aug.  26. 

India: — The  British  make  an  unsuc- 
cessful attempt  on  Moultan. 

Sicily  : — Messina  bombarded  and  taken, 
Sept.  2. 

Hungary :— K  o  s  s  u  t  h  appointed  Pre- 
sident of  the  Defence  Committee,  and  Dicta 
tor,  Oct. 


154* 


THE    world's    progress. 


[Period  XI. — 35  years.- 


A.D. 

Progress  of  Society,  eic. 

United  States. 

Great  Britain. 

1849 

A  nexD  planet  discovered  by 

1849.  Zachary    Taylor, 

1849.  Moultan,  in  India.  takei\ 

Gasparis,  at  Naples. 

12th  President. 

Jan.  3. 

Magnetic  Telegraph  lines  in 

use  in  the  United    States    in 

1849,   10,000  miles. 
Rail  Roads  6,000    " 

Tubular  Bridge  in  Anglesea, 

England. 

Magnetic  Clock,  invented  by 

Dr.  Locke,  at  Cincinnati. 

Emigration  from   Europe    to 

America,  during  this  year,  at 
the  rate  of  1000  a  day. 

1850 

Great  agitation  on  the  Slavery 

1850.  John  C.  Calhoun  died  at 

1850.  The  war  m  I,ahore  fiiv 

Question     in    tiie    United 

Washington. 

ished,  and  ths  Punjaub  an- 

Slates Congress. 

Attempted   invasion   of 
Cuba  :— 600  adventurers  un- 

nexed to  the  British  crown. 

The  Pekin   Monitor,  a  new 

der  Lopez,  repulsed  at  Car- 

paper, printed  in  China 

denas,  May. 

The  Sultan  of  Turlcey,  grants 

Death  of  Gen.  Taylor, 

permission  to  the  .lews  to 

July  9. 

build    a  temple    on  Mount 

Millard    Fillmore, 

Zion. 

13lh  President. 

A  University  founded  at  Syd- 

California     ad- 

ney, New  South  Wales. 

mitted,  31st  State. 

Texas  b[)undary  settled, 
by  the  payment  of  10,000,000 

Deaths  in  1850 : 

dollars  to  Texas. 

U.    S.    A.          i         EUROPE. 

New-Mexico    and   Utah 

A.  Judson,        Wordsworth, 

admitted  as  Territories. 
Bill  for    the    arrest   of 

5f.  M.  Fuller,  JelTrey, 
ML.  Davis.    Neander, 
[Zschokke, 
jBerzelius, 
'Balzac. 

fugitive  slaves  passed  by  Con- 
gress. 
Slave  trade  in  (he  District  of 

Columbia  abolished. 

A  British  fleet  blockades 

the  ports  of  Greece,  to  en- 

, 

force  the  alleged  claims  of 

British  subjects. 

Sir  Robert   Peel    dies 

July  2. 

Haynau.  "  the  Austrian 

butcher,"  chastised  by  tlie 

draymen  in  London,  Sept. 

1815-1850.] 


THE    world's    progress. 


155' 


1850 


Louis  Philippe  dies  in  Eng- 
land. 


Austria,  &(j 


The  World,  elsewhere. 


The  Emperor 
issues  a  pro- 
clamation 
against    the 
city. 

Kossuth    with -draws  his  army  from  Vienna,  Oct.  27. 


The  Imperial- 
ists take  pos- 
session 01  Vi- 
enna, Nov. 
2. 


Ferdinand  ab- 
dicates, Dec. 
2. 

—  Francis 


Joseph 


1849.  A  new 
Constitution 
promulgated 
March  4. 

Brescia  taken 
by  Haynau, 
March  30. 


Rome :— M  a  z  z  i  n  i  '  s  proclamation. 
Oct.  29. 

Prussia :— The  king  prorogues  the  As- 
sembly, Nov.  9. 

— The  Burgher  Guard  of  Berlin  refuse  to 
give  up  their  arms.  The  city  in  a  state  oi 
siege,  Nov.  12. 

Rome : — Count  Rossi,  the  Pope's  prime- 
minister,  assassinated,  Nov.  16. 

India:— Great  battle  near  Ramnugeur, 
Nov.  22. 

Rome  : — The  Pope  escapes  in  disguise, 
Nov.  24. 

Hungary  declared  independent,  Dec. 
1849.  India:— Moultan  taken  by  the  British, 
Jan.  3. 

Italy:— The  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany 
flies.  Provisional  Government  proclaimed, 
Feb.  9. 

Rome  :— Republic  proclaimed,  Feb.  9. 

Sicily  : — A  new  Constitution  conceded 
by  Naples,  March  6. 

Sardinia  :— Charles  Albert  defeated  by 
Radetsky,  March  21— again  totally  defeated 
at  Novarra,  March  23,  he  abdicates  the 
throne  in  favor  of  his  son, 

—Victor  Emanuel.  ^M 

India  : — The  Punjaub  annexed  to  the 
Ri-itish  Empire,  March  29. 

Italy  :— Insurrection  in  Genoa,  April  1. 


Russia  comes  to  the  aid  of  Austria  against  Hungary,  April 
26. 

Rome  : — The  French  army  arrives  un- 
der the  walls  of  Rome,  April  29. 

Haynau  takes  command  of  the  Austrian  army  in  Hungary, 
June. 

Rome  surrenders  to  the  French,  July  2. 
Garibaldi  leaves  the  city,  July  3. 

Rome  : — The  government  placed  in  the 
hands  of  the  Pope's  commissioners,  Aug.  3. 

GiJrgey  traitor -ously  surrenders  to  the  Russians,  Aug.  11. 
Kossuth  escapes  into  Turkey. 
Venice  capitulates  to  Radetsky,  Aug.  22. 
1850.  Rome:— The  Pope  returns,  April. 

Greece  disputes  the  claims  of  Great 
Britain  for  losses  of  British  subjects:  is 
forced  to  submit. 

China:— The  Emperor  Tau-Kwang, 
dies : 


~Sze-hing  ^M  succeede. 


DICTIOMM  OF  DATES. 


CHIEFLY  FROM  THAT  OF  JOSEPH  HAYDN  :    WITH  REVISIONS  AND  ADDITIONS 


AEBEYS  AND  MONASTERIES,  were  first  founded  in  the  third  century,  near 
the  close  of  which  the  sister  of  St.  Anthony  is  said  to  have  retired  to  one. 
An  abbey  was  founded  by  St.  Anthony  at  Phaim,  in  Upper  Egypt,  a.  d.  305. 
The  first  founded  in  France  was  at  Poitiers,  in  360.  The  first  in  Ireland  was 
in  the  fifth  century :  see  Clogher,  Elpliin,  Down.  The  first  in  Scotland  was 
in  the  sixth  century :  see  Isles.  And  the  first  in  Britain  was  in  560 :  see 
Bangor.  The  abbey  of' Mount  Cassino,  near  Naples,  founded  by  St.  Benet 
in  529,  was  esteemed  the  richest  in  the  world,  and  furnished  many  thousands 
of  saints  to  the  church.  110  monasteries  and  priories  were  suppressed  in 
England  by  order  in  council,  2  Henry  V.  I'klL— Salmon.  The  revenues  of 
193  abbeys  which  were  dissolved  at  the  Reformation  amounted  to  £2,653,000. 
These  foundations  were  totally  suppressed  throughout  the  realm,  31  Henry 
Vin.  1539.     See  Monasteries. 

ABDICATION  op  KINGS.  They  are  numerous  in  ancient  history.  Those  in 
later  times  of  most  remarkable  character  and  greatest  political  importance, 
and  to  which  reference  may  more  frequently  be  made,  are  the  following : — 

He  again  abdicates  in  favor  of  the  Bo- 
naparte family.  See  Spain.    May  1, 1808 
Of  .Joseph  Bonaparte    of   Naples,  to 

take  the  crown  of  Spam,  .  June  1, 1808 
Of  the  same  (by  flying  before  the  British 

from  Madrid),  .  .  July  29, 1808 
or  Louis  of  Holland,  .  .  July  1,  1810 
Of  Jerome  of  Westphalia,  .  Oct.  20,  1813 
Of  Napoleon  of  France,  .  .  April  5,  1814 
Of  Emanuel  of  Sardinia,  .  March  13,  1821 
Of  Pedi-o  of  Portugal,  .  .May2,182G 
Of  Charles  X.  of  France,  .  Aug.  2,  1830 
Of  Pedro  of  Brazil,  .        .  April  7,  1831 

Of  Don  Miguel  of  Portugal  (by  leaving 

the  kingdom),  .  .  .  May  26, 1834 
OfWilliamL  of  Holland,  .  Oct.  8, 1840 
Of  Christina  of  Spain,  queen  dowager 

and  queen  regent,  .  .  Oct.  12, 1840 
Of  Louis  Phillippe  of  France,  Feb.  24, 1848 
Of  Louis,  king  of  Bavaria,  .  March  22,  1848 
Of  Ferdinand  I.  emperor  of  Austria, 

Dec.  2,  1848 
Of  Charles  Albert,  king  of  Sardinia, 

Aug.  1849 


Of  Henry  IV.  of  Germany, 

Of  Stephen  11.  of  Hungary,  surnamed 

Thunder, 1114 

Of  Albert  of  Saxony,  ....  1142 

OfLestusV.  of  Poland,  .        .        .     .  1200 
OfUladislaus  111.  of  Poland,       .        .1:206 

Of  Baliol  of  Scotland,     ....  1306 

Of  Otho  of  Hungary,  ....  1309 

OfEric  IX.  of  Denmark  .    .  1439 

OfEricXllI.  of  Sweden,    .        .        .1441 

Of  Charles  V.  Emperor,         .        .    .  1556 

Of  Christina  of  Sweden,      .        .        .  1654 

Of  John  Casimir  of  Poland,   .        .     .  1669 

Of  .Tames  II.  of  England,     .        .        .  1688 

Of  Frederick  Augustus  II.  of  Poland, .  1704 

OfPhilipV.  of  Spain,    ....  1724 

OfVictor  of  Sardinia,  .        .        .        .  1730 

Of  Charles  of  Naples,     ....  1759 

OfStanislaus  of  Poland,      .        .        .  1795 


OfVictor  of  Sardinia,  .  .  June  4, 1802 
Of  Francis  II.  of  Germany,  who  becomes 

emperor  of  Austria  only,  .  Aug.  11,  1804 
Of  Charles  IV.  of  Spain,  in  favor  of  his 

son,        ....        March  19, 1808 

ABEL  ARD  AND  HELOISE.  Their  amour,  so  celebrated  for  its  passion  and 
misfortunes,  commenced  at  Paris,  a.  d.  1118,  when  Helolse  (a  canon's  daugh- 
ter) was  under  17  years  of  age.  Abelard,  after  suffering  an  ignominious  in- 
jury, became  a  monk  of  the  abbej'  of  St.  Denis,  and  died  at  St.  Marcel,  of 
gi'ief  which  never  left  his  heart  in  1142.     Helo/se  begged  his  body,  and  had 


146  THE  world's  pkogress.  [aca 

it  buried  in  the  Paraclete,  of  which  she  was  abbess,  with  the  view  of  reposing 
in  death  by  his  side.  She  was  famous  for  her  Latin  letters,  as  well  as  love, 
and  died  in  1183.  The  ashes  of  both  were  carried  to  the  Museum  of  French 
Monuments  in  1800 ;  and  the  museum  having  been  subsequently  broken  up, 
they  were  finally  removed  to  the  burying-ground  of  Pfere  La  Chaise,  in  1817. 

i\jBORIGINES,  the  original  inhabitants  of  Italy ;  or,  as  others  have  it,  the  nation 
conducted  by  Saturn  into  Latium,  founded  by  Janus,  1450  b.  c. —  Univ.  His- 
tory. Their  posterity  was  called  Latini,  from  Latinus,  one  of  their  kings ; 
and  Rome  was  built  in  their  country.  They  were  called  Aborigines,  being 
loOsque  origine,  the  primitive  planters  here  after  the  flood. — St.  Jerome.  The 
word  signifies  without  origin,  or  whose  origin  is  not  known,  and  is  generally 
applied  to  any  original  inliabitants. 

A.BOUKIR,  the  ancient  Canopus,  the  point  of  debarkation  of  the  British  expe- 
dition to  Egypt  under  general  Abercromby.  Aboukir  surrendered  to  the 
British,  after  an  obstinate  and  sanguinary  conflict  with  the  French,  March  18, 
1801.  The  bay  is  famous  for  the  defeat  of  the  French  fleet  by  Nelson,  Au- 
gust 1,  1798.     See  Nile. 

ABRAHAM,  Era  op.  Used  by  Eusebius ;  it  began  October  1,  2016  e.  c.  To 
reduce  this  era  to  the  Christian,  subtract  2015  years  and  three  months. 

ABSTINENCE.  St.  Anthony  lived  to  the  age  of  105,  on  twelve  ounces  of  bread, 
and  water.  James  the  Hermit  lived  in  the  same  manner  to  the  age  of  104. 
St.  Epiphanius  lived  thus  to  115.  Simeon,  the  Stylite,  to  112  ;  and  Kenti- 
gern,  commonly  called  St.  Mungo,  lived  by  similar  means  to  185  years  of 
age. — Spottiswood.  A  man  may  live  seven,  or  even  eleven,  days  without 
meat  or  drink. — Pliny  Hist.  Nat.  lib.  ii.  Democritus  subsisted  for  forty  days 
by  smelling  honey  and  hot  bread,  323  b.  c. — Diog.  Laert.  A  Avoman  of  Nor- 
mandy lived  for  18  years  without  food. — Petrus  de  Albano.  Gilbert  Jackson, 
of  Carse-grange,  Scotland,  lived  three  years  without  sustenance  of  any  kind, 
1719.  A  religious  fanatic,  who  determined  upon  fasting  forty  days,  died  on 
the  sixteenth,  1789. — PliilUps.  A  country  girl,  of  Osnabruck,  abstained  four 
years  from  all  food  and  drink,  1799. — Hufeland's  Practical  Journal.  Ann 
Moore,  the  fasting  woman  of  Tutbury,  Staffordshire,  supposed  to  have  been 
an  impostor,  was  said  to  have  lived  twenty  months  without  food,  Nov.  1808. 
At  Newry,  in  Ireland,  a  man  named  Cavanagh  was  reported  to  have  lived 
two  years  without  meat  or  drink ;  Aug.  1840 ;  his  imposture  was  afterwards 
discovered  in  England,  where  he  was  imprisoned  as  a  cheat,  Nov.  1841.  See 
instances  in  Holler's  Elementce  PkysiologicB ;  Cornaro ;  Pricker's  Surgical 
Library,  &c. ;  and  in  this  volume,  see  Fasting. 

ABSTINENTS.    The  abstinents  were  a  sect  that  wholly  abstained  from  wine, 
.  flesh,  and  marriage ;  and  were  a  community  of  harmless  and  mild  ascetics. 
They  appeared  in  France  and  Spain  in  the  third  century ;  and  some  autho- 
rities mention  such  a  sect  as  having  been  numerous  elsewhere  in  a.  d.  170. — 
Bossuet. 

ABYSSINIAN  ERA.  This  era  is  reckoned  from  the  period  of  the  Creation, 
which  they  place  in  the  5493d  year  before  our  era,  on  tlje  29th  August,  old 
style ;  and  their  dates  consequently  exceed  ours  by  5491  years  and  125  days. 
To  reduce  Abyssinian  time  to  the  Julian  year,  subtract  5492  years  and 
125  days. 

ACADEMIES,  or  societies  of  learned  men  to  promote  literature,  sciences,  and 
the  arts,  are  of  early  date.  Academia  was  a  shady  grove  without  the  walls 
of  Athens  (bequeathed  to  Hecademus  for  gymnastic  exercises),  where  Plato 
first  taught  philosophy,  and  his  followers  took  the  title  of  Academics  378 
B.  c. — Stanley.  Ptolemy  Soter  is  said  to  have  founded  an  academy  at  Alex- 
andria, about  314  B.  c.    Theodosius  the  Younger  and  Charlemagne  are  also 


ach] 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES. 


14? 


named  as  founders.  Italy  has  been  celebrated  for  its  academies ;  and  Jarckiua 
mentions  550,  of  which  25  were  in  the  city  of  Milan.  The  first  philosophical 
academy  in  France  was  established  by  Pere  Mersenne,  in  1135.  Academies 
were  introduced  into  England  by  Boyle  and  Hobbes ;  and  the  Royal  Society 
of  London  was  formed  in  1660.  The  following  are  among  the  principal 
academies : — 


American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences, 

1780. 

American  Philosophical  Society,  1769. 

Ancona,  of  the  Caglinosi,  1624. 

Berlin,  Royal  Society,  1700;  of  Princes, 
1703;  Architecture,  n<i^. 

Bologna,  Ecclesiastical,  1637 ;  Mathematics, 
1690 ;  Sciences  and  Arts,  1712. 

Brescia,  of  the  Erranti,  1626. 

Brest  and  Toulon,  Military,  1682. 

Brussels,  Belles- Lettres,  1773. 

Caen,  Belles  Lettres,  1750. 

Copenhagen,  Polite  Arts,  1742. 

Cortona,  Antiquities,  1726. 

Dublin,  Arts,  1749 ;  Science  and  Literature, 
1786;  Painting,  Sculpture,  &c.,  1823. 

Erfurt,  SaxoiTY,  Sciences,  1754. 

Faenza,  the  Philoponi,  1612. 

Florence,  Belles-Leltres,  1272 ;  Delia  Cms- 
ca,  1582 ;  Antiquities,  1807. 

Geneva,  Medical,  1715. 

Genoa,  Painting,  «fec.,  1751 ;  Sciences,  1783. 

Germany,  Medical,  1617 ;  Natural  Historv, 
1652;  Military,  1752. 

Haerlem,  the  Sciences,  1760. 

Lisbon,  Histoiy,  1720 ;  Sciences,  1779. 

London :  its  various  Academies  arc  de- 
scribed tlurough  the  volume. 

Lyons,  Sciences,  1700;  had  Physic  and  Ma- 
thematics added,  1758. 

Madrid,  the  Royal  Spanish,  1713 ;  History, 
1730 :  Painting  and  the  Arts,  1753. 


Marseilles,  Beltes-Lettres,  1726. 

Milan,  Architecture,  1380 ;  Sciences,  1719. 

Munich,  Arts  and  Sciences,  1759. 

Naples,  Rossana,  1540 ;  Mathematics,  1560 ; 

Sciences,  1695;  Herat/ aneum,  1755. 
New  York,  Literature  and  Philosophy,1814." 
Nismes,  Royal  Academy,  1682. 
Padua,  for  Poetry,  1610 ;  Sciences,  1792. 
Palermo.  Medical,  1645. 
Paris,  S'orbonne,  1256 ;  Painting,  1391 ;  Mu- 
sic, 1543;   French,  1635;   Medals,  1663; 
Architecture,  1671 ;  Surgery,  1731  ;  Mili- 
tary, 1751 ;  Natural  Philosophy,  1796. 
Parma,  the  Innoininati,  1550. 
Perousa,  Insensati,  1561 ;  Filir^iti,  1574 
Petersburgh,  Sciences,  1725 ;  Military,  1732 ; 

theSchoolof  Arts,  1764. 
Portsmouth,  Naval,  1722 ;  enlarged,  1806. 
Rome,   Umoristi,  1611;  Fantascici,  1625; 
Infecondi,  1653 ;  Painting,  1665 ;  Arcadi^ 
1690;  English,  1752. 
Spain,  Royal,  1713;  Military,  1751. 
Stockholm,  of  Science,  1741 ;  Belles-Lettres, 

1753 ;  Agriculture,  1781. 
Toulon,  Military,  1682. 
Turin,  Sciences,  1759 ;  Fine  Arts,  1778. 
Turkey,  Military  School,  1775. 
Upsal,  Royal  Society,  Sciences,  1720. 
Venice,  Medical,  &c.,  1701. 
Verona,  Music,  1543 ;  Sciences,  1780. 
Vienna,  Sculpture  and  the  Arts,  1705 ;  Sur- 
gery, 1783 ;  .Oriental,  1810. 
Warsaw,  Languages  and  History,  1753. 
Woolwich,  Military,  1741. 


Manheim,  Sculpture,  1775. 

Mantua,  the  Vigilanti,  Sciences,  1704. 

ACCENTS.  The  most  ancient  manuscripts  are  written  without  accents,  and 
without  any  separation  of  words ;  nor  was  it  until  after  the  ninth  century 
that  the  copyists  began  to  leave  spaces  between  the  words.  Michaelis,  after 
Wetstein,  ascribes  the  insertion  of  accents  to  Euthalius,  bishop  of  Sulca,  in 
Egypt,  A.  D.  458;  but  his  invention  was  followed  up  and  improved  upon  by 
other  grammarians  in  the  various  languages. 

A.CHAIA.  This  country  was  governed  by  a  race  of  kings,  but  even  their  names 
are  all  forgotten.  The  capital,  Achaia,  was  founded  by  Achseus,  the  son  of 
Xuthus,  1080  B.  c.  The  kingdom  was  united  with  Sicyon  or  subject  to  the 
.^tolians  until  about  284  b.  c.  The  Achsei  were  descendants  of  Achseus, 
and  originally  inhabited  the  neighborhood  of  Argos ;  but  when  the  Hera- 
clida3  drove  them  thence,  they  retired  among  the  lonians,  expelled  the  na- 
tives, and  seized  their  thirteen  cities,  viz.  Peleni,  jEgira,  ./Egeum,  Bura,  Tri- 
tosa,  Leontium,'  Rhyp^e,  Ceraunia,  Olenos,  Helice,  Patrse,  Dymas,  and  Phara3. 


The  Achsan  league,  .  .B.C.  281 

Fortress  of  Athenaeum  built,   .  .      228 

Defeat  of  the  Achaeans  by  the  Spartans, 

and  Lysiades  killed,         .  .  226 

Battle  of  Sallacia,  .  .  .222 

The  Social  war  begun,       .  .  220 

The  Peloponnesus  ravaged  by  the  Mko- 

lians,  ....  219 

Aratus  poisoned  at  .SIgium,    .  .      215 

Battle  ofMantinea ;  PhiloptEniendeluats 

the  Spartan  tyrant  Mcchanidas,        .    208 


Alliance  with  the  Romans,    .  B.  c.  201 

Philopcemen  defeated  by  Nabis,  in  a  na- 
val battle,  .  .  .  .194 
Sparta  joined  to  the  league,           .  191 
Tne  Achseans  overrun  Messenia  with 

fire  and  sword,  .  .  .      182 

The  Romans  enter  Achaia,  .  165 

Metellus  enters  Greece,  .  .      147 

The  Achfean  league  dissolved,       .  146 

Greece  subieriefl  to  Rome,  and  named 
the  prni  ii'c  of  Achaia,         .  .      146 


Now  extinct. 


i48  THE    world's    PROGKESS.  [  AD.' 

The  constitution  of  the  United  States  of  America  bears  some  analogy  to  that 
of  the  Achaean  league ;  and  the  Swiss  cantons  also  had  a  great  resemblance 
to  it  in  their  confederacy. 
ACOUSTICS.  The  doctrine  of  the  different  sounds  of  vibrating  strings,  and 
the  communication  of  sounds  to  the  ear  by  the  vibration  of  the  atmosphere, 
was  probably  first  explained  by  Pythagoras,  about  500  b.  c.  Mentioned  by 
Aristotle,  330  b.  c.  The  speaking-trumpet  is  said  to  have  been  used  by 
Alexander  the  Great,  335  s.  c.  The  discoveries  of  Galileo  were  made  about 
A.  D.  1600.  The  velocity  of  sound  was  investigated  by  Newton  before  1700. 
Galileo's  theorem  of  the  harmonic  curve  was  demonstrated  by  Dr.  Brook 
Taylor,  in  1714 ;  and  further  perfected  by  D'Alembert,  Euler,  Bernoulli,  and 
La  Grange,  at  various  periods  of  the  eighteenth  century.    See  Sound. 

ACRE,  St.  Jean  d'.  Taken  by  Richard  I.  and  other  crusaders  in  1192,  after  a 
siege  of  two  years,  with  the  loss  of  6  archbishops,  12  bishops,  40  earls,  500 
barons,  and  800,000  soldiers.  Retaken  by  the  Saracens,  when  60,000  'llhris- 
tians  perished,  1291.  This  capture  was  rendered  memorable  by  the  uLurder 
of  the  nuns,  who  had  mangled  their  faces  to  repress  the  lust  of  the  Infidels. 
Acre  was  attacked  by  Bonaparte  in  July  1798 ;  and  was  relieved  by  Sir  Syd- 
ney Smith,  who  gallantly  resisted  twelve  attempts  during  the  memorable 
siege  by  the  French,  between  March  6  and  May  27,  1799,  when,  baffled  by 
the  British  squadron  on  the  M'ater  and  the  Turks  on  shore.  Bonaparte  relin- 
quished his  object  and  retreated.  St.  Jean  d'Acre  is  a  pachalic  subject  to 
the  Porte  ;  seized  upon  by  Ibrahim  Pacha,  who  had  revolted,  July  2,  1832. 
It  became  a  point  of  the  Syrian  war  in  1840.  Stormed  by  the  British  fleet 
under  Sir  Robert  Stopford,  and  taken  after  a  bombardment  of  a  few  hours, 
the  Egyptians  losing  upwards  of  2,000  in  killed  and  wounded,  and  3,000 
prisoners,  while  the  British  had  but  12  killed  and  42  wounded,  Nov.  3, 184^. 
See  Syria  and  Turkey. 

ACROPOLIS  OF  ATHENS.  The  citadel  of  Athens  was  built  on  a  rock,  and 
accessible  only  on  one  side :  Minerva  had  a  temple  at  the  bottom. — Paus.  in 
Attic.  The  roof  of  this  vast  pile,  which  had  stood  2,000  years,  was  destroyed 
in  the  Venetian  siege,  a.  d.  1687. — Aspin.  The  Acropolis  of  Mycenae  was 
marked  by  terraces,  and  defended  by  ponderous  walls,  on  which  were  high 
towers,  each  au  the  distance  of  fifty  feet. — Euripides. 

ACTIUM.  Battle  of,  between  the  fleets  of  Octavianus  Cassar  on  the  one^ide, 
and  of  Marc  Antony  and  Cleopatra  on  the  other,  and  which  decided  the  fate 
of  Antony,  300  of  his  gallej^s  going  over  to  Caesar;  fought  Sei:)t.  2,  31  b.  c. 
This  battle  made  Augustus  (the  title  afterwards  conferred  by  the  senate 
upon  Cajsar)  master  of  the  world,  and  the  commencement  of  the  Roman 
empire  is  commonlj'  dated  from  this  year.  In  honor  of  Ins  victory,  the  con- 
queror built  the  city  of  Nicopolis,  and  instituted  the  Actian  games. — Blair. 

ACTRESSES.  Women  in  the  drama  appear  to  have  been  unknown  to  the  an- 
cients ;  men  or  eunuchs  performing  the  female  parts.  Charles  II.  is  said  to 
have  first  encouraged  the  public  appearance  of  \vomen  on  the  stage  in  Eng- 
land, in  1662 ;  but  the  queen  of  James  I.  had  previously  performed  in  a  the- 
atre at  court. —  Theat.  Biog. 

VCTS  OF  PARLIAMENT.  The  first  promulgated,  16  John,  1215.  See  Bar- 
liament.  For  a  great  period  of  years  the  number  of  acts  passed  has  been 
annually  large,  although  varying  considerably  in  every  session.  Between 
the  4th  and  10th  of  George  IV.  1126  acts  were  wholly  repealed,  and  443 
repealed  in  part,  chiefly  arising  out  of  the  consolidation  of  the  laws  by  Mr. 
Peel  (afterwards  Sir  Robert)  :  of  these  acts,  1344  related  to  the  kingdom  at 
large  and  225  to  Ireland  solely. 

VDAMITES,  a  sect  that  imitated  Adam's  nakedness  before  the  fall,  arose  a.  d. 


A.DM  J 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES. 


149 


130.  They  assembled  quite  naked  in  their  places  of  worship,  asserting  that 
if  Adam  had  not  sinned,  there  would  have  been  no  marriages.  Their  chief 
was  named  Prodicus ;  they  deified  the  elements,  rejected  prayer,  and  said  it 
was  not  necessary  to  confess  Christ. — E^usebius.  This  sect,  with  an  addition 
of  many  blasphemies,  and  teaching  from  the  text  "  increase  and  multiply," 
was  renewed  at  Antwerp  in  the  thirteenth  century,  under  a  chief  named 
Tandeme,  who,  being  followed  by  3,000  soldiers,  violated  females  of  every 
age,  calling  their  crimes  by  spiritual  names.  A  Flandrian,  named  Picard, 
again  revived  this  sect  in  Bohemia,  in  the  fifteenth  centixry,  whence  they 
spread  into  Poland  and  existed  some  time. — Baijle ;  Pa,rdon, 
ADMINISTRATIONS.  Successive  administrations  of  the  United  States,  since 
the  formation  of  the  government: — 


First  Administration; 
George  Washington,  VirginiSj, 


John  Adams, 

Thomas  Jefferson, 
Edmund  Randolph, 
Timothy  Pickering, 
Alexander  Hamilton, 
Oliver  Wolcott, 
Henry  Knox, 
Timothy  Pickering, 
James  IM'Henry, 
Samuel  Osijood, 
Timothy  Pickering, 
Joseph  Habersham, 
Edmund  Randolph, 
William  Bradford, 
Charles  Lee, 


Massachusetts, 

Virginia, 

do. 
Pennsylvania, 
New  York, 
Connecticut, 
Massachusetts, 
Pennsylvania, 
Maryland, 
Massachusetts, 
Pennsylvania, 
Georgia, 
Virginia, 
Pennsylvania, 
Virginia, 


1789  to  1797 ;— 8  years. 

April  30, 1789    President. 

do.  1789    Vice  President. 

Appointed. 

Sept.  26,1789) 

Jan.      2.  1794  >  Secretaries  of  Slate. 

Dec.  10;i795') 

Sept.  11,  1789  I  Secretaries  of  the 
Feb       3, 1795  (         Treasury. 

Sept.  12,1789;) 

Jan.       2,  1795  >  Secretaries  of  War. 

Jan.  27,  1796  S 

Sept.  26,  1789  ) 

Nov.     7,  1791  >  Post  Masters  Gen. 

Feb.  25,  1795  S 

Sept.  26,  1789  ) 

Jan.  27, 1794  >  Attorneys  General 

Dec.  10,  1795  ) 


Speakers  of  the  House  of  Representatives. 
Frederick  A.  Muhlenberg,  Pennsylvania,  1st  Congress,      1789. 

Jonathan  Trumbull,  Connecticut,  2d       do.  1791. 

Frederick  A.  Muhlenberg,  Pennsylvania,  3d       do.  1793. 

Jonathan  Dayton,  New  Jersey,  4th      do.  1795. 

S'econd  Administration;— 1797  to  1801 ; — i  years. 

John  Adams,  Massachusetts,  March  4, 1797    President. 

Thomas  Jefferson,  Virginia,  1797    Vice  President. 

Appoi7ited. 

Timothy  Pickering,  Pennsylvania,  (continued  in  office.')       )  co„,.o*o,.;o=,  «<  ctot« 

John  Marshall,  Virginia,  May    13,  1800  \  »ecietaiies  oi  fttata 

Oliver  Wolcott,  Connecticut,  (continued  in  office.)         }  Secretaries  of  the 

Samuel  Dexter,  Massachusetts,  Dec.     31, 1800  \        Treasury. 

James  M'Henry,  Maiyland,  {continued  in  office.)  1 

Samuel  Dexter,  Massachusetts,  May     13,  1800  V  Secretaries  of  War. 

Roger  Griswold,  Connecticut,  Feb.      3,  1801  > 

George  Cabot.*  Massachusetts,  May      3, 1798  /  Secretaries  of  the 

Benjamin  Stoddart,  Maryland,  May    21, 1798  \  Navy. 

Joseph  Habersham,  Georgia,  {continued  in  office.)  Post  Master  Gen. 

Charles  Lee,  Virginia,  {continued  in  office.)  Attorney  deneral. 


-.797. 
1789. 


Speakers  of  the  House  of  Representatives. 
Jonathan  Dayton,  New  Jersey,  5th  Congress, 

Theodore  Sedgwick,  Massachusetts,  6th      do. 

Third  Administration;— 1801  to  1809;— 8  years, 

Thomas  Jefferson,  Virginia,                          March  4, 1801    President. 

Aaron  Burr,  New  York,                           do.          1801  ^  vicp  Prp=!id?ntq 

George  Clinton,       '  New  York,                          do.         1805  \  ^^'^^  ^  resmants. 

Appointed. 

James  Madison,  Virginia,                          Marcli  5,1801    Secretary  of  State. 

Samuel  Dexter,  Mass.  {continued  in  office.)                     >  Secretaries  of  th« 

Albert  Gallatin,  Pennsylvania,                  Jan.     26, 1802  \        Treasury. 


*  Mr.  Cahot  declined  the  appointment.    The  Navxj  Department  was  established  in  1798. 


rso 


THE    WORLD  S    PROGRESS. 


[  ADM 


Henry  Dearborn, 
Benjamin  Stoddart, 
Robert  Smith,* 
Joseph  Habersham, 
Gideon  Granger, 
Levi  Lincoln, 
John  Breckenridge, 
CBEsar  A.  Rodney, 


Nathaniel  Macon, 
Joseph  B.  Varnum, 
Nathaniel  Macon, 
Joseph  B.  Vamum, 


James  Madison, 
George  Clinton, 
Elhridge  Gerry, 

Robert  Smith, 
James  Monroe, 
James  Monroe,t 
Albert  Gallatin, 
George  W.  Campbell, 
Alexander  J.  Dallas, 
William  Eustis, 
John  Armstrong, 
James  Monroe, 
William  H.  Crawford, 
Paul  Hamilton, 
William  Jones, 
Benj.  W.  Crowninshield, 
Gideon  Granger, 
Return  J.  Meigs, 
Caesar  A.  Rodney, 
William  Pinkney, 
Richard  Rush, 


Massachusetts,  March  5,1801    Secretary  of  War. 

Md.  {continued  in  office.)  {  Secretaries  of  the 

Maryland,  Jan.     26,1832$  Navy. 

Georgia,  {continued  in  office.')  I  Post  Masters  Gc- 

Connecticut  Jan.     26, 1892  {  neral. 

Massachusetts,  March   5, 1801  i 

Kentucky,  Dec.    23, 1805  v  Attorneys  General, 

Delaware,  Jan.      20, 1807  S 

Speakers  of  the  House  of  Representatives. 

North  Carolina,  7th  Congress,  1801. 

Massachusetts,  8th      do.  1803. 

North  Carolina,  9th      do.  1805. 

Massachusetts,  10th      do.  1807. 

[7RTH  Administration;— 1809  to  1817;— 8  ye^rs. 

Virginia,  March  4, 1809    President. 

New  York,  1809,  {died  April  20, 1812)  }  ^.     p^sidents 
Mass.  1813,  {died  Nov.  23,  1814)  y^'^^^  resiaents. 

Appointed. 
Maryland,  March  6, 1809  ) 

Virginia,  Nov.    25,  1811  >  Secretaries  of  Stata 

Virginia,  Feb.     25,  1815  S 

Pennsylvania,  {cojitinued  in  office.) 


Tennessee, 

Pennsylvania, 

Massachusetts, 

New  York, 

Virginia, 

Georgia, 

South  Carolina, 

Pennsylvania, 

Massachusetts, 


Feb.  9,  1814  } 
Oct.  6, 1814  S 
March  7,  1809  i 
Jan.  13,  1813  ( 
Sept.  27, 1814  ( 
March  2,1815) 
March  7, 1809  ) 
Jan.  12, 1813  \ 
Dec.     19,  1814  S 


Secretaries  of  the 
Treasury. 

Secretaries  of  War. 

Secretaries  of  the 
Navy. 

Post  piasters  Ge- 
neral. 


Connecticut,  {continued  in  office.) 

Ohio,  March  17, 1814  \ 

Delaware,  {continued  in  office.)  ) 

Maiyland,  Dec.     11,  1811  >  Attorneys  General. 

Pennsylvania,  Feb.     10,  1814  S 


Joseph  B.  Vamum, 
Heniy  Clay, 
Henry  Clay, 
Langdon  Cheves, 
Henry  Clay, 


James  Monroe, 
Danic'.  D.  Tompkins, 


.Tohn  Q.  Adams, 
William  H.  Crawford, 
Isaac  Shelby,! 
John  C.  Calhoun, 
Benj.  W.  Crowninshield. 
Smith  Thompson, 
Samuel  L.  Southard, 
Return  J.  Meigs, 
John  McLean, 
Richard  Rush, 
William  Wirt, 


Speakers  of  the  House  of  Representatives. 

Massachusetts,  11th  Congress,    1809. 

Kentucky,  12th      do.  1811. 

Kentucky,  ;  ,o,,,      j.         J 1812. 

South  Carolina,  \  ^"^"^      °°-        )  1814. 

Kentucky,  14th      do.  1815. 

[■H  Administration  ;— 1817  to  1825 ;  —8  years. 

Virginia,  March  4, 1817    President. 

New  York,  do.  1817    Vice  President. 

Appointed. 
Massachusetts,  March  5, 1817    Secretary  of  State. 

Georgia,  March   5, 1817    Secretary  of  Treaa 

Kentucky,  March   5, 1817  ?  „       ,    .       ,  „, 

■    -  ■"  ■•  T..-     ,(>' iQ, 7  J  Secretaries  of  War. 


South  Carolina,  Dec.    16,  1817  J ' 

Massachusetts,  {continued  in  office.)     1  o^ „»„  :  »  .,<■  .i. 

New  York,  Nov.   ^0, 1818  t  S®"^^™^  ^'^  *« 

New  Jersey,  Dec.      9,1823)  ^^^y- 

Ohio,  {continued  in  office.)  t  Post  Masters  Ge- 

do.  Dec.      9,  1823  S  neral. 

Pennsylvania,  {continued  in  office.)       i 
Virginia,  Dec.     16, 1817  i 


■  Attorneys  General. 


*  Robert  Smith  was  appointed  Attorney  General,  and  Jacob  Crowninshield,  of  Massachusetts, 
Secretary  of  the  Navy,  on  the  2d  of  March,  1805,  but  they  both  declined  these  appointments ;  and 
Mr.  Smith  continued  in  the  office  of  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  till  the  end  of  Mr.  Jefferson's  admi- 
nistration. 

t  James  Monroe  was  recommissioned,  having  for  some  time  acted  as  Secretary  of  War. 

t  Isaac  Shelby  declined  the  appointment. 


ADM  ] 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES. 


151 


ADMINISTRATIONS  (United  States)  continued. 

Speakers  of  the  House  of  Jiepreseniatives. 
Henry  Clay,  Kentucky,  15th  Congress, 

Henry  Clay,  Kentucky,     >  ,g,,        , 

John  W.  Taylor,  New  York,  \  ^""^      "°- 

Philip  P.  Barbour,  Virginia,  17th      do. 


Henry  Clay, 

,Tohn  Q,.  Adams, 
John  C.  Calhoun, 


Henry  Clay, 
Richard  Rush, 
James  Barbour, 
Peter  B.  Porter, 
Samuel  L.  Southard, 
John  McLean, 
WiUiam  Wirt, 


John  W.  Taylor, 
Andrew  Stephenson, 


Kentucky, 
Sixth  Administration 


18th  do. 


1817. 
5 1819. 
?1820. 

1821. 

1823. 


1825  to  1829 ;— 4  years. 
Massachusetts,  March  4, 1825    President. 

South  Carolina,  do.  1825    Vice  President. 

Appointed. 
Kentucky,  Marwi  8,  1825    Secretary  of  State. 

Pennsylvania,  March  7,1825    Sec'yoftheTreas'y 

Virginia,  do.  182o;„       .    •       j-™- 

New  York,  May     26,1828^'='^'='^^''^™®°'^'"- 

New  Jersey,  (continued  in  office.j  Sec'y  of  the  Navy 

Ohio,  (continued  iti  office.)  Post  Master  Gen 

Virginia,  (continued  i7i  office.}  Attorney  Genera;. 

Speakers  of  the  House  of  Representatives. 

New  York,  19th  Cona;ress,    1827. 

Virginia,  20th     do.  1828. 


Seventh  Administration  ;- 
Andrew  Jackson,  Tennessee, 

Jolin  C.  Calhoun,  South  Carolina, 

Martin  Van  Buren,  New  York, 


■1829  to  1837, -—8  years. 

March  4, 1829    President. 
*^°-  }^  i  Vice  PresideiUs, 


Martin  Van  Bui-en, 
Edward  Livingston, 
Louis  McLane, 
John  Forsyth, 
Samuel  D.  Ingham, 
Louis  McLane, 
William  J.  Duane, 
Roger  B.  Taney, 
Levi  Woodbury, 
John  H.  Eaton, 
Lewis  Cass, 
John  Branch, 
Levi  Woodbury, 
Mahlon  Dickerson, 
William  T.  Barry, 
Amos  Kendall, 
John  McP.  Berrien, 
Roger  B.  Taney, 
Benjamin  F.  Butler, 


New  York, 

Louisiana. 

Delaware, 

Georgia, 

Pennsylvania, 

Delaware, 

Pennsylvania, 

Maryland, 

New  Hampshire, 

Tennessee, 

Ohio, 

North  Carolina, 

New  Hampshire, 

New  Jersey, 

Kentucky, 

Kentucky, 

Georgia, 

Maryland, 

Nevr  York, 


!-  Secretaries  of  State, 


1833  i 
Appointed. 
March  6,  18291 
1831 

1833  1 
1835  1 

March  6, 1829 'j 

i^q  I  Secretaries  of  the 
1^  Treasury. 

1834J 

March  9, 1829  |  Secretaries  of  War. 

March  9, 1829  )  secretaries  of  the 

Im    ^^^- 

March   9, 1829  ;  Post  Masters  Ge- 
1835  S  neral. 

March   9, 1829  i 

1831  >  Attorneys  General. 

1834  i 


Andrew  Stevenson, 
Andrew  Stevenson, 
John  Bell, 


Speakers  of  the  House  of  Representatives. 

Virginia,  21st  Congress,  1829. 

Virginia,  22d       do.  1831. 

Pemisylvania,  1835. 


Eighth  Administration; — 1837  to  1841 — 4  years. 


Martin  Van  Buren, 
Richard  M.  Johnson, 

John  Forsyth, 
Levi  Woodbury, 
Joel  R.  1  oinsett, 
Mahlon  Dickerson, 
James  K.  Paulding, 
Amos  Kendall, 
John  M.  Niles, 
Benjamin  F.  Buller, 
Felix  GrunJy, 
Henry  D.  Gilpin, 


James  K.  Polk, 
Robert  M.  T.  Hunter, 


New  York,  1837    I'resident. 

Kentucky,  1837    Vice  President. 

Appointed. 
Georgia,  (continued  in  office.)  Secretary  of  State. 

New  Hampshire,  (continued  in  office.")     Sec'y  of  Treasury. 
South  Carolina,  1837  i 

New  Jersey,  (continued  in  office.)  \  Secretaries  of  War 

New  York,  1838  S 

'KexAVLOky,  (continued  in  office.)  ^  Post  Masters  Ge- 

Connecticut,  1840  \  neral. 

New  York,  (continued  in  office.)  ) 

Pennsylvania,  >  Attorneys  General 

Pennsylvania,  1839 ) 

Speakers  of  the  House  of  Representatives. 

Temiessee,  1837, 

Virginia,  1839. 


152 


THE    WORLD  S    PROGRESS. 


[  ADM 


ADMINISTRATIONS  (United  States)  continued. 

Ninth  Administration  ;— 1841  to  1845  ;-^  years, 

1841    President. 


William  H.  Harrison,  Ohio, 

Died  one  month  after  inauguration,  and 


John  Tyler, 

Samuel  L.  Southard, 
Willie  P.  Mangum, 


Virginia, 

New  Jersey, 
North  Carolina, 


Daniel  Webster, 
Abel  P.  TJpshur, 
Thomas  Ewing, 
Walter  Forward, 
John  C.  Spencer, 
John  Bell, 
John  C.  Spencer, 
George  E.  Badger, 
Abel  P.  Upshur, 
David  Henshaw, 
Francis  Granger, 
Charles  A.  W'icklifle, 
John  J.  Crittenden, 
Hugh  S.  Legare, 
John  Nelson, 


John  White, 
John  W.  Jones, 


Massachusetts, 
Virginia, 
Ohio, 

Pennsylvania, 
New  York, 
Tennessee, 
New  York, 
North  Carolina, 
Virginia, 
Massachusetts, 
New  York, 
Kentucky, 
Kentucky, 
South  Carolina 
Maryland, 
Speakei's  of  the  House  of  Reepresentatives. 

Kentucky, 

Virginia, 


1841  \  ^^'^^  President, 

I  became  acting  Pres. 
1841 )  Acting  V.  Pres.  and 
1841  5         Pres.  Senate. 
Appointed. 

1341  (  Secretaries  of  StaU*. 

1841 

1841 

1841 

1841 

1841 

1841 

1841 

1841 

1841 

1841 

184n' 

1841  \  Attorneys  Generzd. 

1841 J 


Secretaries  of  the 
Treasury. 

•  Secretaries  of  War. 

Secretaries  of  thft 

Navy. 

Post  Masters  Gen- 
eral. 


Tenth  Administration  ;~1845  to  1849 ; — 4  years. 


James  K.  Polk, 
George  M.  Dallas, 

James  Buchanan, 
Robert  J.  Walker, 
William  L.  Marcy, 
George  Bancroft, 
John  Y.  Mason, 
Cave  Johnson, 
John  Y.  Mason, 
Isaac  Toucey, 


Tennessee, 
Pennsylvania, 

Pennsylvania, 

Mississippi, 

New  York, 

Massachusetts, 

Virginia, 

Tennessee, 

Virginia, 

Connecticut, 


1845 

1845 

Appointed. 

1845 


1841 
1843 


President. 
Vice  President. 


Speakei's  of  the  House  of  Kepresentatives. 
John  W.  Davis,  Indiana, 

Robert  C.  Winthrop,  Massachusetts, 


Secretary  of  State. 
1845    Secretary  of  Treas. 
1845    Secretaiy  of  War. 
1845  )  Secretaries  of  the 
1847  S  Navy. 

1845    Post  Master  Gen. 

1847  ( -^-t't^i^Eys  General 

1845. 
1847. 


Eleventh  Administration  ;- 
Zachary  Taylor,  Louisiana, 


MiUard  Fillmore, 

John  M.  Clayton, 
William  E .  Meredith, 
William  B  Preston, 
George  W.  Crawford, 
Thomas  Ewing, 
Jacob  CoUamer, 
Reverdy  Johnson, 

HoweU  Cobb, 


New  York, 

Delaware, 

Pennsylvania, 

Virginia, 

Georgia, 

Ohio, 

Vermont, 

Maryland, 


-1849  to  1853, --4  years. 

1849  President. 

1849  Vice  President 
Appointed. 

1849  Secretary  of  State. 

1849  Sec'y  of  Treasury. 

1849  Sec'y  of  the  Navy. 

1849  Secretary  of  War. 

1849  Sec'y  of  Interior.* 

1849  Post  Master  Gen. 

1849  Attorney  General. 


Speaker  of  the  House  of  Representatives. 
Georgia, 


1849. 


ADMINISTRATIONS  of  ENGLAND,  and  op  GREAT  BRITAIN,  from  the 
accession  of  Henry  VIII.  The  following  were  the  prime  ministers,  or  favor- 
ites, or  chiefs  of  administrations,  in  the  respective  reigns,  viz. : — 

KING  HENRY  viii.  |   Sir  Thomas  More  and  Cranmer  .  1529 

Bishop  Fisher  and  Earl  of  Surrey        .  1509      Lord  Audley,  chanceUor ;  archbishop 
Cardinal  Thomas  Wolsey        .  .  1513  |       Cranmer         ....  1532 

*  A  new  department,  created  by  act  of  Congress,  1819. 
Note.  The  dates  of  the  appointments  of  the  principal  executive  officers,  in  the  several  adminis- 
trations, above  exhibited,  are  the  times  when  the  several  nominations,  made  by  the  Presidents, 
were  confirmed  by  the  Senate,  as  stated  in  the  "  Journal  of  the  Executive  Proceedmgs  of  the  Senats 
of  the  United  States."      Am.  Almanac^  &c. 


ADM  J 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES. 


153 


And  lord  Cromwell  (earl  of  Essex)     .  1531 
Duke  of  Norfolk,  earl  of  Surrey,  and 

bishop  Gardiner         .  .  .  1540 

Lord  Wriothesley,  earl  of  Hertford     .  1544 

KING  EDWARD   VI. 

The  earl  of  Hertford,  continued 

John,  duke  of  Northumberland  .  1552 

aUEEN  MARY. 

Bishop  Gardiner  .  .  .  1553 

aUEEN  ELIZABETH. 

Sir  Nicholas  Bacon       .  .  .  1558 

Sir  William  Cecil,  qftenoards  lord 
Burleigh;  chief  minister  during  al- 
most the  whole  of  this  long  reign 
Earl  of  Leicester,  a  favorite     .  .  1564 

Earl  of  Essex     .  .  .  .1538 

Lord  Burkhurst  .  .  .  1601 

KING  JAMES.   I. 

Lord  Burkhurst  (earl  of  Dorset) 

Earls  of  Salisbury,  Suffolk,  and  North- 
ampton. ....  1608 

Sir  R.  Carr,  created  viscount  Roches 
ter,  afterwards  earl  of  Somerset 

Sir  George  Villiers,  created  earl,  mar 
ouess,  and  duke  of  Buckingham      .  1615 

KING    CHAELES    I. 

Duke  of  Buckingham  continued 

Earl  of  Portland,  archbishop  Laud      .  1628 

Archbishop  Laud,  earl  of  Strafford, 

lord  Cottinglon  .  .  .  1640 

Earl  of  Essex      ....  1640 
Lord  vis.  Falkland,  lord  Digby  .  1641 

[The  civil  war  commenced,  and  all 

went  iirto  confusion.] 

KING   CHARLES   II. 

Edward,  earl  of  Clarendon       .  .  1660 

Dukes  of  Buckingham  and  Lauderdale  1667 
Lord  Ashley,  Lord  Arlinston,  Sir  T. 

Clifford,  aftericards  lord  Clifford    .  1667 
Lord  Arlington,  lord  Ashley,  created 
earl  Shaltesbury,  and  Sir  Thomas 
Osborne  ....  1673 

Sir  Thomas  Osborne     .  .  .  1674 

Earl  of  Essex,  duke  of  Ormond,  earl 
afterwards  marquess  of  Halifax,  sir 
William  Temple        .  .  .  1677 

Duke  of  York,  and  his  friends  .  1682 

KING  JAMES    II. 

Eai-ls  of  Sunderland  and  Tyrconnel, 
sir  George  aftericards  lord  Jeffries  1685 

I,ord  .Jeffries,  earl  of  Tyrconnel,  lord 
Bellasis,  lord  Arundel,  earl  of  Mid- 
dleton,  visct.  Preston  .  .  1087 

KING  WILLIAM   III.    AND   aUEEN    MARV  II. 

Sir.Tolm,  aftericards  lord  Someis,  lord 
Godolphin,  earl  of  Danby,  after- 
wards duke  of  Leeds,  &c.  .  ,  1688 
The  earl  of  Sunderland,  &c.  .  .  1695 
Charles  Montagu,  afterwards  earl  of 
Halifax,  earl  of  Pembroke,  viscount 
Lonsdale,  earl  of  Oxford,  &c.  .  1697 

aUEBN   ANNE. 

Lord  Godolphin,  R.  Harley,  esq.,  lord 
Pembroke,  duke  of  Buckingham 


Duke  of  Marlborough,  &c.       .  .  17lii 

Lord  Godolphin,  lord  Cowper,  dukes 

of  Marlborough  and  Newcastle        .  170/ 

R.  Harley,  afterwards  earl  of  Oxford  171 1 

Earl  of  Rochester,  lord  Dartmouth, 

and  Henry  St.  John,  esq.  c^terwards 

visct.  Bolmgbroke ;  lord  Harcourt  .  171( 

Charles,  duke  of  Shrewsbury,  &c.      .  171' 

KING   GEORGE  I. 

Lord  Cowper,  duke  of  Shrewsbury, 
marquess  of  Wharton,  earl  of  Or- 
ford,  duke  of  Marlborough,  visct. 
Townshend,  &c.         .  .  .  1714 

Robert  Walpole,  esq.     .  .  .  IT'lE 

James,  afterwards  earl  Stanhope       .  1713 
Charles,  earl  of  Sunderland,  &c.        .  1715 
Robert  Walpole,  esq.  afterwards  sir 
Robert  and  earl  of  Orford    .  .  17?] 

KING   GEORGE   II. 

Lord  Carteret,  lord  WilmingtCLi,  lord 
Bath,  Mr.  Sandys,  &c.  .  .  1744: 

Hon.  Henry  Pelham,  lord  Carteret,  earl 
of  Harrington,  duke  of  Newcastle    .  174J! 

Mr.  Pelham,  earl  of  Chesterfield,  duke 
of  Bedford,  &c.  .  .  .  1740 

Duke  of  Newcastle,  Sir  Thomas  Rob- 
inson, Henry  Fox,  &c.,  lord  Anson     1754 

Duke  of  Devonshire,  Mr.  William  Pitt, 
earl  Temple,  Hon.  H.  B.  Legge       .  1756 

[Dismissed  m  April,  1757.  Restored  in 
June,  same  year.] 

William  Pitt,  Mr.  Legge,  earl  Temple, 
duke  of  Newcastle,  &c.         .  .  1757 

KING  GEORGE   III. 

Earl  of  Bute,  earl  of  Egremont,  duke 
of  Bedford       ....  1761 

Earl  of  Bute,  hon.  George  Grenville, 
sir  Francis  Dashwood,  <fec.   .  .  1762 

Right  hon.  George  Grenville,  earl  of 
Halifax,  earl  of  Sandwich,  duke  of 
Bedford,  &c 1763 

Marquess  of  Rockingham,  duke  of 
Grafton,  earl  of  Shelbume,  &;c.  July  1765 

Duke  of  Grafton,  hon.  Chas.  Towns- 
hend, earl  of  Chatham,  &c.       Aug.  1766 

Duke  of  Grafton,  right  hon.  Frederick, 
lord  North,  &c.  .  .     Dec.  1767 

Lord  North,  lord  Halifax,  &c. .  .  1770 

Lord  North,  lord  Dartmouth,  lord  Stor- 
mont,  lord  Hillsborough,  lord  St. 
Germain,  &c. ....  \Tr"i 

Marquess  of  Rockingham,r)ght  hon'ble 
Charles  James  Fox,  &c.      Mar.  30,  1782 

Earl  of  Shelbume,  William  Pitt,  lord 
Grantham,  &c.  .  July  10,  1782 

Duke  of  Portland,  lordNorth,  Mr.  Fox, 
&c.  (The  Coalition  Ministry.  See 
"Coalition.")  .  April  5,  1783 

Rt.  hon.  William  Pitt,  lord  Gower, 
lords  Sidney,  Carmarthen,  and  Thur- 
low,  right  hon.  W.  W.  Grenville, 
Henry  Dundas,  lord  Mulgrave,  duke 
of  Richmond,  &c.      .  Dec.  27,  178;- 

Mr.  Pitt,  lord  Camden,  marq.  of  Staf- 
ford, lord  Hawkesbury,  &c.  .  .  178' ■ 

Mr.  Pitt,  lord  Grenville,  duke  of  Leeds, 
lord  Camden,  &c.       .  .  .179) 

Mr.  Pitt,  lord  Grenville,  earl  of  Chat- 
ham, lord  Loughborough.  <fec.  .  179t- 


154 


THE    WORLD'S    PROGRESS. 


L  ABR 


Mr.  Pitt,  duke  of  Portland,  lord  Gren- 
ville,  Mr.  Dundas,  &c.  .  .  1795 

Mr.  Pitt,  earl  of  Westmorland,  earl 
of  Chatham,  lord  Grenville,  &c.      .  1798 

Right  hon.  Henry  Addington,  duke  of 
Portland,  lord  Hawkesbury,  lord  Ho- 
bart,lordEldon,  &c.  .  Mar.  17,  1801 

Mr.  Pitt,  lord  Melville,  rt.  hon.  George 
Canning,  lord  Ilarrowby,  lord  West- 
morland, duke  of  Portland,  Mr.  Dun- 
das, &c.  .  .  May  12,  1S04 

Lord  Grenville,  lord  Henry  Petty,  earl 
Spencer,  rt.  hon.  William  Wind- 
ham, Mr.  Fox,  lord  Erskine,  rt.  hon. 
Charles  Grey,  lord  Sidmouth,  &c. 
(See  ''All  the  Talents.")         Feb.  5,  1800 

Duke  of  Portland,  Mr.  Canning,  lord 
Hawkesbury,  earl  Camden,  right 
hon.  Spencer  Perceval,  &c.  Mar.  25,  1807 

Duke  of  Portland,  earl  Bathurst,  lord 
vicount  Castlereagh,  lord  Granville 
Gower,  &c 1803 

Mr.  Perceval,  earl  of  Liverpool,  mar- 
quess Wellesley,  viscount  Palmers- 
ton,  Mr.  Ryder,  &c.    .         '  .     Oct.  1809 

REGENCY  OP  GEORGE,  PRINCE  OF  WALES. 

Mr.  Perceval,  the  earl  of  Liverpool, 

&c.  continued. 
Earl  of  Liverpool,  Earl  Bathurst,  visct. 

Sidmouth,  viscount  Castlereagh,  Mr. 

Ryder,  earl  of  Harrowby,  right  hon. 

Nich.  Vansittart,  <kc.  June  8,  1812 

KING   GEORGE  IV. 

Earl  of  Liverpool,  viscount  Sidmouth, 
Mr.  Vansittart,  &c.  continued. 

Rt.  hon.  George  Canning,  lord  viscount 
Goderich,  lord  Lyndhurst,  Mr.  Stur- 
ges  Bourne,  &c.  .         April  10,  1827 

Viscount  Goderich,  duke  of  Portland, 
right  hon.  William  Huskisson,  Mr. 
Herries,  <fcc.    .  .      August  11,  1S27 

Duke  of  Wellington,  right  hon.  Robert 
Peel,  earl  of  Dudley,  viscount  Mel- 
ville, earl  of  Aberdeen,  Mr.  Goul- 
bum,  Mr.  Herries,  Mr.  Grant,  &c. 

January  25,  1828 

Duke  of  Wellington,  earl  of  Aberdeen, 
sir  George  Murray,  lord  Lovrther,  sir 


Henry  Hardinge,  &c.,  (Mr.  Huskis- 
son,visc  Palmerston,  Mr.  Grant,  eart 
of  Dudley,  &c.  retiring)       May  30,  18J23 

KING  WILLIAM  IV. 

Duke  of  Wellington  and  his  cabinef, 
continued. 

Earl  Grey,  viscounts  Althorpe,  Mel- 
bourne, Goderich,  and  Palmerston, 
marquess  of  Lansdowne,  lord  Hol- 
land, lord  Auckland,  sir  James  Gra- 
ham, &c.         .  .  Nov.  22,  3330 

[Earl  (jrey  resigns  May  9,  but  resumes 
office  May  18, 1832.] 

Viscount  Rlelboume,  viscount  Althorp, 
lord  John  Russel,  viscts.  Palmerston 
and  Duncannon,  sir  J.  C.  Hobhouse, 
lord  Howick,  Mr.  S.  Rice,  Mr.  Pou- 
lett  Thomson,  &c.      .  July  14,  1834 

Viscount  Melbourne's  administration 
dissolved:  the  duke  of  Wellington 
takes  the  helm  of  state  provisionally, 
waiting  the  return  of  sir  Robert  Peel 
from  Italy        .  .  Nov.  14,  1834 

Sir  Robert  Peel,  duke  of  Wellir.eton, 
lord  Lyndhurst,  earl  of  Aberdeen, 
lord  EUenborough,  lord  Rosslyn, 
lord  Wharncliffe,  sir  George  M  urray, 
Mr.  A.  Baring,  Mr.  Herries,  Mr. 
Goulbum,  &c.  .  Dec.  15,  1831 

Viscount  Melbourne  and  his  colleagues 
return  to  office  .         April  18,  1835 

aUEEN  VICTORIA. 

visct.  Melbourne  and  the  same  cabi- 
net, continued. 

Viscount  Melbourne  resigns      May  7,  1839 

Sir  Robert  Peel  receives  the  queen's 
commands  to  form  a  new  adminis- 
tration. May  8. 

This  command  is  withdrawn,  and  lord 
Melbourne  and  his  friends  are  rein- 
stated   .  .  .  May  10,  1839 

Sir  Robert  Peel,  duke  of  Wellington, 
earl  of  Aberdeen,  earl  of  Hadding- 
ton, earl  of  Ripon,  lord  Stanley,  Mr. 
Goulbum,  &c.  .  Aug.  7,  1841 

Lord  John  Russell's   administration 

July  6,  1845 


ADJMIRAL.  The  first  so  called  in  England  was  Richard  de  Lucy,  appointed 
by  Henry  III.  1223.  Alfred,  Athelstan,  Edgar,  Harold,  and  other  kings,  had 
been  previously  the  commanders  of  their  own  fleets.  The  first  was  appointed 
in  France,  in  1284.  The  rank  of  admiral  of  the  English  seas  was  one  of 
great  distinction,  and  was  first  given  to  William  de  Leybourne  by  Edward  I. 
in  1297. —Spelman;  Ryvier. 

ADMIRAL  LORD  HIGH,  op  ENGLAND.  The  first  officer  of  this  rank  was 
created  by  Richard  II.  in  December  1385  ;  there  had  been  previously  high 
&^va\Y2i\s,  of  districts — the  north,  west,  and  south.     See  Navy. 

ADMIRALTY,  Court  of,  erected  by  Edward  III.  in  1357.  This  is  a  civil  court 
for  the  trial  of  causes  relating  to  maritime  affairs. 

ADRIANOPLE,  Battle  of,  which  got  Constantine  the  empire,  was  fought  July 
3,  A.D.  323.  Adrianople  was  taken  by  the  Ottomans  from  the  Greeks  in  1360 ; 
and  it  continued  to  be  the  seat  of  the  Turkish  empire  till  the  capture  of 
Constantinople  in  1453.  Mahomet  II.,  one  of  the  most  distingui.shed  of  the 
sultans,  and  the  one  who  took  Constantinople,  was  born  here  in  1430.— 


ADV  j  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  155 

Priestley.    Adrianople  was  taken  by  the  Russians,  Aug.  20,  1829 ;  but  was 
restored  to  the  sultan  at  the  close  of  the  war,  Sept.  14,  same  year.   See  Turkey. 

ADRIATIC.  The  ceremony  of  the  doge  of  Venice  wedding  the  Adriatic  Sea 
was  instituted  in  a.d.  1173.  Annually,  upon  Ascension-day,  the  doge  married 
the  Adriaticum  Mare,  by  dropping  a  ring  into  it  from  his  bucentaur,  or  state 
barge,  and  was  attended  on  these  occasions  by  all  the  nobility  of  the  state, 
and  foi-eign  ambassadors,  in  gondolas.  This  ceremony  was  intermitted,  for 
the  first  time  for  centuries,  in  1797. 

ADULTERY,  ancient  laws  against  it.  Punished  by  the  law  of  Moses  with 
the  death  of  both  the  guilty  man  and  woman. — Leviticus  xx.  10.  This  law 
was  repealed,  first,  because  the  crime  had  become  common ;  and  secondly, 
because  God's  name  should  not  be  liable  to  be  too  often  erased  by  the  ordeal 
of  the  waters  of  bitterness.  Leo,  of  Modena,  says  that  the  husband  was  obliged 
to  dismiss  his  wife  for  ever,  whether  he  willed  it  or  not. — Calmet.  Lycurgus 
punished  the  offender  as  he  did  a  parricide,  and  the  Locrians  and  Spartans 
tore  out  the  offenders'  eyes.  The  Romans  had  no  formal  law  against  adultery ; 
the  emperor  Augustus  was  the  first  to  introduce  a  positive  law  to  punish  it, 
and  he  had  the  misfortune  to  see  it  executed  in  the  persons  of  his  own  chil- 
dren.— Lenglet.  Socrates  relates  that  women  who  were  guilty  of  adultery 
were  punished  by  the  horrible  sentence  of  public  constupration.  In  England 
the  legal  redress  against  the  male  offender  has  been  refined  into  a  civil 
action  for  a  money  compensation. — Lord  Mansfield. 

ADULTERY,  English  Laws  against  it.  The  early  Saxons  burnt  the  adulteress, 
and  erected  a  gibbet  over  her  ashes,  whereon  they  hanged  the  adulterer. — 
Pardon.  King  Edmund  punished  the  crime  as  homicide.  It  was  punished 
by  cutting  off  the  hair,  stripping  the  female  offender  naked,  and  whipping 
her  through  the  streets,  if  the  husband  so  demanded  it  to  be  done,  without 
distinction  of  rank,  during  the  Saxon  Heptarchy,  a.d.  457  to  828. — Stowc. 
The  ears  and  nose  were  cut  off  under  Canute,  1031.  Ordained  to  be  punished 
capitally,  together  with  incest,  under  Cromwell,  May  14,  1650 ;  but  there  is 
no  record  of  this  law  taking  effect.  In  New  England  a  law  was  ordained 
whereby  adultery  was  made  capital  to  both  parties,  even  though  the  man 
were  unmarried,  and  several  sufiered  under  it,  1662. — Hardie.  At  present 
this  offence  is  more  favorably  viewed ;  to  divorce  and  strip  the  adulteress 
of  her  dower,  is  all  her  punishment  among  us ;  but  in  Romish  countries  they 
usually  shut  up  the  adulteress  in  a  nunnerj''. — Aslie. 

ADVENT.  In  the  calendar  it  signifies,  properly,  the  approach  of  the  feast  of 
the  Nativity ;  it  includes  four  Sundays,  the  first  of  which  is  always  the  nearest 
Sunday  to  Saint  Andrew  (the  30th  November),  before  or  after.  Advent  was 
instituted  by  the  council  of  Tours,  in  the  sixth  century. 

ADVENTURERS,  MERCHANT,  a  celebrated  and  enterprising  company  of 
merchants,  was  originally  formed  for  the  discovery  of  territories,  extension 
of  commerce,  and  promotion  of  trade,  by  John  duke  of  Brabant,  in  1296. 
This  ancient  company  was  afterwards  translated  into  England,  in  the  reign 
of  Edward  III.,  and  queen  Elizabeth  formed  it  into  an  English  corporation 
in  1564. — Anderson. 

ADVERTISEMENTS  in  NEWSPAPERS.  In  England,  as  now  published,  they 
were  not  general  until  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century.  A  penalty 
of  50Z.  was  inflicted  on  persons  advertising  a  reward  with  "No  questions  to 
be  asked"  for  the  return  of  things  stolen,  and  on  the  printer,  25  Geo.  H.  1754. 
— Statutes.  The  advertisement  duty  was  formerly  charged  according  to  the 
number  of  lines  ;  it  was  afterwards  fixed,  in  England  at  os.  Qd.,  and  in  Ireland 
at  2s.  Qd.  each  advertisement.  The  duty  Avas  further  reduced,  in  England 
to  Is.  6d.,  and  in  Ireland  to  Is.  each,  by  statute  3  and  4  Will.  IV.  1833. 


156  THE    world's    PROGilESS.  T  AFF 

^DILES,  magistrates  of  Rome,  first  created  492  b.c.  There  wer?  three  degrees 
of  these  officers,  and  the  functions  of  the  principal  were  similar  to  our  justices 
of  the  peace.  The  plebeian  sediles  presided  over  the  more  minute  affairs  of 
the  state,  good  order,  and  the  reparation  of  the  streets.  They  procured  all 
the  provisions  of  the  city,  and  executed  the  decrees  of  the  people. —  Varro. 

.ENIGMA.  The  origin  of  the  jenigma  is  doubtful :  Gale  thinks  that  the  Jews 
borrowed  their  senigmatical  forms  of  speech  from  the  Egyptians.  The 
philosophy  of  the  Druids  was  altogether  senigmatical.  In  Nero's  time  the 
Romans  were  often  obliged  to  have  recourse  to  this  method  of  concealing 
truth  under  obscure  language.  The  following  epitaph  on  Fair  Rosamond  is 
an  elegant  specimen  of  the  senigma  : — 

Hie  jacet  in  tomba,  Rosa  mundi,  non  Uosa  mimda ; 
Non  redolet,  sed  olet,  quae  redolere  solet. 

iEOLIAN  HARP.  The  invention  of  this  instrument  is  ascribed  to  Kircher.  1653 ; 
but  Richardson  proves  it  to  have  been  kno'^^Ti  at  an  earlier  period  than  his 
time. — Dissertation  on  the  Customs  of  the  East.  There  is  a  Rabbinical  story 
of  the  aerial  harmony  of  the  harp  of  David,  which,  when  hung  up  at  night, 
was  played  upon  by  the  north  wind. — Baruch. 

AERONAUTICS.  To  lord  Bacon,  the  prophet  of  art,  as  Walpole  calls  him,  has 
been  attributed  the  first  suggestion  of  the  true  theory  of  balloons.  The 
ancient  speculations  about  artificial  wings,  wherebj'^  a  man  might  fly  as  well 
as  a  bird,  refuted  by  Borelli,  1670.  Mr.  Henry  Cavendish  ascertained  that 
hydrygen  air  is  at  least  twelve  times  lighter  than  common  air,  1777.  The 
true  doctrine  of  aeronautics  announced  in  France  by  the  two  brothers  Mont- 
golfier,  1782. — See  Balloon. 

.^SOP'S  FABLES.  Written  by  the  celebrated  fabulist,  the  supposed  inventor 
of  this  species  of  entertainment  and  instruction,  about  565  B.C.  ^sop's 
Fables  are,  no  doubt,  a  compilation  of  all  the  fables  and  apologues  of  wits 
both  before  and  after  his  own  time,  conjointly  with  his  own. — Plutarch. 

.iETOLIA.  This  coxmtry  was  named  after  ^tolus  of  Elis,  who,  having  acci- 
dentally killed  a  son  of  Phoroneus,  king  of  Argos,  left  the  Peloponnesus, 
and  settled  here.  The  inhabitants  were  very  Mttle  known  to  the  rest  of 
Greece,  till  after  the  ruin  of  Athens  and  Sparta,  when  they  assumed  a  con- 
sequence in  the  country  as  the  opposers  and  rivals  of  the  Achaans,  to  whom 
they  made  themselves  formidable  as  the  allies  of  Rome,  and  as  its  enemies. 
They  were  conqxiered  by  the  Romans  under  Fulvius. 


The  jEtoIians  begin  to  ravage  the  Pelo- 
ponnesus .  .  .B.C.  282 

They  dispute  the  passage  of  the  Mace- 
donians at  Thermopylce  .  .  223 

Acarnania  ceded  to  Pliilip  as  the  price 
of  peace  ....  218 

Battle  of  Lamia;  the  jEtolians,  com- 
manded by  Pyrrhus,  are  defeated  by 
Philip  of  Macedon       .  .  .214 

With  the  assistance  of  allies,  they  seize 
Oreum,  Opus,  Tribon,  and  Dryne    .  212 

They  put  to  the  sword  the  people  of 


Therma,  Xenia,  Cyphara,  and  other 
cities,  and  destroy  with  fire  all  the 
country  they  invade  .  B.C.  201 

They  next  invite  the  kings  of  Macedon, 
Syria  and  Sparta,  to  coalesce  witn 
them  against  the  Romans       .  .  195 

They  seize  Calchis,  Sparta,  and  Deme- 

trias  in  Thessaly  .  .  .  194 

Their  defeat  near  Thermopylae .  .  193 

They  lose  Lamia  and  Amphissa  .  192 

Made  a  province  of  Rome  .         .  .  146 


'VFFINITY,  Degrees  of.  Marriage  Avithin  certain  degrees  of  kindred  was 
prohibited  by  the  laws  of  almost  all  nations,  and  in  almost  every  age. 
Seypral  degrees  were  prohibited  in  scriptural  law,  as  may  be  seen  in  Leviti- 
cus, chap,  xviii.  In  England,  a  table  restricting  marriage  within  certain 
near  degrees  was  set  forth  by  authority,  a.d.  1563.  Prohibited  marriages 
were  adjudged  to  be  incestuous  and  unlawful  by  the  ninety-ninth  Canon,  in 
1603.  AU  marriages  celebrated  within  the  forbidden  degrees  of  kindred  are 
declared  to  be  absolutely  void  hy  statute  5  and  6  Will.  IV.  1835. 


AGR  J  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  157 

AFFIRMATION  of  the  QUAKERS.  This  was  first  legally  accepted  as  an  oath 
in  England  a.d.  1696.  The  affirmation  was  altered  in  1702,  and  again  altered 
and  modified  December  1721. 

AFGHANISTAN.  Insurrection  of  the  Afghans  against  the  British  power  in 
India,  January  5,  1842. — See  India. 

AFRICA,  called  Libya  by  the  Greeks,  one  of  the  three  parts  of  the  ancient 
world,  and  the  gi'eatest  peninsula  of  the  universe,  first  peopled  by  Ham.  It 
was  conquered  by  Belisarius  in  a.d.  553  et  seq.  In  the  seventh  century,  about 
637,  the  Mahometan  Arabs  subdued  the  north  of  Africa  ;  and  their  descend- 
ants, under  the  name  of  Moors,  constitute  a  great  pert  of  the  present  popu- 
lation. See  the  several  countries  of  Africa  through  the  volume.  Among 
the  late  distinguished  travellers  in  this  quarter  of  the  world,  may  be  men- 
tioned Bruce,  who  commenced  his  travels  in  1768 ;  Mungo  Pai-k,  who  made 
his  first  voj^age  to  Africa,  May  22, 1795 ;  and  his  second  voyage,  January  50, 
1804,  but  from  which  he  never  returned.  See  Park.  Richard  Lander  died 
of  shot-wounds  (which  he  had  received  when  ascending  the  river  Nunn)  at 
Fernando  Po,  Jan.  31,  1834.  The  African  expedition,  for  which  parliament 
voted  61,000^.,  consisting  of  the  Albert,  Wilberforce,  and  Soudan  steam-ships, 
sailed  in  the  summer  of  1841.  The  vessels  commenced  the  ascent  of  the 
Niger,  Aug.  20;  but  when  they  reached  Iddah,  fever  broke  out  among  the 
crews,  and  they  were  successively  obliged  to  return,  the  Albert  having 
ascended  the  river  to  Egga,  320  miles  from  the  sea,  Sept.  28.  The  expedi- 
tion was,  in  the  end,  wholly  relinquished  owing  to  disease,  heat,  and  hard- 
ships, Oct.  17. 

AFRICAN  COMPANY,  a  society  of  merchants  trading  to  Africa.  An  associ- 
ation in  Exeter,  Avhich  was  formed  in  1588,  gave  rise  to  this  company.  A 
charter  was  granted  to  a  joint  stock  company  in  1618  :  a  third  company  was 
created  in  1631 ;  a  fourth  corporation  in  1662 ;  and  another  formed  by  let- 
ters patent  in  1672,  and  remodelled  in  1695.  The  rights  vested  in  the  pre- 
sent company,  23  Geo.  H.  1749.     See  Slave  Trade. 

AGE :  Golden  Age,  Middle  Age,  &c.  Among  the  ancient  poets,  an  age  was 
the  space  of  thirty  years,  in  which  sense  age  amounts  to  much  the  same  as 
generation.  The  interval  since  the  first  formation  of  man  has  been  divided 
into  four  ages,  distinguished  as  the  golden,  silver,  brazen,  and  iron  ages  ;  but 
a  late  author,  reflecting  on  the  barbarism  of  the  first  ages,  will  have  the 
order  assigned  by  the  poets  inverted — the  first,  being  a  time  of  ignorance, 
would  be  more  jDroperly  denominated  an  iron,  rather  than  a  golden  age. 
Various  divisions  of  the  duration  of  the  world  have  been  made  by  historians : 
by  some  the  space  of  time  commencing  from  Constantino,  and  ending  with 
the  taking  of  Constantinople  by  the  Turks,  in  the  fifteenth  century,  is  called 
the  middle  age ;  the  middle  is  also  styled  the  barbarous  age.  The  ages  of 
the  world  may  be  reduced  to  three  grand  epochs,  viz.,  the  age  of  the  law  of 
nature,  from  Adam  to  Moses ;  the  age  of  the  Jewish  law,  from  Moses  to 
Christ ;  and  the  age  of  grace,  from  Christ  to  the  present  year. 

AGINCOURT,  Battle  op,  between  the  French  and  English  armies,  gained  by 
Henry  V.  Of  the  French,  there  were  10,000  killed,  and  14,000  were  taken 
prisoners,  the  English  losing  only  100  men.  Among  the  prisoners  were  the 
dukes  of  Orleans  and  Bourbon,  and  7000  barons,  knights,  and  gentlemen, 
and  men  more  numerous  than  the  British  themselves.  Among  the  slain 
were  the  dukes  of  Alen^on,  Brabant,  and  Bar,  the  archbishop  of  Sens,  one 
marshal,  thirteen  earls,  ninety-two  barons,  and  1500  knights,  Oct.  25,  1415. 
— Goldsmith. 

AGRA,  Fortress  of,  termed  the  key  of  Hindostan,  surrendered,  in  the  war 
with  the  Mahrattas,  to  the  British  forces,  Oct.  17,  1803.    This  was  once  the 


158  TIIK    world's    progress.  I  ALB 

most  splendid  of  all  the  Indian  cities,  and  now  exhibits  the  most  magnificent 
ruins.  In  the  17th  century  the  great  mogul  frequently  resided  here  ;  his 
palaces,  and  those  of  the  Omrahs,  were  very  numerous ;  Agra  then  con- 
tained above  60  caravansaries,  800  baths,  and  700  mosques.  See  Mau- 
soleums. 

AGRARIAN  LAW,  Agraria  Lex.  This  was  an  equal  division  among  the  Ro- 
man people  of  all  the  lands  which  they  acquired  by  conquest,  limiting  the 
acres  which  each  person  should  enjoy,  first  proposed  by  Sp.  Cassius,  to  gain 
the  favor  of  the  citizens,  486  b.c.  It  was  enacted  under  the  tribune  Tibe- 
rius Gracchus,  132  b.c.  ;  but  this  law  at  last  proved  fatal  to  the  freedom  of 
Rome  under  Julius  Cfesar. — Livy ;   Vossius. 

A(tRICULTURE.  The  science  of  agriculture  may  be  traced  to  the  period  im- 
mediately succeeding  the  Deluge.  In  China  and  the  eastern  countries  it  was, 
perhaps,  coeval  with  their  early  plantation  and  government.  Of  the  agri- 
culture of  the  ancients  little  is  known.  The  Athenians  pretended  that  it 
was  among  them  the  art  of  sowing  corn  began  ;  and  the  Cretans,  Sicilians, 
and  Egyptians  lay  claim,  the  last  with  most  probability,  to  the  honor. 
Brought  into  England  by  the  Romans,  as  a  science,  aboiit  a.d.  27. 

AGYNNIANS.  This  sect  arose  about  a.d.  694,  and  alleged  that  God  forbade 
the  eating  of  flesh,  assuming  the  first  chapter  of  Genesis  to  be  the  authority 
upon  which  the  doctrine  was  founded.  A  revival  of  this  ancient  sect  now 
flourishes  at  Manchester  and  other  towns  in  England,  and  has  been  public 
there  since  1814. 

AIR.  Anaximenes  of  Miletus  declared  air  to  be  a  self-existent  deity,  and  the 
first  cause  of  every  thing  created,  530  b.c.  The  pressure  of  air  was  discov- 
ered by  Torricelii,  a.d.  1645.  It  was  found  to  vary  with  the  height  by  Pas- 
cal, in  1647.  Halley,  Newton,  and  others,  up  to  the  present  time,  have 
illustrated  the  agency  and  influences  of  this  great  power  by  various  experi- 
ments, and  numerous  inventions  have  followed  from  them ;  among  others, 
the  air-gun  by  Giiter  of  Nuremburg  in  1656 ;  the  air-pump,  invented  by 
Otho  Guericke  at  Magdeburg  in  1650,  and  improved  by  the  illustrious  Boyle 
in  1657 ;  and  the  air-pipe,  invented  by  Mr.  Sutton,  a  brewer  of  London, 
about  1756.     See  Balloon. 

AIX-LA-CHAPELLE,  Peace  of.  The  first  treaty  of  peace  signed  here  wa"" 
between  France  and  Spain,  when  France  yielded  Franclre-Comt^,  but 
retained  her  conquests  in  the  Netherlands,  May  2,  1668.  The  second,  or 
celebrated  treaty,  Avas  between  Great  Britain,  France,  Holland,  Hungary, 
Spain,  and  Genoa.  By  this  memorable  peace  the  treaties  of  Westphalia  in 
1648,  of  Nimeguen  in  1678  and  1679,  of  Ryswick  in  1697,  of  Utrecht  in  1713, 
of  Baden  in  1714,  of  the  Triple  Alliance  1717,  of  the  Quadruple  Alliance  in 
1718,  and  of  Vienna  in  1738,  were  renewed  and  confirmed.  Signed  on  the 
part  of  England  by  John  Earl  of  Sandwich,  and  Sir  Thomas  Robinson,  Oct. 
7,  1748.  A  congress  of  the  sovereigns  of  Austria,  Russia,  and  Prussia,, 
assisted  by  ministers  from  England  and  France,  was  held  at  Aix-la-Cha- 
oelle,  and  a  convention  signed,  October  9,  1818.  The  sum  then  due  from 
France  to  the  allies  was  settled  at  265,000,000  francs. 

AL.AJBAMA.  One  of  the  United  States ;  most  of  its  territory  was  included  in 
the  original  patent  of  Georgia.  It  was  made  a  part  of  the  Mississippi  ter- 
ritory in  1817  ;  admitted  into  the  Union  as  a  State  in  1820.  Population  in 
1810  was  less  than  10.000 ;  in  1816,  29  683;  in  1820,  127,901;  in  1830, 
308.997 ;  in  1840,  590  756,  including  253,532  slaves.  Exports  of  the  State  in 
1840  amounted  to  S12  854  694 ;  imports,  to  ^574,651 

ALBA.  Founded  by  Ascanius,  1152  b.c,  and  called  Longa,  because  the  city 
extended  along  tlie  hill  Albanns.    This  kingdom  lasted  487  years,  and  was 


ALB  J  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  159 

governed  by  a  race  of  kings,  the  descendants  of  iEneas.  When  Amulius 
dethroned  his  brother,  he  condemned  Ilia,  the  daughter  of  Numitor,  to  a 
hfe  of  ceUbacy,  hy  obliging  her  to  take  the  vows  and  office  of  a  vestal, 
thereby  to  assure  his  safety  in  the  usurpation.  His  object  was,  however, 
frustrated;  violence  was  offered  to  Ilia,  and  she  became  the  mother  of 
twins,  for  which  Amulius  ordered  her  to  be  buried  alive,  and  her  offspring  to 
be  thrown  into  the  Tiber,  770  b.c.  But  the  little  bark  in  which  the  infants 
were  sent  adrift  stopped  near  Mount  Aventine,  and  was  brought  ashore  by 
Faustulus,  the  king's  chief  shepherd,  M^ho  reared  the  children  as  his  own,  and 
called  tbem  Romulus  and  Remus.  His  wife,  Acca-Laurentia,  was  surnanied 
L/iipa ;  whence  arose  the  fable  that  Romulus  and  his  brother  were  suckled 
by  a  she-wolf  At  sixteen  years  of  age,  Romulus  avenged  the  wrongs  of 
Ilia  and  Numitor,  754:  b.c,  and  the  nest  year  founded  Rome. —  Varro. 

^LEAN'S,  ST.  The  name  of  this  town  was  anciently  Verulam ;  it  was  once 
the  capital  of  Britain,  and  previously  to  the  invasion  of  Julius  Caesar  was 
the  residence  of  British  princes.  It  takes  its  present  name  from  St.  Alban, 
who  was  born  here,  and  who  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  person  who  suf- 
fered martyrdom  for  Christianity  in  Britain.  He  is  hence  commonly  styled 
the  proto-martyr  of  this  country,  and  was  decapitated  during  the  perse- 
cution raised  by  Diocletian,  June  23,  a.d.  286.  A  stately  monastery  was 
erected  here  to  his  memory  by  OfFa,  king  of  Mercia,  in  793.  St.  Alban's 
was  incorporated  by  EdAvard  VI.  1552. 
-  ALBAN'S,  ST.,  Battles  of.  The  first,  between  the  houses  of  York  and  Lan- 
caster, in  which  Richard  duke  of  York  obtained  a  victory  over  Henry  VI., 
of  whose  army  5000  were  slain,  while  that  of  the  duke  of  York  suffered 
no  material  loss,  fought  May  22,  1455.  The  second,  between  the  Yorkists 
under  the  earl  of  Warwick,  and  the  Lancastrians,  commanded  by  queen 
Margaret  of  Anjou,  who  conquered :  in  this  battle  2500  of  the  defeated  army 
perished ;  fought  on  Shrove  Tuesday,  February  2, 1461. 

ALBANY,  city,  capital  of  the  State  of  New- York,  founded  by  the  Dutch  in 
1623,  and  by  them  named  Beaverwyck ;  capitulated  to  the  English  in  1664, 
and  then  received  its  present  name  in  honor  of  the  Duke  of  York  and 
Albany,  its  proprietor.  Incorporated  in  1686.  Population  in  1810,  9,356  : 
in  1830,  24,238;  in  1840,  88,721. 

ALBIGENSES.  This  sect  had  its  origin  about  a.d.  1160,  at  Albigeois,  in  Lan- 
guedoc,  and  at  Toulouse ;  they  opposed  the  disciples  of  the  Church  of 
Rome,  and  professed  a  hatred  of  all  the  corruptions  of  that  religion.  Simon 
de  Montfort  commanded  against  them,  and  at  Bezieres  he  and  the  pope's 
legate  put  friends  and  foes  to  the  sword.  At  Minerba,  he  burnt  150  of  the 
Albigenses  alive ;  and  at  La  Vaur,  he  hanged  the  governor,  and  beheaded 
the  chief  people,  drowning  the  governor's  wife,  and  murdering  other 
women.  They  next  defeated  the  count  of  Toulouse,  with  the  loss  of  17,000 
men.     Simon  de  Montfort  afterwards  came  to  England.     See  Waldenses. 

ALBION.  The  island  of  Great  Britain  is  said  to  have  been  first  so  called  by 
Julius  Caesar,  on  account  of  the  chalky  cliffs  upon  its  coast,  on  his  invasion 
of  the  country,  54  e.g.  The  Romans  conquered  it,  and  held  possession  about 
400  years.  On  their  quitting  it,  it  was  successively  invaded  by  the  Scots, 
Picts,  and  Saxons,  who  drove  the  original  inhabitants  from  the  plain  coun- 
try, to  seek  refuge  in  the  steeps  and  wilds  of  Cornwall  and  Wales ;  the 
Danes  and  Normans  also  settled  at  various  times  in  England :  and  from  a 
mixture  of  these  nations  the  present  race  of  Englishmen  is  derived.  See 
Britain. — New  Albion,  district  of  California,  was  taken  possession  of  by  sir 
Francis  Drake,  and  so  named  by  him,  in  1578;  explored  by  Vancouver  in 
1792. 

ALBUERA;  Battle  of,  between  the  French,  commanded  by  marshal  Soult. 


160  THE    world's    progress.  [  ALE 

and  the  British  and  Anglo-Spanish  army,  commanded  by  marshal,  now  lord 
Beresford,  May  16,  1811.  After  an  obstinate  and  sanguinary  engagement, 
the  allies  obtained  the  victory,  justly  esteemed  one  of  the  most  brilliant 
achievements  of  the  Peninsular  war.  The  French  loss  exceeded  9000  men 
previously  to  their  retreat. 
ALCHEMY.  This  was  a  pretended  branch  of  chemistry,  which  effected  the 
transmutation  of  metals  into  gold,  an  alkahest,  or  universal  menstruum,  a 
universal  ferment,  and  other  things  equally  ridiculous.  If  regard  may  be 
had  to  legend  and  tradition,  alchemy  must  be  as  old  as  the  Flood :  yet 
few  philosophers,  poets,  or  physicians,  from  Homer  till  400  years  after 
Christ,  mention  any  such  thing.  Plinj^  saj's  the  emperor  Caligula  was  the 
first  who  prepared  natural  arsenic,  in  order  to  make  gold  of  it,  but  left  it 
off  because  the  charge  exceeded  the  profit.  Others  say  the  Egyptians  had 
this  mystery ;  which  if  true,  how  could  it  have  been  lost  1  The  Arabians 
are  caid  to  have  invented  this  mysterous  art,  wherein  they  were  followed  by 
Ramond  Lullius,  Paracelsus,  and  others,  who  never  found  any  thing  else 
but  ashes  in  their  furnaces.  Another  author  on  the  subject  is  Zosimus, 
about  A.  D.  410. — Fab.  Bib.  Grccs.  A  license  for  pi-actising  alchemy  with  all 
kinds  of  metals  and  minerals  granted  to  one  Richard  Carter,  1476. — Rymer's 
Fad.  Doctor  Price,  of  Guildford,  published  an  account  of  his  experiments 
in  this  way,  and  pretended  to  success :  he  brought  his  specimens  of  gold  to 
the  king,  affirming  that  they  were  made  by  means  of  a  red  and  white  pow- 
der ;  but  being  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  he  was  required,  upon  pain 
of  expulsion,  to  repeat  his  experiments  before  Messrs.  Kirwan  and  Woulfe ; 
but  after  some  equivocation,  he  took  poison  and  died,  August  1783. 

ALCORAN.  The  book  which  contains  the  revelation  and  credenda  of  Mahomet : 
it  is  confessedly  the  standard  of  the  Arabic  tongue,  and  as  the  Mahometans 
believe,  inimitable  by  any  human  pen ;  hence  thej^  assume  its  divine  origin. 
It  is  the  common  opinion  of  writers,  that  Mahomet  was  assisted  by  Batiras, 
a  Jacobin,  Sergius,  a  Nestorian  monk,  and  by  a  learned  Jew,  in  composing 
this  book,  most  of  whose  principles  are  the  same  with  those  of  Arius,  Nes- 
torius,  Sabellius,  and  other  heresiarchs.  The  Mahometans  say,  that  God 
sent  it  to  their  prophet  by  the  Angel  Gabriel :  it  was  Avritten  about  a.  d.  610. 
— See  Koran,  Mahometism,  Mecca,  &c. 

ALDERMEN.  The  word  is  derived  from  the  Saxon  Ealdorman,  a  senior,  and 
among  the  Saxons  the  rank  was  conferred  upon  elderly  and  sage,  as  well  as 
distinguished  persons,  on  account  of  the  experience  their  age  had  given 
them.  At  the  time  of  the  Heptarchy,  aldermen  were  the  governors  of  pro- 
vinces or  districts,  and  are  so  mentioned  up  to  a.  d.  882.  After  the  Danes 
were  settled  in  England,  the  title  was  changed  to  that  of  carl,  and  the  Nor- 
mans introduced  that  of  count,  which  though  different  in  its  original  signifi- 
cation, yet  meant  the  same  thing.  Henry  III.  may  be  said  to  have  given 
its  basis  to  this  city  distinction.  In  modern  British  polity,  and  also  in  the 
United  States,  an  alderman  is  a  magistrate  next  in  dignity  to  the  mayor. 

AliE  AND  TnNE.  Thejr  are  said  to  have  been  invented  by  Bacchus  ;  the  for- 
mer where  the  soil,  owing  to  its  quality,  wotild  not  grow  grapes. —  Tooke^s 
Pantheon.  Ale  was  known  as  a  beverage  at  least  404  b.  c.  Herodotus  as- 
cribes the  first  discovery  of  the  art  of  brewing  barley-wine  to  Isis,  the  wife 
of  Asyris.  The  Romans  and  Germans  very  earlj'-  learned  the  process  of  pre- 
jmring  a  liquor  from  corn  by  means  of  fermentation,  from  the  Egyptians. — 
Tacitus.  Alehouses  are  made  mention  of  in  the  laws  of  Ina,  king  of  Wes- 
sex.  Booths  were  set  up  in  England  a.d.  728,  when  laws  were  passed  for 
their  regulation.  Alehouses  were  licensed  1621 ;  and  excise  duty  on  ale 
and  beer  was  imposed  on  a  system  nearly  similar  to  the  present,  13  Charles 
II.,  1660.     See  Beer,  Wine. 


ALG  J  DICTIONARY    OF    DATKS.  161 

ALEMjINNI,  or  All  Men,  {i.e.  men  of  all  nations.)  a  body  of  Suevi,  defeated 
by  Caracalla,  a.  d.  214.  On  one  occasion  300;000  of  this  warlike  people  are 
said  to  have  been  vanquished,  in  a  battle  near  Milan,  by  Gallienus,  at  the 
head  of  10,000  Romans.  Their  battles  were  numerous  with  the  Romans  and 
Gauls.    They  ultimately  submitted  to  the  Franks. —  Gibbon. 

ALEXANDER,  Era  op,  dated  from  the  death  of  Alexander  the  Great,  Novem- 
ber 12,  323  B.  c.  In  the  computation  of  this  era,  the  period  of  the  creation 
was  considered  to  be  5502  years  before  the  birth  of  Christ,  and,  in  conse- 
quence, the  year  1  a.d.  was  equal  to  5503.  This  computation  continued  to 
the  year  284  A. D.,  which  was  called  5786.  In  the  next  year  (285  a.d.), 
which  should  have  been  5787,  ten  years  were  discarded,  and  the  date  be- 
came 5777.  This  is  still  used  in  the  Abyssinian  era,  xchich  see.  The  date  is 
reduced  to  the  Christian  era  by  subtracting  5502  until  the  year  5786,  and 
after  that  time  by  subtracting  5492. 

ALEXANDRIA,  in  Egypt,  the  walls  whereof  were  six  miles  in  circuit,  built  by 
Alexander  the  Great,  332  b.  c.  ;  taken  by  Cfesar,  47  b.  c,  and  the  library  of 
the  Ptolemies,  containing  400,000  valuable  works  in  MS.,  burnt.  Conquered 
by  the  Saracens,  Avlun  the  second  librai-y,  consisting  of  700,000  volumes  was 
totally  destroyed  by  the  victors,  who  heated  t].ie  water  for  their  baths  for 
six  months  by  burning  books  instead  of  wood,  by  command  of  the  caliph 
Omar,  a.  d.  642.  This  was  formerly  a  place  of  great  trade,  all  the  treasures 
of  the  East  being  deposited  here  before  the  discovery  of  the  route  by  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope.  Taken  by  the  French  under  Bonaparte,  when  a  mas- 
sacre ensued,  July  5,  1798 ;  and  from  them  by  the  British  in  the  memorable 
battle  mentioned  in  next  article,  in  1801.  Alexandria  was  again  taken  by 
the  British,  under  General  Frazer,  March  21,  1807  ;  but  was  evacuated  by 
them,  Sept.  28,  same  year.     For  late  events,  see  Syria  and  Tiirkeij. 

ALEXANDRIA,  Battle  of,  between  the  French,  under  Menou,  who  made  the  at- 
tack, and  the  British  army,  under  Sir  Ralph  Abercrombie,  amounting  to  about 
15,000  men,  which  had  but  recently  debarked,  fought  March  21, 1801.  The 
British  were  victorious,  but  Sir  Ralph  Abercrombie  was  mortally  wounded. 

ALEXANDRINE  VERSE.  Verse  of  twelve  feet,  or  syllables,  first  written  by 
Alexander  of  Paris,  and  since  called,  after  him.  Alexandrines,  about  a.  d. 
1164. — Nouv.  Did.  Pope,  in  his  Essay  on  Criticism,  has  the  following  well- 
knoAvn  couplet,  in  which  an  Alexandrine  is  happily  exemplified : — 

"  A  needless  Alexandrine  ends  the  song, 
Tha'  like  a  wound-ed  snake,  drags  its  slow  length  a-long." 

ALGEBRA.  Where  algebra  was  first  used,  and  by  whom,  is  not  precisely 
known.  Diophantus  first  wrote  upon  it,  probably  about  a.  d.  170 ;  he  is  said 
to  be  the  inventor.  Brought  into  Spain  by  the  Saracens,  about  900 ;  and 
into  Italy  by  Leonardo  of  Pisa,  in  1202.  The  first  writer  who  used  algebra- 
ical signs  was  Stifelius  of  Nuremberg,  in  1544.  The  introduction  of  sym- 
bols for  quantities  was  by  Francis  Vieta,  in  1590.  when  algebra  came  into 
general  use. — Moreri.  The  binomial  theorem  of  Newton,  the  basis  of  the 
doctrine  of  fluxions,  and  the  new  analysis,  1668. 

ALGIERS.  The  ancient  kingdom  of  Numidia,  reduced  to  a  Roman  province, 
44  B.  0.  It  afterwards  became  independent,  till,  dreading  the  power  of  the 
Spaniards,  the  nation  invited  Barbarossa,  the  pirate,  to  assist  it,  and  he 
seized  the  government,  a.  d.  1516 ;  but  it  afterwards  fell  to  the  lot  of  Tur- 
key.— Priestley.  The  Algerines  for  ages  braved  the  resentment  of  the  most 
powerful  states  in  Christendom,  and  the  emperor  Charles  V.  lost  a  fi-ne  fleet 
and  army  in  an  unsuccessful  expedition  against  them,  in  1541.  Algiers  was 
reduced  by  Admiral  Blake,  in  1653,  and  terrified  into  pacific  mcasurea 
with  England ;  but  it  repulsed  the  vigorous  attacks  of  other  European  pow- 
ers, particularly  those  of  France,  in  1688,  and  1761 ;  and  of  Spain,  in  1775, 


162  THE    world's    progress.  [  ALil 

1783,  and  1784.  It  was  bombarded  by  the  British  fleet,  under  lord  Exmouth, 
Aug.  27,  1816,  when  a  new  treaty  followed,  and  Christian  slavery  was  abol- 
ished. Algiers  surrendered  to  a  French  armament,  under  Bourmont  and 
Duperr^,  after  some  severe  conflicts,  July  5, 1830,  when  the  dey  was  deposed, 
and  the  barbarian  government  wholly  overthrown.  The  French  ministry 
announced  their  intention  to  retain  Algiers,  permanently,  May  20,  1834. 
Marshal  Clausel  defeated  the  Arabs  in  two  engagements  (in  one  of  which 
the  duke  of  Oi-leans  was  wounded),  and  entered  Mascara,  Dec.  8,  1830. 
'General  Damremont  attacked  Constantina  (wMch  see),  Oct.  13,  1837;"  since 
when  various  other  engagements  between  the  French  and  the  natives,  have 
taken  place.  Abd-el-Kader  surrendered  to  General  Lamoriciere,  Dec.  22, 
1847.    See  Morocco. 

ALI,  Sect  of.  Founded  by  a  famous  Mahometan  chief,  the  son-in-law  of  Ma- 
homet, (having  married  his  daughter  Fatima,)  about  a.  d.  632.  Ali  was 
called  by  the  Prophet,  "  the  Lion  of  God,  always  victorious  ;"  and  the  Persians 
follow  the  interpretation  of  the  Koran  according  to  Ali,  while  other  Maho- 
metans adhere  to  that  of  Abubeker  and  Omar.  It  is  worthy  of  remark, 
that  the  first  four  successors  of  Mahomet — Abubeker,  Omar,  Othman,  and 
Ali,  whom  he  had  employed  as  his  chief  agents  in  establishing  his  rehgion, 
and  extirpating  unbelievers,  and  whom  on  that  accoimt  he  styled  the  "  cut- 
ting swords  of  God,"  all  died  violent  deaths ;  and  that  this  bloody  impos- 
tor's family  was  wholly  extirpated  within  thirty  j^ca,rs  after  his  own  decease. 
Ali  was  assassinated  in  660. 

ALIENS.  In  England  aliens  were  grievously  coerced  up  to  a.  d.  1377.  When 
they  were  to  be  tried  criminally,  the  juries  were  to  be  half  foreigners,  if 
they  so  desired,  1430.  They  were  restrained  from  exercising  any  trade  or 
handicraft  by  retail,  1483. 

ALL  SAINTS.  The  festival  instituted,  a.  d.  625.  All  Saints,  or  All  Hallows, 
in  the  Protestant  church,  is  a  daj^  of  general  commemoration  of  all  those  saints 
and  martyrs  in  honor  of  whom,  individually,  no  particular  day  is  assigned. 
The  Church  of  Rome  and  the  Greek  church  have  saints  for  every  day  in  the 
year.  The  reformers  of  the  English  church  provided  offices  only  for  very 
remarkable  commemorations,  and  struck  out  of  their  calendar  altogether  a 
great  number  of  anniversaries,  leaving  only  those  which  at  their  time  were 
connected  with  popiilar  feeling  or  tradition. 

ALLEGORY.  Of  very  ancient  composition.  The  Bible  abounds  in  the  finest 
instances,  of  which  Blair  gives  Psalm  Ixxx.  ver.  8, 16.  as  a  specimen.  Spen- 
ser's Faerie  Qucene  is  an  allegory  throughout ;  Addison,  in  his  Spectator, 
abounds  in  allegories ;  and  the  Pilgrim,  s  Progress  of  Bunyan,  1663,  is  per- 
fect in  its  ivay.     Milton,  among  other  English  poets,  is  rich  in  allegory.  _ 

ALLIANCES,  Treaties  of,  between  the  high  European  Powers :  See  Coalition, 
Treaties,  &c. 


Alliance  of  Lei psic    .  .     April  9,  1631 

Alliance  of  Vienna  .          May  27,  1657 

Alliance,  the  Triple  .  .     Jan.  28,  1668 

Alliance  of  Warsaw  .       March  31,  1683 

Alliance,  the  Grand   .  .     May  12,  1689 

Allianco,  the  Hague  .             .Tan.  4,  1717 
Allance,  the  Quadruple  '      .      Aug.  2,  1718 

Alliance  of  Vienna  .        March  16,  1731 


Alliance  of  Versailles  .       May  1, 1756 

Germanic  Alliance  .           .July  23,  1785 

Alliance  of  Paris       .  .     May  16,  1795 

Alliance  of  Petersburg  .           April  8,  1803 

Austrian  Alliance     ."  March  14.  !812 

Alliance  of  Sweden  .        \Iarch  24  (312 

Alliance  of  Toplitz    .  Sept.  9;  1S13 

Alliance,  the  Holy  .          Sept.  26,  18ir- 


\LMANACS,  The  Egyptians  computed  time  by  instruments.  Log  calen- 
dars were  anciently  m  use.  Al-mon-aght,  is  of  Saxon  origin.  In  the  Bri- 
tish Museum  and  imiversities  are  curious  specimens  of  early  almanacs. 
Michael  Nostrodamus,  the  celebrated  astrologer,  wrote  an  almanac  in  the 
style  of  Merlin,  1566. — Dufrcsiunj.    The  most  noted  early  almanacs  were: 


Poor  Robin's  Almanf.c 

.  1C52 

Lady's  Diary 

.     .  1705 

Moore's  Almanac 

.  1713 

Season  on  the  Seasons 

.     .  1735 

Gentleman's  Diary 

.  1741 

Nautical  Almanac     . 

.     .  1767 

Poor  Richard's  Almanac,  (Franklin's, 


ALU  J  ^  DICTIONAP>.Y    OF    DATES.  163 

ALMAN  ACS,  continued. 

Jobn  Somer's  Calendar,  written  in  Ox- 
ford        1380 

On«  in  Lambeth  palace,  written  in      .  1460 

Firnt  printed  one,  published  at  Buda  .  1472 

First  printed  in  England,  by  Richard 
Pynson  ....  1497 

Tybault's  Prognostications .  .      .  1.533 

Lilly's  Ephemeris     .  .  .      .  '644  I      Philadelphia)     .  .'  .        .    1733 

Of  Moore's,  at  one  period,  upwards  of  500,000  copies  were  annually  sold. 
The  Stationers'  company  claimed  the  exclusive  right  of  publishing,  until 
1790,  in  virtue  of  letters  patent  from  James  I.,  granting  the  privilege  to  this 
company,  and  the  two  universities.  The  stamp  duty  on  almanacs  was 
abolished  in  England,  1834. 
ALMEIDA,  Battle  op,  between  the  British  and  Anglo-Spanish  army,  com- 
manded by  lord  Wellington,  and  the  French  army  under  Massena,  who  was 
defeated  with  considerable  loss,  August  5, 1811.  Wellington  compelled  Mas- 
sena to  evacuate  Portugal,  and  to  retreat  rapidly  before  him ;  but  the  route 
of  the  French  was  tracked  by  the  most  horrid  desolation. 
ALPHABET.  Athotes,  son  of  Menes,  was  the  author  of  hieroglyphics,  and 
wrote  thus  the  history  of  the  Egyptians,  2122  b.  c. — Blair.  But  Josephus 
affirms  that  he  had  seen  inscriptions  by  Seth,  the  son  of  Adam ;  though 
this  is  doubted,  and  deemed  a  mistake,  or  fabulous.  The  first  lettei  of  the 
Phoenician  and  Hebrew  alphabet  was  aleph,  called  by  the  Greeks  cwpha,  and 
abbreviated  by  the  moderns  to  A.  The  Hebrew  is  supposed  to  be  derived 
from  the  Phoenician.  Cadmus,  the  founder  of  Cadmea,  1493  b.  c,  brought 
the  Phoenician  letters  (fifteen  in  number)  into  Greece ;  they  were  the  fol- 
lowing : — 

A,  B,  r.  A,  I,  K,  A,  M,  N,  O,  n,  P,  3,  T,  Y. 
These  letters  were  originally  either  Hebrew,  Phoenician,  or  Assyrian  char- 
acters, and  changed  gradually  in  form  till  they  became  the  ground  of  the 
Roman  letters,  now  used  all  over  Europe.  Palamedes  of  Argos  invented 
the  double  characters,  0,  X,  *,  E,  about  1224  b.  c.  ;  and  Simoni^es  added  Z, 
^,  H,  n,  about  489  b.  c. — Arundelian  Marbles.  When  the  E  was  introduced 
is  not  precisely  known.  The  Greek  alphabet  consisted  of  sixteen  letters 
till  399  B.  c,  when  the  Ionic,  of  24  characters,  was  introduced.  The  small 
letters  are  of  late  invention,  for  the  convenience  of  writing.  The  alphabets 
of  the  different  nations  contain  the  following  number  of  letters : — 

English    . 

French 

Italian 

Spanish 

ALPHONSINE  TABLES  ■  Celebrated  astronomical  tables,  composed  by  com- 
mand, and  under  the  direction  of,  Alphonsus  X.  of  Castile,  surnamed  the 
Wise.  This  learned  prince  is  said  to  have  expended  upwards  of  400,000 
crowns  in  completing  the  work,  whose  value  was  enhanced  by  a  preface, 
written  by  his  own  hand :  he  commenced  his  reign  in  1252. 

ALTARS,  were  first  raised  to  Jupiter,  in  Greece,  by  Cecrops,  who  also  insti- 
tuted and  regulated  marriages,  1556  b.  p.  He  introduced  among  the  Greeks 
the  worship  of  those  deities  which  were  held  in  adoration  in  Egypt. — Hero- 
dotus. Christian  altars  in  churches  were  instituted  by  pope  Sixtus  I.  in  135 ; 
and  they  were  first  consecrated  by  pope  Sylvester.  The  first  Christian  altar 
in  Britain  was  in  634. — Stowe.  The  Church  of  England,  and  all  the  reformed 
churches,  discontinue  the  name,  and  have  abolished  the  doctrine  that  sup- 
ported their  use. 

ALUM,  is  said  to  have  been  first  discovered  at  Rocha,  in  Syria,  about  a.  d.  1300 ; 
it  was  found  in  Tuscany,  in  1460 ;  was  brought  to  perfection  in  England,  in 


.  26 

German    . 

.  26 

Greek 

.  24 

Turkish  . 

.    33 

.  23 

Sclavonic 

.  27 

Hebrew 

.      .  22 

Sanscrit 

.    50 

.  20 

Russian    . 

.  41 

Arabic 

.  28 

and 

.27 

Latin  . 

.  22 

Persian 

.      .  32 

Chinese 

.  214 

164  •   THE    world's    progress.  [  AMB 

1608 :  was  discovered  in  Ireland,  in  1757 ;  and  in  Anglesey,  in  1790.  Alum 
is  a  salt  used  as  a  mordant  in  tanning ;  it  is  used  also  to  harden  tallow,  and 
to  whiten  bread.  It  may  be  made  of  pure  clay  exposed  to  vapors  of  sulphu- 
ric acid,  and  sulphate  of  potash  added  to  the  ley;  but  it  is  usually  obtained 
by  means  of  ore  called  alum  slate. 

AMAZONIA,  discovered  by  Francisco  Orellana,  in  1580.  Coming  from  Peru, 
Orellana  sailed  down  the  river  Amazon  to  the  Atlantic,  and  observing  com- 
panies of  women  in  arms  on  its  banks,  he  called  the  country  Amazonia,  and 
gave  the  name  of  Amazon  to  the  river,  Avhich  had  previously  been  called 
Maranon. 

A  MAZONS.  Their  origin  is  fabulous.  They  are  said  to  have  been  the  descend- 
ants of  the  Scythians  inhabiting  Cappadocia,  where  their  husbands  having 
made  incursions,  were  all  slain,  being  siirprised  in  ambuscades  by  their 
enemies.  Their  widows,  reflecting  on  the  alarms  or  sorrows  they  under- 
went on  account  of  the  fate  of  their  husbands,  resolved  to  form  a  female 
state,  and  having  firmly  established  themselves,  they  decreed  that  matri- 
mony was  a  shameful  servitude ;  but,  to  perpetuate  their  race,  ihey,  at  stated 
times,  admitted  the  embraces  of  their  male  neighbors. —  Qunitus  Curtius. 
They  were  conquered  by  Theseus,  about  1231  b.  c.  The  Amazons  were  con- 
stantly employed  in  wars ;  and  that  they  might  throw  the  javelin  with  more 
force,  their  right  breasts  were  burned  off,  whence  their  name  from  the 
Greek,  no7i  and  mamma.  Their  queen,  Thalestris,  visited  Alexander  the 
Great,  while  he  was  pursuing  his  conquests  in  Asia,  and  cohabited  with 
him,  in  the  hope  of  having  issue  by  so  illustrious  a  warrior ;  three  hundred 
females  were  in  her  train. — Herodotus. 

AMBASSADORS,  accredited  agents  and  representatives  from  one  court  to 
another,  are  referred  to  early  ages,  and  to  almost  all  nations.  In  most  coun- 
tries they  have  great  and  peculiar  privileges ;  and  in  England,  among  others, 
they  and  their  servants  are  secured  against  arrest.  The  Portuguese  ambas- 
sador in  England  was  imprisoned  for  debt,  in  1653 ;  and  the  Russian,  by  a 
lace-merchant,  in  1709,  when  a  law,  the  statute  of  8  Anne,  passed  for  their 
protection.  Two  men  were  convicted  of  arresting  the. servant  of  an  ambas- 
sador. They  were  sentenced  to  be  conducted  to  the  house  of  the  ambassa- 
dor, with  a  label  on  their  breasts,  to  ask  his  pardon,  and  then  one  of  them 
to  be  imprisoned  three  months  and  the  other  fined.  May  12,  1780. — Phillips. 

AMBER.  Of  great  repute  in  the  world  from  the  earliest  time ;  esteemed  as  a 
medicine  before  the  Christian  era:  Theophrastus  wrote  upon  it,  300  b.  c. 
Upwards  of  150  tons  of  amber  have  been  found  in  one  year  on  the  sands  of 
the  shore  near  Pillau. — Phillips.  Much  diversity  of  opinion  still  prevails 
among  naturalists  and  chemists  respecting  the  origin  of  amber,  some-  refer- 
ring it  to  the  vegetable,  others  to  the  mineral,  and  some  to  the  animal  king- 
dom ;  its  natural  history  and  its  chemical  analysis  affording  something  in 
favor  of  each  opinion. 

AMEN.  This  word  is  as  old  as  the  Hebrew  itself.  In  that  language  it  means 
tnie,  faithful,  certain.  Employed  in  devotions,  at  the  end  of  a  prayer,  it  im- 
plies, so  be  it ;  at  the  termination  of  a  creed,  so  it  is.  It  has  been  generally 
used,  both  in  the  Jewish  and  Christian  churches,  at  the  conclusion  of  prayer. 

AMENDE  Honorable,  originated  in  France  in  the  ninth  century.  It  was  first 
an  infamous  punishment  inflicted  on  traitors  and  sacrilegious  persons  :  the 
offender  was  delivered  into  the  hands  of  the  hangman ;  his  shirt  was  stripped 
off!  a  rope  put  about  his  neck,  and  a  taper  in  his  hand ;  he  was  then  led  into 
court,  and  was  obliged  to  pray  pardon  of  God,  the  king,  and  the  country.  Death 
or  banishment  sometimes  followed.  Amende  honorable  is  now  a  term  used  for 
making  recantation  in  open  court,  or  in  the  presence  of  the  injured  party. 


AMM  ]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  1 65 

AMERICA :  See  United  States.  Discovered  by  Christopher  Colombo,  a  Geno- 
ese, better  known  as  Christoplier  Columbus,  a.d.  1492,  on  the  11th  of  Octo- 
ber, on  which  day  he  came  in  sight  of  St.  Salvador.  See  Bahama  Islands. 
This  great  navigator  foimd  the  continent  of  America  in  1497,  and  the  east- 
ern coasts  were  found  by  Amerigo  Vespucci  (Americus  Vespucius)  in  1498 ; 
and  from  this  latter  discoverer  the  whole  of  America  is  named. 


Newfoundland,  the  first  British  colony 
in  this  quarter  of  the  world,  discover- 
ed by  Cabot,  and  by  him  called 
Prima  Vista.  ....  1497 

Virginia,  the  first  English  eettlement 
on  the  main  land         .  .  .  1607 


New  England,  the  second,  by  the  Ply- 
mouth company  .  .  .  162( 
New  York,  settled  by  the  Dutch    .     .  16H 
[For  other  occurrences,  see  Tabular 
Views — United  Slates.     See  also 
separate   states,  Maine,  &c. 


AMERICA,  SOUTH.  The  Spaniards,  as  being  the  first  discoverers  of  this  vast 
portion  of  the  Western  World,  had  the  largest  and  richest  share  of  it.  When 
they  landed  in  Peru,  a.  d.  1530,  they  found  it  governed  by  sovereigns  called 
Incas,  who  were  revered  bj'  their  subjects  as  divinities,  but  the3'  were  soon 
subdued  by  their  invaders  under  the  command  of  Francis  Pizarro.  The 
cruelties  practised  by  the  new  adventurers  wherever  they  appeared,  will  be 
a  reproach  to  Spain  for  ever.*  Spanish  America  has  successfully  asserted 
its  freedom  within  the  present  century.  It  first  declared  its  independence 
in  1810 ;  and  the  provinces  assembled,  and  proclaimed  the  sovereignty  of  the 
people  in  July,  1814;  since  when,  although  the  wars  of  rival  and  contending 
chiefs  have  been  afflicting  the  coimtry,  it  has  released  itself  from  the  yoke 
of  Spain  for  ever.  Its  independence  was  recognized  first  by  the  United 
States,  chiefly  through  the  influence  of  H.  Clay ;  by  England,  in  1823,  et  seq.  ; 
and  by  France,  Sept.  30,  1830.     See  Bro,zil,  Coloinhia,  Lima,  Peru,  &c. 

AMERICAN  LITERATURE.  The  American  Almanac  for  1840  gives  a  list  of 
776  names  of  American  authors  who  had  died  previous  to  that  year.  This 
did  not  include  authors  of  mere  iDamphlets,  which  would  have  swelled  the 
number  three-fold;  but  the  "authorship  "  of  many  in  the  list  was  of  very 
moderate  amount  or  value.  Of  the  776  names,  there  were  writers  on  Theo- 
logy, Sermons,  &c.,  259;  Poetry,  57;  History  and  Biography,  80 ;  Politics 
and  Law,  77.  [In  these  numbers,  writers  on  two  or  more  of  the  subjects  are 
repeated.] 

AMETHYSTS.  Wlien  this  stone  was  first  prized  is  not  known ;  it  was  the  ninth 
in  place  upon  the  breastplate  of  the  Jewish  high  priests,  and  the  name 
Issachar  was  engraved  upon  it.  It  is  of  a  rich  violet  color,  and  according 
to  Plutarch,  takes  its  name  from  its  color,  resembling  wine  mixed  with  water. 
One  worth  200  rix  dollars  having  been  rendered  colorless,  equalled  a  dia- 
mond in  lustre  valued  at  18.000  gold  crowns. — De  Boot  Hist.  Gemmarum. 
Amethysts  were  discovered  at  Kerry,  in  Ireland,  in  1755. — Burns. 

AMIENS,  Peace  of,  between  Great  Britain,  Holland,  France  and  Spain ;  the 
])reliminary  articles,  fifteen  in  number,  were  signed  by  lord  Hawkesbmy  and 
M.  Otto,  on  the  part  of  England  and  France,  Oct.  1, 1801 ;  and  the  definitive 
treaty  was  subscribed  on  March  27,  1802,  by  the  marquis  Cornwallis  for 
England,  Joseph  Bonaparte  for  France,  Azara  for  Spain,  and  Scliitumelpen- 
ninck  for  Holland. 

AMMONITES.  Descended  from  Ammon,  the  son  of  Lot;  they  invaded  the 
land  of  Canaan  and  made  the  Israelites  tributaries,  but  they  were  defeated 

*  I,as  Casas,  in  describing  the  barbarity  of  the  Spaniards  while  pursuing  their  conquests,  records 
•nauy  inslances  of  it  that  fill  the  mind  with  horror.  In  .lamaica,  he  says,  they  hanged  the  unrc- 
•sisting  natives  by  thirteen  at  a  time,  in  honor  of  the  thirteen  apostles!  and  he  has  beheld  them 

hrow  the  Indian  infants  to  their  dogs  for  food!  "I  have  heard  them,"  says  Las  Oasa.s,  "liorrcw 
'he  limb  of  a  human  beiiior  to  feed  their  dogs,  and  have  seen  them  the  next  day  return  a  quarter  ol 

iiiiiihin'  victim  to  the  lender!" 


1'66  THE    world's    progress.  [  ANA 

by  Jephthali,  1188  b.  c.  They  again  invaded  Canaan  in  the  reign  of  Saul, 
with  an  intention  to  put  out  the  right  eye  of  all  those  they  subdued,  but 
Saul  overthrew  them,  1093  b.  c.  They  were  afterwards  many  times  van- 
quished ;  and  Antiochus  the  Great  took  Rabboath  their  capital,  and  destroyed 
all  the  walls,  198  b.  c. — Josephus. 

A  MNESTY.  The  word  as  well  as  the  practice  was  introduced  into  Greece  by 
Thrasybulus,  the  Athenian  general  and  patriot,  who  commenced  the  expul- 
sion of  the  thirty  tyrants  with  the  assistance  of  only  thirty  of  his  friends : 
having  succeeded,  the  only  reward  he  would  accept  was  a  crown  made  with 
two  branches  of  olive.     409  b.  c. — Hume's  Essays. 

AMPHICTYONIC  COUNCIL :  Established  at  Thermopylae  by  Amphictyon,  for 
the  management  of  all  affairs  relative  to  Greece.  This  celebrated  council, 
which  was  composed  of  the  wisest  and  most  virtuous  men  of  some  cities 
of  Greece,  consisted  of  twelve  delegates,  1498  b.  c.  Other  cities  in  process 
of  time  sent  also  some  of  their  citizens  to  the  council  of  the  Amphictyons, 
and  in  the  age  of  Antoninus  Pius,  they  were  increased  to  the  number  of  thirty. 
— Suidas. 

.\MPHITHEATRES.  They  may  be  said  to  be  the  invention  of  Julius  Caesar 
and  Curio :  the  latter  was  the  celebrated  orator,  who  called  the  former  in 
full  senate  "  Omnium  mulierum  virum,  et  omniuvi  virorum  mtdierem."  In  the 
Roman  amphitheatres,  which  were  vast  round  and  oval  buildings,  the  people 
assembled  to  see  the  combats  of  gladiators,  of  wild  beasts,  and  other  exhi- 
bitions ;  they  were  generally  built  of  wood,  but  Statilius  Taurus  made  one 
of  stone,  under  Augustus  Caesar.  The  amphitheatre  of  Vespasian  was  built 
A.  D.  79 ;  and  is  said  to  have  been  a  regular  fortress  in  1312.  The  amphi- 
theatre of  Verona  was  next  in  size,  and  then  that  of  Nismes. 

AMSTERDAM.  This  noble  city  was  the  castle  of  Amstel  in  a.  d.  1100 ;  and  its 
building,  as  a  city,  was  commenced  about  1203.  Its  famous  exchange  was 
built  in  1634 ;  and  the  stadthouse,  one  of  the  noblest  jjalaces  in  the  world, 
in  1648 ;  this  latter  cost  three  millions  of  guilders,  a  prodigious  sum  at  that 
time.  It  is  built  upon  13,659  piles,  and  the  magnificence  of  the  structure  is, 
for  its  size,  both  in  external  and  internal  grandeur,  perhaps  without  a  parallel 
in  Europe.  Amsterdam  surrendered  to  the  king  of  Prussia,  when  that  prince 
invaded  Holland  in  favor  of  the  stadtholder,  in  1787.  The  French  were 
admitted  without  resistance,  Jan.  18,  1795.  The  ancient  government  was 
restored  in  November,  1813.     See  Holland. 

AMULETS,  OR  CHARMS.  All  nations  have  been  fond  of  amulets.  The 
Egyptians  had  a  great  variety;  so  had  the  .lews,  Chaldeans,  and  Persians. 
Among  the  Greeks,  they  were  much  used  in  exciting  or  conquering  the 
passion  of  love.  They  were  also  in  estimation  among  the  Romans. — Plinv. 
Ovid.  Among  the  Christians  of  early  ages,  amulets  were  made  of  the  Avood 
of  the  true  cross,  about  a.  d.  328.  They  liave  been  sanctioned  by  religion 
and  astrology,  and  even  in  modern  times  by  medical  and  other  sciences- 
witness  the  anodyne  necklace,  &c.  The  pope  and  Catholic  clergy  make  and 
sell  amulets  and  charms  even  to  this  day. — Ashe. 

ANA  BAPTISTS.  This  sect  arose  about  a.  d.  1525,  and  was  known  in  England 
before  1549.  John  of  Leyden,  Muncer,  Storck,  and  other  German  enthusi- 
asts, about  the  time  of  the  reformation,  spread  its  doctrines.  The  anabap- 
tists of  Munster  (who  are.  of  course,  properly  distinguished  from  the  existing 
mild  sect  of  this  name  in  England)  taught  that  infant  baptism  was  a  contriv- 
ance of  the  devil  that  there  is  no  original  sin,  that  men  have  a  free  will  in 
spiritual  things,  and  otlier  doctrines  still  more  wild  and  absurd.  Munster 
they  called  Mount  Zi-on  and  one  Mathias,  a  baker,  was  declared  to  be  the 
king  of  Zi'^n.     Their  enthusiasm  led  them  to  the  maddest  practices,  and 


ANG  ]  DICTIOMAliy    OF    DATES.  167 

ttey,  at  length,  rose  in  arms  under  pretence  of  gospel  liberty.  Munster  was 
taken  about  fifteen  months  afterwards,  and  they  were  all  put  to  death.  The 
anabaptists  of  England  differ  from  other  Protestants  in  little  more  than  the 
not  baptizing  children,  as  appears  by  a  confession  of  faith,  published  by  the 
representatives  of  above  one  hundred  of  their  congregations,  in  1689. 

ANACREONTIC  VERSE.  Commonly  of  the  jovial  or  Bacchanalian  strain, 
named  after  Anacreon,  of  Teos,  the  Greek  lyric  poet,  about  510  b.  c.  The 
odes  of  Anacreon  are  much  prized ;  their  author  lived  in  a  constant  round 
of  di  unkenness  and  debauchery,  and  was  choked  bj^  a  grape  stone  in  his 
eighty-lifth  year. — Stanley's  Lives  of  the  Poets. 

A  N  AGRAM,  a  transposition  of  the  letters  of  a  name  or  sentence  ;  as  from  Mary, 
the  name  of  the  Virgin,  is  made  army.  On  the  question  put  by  Pilate  to  our 
Saviour.  "  Q;idd  est  Veritas?"  we  have  this  admirable  anagram,  '-Est  vir  qui 
adest."  The  French  are  said  to  have  introduced  the  art  as  now  practised,  in 
the  reign  of  Charles  IX.,  about  the  year  1560. — HenauU. 

ANATHEMAS.  The  Avord  had  four  significations  among  the  Jews :  the  ana- 
thema, or  curse,  was  the  devoting  some  person  or  thing  to  destruction.  We 
bave  a  remarkable  instance  of  it  in  the  city  of  Jericho  (sec  Joshua  vi.  17). 
Anathemas  were  iised  by  the  primitive  churches,  a.  d.  387.  t>uch  ecclesias- 
tical den\mciations  caused  great  terror  in  England  up  to  the  close  of  Eliza- 
beth's reign. — Rwpin.  The  church  anathema,  or  curse,  with  excommunica- 
tion, and  other  severities  of  the  Romish  religion,  are  still  practised  in  Catholic 
countries  to  this  day. — Aslie. 

ANATOMY.  The  structure  of  the  human  body  was  made  part  of  the  philoso- 
phical investigations  of  Plato  and  Xenophon ;  and  it  became  a  branch  of 
medical  art  under  Hippocrates,  about  420  b.  c.  But  Erasistratiis  and  Hero- 
philus  may  be  regarded  as  being  the  fathers  of  anatomy:  they  were  the  fii-st 
to  dissect  the  himian  form,  as  anatomical  research  had  been  confined  to 
brutes  only :  it  is  mentioned  that  they  practised  upon  the  bodies  of  living 
criminals,  about  300  and  293  b.  c.  In  England,  the  schools  were  supplied 
with  subjects  unlawfully  exhumed  from  graves ;  and,  until  lately,  the  bodies 
of  executed  criminals  were  ordered  for  dissection.  The  first  anatomical 
plates  were  designed  by  Vesalius,  about  a.  d.  1538.  The  discoveries  of 
Harvey  were  made  in  1616.  The  anatomy  of  plants  was  discovered  in  1680. 
—  Preind's  History  of  Physic. 

A.NCHORITES.  Paul,  Anthony,  and  Hilarion  were  the  first  anchorites.  Many 
of  the  early  anchorites  lived  in  caves  and  deserts,  and  practised  great  aus- 
terities. Some  were  analogous  to  the  fakeers,  who  impose  voluntary  pun- 
ishments upon  themselves  as  atonement  for  their  sins,  and  as  being  accept- 
able to  God  ;  and  their  modes  of  torture  were  often  extravagant  and  crimi- 
nal.    The  order  first  arose  in  the  fourth  century. 

ANCHORS  J'OR  SHIPS,  are  of  ancient  use,  and  the  invention  belongs  to  the 
Tuscans  — Pliny.  The  second  tooth,  or  fluke,  was  added  by  Anacharsis,  the 
Scj'thian. — Strabo.  Anchors  were  first  forged  in  England  a.  d.  578.  The 
anchors  of  a  first-rate  ship  of  war  (of  which  such  a  ship  has  four)  will 
weigh  90  cwt.  each,  and  each  of  them  will  cost  £450. — Phillips. 

ANEMOMETER,  to  measure  the  strength  and  velocity  of  the  wind,  was  in- 
vented by  Wolfius,  in  1709.  The  extreme  velocity  was  found  by  Dr.  Lind 
to  be  93  miles  per  hour.     See  article  Winds. 

ANGELIC  KNIGHTS  of  ST.  GEORGE.  Instituted  in  Greece,  a.d.  450.  The 
Angdici  were  instituted  by  Angelus  Comnenus,  emperor  of  Constantinople, 
1191  The  Aiiicelica.  an  ->r(ler  of  n\iiis.  was  fmindcd  at  Milan  bv  Louisa 
Tordli.  A.  n  1534. 


168  THE  world's  progress.  [ant 

ANGELS.  Authors  are  divided  as  to  the  time  of  the  creation  of  angels.  Some 
will  have  it  to  have  been  at  the  same  time  with  our  world ;  others,  before 
all  ages,  that  is,  from  eternity.  This  latter  is  Origen's  opinion. — Cavers 
Hist.  Literat.  The  Jews  had  ten  orders  of  angels ;  and  the  popes  have  re- 
cognized nine  choirs  and  three  hierarchies. 

ANGELS,  IN  COMMERCE.  An  angel  was  an  ancient  gold  coin,  weighing 
four  pennyweights,  and  was  valued  at  6s.  Sd.  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VI.,  and 
at  IO5.  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  1562.  The  angelot  was  an  ancient  gold 
coin,  value  half  an  angel,  struck  at  Paris  when  that  capital  was  in  the  hands 
of  the  English,  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VI.,  1431. —  Wood. 

ANGLING.  The  origin  of  this  art  is  involved  in  obscurity  ;  allusion  is  made 
to  it  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  and  in  the  most  ancient  books  of  the  Bible, 
as  Amos.  It  came  into  general  repute  in  England  about  the  period  of  the 
Reformation.  Wynkin  de  Worde's  Treatyse  of  Fysshinge,  the  first  book 
printed  on  angling,  appeared  in  1496.  Isaac  Walton's  book  Avas  printed  in 
1653. 

ANIMAL  MAGNETISM.  This  deception  was  introduced  oy  father  Hehl,  at 
Vienna,  about  1774 ;  and  had  wonderful  success  in  France,  in  1788.  It  had 
its  dupes  in  England  also,  in  1789 ;  but  it  exploded  a  few  years  afterwards. 
It  was  a  pretended  mode  of  curing  all  manner  of  diseases  by  means  of  sympa- 
thetic affection  between  the  sick  person  and  the  operator.  The  eiiect  on  the 
patient  was  supposed  to  depend  on  certain  motions  of  the  fingers  and  features 
of  the  operator,  he  placing  himself  immediately  before  -the  patient,  whose 
eyes  were  to  be  fixed  on  his.  After  playing  in  this  manner  on  the  imagina- 
tion and  enfeebled  mind  of  the  sick,  and  performing  a  number  of  distor- 
tions and  grimaces,  the  cure  was  said  to  be  completed. — Haydn. 

ANGLO-SAXONS,  or  ANGLES.  The  name  of  England  is  derived  from  a  vil- 
lage near  Sleswick,  called  Anglen,  whose  jiopulation  joined  the  first  Saxon 
freebooters.  Egbert  called  his  kingdom  Anglesland.  Anglia  East  was  a 
kingdom  of  the  heptarchy,  foimded  by  the  Angles,  one  of  whose  chiefs, 
Uffa,  assumed  the  title  of  king,  a.  d.  575 :  the  kingdom  ceased  in  792. — See 
Britain.. 

ANNIHILATION.  The  doctrine  of  annihilation  was  unknown  to  the  Hebrews, 
Greeks,  and  Latins :  the  ancient  philosophers  denied  annihilation ;  the  first 
notions  of  which  are  said  to  have  arisen  from  the  Christian  theology. — Dr. 
Burnet. 

ANNO  DOMINI ;  in  the  year  of  our  Lord ;  used  by  the  Christian  world,  and 
abbreviated  a.d.  This  is  the  computation  of  time  from  the  incarnation  of 
our  Saviotu'  and  is  called  the  vulgar  era ;  first  adopted  in  the  year  525.  See 
H-a.  Charles  III.  of  Germany  was  the  first  sovereign  who  added  "  in  the 
,  car  of  our  Lord  "  to  his  reign,  in  879. 
..  i'ARCTIC.  The  south  pole  is  so  called,  because  it  is  opposite  to  the  north 
or  arctic  pole.  A  continent  of  1700  miles  of  coast  from  east  to  west,  and 
64  to  66  degrees  south,  was  discovered  in  the  Antarctic  Ocean  by  French 
and  American  Exploring  Expeditions,  under  DTTrville  and  Wilkes,  respec- 
tively on  the  same  day,  Jan.  19,  1840 ;  a  coincidence  the  more  singular,  as 
the  discoverers  were  at  a  distance  from  each  other  of  720  miles.  It  was 
coasted  by  captain  Wilkes  for  1700  miles.  Mr.  Briscow,  of  the  British  Navy, 
fell  in  with  land,  Avhich  he  coasted  for  300  miles  in  lat.  67,  long.  50,  in  the 
year  1830. 

ANTEDILUVIANS.  According  to  the  tables  of  Mr.  Whiston,  the  number  of 
people  in  the  ancient  woiid,  or  world  as  it  existed  previous  to  the  Flood, 
reached  to  the  enormous  amount  of  549.755  millions,  in  the  year  of  the  world 
1482,     Burnet  has  .supposed  that  the  first  human  pair  might  have  left,  at  the 


I. 

10 

V. 

.   2,560 

IX.   . 

.  655,360 

xni 

11. 

.  40 

VI.  . 

.  10,240 

X. 

.  2,621,440 

XIV. 

ni.  . 

.   160 

VII.  . 

.   40,960 

XI.   . 

10,485,760 

XV. 

IV. 

640 

vm. 

163,840 

XII. 

.  41,943,040 

XVI. 

ant]  dictionary  of  dates.  169 

end  of  the  first  century,  ten  married  couples ;  and  from  tliese,  allowing 
them  to  multiply  in  the  same  decuple  proportion  as  the  first  pair  did,  would 
rise,  in  1500  years,  a  greater  number  of  persons  than  the  earth  was  capable 
of  holding.  He  therefore  suggests  a  quadruple  multiplication  only ;  and 
then  exhibits  the  following  table  of  increase  during  the  first  sixteen  centu- 
ries that  preceded  the  Flood : — 

.  167,142,160 

671,088,640 
2,684,354,460 
10,737,418,240 

■  This  calculation,  although  the  most  moderate  made,  exceeds,  it  will  be  seen, 
by  at  least  ten  times,  the  present  number  of  mankind,  which,  at  the  highest 
estimate,  amounts  to  only  a  thousand  millions. 

ANTHEMS,  OR  HYMNS.  Hilary,  bishop  of  Poitiers,  and  St.  Ambrose,  were 
the  first  who  composed  them,  about  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century. — 
Lenglet.  They  were  introduced  into  the  church  service  in  886. — Baker. 
Ignatius  is  said  to  have  introduced  them  into  the  Greek,  and  St.  Ambrose 
into  the  Western  church.  Thej''  were  introduced  into  the  reformed  churches 
in  queen  Elizabeth's  reign,  about  1565. 

ANTHROPOPHAGI.  Eaters  of  human  flesh  have  existed  in  all  ages  of  the 
world.  The  Cyclops  and  Lestrygones  are  represented  as  man-eaters,  by 
Homer ;  and  the  Essedonian  Scythians  were  so,  according  to  Herodotus. 
Diogenes  asserted  that  we  might  as  well  eat  the  flesh  of  men,  as  that  of 
other  animals ;  and  the  practice  still  exists  in  Africa,  and  the  South  Sea 
Islands,  &c. 

ANTIMONY.  This  mineral  was  very  early  known,  and  applied  by  the  ancients 
to  various  purposes.  It  was  used  as  paint  to  blacken  both  men's  and  wo- 
men's eyes,  as  appears  from  2  Kings  ix.  30,  and  Jeremiah  iv.  30,  and  in 
eastern  countries  is  thus  used  to  this  day.  When  mixed  with  lead,  it  makes 
types  for  printing ;  and  in  physic  its  uses  are  so  various  that,  according  to 
its  preparation,  alone,  or  in  company  with  one  or  two  associates,  it  is  suffi- 
cient to  answer  all  a  physician  desires  in  an  apothecary's  shop. — Boyle. 
We  are  indebted  to  Basil  Valentine  for  the  earliest  account  of  various  pro- 
cesses, about  1410. — Priestley. 

ANTINOMIANS,  the  name  first  applied  by  Luther  to  John  Agricola,  in  1538. 
The  Antinomians  trust  in  the  gospel,  and  not  in  their  deeds;  and  hold 
that  crimes  are  not  crimes  when  committed  by  them,  that  their  own  good 
works  are  of  no  eft'ect;  that  no  man  should  be  troubled  in  conscience  for 
sin,  and  other  equally  absurd  doctrines. 

ANTIOCH,  built  by  Seleucus,  after  the  battle  of  Ipsus,  301  b.  c.  In  one 
day,  100,000  of  its  people  were  slain  by  the  Jews,  145  b.  c.  In  this  city,  once 
the  capital  of  Syria,  the  disciples  of  the  Redeemer  were  first  called  Chris- 
tians. The  Era  of  Antioch  is  much  used  by  the  early  Christian  writers 
attached  to  the  churches  of  Antioch  and  Alexandria:  it  placed  the  creation 
5492  years  b.  c. 

ANTIPODES.  Plato  is  said  to  be  the  first  who  thought  it  possible  that  anti- 
podes existed,  about  368  b.  c.  Boniface,  archbishop  of  Mentz,  legate  of 
pope  Zachary,  is  said  to  have  denounced  a  bishop  as  a  heretic  for  maintain- 
ing this  doctrine,  a.  d.  741.  The  antipodes  of  England  lie  to  the  south-east 
of  New  Zealand;  and  near  the  spot  is  a  small  island,  called  Antipodes 
Island. — Brookes. 

ANTIQUARIES,  and  ANTIQUE.  The  term  antique  is  applied  to  the  produc- 
tions of  the  arts  from  the  age  of  Alexander  to  the  time  of  the  irruption 
of  the  Goths  into  Italy,  in  a.  n.  400.  A  college  of  antiquaries  is  said  to  have 
e.\isted  in  Ireland  700  venrsi;.  r.:  but  tliis  lias  very  little  pretensions  to 


170  THE   world's    progress.  [  APO 

credit.  A  society  was  founded  by  archbisliop  Parker,  Camden,  Stowe,  and 
others,  in  1572. — -Spelman.  Application  was  made  in  1589  to  Elizabeth  for 
a  charter,  but  lier  death  ensued,  and  her  successor,  James  I.,  was  far  from 
favoring  the  design.  In  1717  this  society  was  revived,  and  in  1751  it  re- 
ceived its  charter  of  incorporation  from  George  II.  It  began  to  publish  its 
discoveries,  &c..  under  the  title  of  Archaologia,  in  1770.  The  Society  of 
Antiquaries  of  Edinburgh  was  founded  in  1780. 

ANTI-RENTISM.  In  Rensselaer  and  Delaware  counties,  State  of  New- York, 
an  armed  resistance  of  the  tenants  (chiefly  those  on  the  Van  Rensselaer 
estates)  to  the  demand  for  the  payment  of  rents,  commenced  in  1846. 
See  Riots.  Gov.  Young  pardons  eighteen  anti-rent  rioters,  and  releases  them 
from  prison,  Jan.  27,  1847- 

ANTI-TRINITARIANS.  Theodotus  of  Byzantium  is  supposed  to  have  been 
the  first  who  advocated  the  simple  humanity  of  Jesus,  at  the  close  of  the 
second  century.  This  doctrine  spread  widely  after  the  reformation,  when  it 
was  adopted  by  Ltelius  and  Faustus  Socinus.  Bayle. — See  Avians,  Socini- 
ans,  and  Unitarians. 

-ANTWERP.  First  mentioned  in  history  in  a.d.  517.  Its  fine  exchange  built 
in  1531.  Taken  after  a  long  and  memorable  siege  by  the  prince  of  Parma, 
in  1585.  It  was  then  the  chief  mart  of  Flemish  commerce,  but  the  civil  wars 
caused  by  the  tyranny  of  Philip  II.  drove  the  trade  to  Amsterdam.  The 
remarkable  crucifix  of  bronze,  thirty-three  feet  high,  in  the  principal  street, 
was  formed  from  the  demolished  statue  of  the  cruel  duke  of  Alva,  which 
lie  had  himself  set  up  in  the  citadel.  Antwerp  was  the  seat  of  the  civil  war 
between  the  Belgians  and  the  house  of  Orange,  1830-31.  In  the  late  revolu- 
tion, the  Belgian  troo])S  having  entered  Antwerp,  were  opposed  by  the 
Dutch  garrison,  who,  after  a  dreadful  conflict,  being  driven  into  the  citadel, 
cannonaded  the  town  with  red-hot  balls  and  sliells,  doing  immense  mischief, 
Oct.  27, 1830.  General  Chass^  sun-endered  the  citadel  to  the  French  after 
a  destructive  bombardment,  Nov.  24,  1832.     See  Belgium. 

APOCALYPSE,  the  Revelation  of  St.  John,  written  in  the  Isle  of  Patmos,  about 
A.  D.  95. — Irencciis.  Some  ascribe  the  authorship  to  Cerinthus,  the  heretic, 
and  others  to  John,  the  presbyter,  of  Ephesus.  In  the  first  centuries  many 
churches  disowned  it,  and  in  the  fourth  century  it  was  excluded  from  the 
sacred  canon  by  the  council  of  Laodicea,  but  was  again  received  by  other 
councils,  and  confirmed  by  that  of  Trent,  held  1545,  et  seq.  Rejected  by 
Luther,  Michaelis,  and  others,  and  its  authority  questioned  in  all  ages  from 
the  time  of  Justin  Slartvr,  wlio  wrote  his  first  Apology  for  the  Christians  in 
A.  D.  139. 

APOCRYPHA.  In  the  preface  to  the  Apocrypha  it  is  said,  "These  books  are 
neyther  found  in  the  Hebrue  nor  in  the  Chalde." — Bible,  1539.  The  history 
of  the  Apocrypha  ends  135  b.  c.  The  books  were  not  in  the  Jewish  canon, 
but  they  were  received  as  canonical  by  the  Catholic  church,  and  so  adjudged 
by  the  council  of  Trent,  held  in  1545,  at  seq. — Ashe. 

APOLLINARIANS,  t^e  followers  of  Apollinarius,  bishop  of  Laodicea,  who 
taught  that  the  divinity  of  Christ  was  instead  of  a  soul  to  him ;  that  his 
flesh  was  pre-existent  to  his  appearance  upon  earth,  and  that  it  was  sent 
down  from  heaven,  and  convej^ed  through  the  Virgin,  as  through  a  channel; 
that  there  were  two  sons,  one  born  of  God,  the  other  of  the  Virgin,  &c. 
Apollinarius  was  deposed  for  his  opinions  in  a.  d.  378. 

APOLLO,  Temples  of.  Apollo,  the  god  of  all  the  fine  arts,  of  medicine,  music, 
poetry,  and  eloquence,  had  temples  and  statues  erected  to  him  in  almost 
every  country,  particularly  Egypt,  Greece,  and  Italy.  His  most  splendid 
temple  was  at  Delphi,  built  12G3  b,  o.— See  Delphi.     His  temple  at  Daphiiae, 


ara]  dictionary  of  dates.  17'. 

built  434  B.  c,  during  a  period  in  which  pestilence  raged,  was  burnt  in  a.  d. 
362,  and  the  Christians  accused  of  the  crime. — Lenglet. 

APOSTLE'S  CREED.  The  summary  of  belief  of  the  Christian  faith,  called  the 
Apostle's  Creed,  is  generally  believed  to  have  been  composed  a  great  while 
after  their  time. — Pardon.  The  repeating  of  this  creed  in  public  worship 
was  ordained  in  the  Greek  church  at  Antioch,  and  was  instituted  in  the 
Roman  church  in  the  eleventh  century ;  whence  it  passed  to  the  church  of 
England  at  the  period  of  the  reformation,  in  1584. 

APOSTOLICI.  The  first  sect  of  Apostolici  arose  in  the  third  century;  the 
second  sect  was  founded  by  Sagarelli,  who  was  burned  alive  at  Parma,  a.  d. 
800.  They  wandered  about,  clothed  in  white,  with  long  beards,  dishevelled 
hair,  and  bare  heads,  accompanied  by  women  whom  they  called  their  spirit- 
ual sisters,  preaching  against  the  growing  corruption  of  the  churck  of 
Rome,  and  predicting  its  downfall. 

APOTHEOSIS.  A  ceremony  of  the  ancient  nations  of  the  world,  oy  which  they 
raised  their  kings  and  heroes  to  the  rank  of  deities.  The  nations  of  the 
East  were  the  first  who  paid  divine  honors  to  their  great  men,  and  the 
Romans  followed  their  example,  and  not  only  deified  the  most  prudent  and 
humane  of  their  emperors,  but  also  the  most  cruel  and  profligate. — Herodian. 
This  honor  of  deifying  the  deceased  emperor  was  begim  at  Rome  by  Augus- 
tus, in  favor  of  Julius  Csesar,  b.  c.  18. —  Tillemont. 

APPEAL  OF  MURDER.  By  the  late  law  of  England,  a  man  in  an  appeal  of 
murder  might  fight  with  the  appellant,  thereby  to  make  proof  of  his  guilt 
or  innocence.  In  1817,  a  young  maid,  Mary  Ashford,  was  believed  to  have 
been  violated  and  murdered  by  Abraham  Thornton,  who,  in  appeal,  claimed 
his  right  to  his  wager  of  battle,  which  the  court  allowed ;  but  the  appellant 
(the  brother  of  the  maid)  refused  the  challenge,  and  the  criminal  escaped, 
April  16,  1818.  This  law  was  immediately  afterwards  struck  from  oif  the 
statute  book,  59  George  III.,  1819. 

APPRAISERS.  The  rating  and  valuation  of  goods  for  another  was  an  early 
business  in  England ;  and  so  early  as  11  Edward  I.  it  was  a  law,  that  if  they 
valued  the  goods  of  the  parties  too  high,  the  appraiser  should  take  them  at 
the  price  appraised.    1282. 

APRIL.  The  fourth  month  of  the  year  according  to  the  vulgar  computation, 
but  the  second  according  to  the  ancient  Romans,  Numa  Pompilius  having 
introduced  Januarius  and  Febniarlus  before  it  713  b.  c. — Peacham. 

AQUARIANS.  A  sect  in  the  primitive  church,  said  to  have  been  founded  by 
Tatian  in  the  second  century,  and  who  forbore  the  use  of  wine  even  in  the 
sacrament,  and  used  nothing  but  Avater. 

AQUEDUCTS.  Appius  Claudius  advised  and  constructed  the  first  aqueduct, 
which  was  therefore  called  the  Appinn-ivay ,  about  453  b.  c.  Aqueducts  of 
every  kind  were  among  the  wonders  of  Rome. — Livy.  There  are  now  some 
remarkable  aqueducts  in  Europe :  that  at  Lisbon  is  of  great  extent  and 
beauty ;  that  at  Segovia  has  129  arches ;  and  that  at  Versailles  is  three  miles 
long,  and  of  immense  height,  with  242  arches  in  thr«e  stories.  The  stupen- 
dous aqueduct  on  the  Ellesmere  canal,  in  England,  is  1007  feet  in  length,  and 
126  feet  high ;  it  was  opened  Dec.  26,  1805. 
_  \QUITAINE,  formerly  belonged  (together  with  Normandy)  to  the  kings  of 
England,  as  descendants  of  William  the  Conqueror.  It  was  erected  into  a 
principality  in  1362,  and  was  annexed  to  France  in  1370.  The  title  of  duke 
of  Aquitaine  was  taken  by  the  crowni  of  England  on  the  conquest  of  thi,s 
duchy  by  Henry  V.  in  1418 ;  but  was  lost  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VI. 

ARABIA.  This  country  is  said  never  to  have  been  conquered ;  the  Arabians 
made  no  figure  in  history  till  A.n.  622.  when,  under  the  new  nani(;  of  Sara- 


172  THE  wopcLd's  progress.  [ab6 

cens.  they  followed  Mahomet  (a  native  of  Arabia)  as  their  general  and  pro- 
phet, and  made  considerable  conquests. — Priestley. 

ARBELA,  Battle  op.  The  third  and  decisive  battle  between  Alexander  the 
Great  and  Darius  Codomanus,  which  decided  the  fate  of  Persia,  331  b.  (;. 
The  army  of  Darius  consisted  of  1,000,000  of  foot  and  40,000  horse;  the 
Macedonian  army  amounted  to  only  40,000  foot  and  7,000  horse. — Arnan. 
The  gold  and  silver  found  in  the  cities  of  Susa,  Persepolis,  and  Babylon, 
which  fell  to  Alexander  from  this  victory,  amounted  to  thirty  millions  ster- 
ling ;  and  the  jewels  and  other  precious  spoil,  belonging  to  Darius,  sufficed 
to  load  20,000  mules  and  5,000  camels. — Plutarch. 

A  RC ADIA.  The  people  of  this  country  were  very  ancient,  and  reckoned  them- 
selves of  longer  standing  than  the  moon ;  they  were  more  rude  in  theii 
manners  than  any  of  the  Greeks,  from  whom  they  were  shut  up  in  a  valley 
surrounded  with  mountains.  Pelasgus  taught  them  to  feed  on  acorns,  as 
being  more  nutricious  than  herbs,  their  former  food  ;  and  for  this  discovery 
Ihey  honored  him  as  a  god,  1521  b.  c.  Arcadia  had  twentj'-five  kings,  whose 
history  is  altogether  fabulous.  The  Arcadians  were  fond  of  militaiy  glory, 
although  shepherds ;  and  frequently  hired  themselves  to  fight  the  battles  of 
other  states. — Eustathlus.  A  colony  of  Arcadians  was  conducted  by  CEno- 
trus  into  Italy,  1710  b.  c,  and  the  country  in  which  it  settled  was  afterwards 
called  Magna  GrcEcia.    A  colony  under  Evander  emigrated  1244  b.  c. — Idem. 

ARCHBISHOP.  This  dignity  was  known  in  the  East  about  a.  d.  320.  Atha- 
nasius  conferred  it  on  his  successor.  In  these  realms  the  dignity  is  nearly 
coeval  with  the  establishment  of  Christianity.  Before  the  Saxons  came  into 
England  there  were  three  sees,  London,  York,  and  Caerleon-upon-IJsk ;  but 
soon  after  the  arrival  of  St.  Austin,  he  settled  the  metropolitan  see  at  Can- 
terbury, A.  D.  596. 

ARCHDEACONS.  There  are  sixty  church  officers  of  this  rank  in  England, 
and  thirty-four  in  Ireland.  The  name  was  given  to  the  first  or  eldest  dea- 
con, who  attended  on  the  bishop,  without  any  power ;  but  since  the  council 
of  Nice,  his  function  is  become  a  dignity,  and  set  above  that  of  priest, 
though  ancientlj!-  it  was  quite  otherwise.  The  appointment  is  referred  to 
A.  D.  1075.  The  archdeacon's  court  is  the  lowest  in  ecclesiastical  polity:  an 
appeal  lies  from  it  to  the  consistorial  court,  stat.  24  Henry  VIII.  1532. 

ARCHERY.  It  originated,  according  to  the  fanciful  opinion  of  the  j^oet  Clau- 
dian,  from  the  porcupine  being  observed  to  cast  its  quills  whenever  it  was 
offended.  Plato  ascribes  the  invention  to  Apollo,  by  whom  it  was  commu- 
nicated to  the  Cretans.  The  eastern  nations  were  expert  in  archery  in  the 
earliest  ages,  and  the  precision  of  the  ancient  archer  is  scarcely  exceeded 
by  our  skill  in  modern  arms.  Aster  of  Amphipolis,  upon  being  slighted  by 
Philip,  king  of  Macedonia,  aimed  an  arrow  at  him.  The  arrow,  on  whicb 
was  written  "Aimed  at  Philip's  right  eye,"  struck  it,  and  put  it  out;  and 
Philip  threw  back  the  arrow  with  these  words :  "If  Philip  take  the  town. 
Aster  shall  be  hanged."  The  conquei-or  kept  his  word. 
ARCHERY  IN  England.  It  was  introduced  previously  to  a.  d.  440,  and  Ha 
rold  and  his  two  brothers  were  killed  by  arrows  shot  from  the  cross-bow.' 
of  the  Norman  soldiers  at  the  battle  of  Hastings,  in  1066 ;  that  which  killed 
the  king  pierced  him  in  the  brain.  Richard  I.  revived  archery  in  England 
in  1190,  and  was  himself  killed  by  an  arrow  in  1199.  The  victories  of  Crecy, 
Poitiers,  and  Agincourt,  were  won  chiefly  by  archers.  The  usual  range  of 
the  long-bow  was  from  300  to  400  yards.  Robin  Hood  and  Little  John,  11 
is  said,  shot  twice  that  distance.  Four  thousand  archers  surrounded  the 
houses  of  Parliament,  ready  to  shoot  the  king  and  the  members,  21  Rich- 
ard II.  1397. — Slowe.  The  citizens  of  London  were  formed  into  companTea 
of  archers  in  the  reign  of  Edward  III. :  they  wer(>  formed  into  a  corporate 


argJ  dictionary  of  dates.  173 

body  by  the  style  of  "  The  Fraternity  of  St.  George,"  29  Henry  VIII.  1538. 
— Noiihouk's  History  of  London. 

ARCHES,  Triumphal,  are  traced  to  the  era  of  the  Macedonian  conquest  by  the 
best  writers.  The  triumphal  arches  of  the  Romans  form  a  leading  featuro 
in  their  architecture.  Those  of  Trajan  (erected  a.  d.  114)  and  Constantino 
were  magnificent. 

ARCHITECTURE  was  cultivated  by  the  Tyrians,  about  1100  b.c.  Their 
King,  Hiram,  supplied  Solomon  with  cedar,  gold,  silver,  and  other  materials 
for  the  Temple,  in  the  building  of  which  he  assisted,  1015  b.  g.  The  art 
passed  to  Greece,  and  from  Greece  to  Rome.  The  style  called  Gothic  came 
into  vogue  in  the  ninth  century.  The  Saracens  of  Spain,  being  engaged 
during  peace  to  build  mosques,  introduced  grotesque  carvings,  &c.,  and  the 
ponderous  sublimity  of  bad  taste ;  which  species  is  known  hy  elliptic  arches 
and  buttresses.  The  circular  arch  distinguishes  the  Norman-Gothic  from 
the  Saracenic,  and  came  in  with  Henry  I.  The  true  Grecian  style  did  not 
fullj'  revive  till  about  the  reign  of  James  I.  1603. 

ARCHONS.  When  royalty  was  abolished  at  Athens,  the  executive  govern- 
ment  was  vested  in  elective  magistrates  called  archons,  whose  office  con- 
tinues for  life.  Medon,  eldest  son  of  Codrus,  is  the  first  who  obtained  this 
dignity,  1070  b.  c. 

ARCOLA,  Battle  op,  between  the  French  under  general  Biionaparte,  and  the 
Austrians  imder  field-marshal  Alvinzy,  fought  Nov.  19,  1796.  The  result  of 
this  bloody  conflict,  which  was  fought  for  eight  successive  days,  was  the 
loss  on  the  part  of  the  Austrians  of  12  000  men,  in  killed,  wounded,  and 
prisoners,  four  flags,  and  eighteen  guns. 

ARCTIC  EXPEDITIONS.  Several  have  been  undertaken  by  England,  and 
some  bj^  Russia  and  other  countries.  Sir  Martin  Frobisher  was  the  first 
Englishman  who  attempted  to  find  a  north-west  passage  to  China,  a.  d.  1576. 
Davis's  expeditioji  to  the  Arctic  regions  was  undertaken  in  1585.  After  a 
number  of  similar  adventurous  voyages,  Baffin,  an  Englishman,  attempted 
to  find  a  north-west  passage,  in  1616.  See  Baffin'' s  Bay.  For  the  subsequent 
and  late  expeditions  of  this  kind,  including  among  the  latter  those  of  Buchan, 
Franklin,  Ross,  Parry,  Liddon,  Lyon,  Back,  &c.,  sqq  North-West  Passage. 

AREOPAGITjE.  a  famous  council  said  to  have  heard  causes  in  the  dark,  be- 
cause the  judges  were  blind  to  all  but  facts,  instituted  at  Athens,  1507  b.  c. 
— Arund.  Marbles.  The  name  is  derived  from  the  Greek  Areos  pagos,  the 
Hill  of  Mars,  because  Mars  was  the  first  who  was  tried  there  for  the  mur- 
der of  Hallirhotius,  who  had  violated  his  daughter  Alcippa.  Whatever 
causes  were  pleaded  before  them,  were  to  be  divested  of  all  oratory  and  fine 
speaking,  lest  eloquence  should  charm  their  ears,  and  corrupt  their  judg- 
ment.   Hence  arose  the  most  just  and  impartial  decisions. 

ARGENTARIA,  Battle  of.  One  of  the  most  renowned  in  its  times,  fought  in 
Alsace,  between  the  Allemanni  and  the  Romans,  the  former  being  defeated 
by  the  latter  with  the  loss  of  more  than  35,000  out  of  40,000  men,  a.  d.  378, 
— Dufresnoy. 

ARGON AUTIC  EXPEDITION,  undertaken  by  Jason  to  avenge  the  death  of 
Phryxus,  and  recover  his  treasures  seized  by  the  king  of  Colchis.  The  ship 
in  which  Phryxus  had  sailed  to  Colchis  having  been  adorned  viith  the 
figure  of  a  ram,  it  induced  the  poets  to  pretend  that  the  journey  of  Jason 
was  for  the  recovery  of  the  golden  fleece.  This  is  the  first  naval  expedition 
on  record ;  it  made  a  great  noise  in  Greece,  and  many  kings  and  the  first 
heroes  of  the  age  accomijanied  Jason,  whose  ship  was  called  Argo,  from  its 
builder,  1263  b.  c. — Dufresnoy. 

ARGOS.    This  kingdom  v,-as  founded  by  Inachus,  1856  b.  c,  or  1080  years  be- 


174  THE    world's    PUOGRESS.  [  AUK 

fore  the  first  Olympiad. — Blair.  Tlie  nine  kings  from  the  founder  were 
called  Inachida,  of  whom  the  fourtli  was  Argus,  and  he  gave  his  name  to 
the  country.  When  the  Heraclida3  took  possession  of  Peloponnesus,  b.  c. 
1102,  Temenus  seized  Argos  and  its  dependencies.  Argos  was  afterwards  a 
republic,  and  distinguished  itself  in  all  the  Avars  of  Greece. — Euripides. 


Inachus  founds  the  kingdom      .    b.  c.  1856 
Phoroneus  reigns  sixty  years  .        ISO'^ 

Apis  reigns  thirty-five  years       .        .    1747 
The  city  of  Argos  built  by  Arsus,  son 

ofNiobe 1711 

Criasus,  son  of  Argus,  succeeds  his 

father,  and  reigns  ....  1641 
Reign  of  Triopas;  Polycaon  seizes 
part  of  the  kingdom,  and  calls  it  af- 
ter his  wife,  Messejiia  .  .  1552 
Reign  of  Crotopus  ....  1506 
Sthenelus  reigns  ....  1485 
Gelanor  is  deposed  by  Danaus  .  .  1474 
Feast  of  the  Flambeaux,  in  honor  of 


Hypermnestra,  who  saved  her  hus- 
band, while  her  forty-nine  sisters  sa- 
crificed theirs.  (See  Flambeazix')  B.C.  1425 
Lynceus,  son  of  Egyptus,  whose  hfe 
had  been  preserved  by  his  wife,  de- 
thrones Danaus  ....  11425 
Reign  of  Abas  .        .        .  13&1 

Reign  of  Proetus,  twin-brother  of  Acri- 

sius 1361 

Belierophon  comes  to  Argos;  the  pas- 
sion for  him  of  Sthenoboea  .        .        1-361 
Rebellion  of  Acrisius  ....    IS'M 
Perseus  leaves  Argos.  and  founds  My- 
ceax  Ciohich  see.)     ....    1313 


Argos,  in  modern  history,  was  taken  from  the  Venetians,  a.  d.  1686.  It  was 
lost  to  the  Turks  in  1716,  since  when  it  continued  in  their  hands  until  1826. 
Argos  became  united  in  the  sovereignty  of  Greece  under  Otho,  the  present 
and  first  king,  January  25,  18-33.   Sec  Greece. 

ARIANS.  The  followers  of  Arius,  a  numerous  sect  of  Christians,  who  deny  iLe 
divinity  of  Christ:  they  arose  about  a.  d.  315.  The  Arians  were  condemned 
by  the  council  of  Nice,  in  325 ;  but  their  doctrine  became  for  a  time  the 
reigning  religion  ia  the  East.  It  was  favored  by  Constantine,  819.  Carried 
into  Africa  imder  the  Vandals,  in  the  fifth  century,  and  into  Asia  under  the 
Goths.  Servetus  published  his  treatise  against  the  Trinity,  1531,  and  hence 
arose  the  modern  system  of  Arianism  in  Geneva.  Arius  died  in  336.  Serve- 
tus was  burnt,  1553. —  Varillas,  Hist  de  I'Heresic. 

ARITHMETIC.  Where  first  invented  is  not  known,  at  least  with  certainty. 
It  was  brought  from  Egypt  into  Greece  by  Thales,  about  600  e.  c.  The 
oldest  treatise  upon  arithmetic  is  by  Euclid  (7th.  8th,  and  9th  books  of  his 
Elements),  about  300  b.  c.  The  sexagesimal  arithmetic  of  Ptolemy  was  used 
A.M.  130.  Diophantus  of  Alexandria  was  the  author  of  thirteen  books  of 
Arithmetical  questions  (of  which  six  are  extant)  in  156.  Notation  by  nine 
digits  and  zero,  known  at  least  as  early  as  the  sixth  century  in  Hindostan — 
introduced  from  thence  into  Arabia,  about  900 — into  Spain,  1050^nto  Eng- 
land, 1253.  The  date  in  Caxton's  Mirrour  of  the  World,  Arabic  characters, 
is  1480.  Arithmetic  of  decimals  invented,"  1482.  First  work  printed  in 
England  on  arithmetic  {de  Arte  Suppidandi)  was  bj^  Tonstall,  bishop  of  Dur- 
ham, 1522.  The  theory  of  decimal  fractions  was  perfected  by  lord  Napier 
in  his  Rabdolngia,  in  1617. 

ARK.  Mount  Ararat  is  venerated  by  the  Armenians,  from  a  belief  of  its  being 
the  place  on  which  Noah's  ark  rested  after  the  universal  Deluge,  2347  b.  c. 
But  Apamea,  in  Phrygia,  claims  to  be  the  spot ;  and  medals  have  been  struck 
there  with  a  chest  on  the  waters,  and  the  letters  NOE,  and  two  doves :  this 
place  is  300  miles  west  of  Ararat.  The  ark  was  300  cubits  in  length,  fifty  in 
breadth,  and  thirty  high ;  but  most  interpreters  suppose  this  cubit  to  be  about 
a  foot  and  a  half,  and  not  the  geometrical  one  of  six.  There  were,  we  are  told, 
three  floors — the  first  for  beasts,  the  second  for  provisions,  and  the  third  for 
birds,  and  Noah's  famil3^  It  was  not  made  like  a  ship,  but  came  near  the 
figure  of  a  square,  growing  gradually  narrower  to  the  top.  There  was  a 
door- in  the  first  floor,  and  a  great  window  in  the  third. 

ARKANSAS,  one  of  the  United  States,  was  a  part  of  the  Louisiana  purchase. 
It  was  made  a  separate  territory  in  1819.  and  was  admitted  into  the  TJnion 
in  1836.     Population  in  1830, 30,388 ;  in  1840,  97,574,  including  19,935  slaves 


arm] 


DICTIONARY    OP    DATES. 


175 


ARMADA,  The  Invincible.  The  famous  Spanish  armament  so  called  con- 
sisted of  150  ships,  2650  great  guns,  20,000  soldiers,  8000  sailors,  and  200C 
volunteers,  under  the  duke  of  Medina  Sidonia.  It  arrived  in  the  Channel, 
July  19,  1588,  and  was  defeated  the  next  day  by  Drake  and  HowaKl.  Ten 
fire-ships  having  been  sent  into  the  enemies'  fleet,  they  cut  their  cables,  put 
to  sea,  and  endeavored  to  return  to  their  rendezvous  between  Calais  and 
Gravelines :  the  English  fell  upon  them,  took  many  ships,  and  admiral 
Howard  maintained  a  I'umiing  fight  from  the  21st  July  to  the  27th,  obliging 
the  shattered  fleet  to  bear  away  for  Scotland  and  Ireland,  where  a  storm  di.s- 
persed  them,  and  the  remainder  of  the  armament  retm-ned  by  the  Nortli 
Sea  to  Spain.  The  Spaniards  lost  fifteen  capital  ships  in  the  engagement, 
and  5,000  men;  seventeen  ships  were  lost  or  taken  on  the  coast  of  Ireland, 
and  upwards  of  5000  men  were  drowned,  killed,  or  taken  prisoners.  Tlie 
English  lost  but  one  ship. — Rapin,  Carte,  Hume. 

ARMAGH,  See  op,  the  first  ecclesiastical  dignity  in  Ireland,  was  founded  by 
St.  Patrick,  its  first  bishop,  in  444. 

ARMED  NEUTRALITY.  The  confederacy,  so  called,  of  the  northern  powers, 
against  England,  was  commenced  by  the  empress  of  Russia  in  1780 ;  but 
its  objects  were  defeated  in  1781.  The  pretension  was  renewed,  and  a  treaty 
ratified  in  order  to  cause  their  flags  to  be  respected  by  the  belligerent  pow- 
ers, December  16,  1800.  The  principle  that  neutral  flags  protect  neutral 
bottoms  being  contrary  to  the  maritime  system  of  England,  the  British 
cabinet  remonstrated,  and  Nelson  and  Parker  destroyed  the  fleet  of  Den- 
mark before  Copenhagen,  April  2,  1801.  That  power,  in  consequence,  was 
obliged  to  secede  from  the  alliance,  and  acknowledge  the  claim  of  England  to 
the  empire  of  the  sea ;  and  the  Armed  Neutrality  was  soon  after  dissolved. 

A  RMENIA.  Here  Noah  and  his  people  resided  when  they  left  the  ark,  2347 
B.  c.  After  being  subject  successively  to  the  three  great  monarchies,  Ar- 
menia fell  to  the  kings  of  Syria.  The  Armenians  were  the  original  wor 
shippers  of  fire :  they  also  paid  great  veneration  to  Venus  Anaitis,  to  whoso 
priests  even  the  highest  classes  of  the  people  prostituted  their  daughters, 
prior  to  marriage. — Martin's  Mevwires  sur  L'Armenie. 


City  of  Artaxarta  built     .  .B.C. 

Tigranes  the  Great  reigns 

He  is  called  to  the  throne  of  Syria,  as- 
sumes the  fastidious  title  of  "King  of 
Kings,"  and  is  served  by  tvibutaiy 
princes   ..... 

Tigranes  defeated  by  Lucullus 

Again  defeated,  and  lays  his  crown  at 
the  feet  of  Pompey 

His  son,  Artavasdes,  reigns 

Artavasdes  assists  Pompey  against  Ju- 
lius Caesar         .... 

Artavasdes  assists  the  Parthians  against 
Marc  Antony 

Antony  subdues,  and  sends  him  loaded 
with  silver  chains  to  Egypt,  to  grace 
his  triumph       .... 

The  Armenian  soldiers  crown  Itis  son, 
Artaxias       .... 


35 


30 


Artaxias  is  deposed  .  .     b.  c. 

He  is  restored  to  his  throne,  and  dies. — 

Blair 

Ueign  of  Venones        .  .  a.  d. 

Zenon  reigns         .... 
Tigranes  IV.  reigns     . 
He  is  cited  to  Rome,  and  deposed 
Tiridates  dethroned,  and  Roman  power 

paramount  in  Armenia 
Armenia  reduced  to  a  Persian  pi-ovince 

under  Sapor 
Subdued  by  the  Saracens 
Irruption  of  the  Turks 
Agam  made  a  Persian  province,  under 

Uffan  Cassanes  .  .  .  1472 

Subdued  by  Selim  II.  .  .        1522 

Overrun  by  the  Russians        .  .    1828 

Surrender  of  Erzeroum      .  July  1829 

(See  iSyria.) 


1 

16 
18 
36 
37 

62 

365 
687 
755 


A  RMENIAN  ERA  commenced  on  the  9th  of  July,  a.  d.  552 :  the  Ecclesiastical 
year  on  the  11th  August.  To  reduce  this  last  to  our  time,  add  551  years 
and  221  days ;  and  in  leap  years  subtract  one  day  from  March  1  to  August 
10.  The  Armenians  use  the  old  Julian  style  and  months  in  their  corre- 
spondence with  Em-opeans. 

'^'ARMILLARY  SPHERE.    Commonly  made  of  brass,  and  disposed  in  such  a 
8s    manner  that  the  greater  and  lesser  circles  of  the  sphere  are  seen  in  their 


l?t)  IHE    world's    progress.  [  ARM 

natural  position  and  motion,  tlie  whole  being  comprised  in  a  frame.    It  is 
said  to  have  been  invented  by  Eratostlienes,  about  255  b.  c. 
ARMINIANS  (the)  chiefly  contend  for  the  doctrine  of  universal  redemption, 
and  generally  espouse  the  principles  of  the  Church  of  England:  especially 
asserting  the  subordination  of  the  Christian  church  to  the  civil  powers. 
They  also  contend  for  the  efficacy  of  good  works,  as  well  as  their  necessity,  in 
securing  man's  salvation.     James  I.  and  Charles  I.  favored  the  doctrines  of 
the  Arminians ;  and  the  principles  of  the  sect  prevail  generally  in  Holland 
and  elsewhere,  though  condemned  at  the  synod  of  Dort  (see  Dort)  in  1618, 
Arminius,  who  was  a  divinity  professor  at  Leyden,  died  in  1609. — Brandt. 
ARMORIAL   BEARINGS  became  hereditary  in  families  at  the  close  of  the 
twelfth  century.     They  took  their  rise  from  the  Imights  painting  their  ban- 
ners with  different  figures,  and  were  introduced  by  the  Crusaders,  in  order 
at  first  to  distinguish  noblemen  in  battle  a.  d.  1100.    The  lines  to  denote 
colors  in  arms,  by  their  direction  or  intersection,  were  invented  by  Colum- 
biere  in  1639.    Armorial  bearings  were  taxed  in  1798 — and  again  in  1808. 
ARMOR.    The  warlike  Europeans  at  first  despised  any  other  defence  ihan 
the  shield.    Skins  and  padded  hides  were  first  used ;  and  brass  and  iron 
armor,  in  plates  or  scales,  followed.    The  first  bodj^-armor  of  the  Britons 
was  skins  of  wild  beasts,   exchanged,  after  the  Roman  conquest,  for  the 
weU-tanned  leathern  cuirass. —  Tacitus.    This  latter  continued  till  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  ej-a.    Hengist  is  said  to  have  had  scale  armor,  a.  d.  449.    The  heavy 
cavalry  were  covered  with  a  coat  of  mail,  Henry  HI.  1216.     Some  horsemen 
had  visors,  and  skull  caps,  same  reign.    Armor  became  exceedingly  splendid 
about  1350.    The  armor  of  plate  commenced,  1407.    Black  armor,  used, 
not  only  for  battle,  but  for  mourning,  Henry  V.  1413.     The  armor  of  Henry 
Vn.  consisted  of  a  cuirass  of  steel,  in  the  form  of  a  pair  of  stays,  about  1500. 
Armor  ceased  to  reach  below  the  knees,  Charles  I.  1625.    In  the  reign  of 
Charles  H.  ofiicers  Avore  no  other  armor  than  a  large  gorget,  which  is  commem- 
orated in  the  diminutive  ornament  known  at  the  i^resent  day. — Meijriclc. 
ARMS.    The  club  was  the  first  offensive  weapon;  then  followed  the  mace, 
battle-axe,  pike,  spear,  javelin,  sword,  and  dagger.     Among  ancient  missiles 
were  bows  and  arrows.     Pliny  ascribes  the  invention  of  the  sling  to  the 
Phoenicians.     See  the  various  iveapons  through  the  volume. 
ARMY.    Ninus  and  Semiramis  had  armies  amounting  to  nearly  two  millions  of 
fighting  men,  2017,  b.  c.     The  first  guards  and  regular  troops  as  a  standing 
army  were  formed  by  Saul,  1093  b.  c. — Eusebius.     One  of  the  first  standing 
armies  of  which  we  have  any  account,  is  that  of  Philip  of  Macedon.     The 
first  standing  army,  existing  as  such,  in  modern  times,  was  maintained  in 
France  by  Charles  "VH.   in  1445.     Standing  armies  were  introduced  by 
Charles  I.  in  1638 ;  they  were  declared  illegal  in  England,  31  Charles  H. 
1679.    The  chief  European  nations  have  had  in  their  service  the  following 
armies :  Spain  150.000  men ;  Great  Britain,  310.000 ;  Prussia,  350,000 ;  Tur- 
key, 450.000 ;  Austria,  500,000 ;  Russia.  560,000 ;  and  France,  680,000. 
g  ARMY,  BRITISH.  Statement  of  the  effective  military  strength  of  the  United  King- 
^       dom  at  the  decennial  periods  respectively  mentioned,  and  of  the  sums  voted 
for  military  expenditure,  drawn  from  parliamentary  returcs  and  other  ofiBcial 
records : 

1700,  Time  of  war;  troops  of  the  line    .    . 

1800,  War 

1810,  War ;  army,  including  foreign  troops 

1815,  Last  year  of  the  war  .  .    . 

1820,  Time  of  peace ;  war  incumbrances    . 

1830,  Peace 

In  1845,  the  army,  of  all  ranks,  numbered  100,011  men;  and  the  sum  voted 
was  .£4,487,753.     See  Militia  and  Volunteers. 


amount  110,000  men  . 

.  sum  voted  JE7,847,000 

ditto     16S.000  men  . 

.     ditto 

17,973,000 

ditto     300,000  men  . 

.     ditto 

26,748,000 

ditto     300,000  men  . 

.     ditto 

39,150,000 

ditto       89,100  men  . 

.     ditto 

18,253,000 

ditto       89,300  men  . 

.     ditto 

6,991,000 

ASS  J  DICTIONARY    OP    DATES.  177 

ARTILLERY.  The  first  piece  was  a  small  one,  contrived  by  Sclawartz,  a  Ger- 
man cordelier,  soon  after  the  invention  of  gunpowder,  in  1330.  Artillery 
was  used,  it  is  said,  by  the  Moors  at  Algesiras,  in  Spain,  in  the  siege  of 
1341 ;  it  was  used,  according  to  our  historians,  at  the  battle  of  Cressy,  in 
1346,  when  Edward  IIL  had  four  pieces  of  cannon,  which  gained  him  the 
battle.  We  had  artillery  at  the  siege  of  Calais,  1347.  The  Venitians  first 
employed  artillery  against  the  Genoese  at  sea,  1377. —  Voltaire.  Cast  in 
England,  together  with  mortars  for  bomb-shells,  by  Flemish  artists  in  Sussex, 
1548. — Rymer's  Fadera.  Made  of  brass,  1685 ;  improvements  by  Browne, 
1728.     See  Iron. 

ARTS.  See  Literature.  In  the  eighth  century,  the  whole  circle  of  sciences  was 
composed  of  these  seven  liberal  arts,  namely — grammar,  rhetoric,  logic, 
arithmetic,  music,  geometry,  and  astronomy. — Harris.  The  Royal  Society 
of  England  (which  see)  obtained  its  charter  April  2,  1663.  The  Society  of 
Arts,  to  promote  the  polite  arts,  commerce,  manufactures,  and  mechanics, 
was  instituted  in  1754  ;  it  originated  in  the  patriotic  zeal  of  Mr.  Shipley,  and 
of  its  first  president,  lord  Folkstone.  The  first  public  exhibition  by  the 
artists  of  the  British  metropolis  took  place  in  1760,  at  the  rooms  of  this 
society,  and  was  repeated  there  for  several  years,  till,  in  process  of  time,  the 
Royal  Academy  was  founded.  See  Royal  Academy.  The  Society  of  British  Art- 
ists was  instituted  May  21,  1823  ;  and  their  first  exhibition  was  opened  April 
19,1824. — ^QQ  British  Museum;  British  Institution;  National  Gallery,  <f-c. 

ARUNDELIAN  MARBLES ;  containing  the  chronology  of  ancient  history  from 
1582  to  355  B.  c,  and  said  to  have  been  sculptured  264  b.  c.  They  consist  of 
37  statues,  128  busts,  and  250  inscriptions,  and  were  found  in  the  Isle  of 
Paros,  in  the  reign  of  James  I.,  about  1610.  They  were  purchased  by  lord 
Arundel,  and  given  to  the  university  of  Oxford,  1627.  'J'he  characters  are 
Greek,  of  which  there  are  two  translations:  by  Selden,  1628;  by  Prideaux, 
1676. — See  Kidd's  Tracts;  and  Parson's  Treatise,  1789. 

ASCALON,  Battle  of  ;  in  which  Richard  I.  of  England,  commanding  the  Chris- 
tian forces,  defeated  the  sultan  Saladin's  army  of  300,000  Saracens  and  other 
infidels.  No  less  than  40,000  of  the  enemy  were  left  dead  on  the  field  of 
battle ;  and  the  victorious  Richard  marched  to  Jerusalem,  a.  d.  1192. — Rymer. 

ASH-WEDNESDAY.  The  primitive  Christians  did  not  commence  their  Lent 
until  the  Sunday,  now  called  the  first  in  Lent.  Pope  Felix  III.,  in  a.  d.  487, 
first  added  the  four  days  preceding  the  old  Lent  Sunday,  to  complete  the 
number  of  fasting  days  to  forty ;  Gregory  the  Great  introduced  the  sprink- 
ling of  ashes  on  the  first  of  the  four  additional  days,  and  hence  the  name  of 
Dies  Cinerum,  or  Ash-Wednesday:  at  the  Reformation  this  practice  was 
abolished,  "  as  being  a  mere  shadow,  or  vain  show." 

ASIA ;  so  called  by  the  Greeks,  from  the  nymph  Asia,  the  daughter  of  Oceanus 
and  Tethys,  and  wife  of  Japhet.  Asia  was  the  first  quarter  of  the  world 
peopled ;  here  the  law  of  God  Avas  first  promulgated ;  here  many  of  the 
gi'eatest  monarchies  of  the  earth  had  their  rise ;  and  from  hence  most  of 
the  arts  and  sciences  have  been  derived. — Pardon. 

ASPERNE,  Battle  of,  between  the  Austrian  army  under  the  archduke  Charles, 
and  the  French,  fought  on  the  21st  May,  1809,  and  two  following  days.  In 
this  most  sanguinary  fight,  the  loss  of  the  former  army  exceeded  20,000 
men,  and  the  loss  of  the  French  was  more  than  30,000 :  it  ended  in  the  defeat 
of  Bonaparte,  who  commanded  in  person,  and  was  the  severest  check  that  he 
had  yet  received.  The  bridge  of  the  Danube  was  destroyed,  and  his  retreat 
endangered ;  but  the  success  of  the  Austrians  had  no  beneficial  efiect  on 
the  subsequent  prosecution  of  the  war. 

ASSASSINATION  PLOT.     A  conspiracy  so  called,  formed  by  the  earl  of  Ayles- 
bury and  others  to  assassinate  king  William  III,,  near  Richme-  '.   Surrej'',  as 
8* 


178  THE  world's  progress.  [ass 

he  came  from  hunting.  The  object  of  the  conspiracy  was  to  have  been  con- 
summated February  15,  1695-6,  but  for  its  timely  discovery  by  Prendergast. 
— Hist.  Englayid. 

ASSASSINS.  A  tribe  in  Syria,  a  famous  heretical  sect  among  the  Mahometans, 
settled  in  Persia,  in  a.  d.  1090.  In  Syria,  they  possessed  a  large  tract  of  land 
among  the  mountains  of  Lebanon.  They  murdered  the  marquis  of  Mont- 
ferrat  in  1192 ;  they  assassinated  Lewis  of  Bavaria  in  1213 ;  the  khan  of 
Tartary  was  murdered  in  1254.  They  were  conquered  by  the  Tartars  in 
1257 ;  and  were  extirpated  in  1272.  The  chief  of  the  corps  assumed  the 
title  of'Aiicient  of  the  Mountains." 

ASSDENTO.  A  contract  between  the  king  of  Spain  and  other  powers,  for  fur- 
nishing the  Spanish  dominions  in  America  with  negro  slaves. — Burke.  It 
began  in  1689,  and  was  vested  in  the  South  Sea  Company  in  1713.  By  the 
treaty  of  Utrecht  it  was  transferred  to  the  English,  who  were  to  furnish 
4800  negroes  annually  to  Spanish  America.  This  contract  was  given  up  to 
Spain  at  the  peace  in  1748.     See  Guinea. 

ASSIGN  ATS.  Paper  currency,  to  support  the  credit  of  the  republic  during  the 
revolution,  ordered  by  the  National  Assembly  of  France,  April,  1790.  At 
one  period  the  enormous  amount  of  eight  milliards,  or  nearly  350  millions 
of  pounds  sterling  of  this  paper  were  in  circulation  in  France  and  its  depen- 
dencies.— Alison. 

ASSUMPTION.  A  festival  observed  by  the  church  of  Rome  in  honor  of  the 
Virgin  Mary,  who,  as  the  Catholics  believe,  was  taken  up  to  heaven  in  her 
corporeal  form,  body  and  spirit,  on  August  15,  a.  d.  45.  Mary  is  reported  to 
have  been  in  her  75th  j^ear.  The  festival  is  said  to  have  been  instituted 
in  813. 

ASSURANCE.  Sec  Insurance.  The  practice  is  of  great  antiquity.  Suetonius 
ascribes  the  contrivance  to  Claudius  Cfesar,  a.  d.  43.  It  is  certain  that  assu- 
rance of  ships  was  practised  in  the  year  45.  The  first  regulations  concern- 
ing it  are  in  the  Lex  Oleron,  by  which  it  appears  to  have  been  known  in 
Europe  very  generally  in  1194.  The  custom  of  Lombard-street  was  made  a 
precedent  for  all  policies  at  Antwerp,  and  in  the  Low  Countries ;  but  the 
first  statute  to  prevent  frauds  from  i^rivate  assurers  was  made  43  Elizabeth, 
1601. — Molineaux^ s  Lex  Mercatoria. 

ASSYRIAN  EMPIRE.  This  is  the  earliest  recorded  empire — that  of  Bacchus 
wanting  records.  It  commenced  under  Ninus,  who  was  the  Jupiter  of  the 
Assyrians,  and  the  Hercules  of  the  Chaldeans,  2069  b.  c.  It  arose  out  of  the 
union  of  two  powerful  kingdoms,  Babylon  and  Assyria,  or  Nineveh,  the  latter 
founded  by  Ashur,  and  ending  with  Sardanapalus,  820  b.  c.  When  this  last- 
named  prince  was  conquered  by  Arbaces,  he  shut  himself  up  in  his  palace, 
with  his  concubines  and  eunuchs,  and  causing  it  to  be  set  on  fire,  they  all 
perished  in  the  flames.  On  the  ruins  of  the  empire  were  formed  the  Assy- 
rians of  Babylon,  Nineveh,  and  the  Median  kingdom. — Lenglet. 

The  tower  of  Babel  built. —  Genesis  x.  |      Babylon  and  makes  it  the  seat  of  her 

6 ;  xi.  1. — Blair       -  -       B.C.  2247  i      dominion. — Lenglet         ,  -_      b.  o.  2017 

The  kingdom  of  Babylon  begins      -      2245 
Astrononiical  observations   begun  by 

the  Chaldeans  -  -  -  2234 

Belus  reigns  55  years. — Usher       ■       2124 
Ninus,  son  of  Bclus,  reigns  in  Assyria, 

and  names  his  capital  after  himself  -  2069 
Babylon  taken  by  Ninus,  who,  having 
subdued  the  Armenians,  Persians, 
Bactrians,  and  all  Asia  Minor,  estab- 
lishes what  is  properly  the  Assyrian 
monarchy,  of  which  Nineveh  was  the 
seat  of  empire. — Blair       -  -     2059 

Semiramis  enlarges  and    embellishes  '  Nineveh  taken  by  Arbaces  -  .  820 


Semiramis  invades  Libya,  Ethiopia, 
and  Lidia. — Lenglet       •  •        ■  1975 

Tlie  Arabs  seize  Nineveh       •         -    - 1937 

Belochus,  the  last  king  of  die  race  of 
Ninus. —  Blair    ...  -  1446 

He  makes  his  daughter.  Artossa,  sur- 
named  Semiramis  11.,  his  associate 
on  the  throne        -  -  -      -  l't33 

Belatoves  reigns  -  -  -  .  1421 

*  «  «  *  » 

The  prophet  Jonah  appears  m  the 
streets  of  Ninevela  — Blair  ■     ■    840 


AST  J 


THE    world's    progress. 


179 


ASSYRIA,  Proper.  After  the  destruction  of  the  first  Assyrian  monarchy,  Phul, 
the  last  king's  son,  was  raised  to  the  throne  by  the  Ninevites,  777  b.  c,  and 
the  Idngdom  continued  until  621  b.  c,  when  Sarac,  or  Sardanapalus  II.,  being 
besieged  by  the  Medes  and  Babylonians,  put  his  wife  and  children  to  death, 
and  burnt  himself  in  his  palace,  a  fate  somewhat  similar  to  that  of  Sardaf- 
napalus  I.  See  preceding  ai'ticU.  Nineveh  was  then  razed  to  the  ground, 
and  the  conquerors  divided  Assyria. — Blair.  It  was  finally  conquered  by 
the  Turks  in  1637  a.  T).— Priestley. 


Pliul  raised  to  the  throne,  about  the 
year. — Blair  ■  ■  b.  c.    777 

He  invades  Israel,  but  departs  without 
drawing  a  sword. — Blair;  2  Kings 
XV.  19, 20  -  -  -  -    770 

Tiglath-Pileser  invades  Syria,  takes 
Damascus,  and  makes  great  con- 
quests ....        740 

Shalmanezer  takes  Samaria,  transports 
the  people,  whom  he  replaces  by  a 
colony  of  Cutheans  and  others,  and 
thus  finishes  the  kmgdom  of  Israel. 

—Blair 721 

.He  retires  from  before  Tyre,  aftei-  a 
siege  of  five  years. — Blair         -      -    713 


Sennacherib  invades  Judea,  and  his  ge- 
neral, Rabshakeh,  besieges  Jerusa- 
lem, when  the  angel  of  the  Lord  in  one 
night  destroys  180,000  of  hia  army.— 
Isaiah  xxxvii.  -  -        b.  o.  710 

[Commentators  suppose  that  this  mes- 
senger of  death  was  the  fatal  blast 
known  in  eastern  countries  by  the 
name  of  SamieL] 
Esar-haddon  invades  Judea,  and  takes 

Babylon.— Blair  -  -  -  690 

He  invades  Judea  — Blair   -  -      -  677 

Holofernes  is  slain  by  Judith     -  -  677 

Saosduchinus  reigns. — Usher        •       -  667 
Nineveh  taken,  and  razed  to  the  ground  621 


ASTROLOGY.  Judicial  astrology  was  invented  by  the  Chaldeans,  and  hence 
was  transmitted  to  the  Egyptians,  Greeks,  and  Romans.  It  was  much  in 
vogue  in  France  in  the  time  of  Catherine  de  Medicis,  1533. — Henault.  The 
earty  history  of  astrology  in  England  is  very  little  known :  Bede  was  addicted 
to  it,  700 ;  and  so  was  Roger  Bacon,  1260.  Cecil,  Lord  Burleigh,  calculated 
the  nativity  of  Elizabeth ;  and  she,  and  all  the  European  princes,  were  the 
humble  servants  of  Dee,  the  astrologer  and  conjurer.  But  the  period  of  the 
Stuarts  was  the  acme  of  astrology  in  England. — Sir  Walter  Scott  has  made 
ample  use  of  sir  William  Lilly,  the  noted  astrologer,  in  his  tales  of  this 
period ;  and  it  is  certain  that  Lilly  was  consulted  by  Charles  I.  respecting 
his  projected  escape  from  Carisbrook  castle  in  1647. — Ferguson. 

ASTRONOMY.  The  earliest  accounts  we  have  of  this  science  are  those  of 
Babylon,  about  223i  b.  c. — Blair.  The  study  of  astronomy  was  much  ad- 
vanced in  Chaldfea  under  Nabonassur ;  it  was  known  to  the  Chinese  about 
1100  B.  c. ;  some  say  many  centuries  before.  Lunar  eclipses  were  observed 
at  Babylon  with  exceeding  accuracy,  720  b.  c.  Spherical  form  of  the  earth, 
and  the  true  cause  of  lunar  eclipses,  taught  by  Thales,  640  b.  c.  Further 
discoveries  by  Pythagoras,  who  taught  the  doctrine  of  celestial  motions,  and 
believed  in  the  plurality  of  habitable  worlds,  500  b.  c.  Hipparchtos  began 
his  observations  at  Rhodes,  167  b.  c. — began  his  new  cycle  of  the  moon  in 
143,  and  made  great  advances  in  the  science,  140  b.c.  The  precession  of 
the  equinoxes  confirmed,  and  the  places  and  distances  of  the  planets  discov- 
ered, hj  Ptolemy ,  a.  d.  130.  After  the  lapse  of  nearly  seven  centuries,  during 
Avhich  time  astronomy  was  neglected,  it  was  resumed  by  the  Arabs  about  800 ; 
and  was  afterwards  brought  into  Europe  by  the  Moors  of  Barbary  and  Spain, 
but  not  sooner  than  1201,  when  they  also  introduced  geography. 


The  Alphonsine  tables  {ichich  see)  were 
composed       -  -  •       a.  d.  1284 

Clocks  first  used  in  astronomy,  about  -  1500 

True  doctrine  of  the  motions  of  the  pla- 
netary bodies  revived  by  Copernicus  1530 

The  science  greatly  advanced  by  Tycho 
Brahe,  about        -  -  -        -  1.5S2 

True  laws  of  the  planetary  motions,  by 
Kepler 1610 

Telescopes  and  other  instruments  used 
in  astronomy,  about  -  -     -  1627 

The  discoveries  of  Galileo  were  made 
about       -  -  -  ■        -  1631 


The  transit  of  Venus  over  the  sun's  disk 

first  observed  by  Horrox,  Nov.  24  a. d.  1639 
Cassini  draws  his  meridian  line,  after 

Dante. — See  Bologna  ■  ■  - 1655 

The  aberration  of  the  light  of  the  fixed 

stars  discovered  by  Horrebow  -  1C59 

Discoveries  of  Picart  -  -     -  1669 

Map  of  the  moon  constructed  by  Heve- 

hus 167C 

Motion  of  the  sun  round  its  own  axis 

proved  by  Halley       -  -  - 1676 

Discoveries  of  Huygens        -  -     .  1686 

Newton's  Principia  published,  andth* 


180 


THE    WORLD'S    PROGRESS. 


[  ATH 


ASTRONOMY  continued. 

system  as  now  taught  incontrovertibly 
established       -  -  -    a.  d.  1687 

Catalogue  of  the  stars  made  by  Flam- 
stead'       1688 

Satellites  of  Saturn,  &c.  discovered  by 
Cassini 1701 

Aberration  of  the  stars  clearly  explained 
by  Dr.  Bradley        .  -  -    - 1737 

Celestial    inequalities    found   by    La 
Grange 1780 

Uranus  and   satellites    discovered  by 


Ilerschel,  March  13.— See  Georgium 

Sidus  -  -  -  -1781 

Mecanique   Celeste,  published  by  La 

Place 1796 

Ceres  discovered  by  Piazzi,  Jan.  1  -  1801 
Pallas,  by  Dr.  Gibers,  March  28  ■  1802 

Juno,  by  Hardine,  Sept.  1    •  -     - 1804 

Vesta,  by  Gibers"  -  -  -  1807 

Neptune,  by  Le  Verrier       -  -     -  1S46 

United  States  astronomical  expedition 

to  the  South  Hemisphere,  under  Lieut. 

Gillies,  left  Baltimore  July  18       -    -  1849 

The  distance  of  the  fixed  stars  is  supposed  to  be  400,000  times  greater  from 
us  than  we  are  from  the  sun,  that  is  to  say,  38  millions  of  millions  of  miles ; 
so  that  a  cannon-ball  would  take  near  nine  millions  of  years  to  reach  one  of 
them,  supposing  there  were  nothing  to  hinder  it  from  pursuing  its  course 
thither.  As  light  takes  about  eight  minutes  and  a  quarter  to  reach  us  from 
the  sun,  it  would  be  about  six  j'ears  in  coming  from  one  of  those  stars ;  but 
the  calculations  of  later  astronomers  prove  some  stars  to  be  so  distant,  that 
their  light  must  take  centuries  before  it  can  reach  us ;  and  that  every  par- 
ticle of  light  which  enters  our  eyes  left  the  star  it  comes  from  three  or  four 
hundred  years  ago. — Objects  of  Science. 

ASYLUMS,  OR  Privileged  Places.  At  first  they  were  places  of  refuge  for 
those  who,  bj^  accident  or  necessity  had  done  things  that  rendered  them 
obnoxious  to  the  law.  God  commanded  the  Jews  to  build  certain  cities  for 
this  purpose.  The  posterity  of  Hercules  is  said  so  have  built  one  at  Athens, 
to  protect  themselves  against  such  as  their  father  had  irritated.  Cadmus 
built  one  at  Thebes,  aud  Romulus  one  on  Mount  Palatine.  A  while  after  the 
coming  of  Christianity  into  England,  superstitious  veneration  ran  so  high, 
that  churches,  monasteries,  church-yards,  and  bishops'  houses  became  asy- 
lums to  all  that  fled  to  tliem,  let  the  crime  be  what  it  would ;  of  which  very 
ill  use  was  made,  both  by  the  clergy  and  laity.  In  London  persons  were 
secure  from  arrest  in  particular  localities :  these  were  the  Minories,  Salis- 
bury-court, Whitefriars,  Fulvvood's-rents,  Mitre-court,  Baldwin's-gardens, 
the  Savoy,  Clink,  Deadman's-place,  Montague-close,  and  the  Mint.  This 
security  was  abolished  a.  d.  1696 ;  but  the  last  was  not  wholly  suppressed 
until  the  reign  of  George  L — See  Privileged  Places  and  Sanctuaries. 

ATHAN ASIAN  CREED  and  CONTROVERSY.  The  great  controversy  regard- 
ing the  divinity  of  Christ,  arose  and  extended  between  a.  d.  833  and  351. 
Athanasius,  who  was  a  native  of  Alexandria,  encountered  great  persecution 
at  the  hands  of  the  Arians  for  his  religious  doctrines,  and  was  exiled  for 
them  again  and  again.  The  creed  which  goes  by  his  name  is  supposed  by 
most  authorities  to  have  been  written  about  the  year  340 ;  but  it  is  aflBrmed 
by  other  writers  to  be  the  compilation  of  an  African  bishop  in  the  fifth  cen- 
tury.— Du  Pin. 

ATHEISM.  This  absurd  doctrine  has  had  its  votaries  and  its  martyrs.  Spi- 
^  nosa,  a  foreigner,  was  its  noted  defender  in  the  17th  century.  Lucilio  Vanini 
publicly  taught  atheism  in  France,  and  was  condemned  to  be  burnt  at  Tou- 
louse in  1619.  Mathias  Knutzen,  of  Holstein,  openly  professed  atheism,  and 
had  upwards  of  a  thousand  disciples  in  Germany  about  1674 ;  he  travelled 
to  make  proselytes,  and  his  followers  were  called  Conscienciares,  because 
they  held  that  there  is  no  other  deity  than  conscience.  Many  eminent  men 
of  various  countries  have  been  professors  of  Atheism,  and  even  in  England 
we  have  had  writers  tinctured  with  it. — Richardson.  Ashe.  "Though  a  small 
draught  of  philosophj'  may  lead  a  man  into  atheism,  a  deep  draught  will 
certainly  bring  him  back  again  to  the  belief  of  a  God." — Lord  Bacon.     "  S' 


ATT  ] 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  181 


Dieu  n^existait  pas  il  faiidrait  Vinventcr  :"    If  a  God  did  not  exist,  it  would 
be  necessary  to  invent  one. —  Voltaire. 

ATHENjEA.  These  were  great  festivals  celebrated  at  Athens  in  honor  of 
Minerva.  One  of  them  was  called  Panathenjea,  and  the  other  Chalcea ; 
they  were  first  instituted  by  Erectheus  or  Orpheus,  1397  b.  c.  ;  and  Theseus 
afterwards  renewed  them,  and  caused  them  to  be  observed  by  all  the  people 
of  Athens,  the  first  every  fifth  year,  1234  b.  c. — Plutarch. 

ATHENiEUM.  A  place  at  Athens,  sacred  to  Minerva,  where  the  poets  and 
philosophers  declaimed  and  recited  their  compositions.  The  most  celebrated 
Athensa  were  at  Athens,  Rome,  and  Lyons :  that  of  Rome  was  of  great 
beauty  ia  its  building,  and  was  erected  by  the  emperor  Adrian,  a.  d.  125. — 
Tillemont's  Life  of  Adrian. 

ATHENS.  The  once  celebrated  capital  of  ancient  Attica,  whose  magnificent 
ruins  yet  attest  its  former  grandeur — the  seat  of  science  and  theatre  of  valor. 
The  first  sovereign  of  whom  we  have  any  knowledge  is  Ogyges,  who  reigned 
in  Bceotia,  and  was  master  of  Attica,  then  called  Ionia.  In  his  reign  a  deluge 
took  place  (by  some  supposed  to  be  no  other  than  the  universal  deluge,  or 
Noah's  flood)  that  laid  waste  the  country,  in  which  state  it  remained  twc 
hundred  years,  until  the  arrival  of  the  Egyptian  Cecrops  and  a  colony,  by 
whom  the  land  was  repeopled,  and  twelve  cities  founded,  1556  b.  c.  The  first 
state  of  Athens  was  under  seventeen  kings,  comprising  a  period  of  487  years, 
but  the  history  of  its  first  twelve  monarchs  is  mostly  fabulous ;  in  its  second 
state  it  was  governed  by  thirteen  perpetual  archons,  a  period  of  316  years ;  in 
its  third  state  by  seven  decennial  archons,  whose  rule  extended  over  70  years, 
and,  lastly,  in  its  fourth  state  by  annual  archons,  who  ruled  for  760  years. 
Under  this  democracy  Athens  became  unrivalled,  and  her  people  signalized 
themselves  by  their  valor,  munificence,  and  culture  of  the  fine  arts ;  and 
perhaps  not  one  other  single  city  in  the  world  can  boast,  in  such  a  short 
space  of  time,  of  so  great  a  number  of  illustrious  citizens.  The  ancients,  to 
distinguish  Athens  in  a  more  peculiar  manner,  called  it  Astat,  one  of  the  ej'^es 
of  Greece. — Plutarch.  The  Venetians  got  possession  of  Athens  in  a.  d.  1204, 
and  the  Turks  in  1687. — Priestley.  It  became  the  capital  of  Livadia,  a  pro- 
vince of  European  Turkey;  and  is  now  that  of  the  new  kingdom  of  Greece, 
and  the  seat  of  its  legislature,  established  under  King  Otho  I.,  January  25th, 
1833. — See  Greece.  For  events  in  the  history  of  Athens,  see  Tables  from 
B.  c.  1556  to  B.  c.  21. 

ATMOSPHERE.  Posidonius  first  calculated  the  height  of  the  atmosphere, 
stating  it  to  be  800  stadia,  nearly  agreeing  with  our  modern  ideas,  about  79 
B.C.  Its  weight  was  determined  by  Galileo  and  Terricellius,  about  1630; 
its  density  and  elasticity  by  Boyle ;  and  its  relation  to  light  and  sound  by 
Hooke,  Newton,  and  Derham.  The  composition  of  the  atmosphere  was 
ascertained  by  Hales,  Black,  Priestley,  Scheele,  Lavoisier,  and  Cavendish ; 
and  its  laws  of  refraction  were  investigated  by  Dr.  Bradley,  1737. 

ATTAINDER,  Acts  of,  have  been  passed  in  numerous  I'eigns :  two  witnesses 
ia  cases  of  high  treason  are  necessary  where  corruption  of  blood  is  incurred, 
unless  the  party  accused  shall  confess,  or  stand  mute,  7  and  8  William  III^ 
1694-5. — Blackstone.  The  attainder  of-Lord  Russell,  who  was  beheaded  in 
Lincoln's-inn-Fields,  July,  21,  1683,  was  reversed  under  William,  in  1689. 
The  rolls  and  records  of  the  acts  of  attainder  passed  in  the  reign  of  king 
James  II.  were  cancelled  and  publicly  burnt,  Oct.  2,  1695.  Several  acts  were 
reversed  ia  subsequent  reigns.  Among  the  last  acts  so  reversed,  not  the  least 
interesting  was  the  attaint  of  the  children  of  lord  Edward  Fitzgerald  (who 
was  implicated  in  the  rebellion  in  Ireland  of  1798),  July  1,  1819. 

A-TTILA,  surnamed  the  "  Scourge  of  God"  and  thus  distinguished  for  his  con- 
quests and  his  crimes,  ravaged  all  Europe,  \.  d.  447.     He  invaded  the  Ro- 


1 82  THE  world's  progress.  [  Airo 

man  empire  with  an  army  of  500.000  Huns,  and  laid  waste  all  the  provinces. 
He  died  on  the  night  of  his  nuptials  with  a  beautiful  virgin  named  Ildico, 
about  A.  D.  453. —  Goldsmith. 

ATTORNEY-GENERAL.  A  great  officer  of  the  cromi,  appointed  by  letters 
patent.  It  is  among  his  duties  to  exhibit  informations  aud  prosecute  for 
the  king  in  matters  criminal ;  and  to  file  bills  in  Exchequer,  for  any  claims 
concerning  the  crown,  in  inheritance  or  profit ;  and  others  may  bring  bills 
against  the  king's  attorney.  The  first  Attorney-General  was  William  de 
Gisilham,  7  Edward  I.  1278. — Bcatson. 

ATTORNEYS.  The  number  practising  in  Edward  III.'s  reign  was  under  400 
for  the  whole  kingdom.  In  the  32d  of  Henry  VI.  1454,  a  law  reduced  the 
practitioners  in  Norfolk,  Norwich,  and  Suffolk,  from  eighty  to  fourteen,  and 
restricted  their  increase.  The  number  of  attorneys  now  practising  in  Eng- 
land, or  registered,  or  retired,  is  about  13,000.  The  number  sworn,  and 
practising  or  retired  in  Ireland,  is  stated  at  2000.  A  list  of  19,527  ''practis- 
ing lawyers"  in  the  United  States  is  given  in  the  Lawyer's  Directory,  1850. 

ATTRACTION.  Copernicus  described  attraction  as  an  appetence  or  appetite 
which  the  Creator  impressed  upon  all  parts  of  matter,  about  1520.  It  was 
described  by  Kepler  to  be  a  corporeal  affection  tending  to  union,  1605.  In 
the  Newtonian  philosophy,  it  is  an  original  power  which  restores  lost  motion ; 
a  principle  whereby  all  bodies  mutually  tend  to  each  other. — See  Astronomy. 

AUCTION,  a  kind  of  sale  known  to  the  Romans.  The  first  in  Britain  was 
about  1700,  by  Elisha  Yale,  a  governor  of  Fort  George,  in  the  East  Indies,  of 
the  goods  he  had  brought  home  with  him.  Auction  and  sales'  tax  began,  1779. 

AUERSTADT,  Battle  op.  In  this  most  sanguinary  conflict  between  the  French 
and  Prussian  armies,  they  were  commanded  by  their  respective  sovereigns, 
and  Napoleon  obtained  a  decisive  victory.  The  Prussians  were  routed  on 
every  side,  and  lost  200  pieces  of  cannon,  thirty  standards,  and  28,000  pri- 
soners, leaving  30,000  slain  upon  the  field,  Oct.  14,  1806.  The  French 
emperor  immediately  afterwards  entered  Berlin,  from  whence  he  issued  his 
meiuorable  Berlin  decree. — See  Berlin  Decree. 

AUGSBURG  CONFESSION  or  FAITH.  The  confession  of  articles  of  faith 
drawn  up  at  Augsburg  by  Melancthon,  and  by  him  and  Luther  presented  to 
the  emperor  Charles  V.  in  1530.  It  was  divided  into  two  parts,  the  first 
consisting  of  twenty-one  articles,  and  the  second  of  seven,  directly  opposed 
to  the  abuses  that  had  crept  into  the  Church  of  Rome.  The  elector  of  Sax- 
ony, his  son,  and  several  other  princes  of  Germany,  signed  this  confession, 
which  was  delivered  to  the  emperor  in  the  palace  of  the  bishop  of  Augs- 
burg, and  hence  it  is  called  the  Confession  of  Augsburg. 

AUGSBURG,  League  of.  A  memorable  treaty  concluded  between  Holland 
and  other  European  powers,  which  had  for  its  object  the  causing  the  trea- 
ties of  Munster  and  Nimeguen  to  be  respected,  16"86. — See  Munster  and  Ni- 
vieguen. 

AUGURY.  Husbandry  was  in  part  regulated  by  the  coming  or  going  of  birds, 
long  before  the  time  of  Hesiod.  Augurs  instituted  at  Rome,  with  vestals 
'  and  several  orders  of  the  priesthood,  by  Numa,  710  b.  c.  There  was  a  com- 
niimit}^  of  them,  appointed  to  foretell  events  by  the  flight  of  birds,  and 
other  circimistances.  The  king  Car,  from  whom  Caria  in  Asia  Minor  is 
named,  was  the  inventor  of  augury  by  birds.— Fossms.  The  augurs  of 
Rome  drew  omens  from  the  phenomena  of  the  heavens,  the  chirping  and 
flight  of  birds,  and  various  strange  casualties. — Livy. 

AUGUST.  The  eighth  month  of  the  year.  It  was  dedicated  to  the  honor  of 
Augustus  Cfesar,  from  whom  it  was  named  in  the  year  b  b.  c,  because  in 
tliis  month  lie  was  born,  was  created  consul,  or  chief  magistrate,  thrice 


AUiS  ]  DICTIONAllY    OF    DATES.  183 

triumplied  in  Rome,  subdued  Egypt  to  tlie  Roman  empire,  and  made  an 
end  oif  the  civil  wars.  It  was  previously  called  Sextilis,  or  the  sixth  from 
March. 
AUSTERLITZ,  Battle  of,  between  the  French  and  Austrian  armies,  gained  by 
the  former.  Three  emperors  commanded  at  this  battle,  Alexander  of  Rus- 
sia, Francis  of  Austria,  and  Napoleon  of  France.  The  killed  and  wounded 
exceeded  40,000  on  the  side  of  the  allies,  who  lost,  besides,  forty  standards, 
150  pieces  of  cannon,  and  many  thousands  of  prisoners.  This  decisive  vic- 
tory of  the  French  led  to  the  treaty  of  Presburg,  which  was  signed  Dec.  26, 
same  year.  The  battle  was  fought  Dec.  2,  1805.  See  Presburg. 
AUSTRALASIA,  includes  New  Holland,  Van  Diemen's  Land,  New  Guinea, 
New  Britian,  New  Zealand,  &c.,  mostly  discovered  Avithin  two  centuries.  01 
a  population  of  twentj'-two  millions,  the  native  inhabitants  are  not  supposed 
to  exceed  one  hundred  thousand.  Several  settlements  from  Europe  have 
been  made  since  the  commencement  of  the  present  century.  Act  to  pro- 
vide for  the  government  of  Western  Australia,  10  George  IV.  1829.  Act 
to  erect  South  Australia  into  a  British  province,  4  and  2  William  IV.  1834. 
New  act,  5  and  6  William  IV.  1835.  Several  companies  and  institutions  con- 
nected with  Australia  have  lately  been  formed  in  London. 
AUSTRIA,  anciently  the  Belgic  Gaul  of  the  Romans.  It  was  taken  from  Hun- 
gary and  annexed  to  Germany,  when  it  received  its  present  name,  about  a.  d. 
1040.  This  was  after  Charlemagne  had  re-established  the  Western  Empire, 
Austria  being  a  part  of  what  was  called  Eastern  France,  which  its  name  in 
the  German  language  implies. 

Rodolpli,  count  of  Hapsburg,  seizes  The  emperor   issues   his   declaration 

Austria  from  Bohemia,  and  makes  against  France  -  -  Aug.  5,  180f 

himself  archduke        -  -  - 1273     Napoleon,  after  many  victories,  enters 

Revolt  of  Switzerland  from  the  house  Vienna       -  -  -    Nov.  14,  1S03 

of  Austria,  in  the  reign  of  Albert  I.  -1307     Vienna  evacuated  by  the  French, 
Albert  II.  duke  of  Austria,  succeeds  to  Jan.  12,  18116 

three    crowns  — the    imperial,    and  They  again  capture  it  -    May  13,  1809 

those  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia ;  his  But  restore  it  at  the  peace         Oct.  24,  1809 

family  still  possess  the  empire,         -  1438     Napoleon   marries    the     archduchess 
Burgundy  accrues  to  Austria  by  the  |      Maria  Louisa,  the  daughter  of  the 

marriage   of  Maximilian    with  the  l      emperor  -  -  April  1,  1810 

heiress  of  that  province  .  -1477      Congress  at  Vienna  -         Oct.  2,  1814 

Also  Spain,  by  the  marriage  of  Philip  Treaty  of  Vienna  .  Feb.  25,  1815 

I.  of  Austria  with  the  heiress  of  Ara-  Death  of  Francis  I.,  and  accession  of 

gon  and  Castile  -  -  -  1496         Ferdinand       -  -  March  2,  183"> 

Charles  V.,  reigning  over  Germany,  New  treaty  of  commerce  with  England 

Austiia,  Bohemia,  Hungary,  Spain,  July  3,  1833 

the  Netherlands,  and  their  dependen-  Ferdinand  is  crowned  with  great  splen- 

cies,  abdicates,  and  retires  from  the  dor  at  Milan  -  -      Sept.-6,  1838 

world,  leaving  his  German  dominions  Tumult  at    Vienna,  agitation  for   re- 

to  his  brother  Ferdinand,  and  Spain  forms;  Metternich  resigns  and  flies; 

andthe  Netherlands  to  his  son,  Philip     _  freedom  of  the   press  and  national 

II. — See  Spain  -  ■  ■  15u7         guard  granted  by  the  emperor 

The  Protestant  princes    of  Germany,  March  13,  1648 

being  oppressed  by  the  house  of  Aus-  ;  The  emperor  publishes,  at  Milan,  abo- 

tria,  call  in  theaid  of  Gustavus  Add-  i      lition  of  the  censorship  and  conven- 

phus  of  Sweden,  and  this  leads  to  the  tion  of  the  states;  the  people  demand 

treaty  of  Westphalia  -  -  -  1648  ^      more,  and  are  refused         March  18,    " 

Leopold  I  reigns. — See  Gennany       -1658     Blilan  revolts,  and  contends  successfully       - 
Accessionof  Francis,  duke  of  Lorraine,  i      with  the  soldiery       -         March  23,    " 

■who  marries  the  celebrated  queen  of  |  Austrians  retire  to  Mantua;  Milan  en- 

Hungary,  Maria  Theresa,  daughter  of  :      tered  by  Charles  Albert  of  Sardinia 

the  decea,=ed  emperor,  Charle's  VI.   -  1745  Blarch  23,     " 

Reign  of  Joseph  II.  -  -         -1765     Lombardy  and  the  Tyrol  in  rebellion 

Religious  toleration  granted  -     -  1776  March,    " 

The  emperor  controls  the  pope  -  1782     The  emperor  retires  to  Innsbruck 

Reign  of  Leopold  n.      -  -  -  1790  :  May  IS,    " 

Reign  of  Francis  II.  ...  1792  1  Austrian  army  under  Radetsky  holds  in 

Austria  becomes  a  distinct  empire,  and  '      check  Charles  Albert  of  Sardinia,  in 

Francis  II.  of  Germany  takes  the  title  Lombardy         -  -  May —    " 

of  I.  of  Austria  •  Aug.  9, 1804     Is  defeated  and  driven  to  Mantua  May  29,    " 


184  THE   world's    PROGRESfe.  [  AZO 

AUSTRIA,  contimied. 

Diet  of  the   Croatian-Slavonic  nation  Ferdinand  I.  abdicates ;    his  brother, 

summoned  by  the  Ban  of  Croatia  Francis  Charles,  declines  the  throne ; 

May  20,  1848         it  is  taken  by  his  son,  Francis  Joseph 
Insurrection  at  Rome ;  order  re-esta-  Dec.  2, 1846 

blished  after  bombardment,  June  12-15    "        The  emperor  gives  a  new  constitution 
Vicenza  and  Padua  subdued  by  Ra-  IMarch  4-6, 1849 

detsky  -  -  -       June  "        Haynau   takes    Brescia,    after   great 

Milan  retaken       •  -  Aug.  4,  "  slaughter,  and  sacks  it        March  30, 

The  emperor  returns  to  Vienna    "  12,  "        Bologna  taken,  after  a  siege  of  8  days 
Insurrection  at  Vienna ;  Count  Latour,  May  16, 

minister  of  war,  killed  by  the  mob;  Haynau  takes  command  of  the  Aus- 

tlie  diet  demands  the  retraction  of  the  trian  army  in  Hungary         June  — , 

measures  against  Hungary,  and  a  Ancona  taken,  after  bombardment 

new  ministry;  the  emperor  flies  June  11, 

Oct.  6,  "        Venice  taken  by  Radetsky       Aug.  22, 

The  Hungarian  army  advanced  within  Hungarian  war  finished  by  the  surren- 

six  miles  of  Vienna         -        Oct.  II,  "  derofGorgey  -  Aug.  11,    " 

Prince  Windischgratz  appointed  com-  Followed  by  numerous  executions. 

mander-in-chief,  Oct.   16 ;    and    be-  See  Germany,  Vienna,  &c. 

sieges  Vienna,  17th ;  bombards   the 

city  and  masters  it  Nov.  2,  " 

Before  the  establishment  of  the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine  in  1806,  Fran- 
cis ceased  to  be  emperor  of  Germany,  and  became  hereditary  emperor  of 
Austria,  under  the  title  of  Francis  I.  Upon  the  formation  of  the  Germanic 
Confederation  in  1815,  the  emperor  of  Austria  was  declared  hereditary  head 
of  that  body. 

AUTHORS.     For  laws  securing  copyright,  see  Copyright  and  Literary  Property. 

AUTO  DA  FE.  See  Inquisition.  The  punishment,  often  by  burning  alive,  of 
a  heretic.  This  is  called  an  act  of  Faith,  and  is  coeval  with  the  Inquisition ; 
and  since  its  first  practice  in  a.  d.  1203,  more  than  one  hundred  thousand 
victims  have  been  sacrificed  by  the  sentence  of  the  Inquisitions  of  Roman 
Catholic  countries  on  the  burning  pile.  One  of  the  last  executions  of  this 
kind  was  at  Goa,  where,  for  the  glory  of  the  Christian  rehgion  (!)  and  in 
vindication  of  the  Catholic  faith,  twenty  sufferers  perished  in  the  flames, 
1787.     These  horrible  sacrifices  have  ceased  in  Spain. — Aslie. 

AVIGNON,  ceded  by  Philip  III.  of  France  to  the  Pope  in  1273.  The  papal  seat 
was  removed  for  seventy  years  to  Avignon,  in  1308.  It  was  seized  several 
times  by  the  French,  by  whom  it  was  taken  from  the  pope  in  1769,  but  was 
restored  on  the  suppression  of  the  Jesuits,  1773.  Declared  to  belong  to 
France  by  the  National  Assembly,  1791.  Horrible  massacres  in  October  of 
that  year.     Continued  to  France  by  the  Congress  of  sovereigns,  in  1815. 

AXE,  WEDGE,  WIMBLE,  &c.  These  instruments,  with  the  lever,  and  vari- 
ous others  of  a  coarse  construction,  and  still  in  common  use,  are  said  to 
have  been  invented  by  Dsedalus,  an  artificer  of  Athens,  to  whom  also  is 
ascribed  the  invention  of  masts  and  sails  for  ships,  1240  b.  c. 

AZORES,  OR  WESTERN  ISLES,  supposed  to  be  the  site  of  the  ancient  Ata- 
lantis :  they  were  discovered  by  Vandenburg,  a.  d.  1439 ;  and  were  settled 
by  the  Portuguese,  in  1448.  Martin  Behem  found  one  of  them  covered  with 
beech-trees,  and  he  called  it  therefore  Fayal;  another  abounding  in  sweet 
flowers,  and  he  therefore  called  it  Flores;  and  all  full  of  haAvks,  and  he 
bherefore  named  them  the  Azores.  A  violent  concussion  of  the  earth  took 
place  here  for  twelve  days,  in  1591.  A  devastating  earthquake,  in  1757. 
Here  are  fountains  of  boiling  water.  A  volcano  at  St.  George's  destroyed 
the  town  of  Ursuhna,  May,  1808;  and  in  1811,  a  volcano  appeared  near  St. 
Michael's  in  the  sea,  where  the  water  was  eighty  fathoms  deep.  An  island 
called.  Sabrina  gradually  disappeared,  Dec.  1812. 


BAC]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  185 

B. 
BABEL,  THE  Tower  of,  built  by  Noah's  posterity,  2247  b.  c.  Tiie  temple  of 
Belus,  originally  this  celebrated  tower,  was  the  most  magnificent  in  the 
world;  it  had  lofty  spires,  and  was  enriched  with  many  statues  of  gold,  one 
of  them  forty  feet  high.  In  the  upper  part  of  this  temple  was  the  tomb  of 
the  founder,  Belus  (the  Nimrod  of  the  sacred  Scriptures),  who  was  deified 
after  death ;  and  in  an  adjoining  apartment  was  a  magnificent  bed,  whither 
the  priests  daily  conducted  a  female,  who,  as  they  pretended,  was  there 
honored  with  the  company  of  the  god. — Blair. 
BABINGTON'S  CONSPIRACY,  formed  in  the  cause  of  Mary  against  Elizabeth, 
for  which  the  chief  conspirator,  with  thirteen  others,  suffered  death.  Bab- 
ington  was  a  gentleman  of  Derbyshire,  and  he  associated  with  persons  of  his 
own  persuasion  (the  Roman  Catholic),  with  a  design  to  assassinate  the 
queen,  and  deliver  Mary.  He  seems  to  have  been  principally  induced  to 
this  rash  conspiracy  by  a  romantic  hope  that  Marj'^,  in  gratitude,  would 
accept  of  him  as  a  husband.  1586. 
BABYLON,  Empire  of,  founded  by  Belus,  supposed  to  be  the  Nimrod  of  holy 
writ,  the  son  of  Chus,  and  grandson  of  Ham,  2245  b.  c.^ — Lenglet.  Ninus  of 
AssjTia  seized  on  Babylon,  and  established  what  was  j^i'operly  the  Assy- 
rian empire,  by  uniting  the  two  soveicignties,  2059  e.g.  According  to 
Eusebius  this  empire  existed  1240  years ;  according  to  Justin,  1300  years ; 
according  to  Herodotus,  500  or  600  years.  Of  these  opinions  Blair  has 
adopted  the  first,  which  calculates  from  the  tbundation  of  the  empire  by 
Ninus,  B.C.  2059,  to  the  close  of  the  reign  of  Sardanapalus,  who  was  de- 
throned by  his  generals,  and  his  kingdom  divided  into  the  Assyrian,  Baby- 
lonian, and  Median  kingdoms.  820  b.  c. — See  Assyria. 
The  tower  of  Babel  built  -  b.  c.  2247 
The  kingdom  of  Babylon  begins  -  2245 

Ashur  builds  a  city,  afterwards  called 

Nineveh  -  -  -2245 

The  astronomical  observations  are  be- 
gun at  Babylon  by  the  Chaldeans. — 
Blair ;  Lenglet  -  -  ■  2234 

Belus,  kmg  ol"  Assj'ria,  extends  his  em- 
pire over  the  neighboring  states,  de- 
feats the  Babylonians,  and  makes 
them  tributary. —  Usher        -  -2124 

Ninus,  son  of  Belus,  reigns  in  Assyria,  I   Taken  by  Darius. — Usher        -  -   511 

The  city  of  Babylon  Avas,  anciently,  the  most  magnificent  in  the  world;  and 
in  later  times  famous  for  the  empire  established  under  the  Seleucidas.  Its 
greatness  was  so  reduced  in  succeeding  ages,  that  Pliny  says,  in  his  time  it 
was  but  a  desolate  wilderness ;  and  at  pi-esent  the  jjlace  where  it  stood  is 
scarcely  Imown  to  travellers. — Rollings  Ancient  Hist. 

BACCHANALIA,  games  celebrated  in  honor  of  Bacchus.  They  arose  in 
Egypt,  and  were  brought  into  Greece  by  Melampus,  and  were  there  called 
Diouysia,  about  1415  b.  c. — Diodorus.  They  were  celebrated  in  Rome  under 
the  name  of  Bacchanalia. 

BACHELORS.  The  Roman  censors  frequently  imposed  fines  on  immarried 
men ;  and  men  of  full  age  were  obliged  to  marry.  The  Spartan  women  at 
certain  games  laid  hold  of  old  bachelors,  dragged  them  round  their  altars, 
and  inflicted  on  them  various  marks  of  infamy  and  disgrace. —  Vossius.  After 
twenty-five  years  of  age,  a  tax  was  laid  upon  bachelors  in  England.  12^.  lO.";. 

ii[  _iov  a  duke,  and  for  a  common  person,  one  shilling,  7  William  III.  1695. 
Bachelors  were  subjected  to  a  double  tax  on  their  male  and  female  servants, 
in  1785. 

BACKGAMMON.  Palamedes  of  Greece  is  the  reputed  inventor  of  this  game 
(decidedly  one  of  the  oldest  known  to  our  times),  about  1224  e.  c.    It  ia 


and  names  his  capital  after  himself, 
Nineveh. — Lenglet    ■  -      B.  c.  2069 

Babylon  taken  by  Ninus    -  -       -  2059 

The  Assyrian  empire  ends        -  -   820 

Belesis  governs  in  Babylon  -      -    766 

Babylon  taken  by  Esar-haddon    -        -    680 
Nebuchadnezzar  reigns  -         -    -    604 

He  takes  Jeru.=alem.  —Lenglet   -         -    587 
He  is  driven  from  among  men  -    -  569 

Babylon  taken  by  the  Medes  and  Per- 
sians, under  Cyrus      -  -  -    538 


186  THE  world's  progress.  [bri 

stated  by  some  to  have  been  invented  in  Wales  in  the  period  preceding  the 
Conquest. — Henry. 

BADAJOS,  Siege  of.  This  important  barrier  fortress  had  surrendered  to  the 
French,  March  11,  1811,  and  was  invested  by  the  British  under  lord  Wel- 
lington on  Marcli  18,  1812,  and  stormed  and  taken  on  April  6,  following. 
This  victory  was  not  only  a  glorious  military  achievement  in  itself,  birt  it 
obliged  the  French,  who  had  entered  Portugal  for  the  purpose  of  plunder, 
to  commence  a  precipitate  retreat  from  that  kingdom. 

BADEN,  House  of,  descended  from  Herman,  son  of  Berthold  I.  duke  of  Zah- 
ringen,  who  died  a.  d.  1074.  From  Christopher,  who  united  the  branches 
of  Hochberg  and  Baden,  and  died  in  1527,  proceed  the  branches  of  Baden- 
Baden,  and  Baden-Dourlach.  This  family  makes  a  most  conspicuous  figure  in 
the  annals  of  Germany,  and  is  allied  to  all  the  principal  fatnilies  in  the  empire. 

BADEN.  Treaty  of,  between  France  and  the  emperor,   when  Landau  was 
ceded  to  the  former,  Sept.  7,  1714.     Baden  was  formerly  a  margravate ;  it 
was  erected  into  a  grand  duchy,  as  a  member  of  the  Rhenish-Confederation, 
in  1806.     Its  territorial  acquisitions  by  its  alliances  with  France,  were  gua- 
ranteed by  the  congress  of  Vienna,  in  1815.     The  grand  Duke  granted  his 
people  freedom  of  the  press,  a  burgher  guard,  trial  by  jurj^,  and  the  right 
of  public  meeting,  Feb.  29.     Troops  revolt  at  Rastadt,  May,  1849.     Insur- 
rection at  Carlsruhe ; — the  grand  Duke  Hues,  May  13,  1849.     Insurrection 
subdued  by  the  Prussians,  June,  1849. 
BAFFIN'S-BAY,  discovered  by  William  Baffin,  an  Englishman,  in  1616.    The 
nature  and  extent  of  this  discovery  were  much  doubted  until  the  expeditions 
of  Ross  and  Parrj^  proved  that  Baffin  was  substantially  accurate  in  his  state- 
ment.    These  voyagers  returned  home  in  1818.      See  article  North   Wed 
Passage. 
BAGDAD,  built  by  Almansor,  and  made  the  seat  of  the  Saracen  empire,  a.  d. 
762 — taken  by  the  Tartars,  and  a  period  put  to  the  Saracen  rule,  1258.     It 
has  since  been  often  taken  by  the  Persians,  and  from  them  again  by  the 
Tui'ks. — Blair. 
BAGPIPE.    This  instrument  is  supposed  by  some  to  be  peculiar  to  Ireland  and 
Scotland ;  but  it  must  have  been  known  to  the  Greeks,  as,  on  a  piece  of 
Grecian  sculpture  of  the  highest  antiquity,  now  in  Rome,  is  represented  a 
bagpiper  dressed  like  a  modern  highlander.     Nero  is  said  to  have  played 
upon  a  bagpipe,  a.d.  51. 
BAHAMA  ISLES.    These  were  the  first  points  of  discovery  by  Columbus. 
San  Salvador  was  seen  by  this  great  navigator  on  the  night  of  the  11th  Octo- 
ber, 1492. — The  Bahamas  were  not  known  to  the  English  till  1667.     Seized 
for  the  crown  of  England,  1718,  when  the  pirates  who  inhabited  them  sur- 
rendered to  Captain  Rogers. 
-BAIL.     By  ancient  common  law,  before  and  since  the  Conquest,  all  felonies 
were  bailable,  till  murder  ^\■as  excepted  by  statute ;  and  by  the  3d  Edward 
I.  the  power  of  bailing  in  treason,  and  in  divers  instances  of  felony,  was  taken 
away,  1274.     Bail  was  further  regulated,  23  Henry  VI. ;  2  Philip  and  Slary 
and  in  later  reigns. 
BAILIFFS  OR  SHERIFFS,  are  said  to  be  of  Saxon  origin.     London  had  its  sMre- 
reve  prior  to  the  Conquest,  and  this  officer  was  generally  appointed  for 
counties  in  Engknd  in  1079.     Sheriffs  were  appointed  in  Dublin  under  the 
name  of  bailifis,  in  1308;  and  the  name  was  changed  to  sheriff  1548.    There 
are  still  some  places  where  the  chief  magistrate  is  called  bailiff,  as  the  high 
bailiff  of  Westminster.     The  term  Bimi-ba.illffis  a  corruption  ofbormd-bailiff, 
every  bailiff  being  obliged  to  enter  into  bonds  of  security  for  his  good  he- 
ha.vior. -^Bladstone. 


BAL  ]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  1 87 

BALANCE  OP  POWER,  to  assure  the  independency  and  integrity  of  states,  and 
control  ambition ;  the  principle  is  said  to  he  a  discovery  of  the  Italian  poli- 
ticians of  the  fifteenth  century,  on  the  invasion  of  Charles  VIII.  of  France— 
Robertson.  By  the  treaty  of  Munster,  the  principle  of  a  balance  of  power 
was  first  recognized  by  treaty  October  24,  1648. 

BALLADS.  They  may  be  traced  in  British  history  to  the  Anglo-Saxons.— 
Turner.  Andhelme,  who  died  a.  d.  709,  is  mentioned  as  the  first  who  intro- 
duced ballads  into  England.  "The  harp  was  sent  round,  that  those  might 
sing  who  could."— .Bciie.  Alfred  sung  ballads.— iWaZOTsiwrT/.  Canute  com- 
posed one..— Turner.  Minstrels  were  protected  by  a  charter  of  Edward  IV. ; 
but  by  a  statute  of  Elizabeth  they  were  made  punishable  among  rogues, 
vagabonds,  and  sturdy  beggars. —  Viner. 

BALLADS,  NATIONAL.  "Give  me  the  writing  of  the  ballads,  and  you  may 
make  the  laws." — Fletcher  of  Saltoun.  A  British  statesmaB  has  said,  "  Give 
me  the  writing  of  the  ballads  of  the  country,  and  while  I  place  at  your  com- 
mand every  other  species  of  composition,  I  will  fix  public  opinion,  and  rule 
public  feeling,  and  sway  the  popular  sentiment,  more  powerfully  than  all 
your  writers,  political  and  moral  can  do  by  any  other  agency  or  influence." 
The  beautifal  and  frequently  touching  ballads  of  Dibdin,  particularly  those 
of  the  sea,  inspired  many  a  brave  defender  of  his  country  in  the  late  war ; 
Dibdin  died  Jan.  20,  1833. 

BALLETS.  They  arose  in  the  meretricious  taste  of  the  Italian  courts.  One 
performed  at  the  interview  between  Hen.  Vlll.  of  Eng.  &  Francis  I.  of  France, 
in  the  field  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold,  1520.— Guicciardini.  In  the  next  century, 
they  reached  the  summit  of  their  glory  in  the  splendid  pomps  of  the  courts 
of  Tuscany  and  Lorraine  ;  and  their  most  zealous  patron,  Louis  XIV.,  bore 
a  part  in  one,  16G4. 

BALLOON.  Galien  of  Avignon  wrote  on  aerostation,  in  1755.  Dr.  Black  gave 
.  the  hint  as  to  hydrogen,  in  1767.  A  balloon  was  constructed  in  France  by 
MM.  Montgolfler,  in  1783,  whenRozier  and  the  marquis  d'Arlandes  ascended 
at  Paris.  Pilatre  Desrozier  and  M.  Romain  perished  in  an  attempted  voyage 
from  Boulogne  to  England,  the  balloon  having  taken  fire,  June  14, 1785.  At 
the  battle  of  Fleurus"  the  French  made  use  of  a  balloon  to  reconnoitre  the 
enemy's  army,  and  convey  the  observations  by  telegraph,  June  17,  1794. 
Garnerin  ascended  in  a  balloon  to  the  height  of  4,000  feet,  and  descended  by 
a  parachute.  Sept.  21.  1802.  Gaj'-Lussac  ascended  at  Paris  to  the  height  of 
23,000  feet,  Sept.  6. 1804.  Madame  Blanchard  ascended  from  Tivoli  at  night, 
and  the  balloon,  being  surrounded  by  fire-works,  took  fire,  and  she  was  pre- 
cipitated to  the  grormd,  and  killed,  July  6,  1819. 

BALLOON,  The  Nassau.  The  great  Nassau  balloon,  of  immense  dimensions, 
and  wliicli  had  for  some  time  previously  been  exhibited  to  the  inhabitants 
of  London  in  repeated  ascents  from  Vauxhall  gardens,  started  from  that 
place  on  an  experimental  voyage,  having  three  individuals  in  the  car,  and, 
after  having  been  eighteen  hours  in  the  air,  descended  at  Weilburg,  in  the 
duchy  of  Nassau,  Nov.  7,  1836. 

BALTIMORE,  the  third  city  in  population  and  fifth  in  commerce  in  the  United 
States ;  founded  1729 ;  named  from  lord  Baltimore,  the  proprietor  of  the 
Maryland  patent.  In  1765  it  contained  but  50  houses ;  chartered  as  a  city 
in  1797.  Population  in  1790,  13  508 ;  in  1810,  35,583 ;  in  1830,  80,625  ;  in 
1840,  102,313,  including  3,199  slaves.  A  handsome  monument  in  the  city 
commemorates  its  successful  defence  against  the  attack  of  the  British  under 
general  Ross,  Sept.  12,  1814. 

BALTEVIORE,  Battle  of,  between  the  British  army  under  general  Ross  and 
the  Americans ;  the  British  in  making  an  attack  r;pon  the  town  were  unsuc- 


l88  THE    world's    progress.  [  BAN 

cessful,  and  after  a  desperate  engagement  were  repulsed  with  great  loss; 
the  gallant  general  who  led  the  enterprise  was  killed,  Sept.  12,  1814. 

BANK.  The  first  established  was  in  Italy,  a.  d.  808,  by  the  Lombard  Jews,  pf 
whom  some  settled  in  Lombard-street,  London,  where  many  bankers  still 
reside.  The  name  bank  is  derived  from  banco,  a  bench,  which  was  erected 
in  the  market-place  for  the  exchange  of  money.  The  mint  in  the  tower  of 
London  was  anciently  the  depository  for  merchants'  cash,  until  Charles  I. 
laid  his  hands  upon  the  money,  and  destroyed  the  credit  of  the  mint,  in  1640. 
The  traders  were  thus  driven  to  some  other  place  of  security  for  their  gold, 
which,  when  kept  at  home,  their  apprentices  freqiiently  absconded  with  to 
the  army.  In  1645,  therefore,  they  consented  to  lodge  it  with  the  goldsmiths 
in  Lombard-street,  who  were'provided  with  strong  chests  for  their  own  valu- 
able wares  ;  and  this  became  the  origin  of  banking  in  England. — 

Bank  of  Venice  formed  -  -  -  11.57  i  Bank  of  Hamburgh  -       -1619 

Bank  of  Geneva         -  •  -        134.5     Bank  of  Rotterdam         •  •  1635 

Bank  of  Barcelona         -  -  -  1401     Bank  of  Stockholm  •  •        -1688 

Bank  of  Genoa  -  -  -        1407     Bank  of  England         -  •  -    •'694 

Bank  of  Amsterdam       -  •  -  1607  I  Bank  of  the  United  States  •      1791  and  1816 

BANK  OF  ENGLAND.  (See  preceding  article,)  originally  projected  by  a  mer- 
chant named  Patterson.  It  was  incorporated  by  William  III.  in  1694,  in  con- 
sideration of  1.200  000/.,  the  then  amount  of  its  capital,  being  lent  to  gov- 
ernment. The  capital  has  gone  on  increasing  from  one  period  to  another  up 
to  the  present  time  as  the  discretion  of  parliament  allowed ;  and  the  same 
authority  has  also  at  difterenfc  intervals  prolonged  the  privileges  of  tlie  bank, 
and  renewed  its  charter.  When  first  established  the  notes  of  the  bank  were 
at  20  per  cent,  discount ;  and  so  late  as  1745,  they  vf&ve  under  par.  Bank 
bills  were  paid  in  silver,  1745.  The  first  bank  post-bills  were  issued  1754 ; 
small  notes  were  issued  1759 ;  cash  payments  were  discontinued  February  25, 
1797,  when  notes  of  one  and  kco  pounds  were  put  into  circulation.  Silver 
tokens  appeai-ed  in  January,  1798 ;  and  afterwards  Spanish  dollars,  with  the 
head  of  George  III.  stamped  on  the  neck  of  Charles  IV.,  were  made  current. 
Cash  payments  were  resumed  partially,  Sept.  22,  1817,  and  the  restriction 
had  altogether  ceased  in  1821.  For  a  number  of  years  the  financial  mea- 
sures of  the  crown  have  been  largely  aided  by  loans  from  this  great  reser- 
voir of  wealth.  The  average  amount  of  the  Bank  of  England  notes  in  cir- 
culation is  as  follows : — 

In  1718  (earliest  account)  -  ^61,829,9.30 
1778  .  -  .  .  7,030,680 
1790  -  -  -  -  10.217.000 
1800  ....  15;450,000 
1810     -     -     -   -  23,904,000 

The  circulation  of  notes,  in  1845,  exceeded  27  millions,  and  the  bullion  in 
the  bank  fluctuated  between  15  and  16  millions.  The  returns  of  issues,  &c. 
are  now  made  weekly.  To  secure  the  credit  of  the  Bank  it  was  enacted, 
"  that  no  other  banking  company  should  consist  of  more  than  sis  persons," 
6  Anne  1707.  There  are  branch  banks  of  the  Bank  of  England  in  many  of 
the  chief  towns  of  the  kingdom ;  as  Birmingham,  Bristol,  Exeter,  Glouces- 
ter, Hall,  Leeds,  Liverpool,  Manchester,  Newcastle,  Norwich,  Swansea,  &c., 
all  formed  since  1828.  See  Funds. 
BANK  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES,  first  one  established  1791.  Cap.  S10,000,000. 
—A  new  one  with  cap.  of  $35,000,000,  1816.  The  act  of  Congress  rechar- 
tering  it  vetoed  by  president  Jackson,  July  10,  1832.  The  "removal  of 
the  deposits  "  of  the  U.  S.  government  from  the  bank,  by  order  of  presi- 
dent Jackson,  signed  by  R.  B.  Taney,  secretary  of  the  Treasury,  (W.  J. 
Duane  the  late  secretary  having  refused  to  sign  the  order,)  Sejit.  23,  1833. 
Resolution  of  the  Senate  that  the  removal  was  uncalled  for,  and  the  respon- 
sibility assumed  by  the  president  unconstitutional,  &e.,  introduced  by  Mr 


In  1815  ....  £26,803,520 

1820   .     •     -  -  27,174,000 

1830     -     -     -  -  20,620,000 

1835   -     -     -  -  18,215,220 

1840     -     -     -  -  17,231,000 


BAP  J  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  189 

Webster  and  passed  (26  to  20)  March.  28,  1834.  Senate  refused  to  enter  on 
tlieir  journal  the  pi'esident's  protest  against  their  resolution,  May  7,  1834, 
Noted  resolution  of  the  Senate  "expunging"  from  their  journals  their  reso- 
lution of  1834,  passed  24  to  19,  Jan.  16,  1837.— Sub-Treasury  Bill  passed 
Jan.  1840,  repealed  Aug.  9,  1841.  The  U.  S.  Bank  newly  incorporated  by 
Pennsylvania,  March  29,  1836 :  suspended  payment  Feb.  5,  1841.  Bill  for 
establishing  a  "  Fiscal  Bank  of  the  U.  S."  passed  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives Aug.  6,  1841 ;  vetoed  by  president  Tyler  Aug.  16.  Another  bill  for  a 
"Fiscal  Corporation"  vetoed  Sept.  9,  1841,  followed  by  a  resignation  of  all 
the  Cabinet,  except  Mr.  Webster. 

BANKRUPTCY.  Suspension  of  specie  payments  by  the  banks  of  New  Eng- 
land and  New- York,  May  10 — 16,  1837  ; — legalized  for  one  year  by  legisla- 
ture of  N.  Y.  Banks  of  Philadelphia,  Baltimore,  &c.,  also  suspended  same 
month.     General  bankruptcy  law  passed  bj''  Congress  Aug.  9,  1841. 

BANKRUPTS,  in  England,  first  law  enacted  regarding  them,  35  Henry  VIE. 
1543.  Again,  3  of  Elizabeth,  1560  ;  again,  I'james  I.  1602 ;  again,  1706 ; 
and  more  recently.  It  was  determined  by  the  King's  Bench  that  a  bankrupt 
may  be  arrested  except  in  going  and  coming  from  any  examination  before 
the  commissioners.  May  13,  1780.  The  lord  chancellor  (Thurlow)  refused 
a  bankrupt  his  certificate  because  he  had  lost  five  poimds  at  one  time  in 
gaming,  July  17,  1788.  Enacted  that  members  of  the  house  of  commons 
becoming  bankrupts,  and  not  paying  their  debts  in  full,  shall  vacate  their 
seats,  1812.  The  new  bankrupt  bill,  constituting  a  new  bankrupt  court, 
passed  October  1831. — Slatules  at  Large. 

NUMEEE   OP  BANKRUPTS   IN   GREAT   BRITAIN  AT   DIFFERENT  PERIODS. 

1700   -     •     -   -  38  I  1800  -     -     -  1339  I  1830  -     -  1467 

1725  -     -  -   .     -  416  I  1810  -   -     -   -  2000  1835  -     -   -  954 

1750   -     -     -   -  432  1820  -     -     -  1358  1840  -     -  1308 

1775 520  I  1825  -   -     -   -  2683  |  1844  -     -   -  1064 

According  to  a  return  to  parliament  made  at  the  close  of  February  1826. 
there  had  become  bankrupt  in  the  four  months  preceding,  59  banking-houses, 
comprising  144  partners ;  and  20  other  banking  establishments  had  been 
declared  insolvent.  Every  succeeding  week  continued  to  add  from  seventy 
to  a  hundred  merchants,  traders,  and  manufacturers  to  the  bankrupt  list. 
This  was,  however,  the  period  of  bubble  speculation,  and  of  unprecedented 
commercial  embarrassment  and  ruin.  ~ 
BANNOCKBURN,  B.\ttle  of,  between  king  Robert  Bruce,  of  Scotland,  and 
Edward  II.  of  England ;  the  army  of  Bruce  consisted  of  30,000  Scots,  and 
that  of  Edward  of  100,000  English,  of  whom  52,000  were  archers.  The 
English  crossed  a  rivulet  to  the  attack,  and  Bruce  having  dug  pits,  which 
he  had  covered,  they  fell  into  them,  and  were  thrown  into  confusion.  The 
rout  was  complete,  the  king  narrowlj'^  escaping,  and  50,000  English  were 
killed  or  taken  prisoners,  June  25,  1314. — Barbour. 

BANNS.  In  the  feudal  law,  banns  were  a  solemn  proclamation  of  any  thing, 
and  hence  arose  the  custom  of  asking  banns,  or  giving  notice  before  marriage. 
The  use  of  matrimonial  banns  is  said  to  have  been  introduced  into  the  Galil- 
ean church,  about  a.  d.  1210;  and  banns  of  marriage  are  proclaimed  in  llic 
church  of  England  to  this  day. 

BAPTISM.  The  sacrament  of  admission  instituted  by  Christ  and  practised  liy 
all  sects  professing  Christianity,  except  Quakers.  St.  John,  the  forerunner 
of  our  Saviour,  is  eminently  called  the  Baptist,  as  being  the  first  that  publicly 
baptized  with  a  spiritual  intention.  Christ  came  from  Galilee  to  Jordan, 
and  was  baptized  by  John.  a.  d.  30.  Originally  the  people  were  baptized  in 
rivers;  but  in  the  reign  of  Constantino,  a.  d.  319,  in  great  cities  they  buiit 
chapels,  or  ]jlacfs  si)ecially  to  baptize  in   \\liiih  in  the  eastern  conntrii-s  was 


190  THE  world's  Progress.  I^as. 

by  dipping  the  person  all  over.  Now,  in  the  western  and  colder  parts,  they 
use  sprinkling ;  at  first  every  church  had  not  a  baptistery  belonging  to  it ; 
onr  fonts  answer  the  same  end. — Pardon. 

BAPTISTS,  OR  Anabaptists,  a  sect  distinguished  from  other  Christians  by  their 
opinions  respecting  baptism,  began  their  doctrine  about  a.  d.  1525,  but  much 
earlier  dates  are  mentioned.  They  suffered  much  persecution  in  England  in 
the  sixteenth  century.  Rhode  Island,  America,  was  settled  by  Baptists  in 
1635.  Of  Baptist  missions,  it  may  be  said,  that  the  Moravian  brethren  led 
the  way  to  their  benevolent  enterprises,  about  1732. — See  Anabaptists. 

BARBADOES,  the  first  English  settlement  in  the  West  Indies.  This  mother 
plantation  gave  rise  to  the  sugar  trade  in  England  about  1605 ;  and  was, 
with  other  Caribbee  islands,  settled  by  charter  granted  to  the  earl  of  Marl- 
boroiigh,  2  Charles  1. 1627.  Barbadoes  has  suffered  severely  from  elemental 
visitations :  in  a  dreadful  hurricane  in  1780,  more  than  4000  of  the  inhabit- 
ants lost  their  lives.  A  large  plantation  with  all  its  buildings  was  destroyed, 
by  the  land  removing  from  its  original  site  to  another,  and  covering  every 
thing  in  its  peregrination,  Oct.  1784.  An  inundation,  Nov.  1795 ;  and  two 
great  fires.  May  and  Dec.  1796.  Awful  devastation,  with  the  loss  of  thou- 
sands of  lives,  and  of  immense  property,  by  a  hurricane,  August  10,  1831. 
The  history  of  Tiikle  and  Yarico,  which  Addison,  in  his  Spectator,  has  re- 
corded for  the  detestation  of  mankind,  took  its  rise  in  this  island. 

BARBER.  This  trade  was  practised  at  Rome  in  the  third  century  b.  c.  In 
England,  barbers  formerly  exhibited  a  head,  or  pole,  at  their  doors ;  and  the 
barber's  pole  until  lately  used  by  them  was  a  burlesque  imitation  of  the 
former  sign. 

BARBER-SURGEONS.  Formerly  the  business  of  a  surgeon  was  united  to  that 
of  a  barber,  and  he  was  denominated  a  barber-surgeon.  A  company  was 
formed  under  this  name  in  1308,  and  the  London  company  was  incorporated, 
1st  Edward  IV.  1461.  This  union  of  profession  was  dissolved  by  a  statute 
of  Henry  VIII. 

BARDS.  The  profession  of  bard  appeared  with  great^ lustre  in  Gaul,  Britain, 
and  Ireland.  Demodocus  is  mentioned  as  a  bard  by  Homer ;  Alexander  the 
Great  had  a  bard  named  Cherylus ;  and  we  find  bards,  according  to  Strabo, 
among  the  Romans  before  the  age  of  Augustus.  The  druids  among  the 
English  were  philosophers  and  priests,  and  the  bards  were  their  poets. 
Thej'  were  the  recorders  of  heroic  actions,  in  Ireland  and  Scotland,  almost 
down  to  our  own  times.  Ossian  flourished  in  the  third  century,  Merlin  in 
the  fifth.  The  former  speaks  of  a  prince  who  kejDt  a  hundred  bards.  Irish 
sonnets  are  the  chief  foundations  of  the  ancient  history  of  Ireland. — See 
Ballads. 

BARNET,  Battle  of,  between  the  houses  of  York  and  Lancaster,  when  Ed- 
ward IV.  gained  a  decisive  and  memorable  victory  over  the  earl  of  War- 
wick, Easter-daj^,  April  14,  1471. — Brooks. 

BAROMETERS.  Torricelli.  a  Florentine,  having  discovered  that  no  principle 
of  suction  existed,  and  that  water  did  not  rise  in  a  pump  owing  to  nature's 
abhorrence  of  a  vacuum,  imitated  the  action  of  a  pump  with  mercury,  and 
made  the  first  barometer,  in  1643,  and  Descartes  explained  the  phenomena. 
Wheel  barometers  were  contrived  in  1668 ;  pendant  barometers  in  1695 ; 
marine  in  1700. 
\RONS.  The  dignitj'-  of  baron  is  extremely  ancient:  its  original  name  in 
England  was  Vavasour,  which,  by  the  Saxons  was  changed  into  Thane,  and 
by  the  Normans  into  Baron.  Many  of  this  rank  are  named  in  the  his- 
tory of  England  and  unfloubtedly  had  assisted  in.  or  had  been  summoned 
to  parliament;  b)it  such  is  tlie  deficiency  of  public  records,  that  the  first 


bat]  dictionary  of  dates.  191 

precept  to  be  found  is  of  no  higher  date  than  tlie  49th  Henry  III.,  1265.  The 
first  who  was  raised  to  this  dignity  by  patent  was  John  de  JBeauchamp, 
created  Baron  of  Kidderminster,  by  Richard  II.,  1387.  Barons  first  sum- 
moned to  parliament,  1205.  Took  arms  against  l^;ing  John,  and  com- 
pelled him  to  sign  the  gi-eat  charter  of  our  liberties,  and  the  charter  of  the 
forests,  at  Runnymcde,  near  Windsor,  June  1215.  Charles  II.  granted  a 
coronet  to  barons  on  his  restoration :  they  attended  parliament  in  complete 
armor  in  the  reign  of  Henry  III. — Beatson. 

BARONETS,  the  first  among  the  gentrj',  and  the  only  knighthood  that  is  here- 
ditary:  instituted  by  James  I.,  1611.  The  baronets  of  Ireland  were  created 
in  1619.     Baronets  of  Nova  Scotia  were  created,  1625. 

BARRISTERS.  They  are  said  to  have  been  first  appointed  by  Edward  I. 
about  1291 ;  but  there  is  earlier  mention  of  professional  advocates  in  Eng- 
land. There  are  various  ranks  of  barristers,  as  King's  Counsel,  Ser- 
geants, &c. 

BARROW'S  STRAITS.  Discovered  by  Parry,  who  penetrated  as  far  as  Mel- 
ville Island,  in  lat.  74°  26'  N.,  and  long.  118°  47'  W.  The  strait  was  entered 
on  the  2d  August,  1819.  The  lowest  state  of  the  thermometer  was  55° 
below  zero  of  Fahrenheit. 

BARTHOLOMEW,  Massacre  of  St.  This  dreadful  massacre  in  France  com- 
menced at  Paris  on  the  night  of  the  festival  of  St.  BartholomeAV,  August  24, 
1572.  More  than  seventy  thousand  Hugonots,  or  French  Protestants,  were 
murdered  throughout  the  kingdom,  by  secret  orders  from  Charles  IX.,  at 
the  instigation  of  the  queen-dowager,  Catherine  de  Medicis,  his  mother. 
The  masaacre  was  attended  with  circumstances  of  demoniacal  cruelty,  even 
as  regarded  the  female  and  the  inlant. 

BASTILE  OP  PARIS.  A  roj-al  castle,  built  by  Charles  V.  king  of  France,  in 
1369,  et  seq.  for  the  defence  of  Paris  against  the  English,  completed  in  1383. 
It  was  afterwards  used  as  a  state  prison,  like  the  Tower  of  London,  and  be- 
came the  scene  of  the  most  deplorable  suftering  and  frightful  crimes.  It 
was  of  such  strength  that  Henry  IV.  and  his  veteran  array  assailed  it  in 
vain  in  the  siege  of  Paris,  during  the  intestine  war  that  desolated  France 
between  the  years  1587  and  1594;  yet  it  was  piilled  down  by  the  infuriated 
populace,  July  14.  1789,  and  thus  was  commenced  the  French  revolution. 
On  the  capture  of  this  great  monument  of  slavery,  the  governor  and  other 
ofllicers  were  seized,  and  conducted  to  the  Place  de  Greve,  and  having  had 
their  hands  cut  off,  they  were  then  beheaded.  The  furious  citizens  having 
fixed  their  heads  on  pikes,  carried  them  in  triumph  through  the  streets. 
"The  man  with  the  iron  mask,"  the  most  mysterious  prisoner  ever  known, 
died  here,  November  19,  1703. — See  Iron  Mask. 

BATAVIA.  The  capital  of  Java,  and  of  all  the  Dutch  settlements  in  the  East 
Indies,  fortified  by  that  people,  1618.  Twelve  thousand  Chinese  massacred 
here  in  one  day,  1740.  Taken  by  the  English,  January,  1782.  Again,  by 
the  British,  under  general  sir  Samuel  Auchmuty,  to  whom  the  gaj-rison 
surrendered,  Aug.  8,  1811. 

F.ATHS,  long  used  in  Greece,  and  introduced  by  Mfecenas  into  Rome.  The 
thermaj  of  the  Rom.ans  and  gymnasia  of  the  Greeks  were  sumptuous.  The 
marble  Laocoon  was  found  in  the  baths  of  Titus,  and  the  Farnese  Hercules 
in  those  of  Cai-acalla. — Slrabo. 

BATl'EL  ROLL.  After  the  battle  of  Hastings,  which  decided  the  fate  of 
England,  and  subjected  it  to  the  Norman  yoke,  a  list  was  taken  of  William's 
chiefs^  amounting  to  629  and  called  the  Battel-roU ;  and  among  these  chiefs 
the  lands  and  distinction.'^  of  the  foiloww's  of  tlie  defeated  Harold  wei'e  dis- 
tributed. 1060. 


192 


THE    world's    progress. 


[BAT 


BATTLE,  Wager  of.  A  trial  by  combat,  formerly  allowed  by  English  laws, 
where  the  defendant  in  an  appeal  of  murder  might  fight  with  the  appellant, 
and  make  proof  thereby  of  his  guilt  or  innocence.  In  a  case  of  appeal  of 
murder,  Ashford  v.  Thornton,  before  the  King's  Bench  in  London,  April  1818, 
the  court  allowed  that  the .  law  gave  the  defendant  a  right  to  his  wager  of 
battle ;  but  the  appellant,  the  brother  of  a  lovely  girl,  whom  Thornton  had 
first  violated  and  then  murdered,  not  accepting  the  challenge,  the  murderer 
was  discharged.  A  statute  was  immediately  passed,  putting  an  end  to  this 
mode  of  trial,  59  George  III.,  1819. — Statutes  at  large. 

B  ATTERING-RAM.  Testudo  Arietaria,  with  other  military  implements,  some 
of  which  are  still  in  use,  invented  by  Artemones,  about  441  b.  c.  These 
ponderous  engines  by  their  own  weight  exceeded  the  utmost  effects  of  our 
battering  cannon. — Desaguliers.  Sir  Christopher  Wren  emploj'ed  a  batter- 
ing-ram in  demolishing  the  old  walls  of  St.  Paul's  church,  previouslj''  to  re- 
building the  new  edifice  in  1675. 

BATTLES.  Palamedes  of  Argos  was  the  first  who  ranged  an  armj'  in  a  regu- 
lar line  of  battle,  and  placed  sentinels  round  a  camp,  and  excited  the  sol- 
dier's vigilance  by  giving  him  a  ^vatcll-word. — Lenglet.  The  following  are 
the  principal  and  most  memorable  battles  mentioned  in  gvneral  history,  and 
are  those  also  that  are  most  commonly  referred  to : 

A.  D. 


Actium  (,the  empire  of  Ro7ne  is  con- 
firmed to  Augustus)  ■  ■  -      31 
Xy]-iq:\s.  (.Fall  of  Persia)      ■            -      -    331 


Aboukir  (TMrAs) 

Acre  (Siege  commenced)    - 

(Sir  Sydney  Smith) 

(Storming  of) 

Adrianople  (  Constant ine) 

Albuera 

PiXfoxA  (Covenanters)    • 

Alexandria  (Abercrombie)  ■ 

(Abercrombie) 

Algiera  (E.vmout/i)  - 

(French) 

Alderton  Moor 
Agincourt 
Aliwal  (India) 
Almanza,,  in  Spain 
Amoy  (  City  taken)  - 
Almeida 

Anjou,  or  Breagne    -     . 

Antoign    - 

Areola 

Ascaloii  (Richard  I.)     ■ 

Assaye  ( iVelleslcy)  - 

Auerstadt 

Augsburg 

Austerlitz 

Badajos 

Balkan,  passage  of  the  - 

Baltimore 

Bannockburn 

Barnot  (Edward  I V. ) 

Barrosa    - 

Bautzen 

Bayonne  - 

Belgrade 


■  Brit.) 


Nov.  19,  1796 

Sept.  3,  1191 

Sept.  23,  1SU3 

Oct.  14,  1806 

Aug.  24,  1796 

Dec.  2,  1S05 

Mar.  a,  1?11 

July  26,  1829 

Sept.  12,  1814 

June  25,  1314 

April  14,  1471 

Mar.  6,  1811 

May  20,  1813 

Mar.  19,  1794 

-     -  1456 

-  1717 

-  Au£.  1777 

April  13,  1759 


Berwick        -  -  •  -  1378 

Bilboa  (British  legion)  Dec.  24,  1836 

Blackheath  ( Cornish  Rebels  defeated)  1497 
Blackrock  (Amer.  ^  Brit.)  -  Dec.  3,  1813 
Bladensburg  -  -  -    Aug.  24,  1814 

Blenheim  (Marlborougli)  Aug.  2,  1704 

Borodina       -  -  -     Sept.  7,  1812 

Boswonh  -  -  Aug.  22,  1485 

Bothvvell  Bridge,  Scotland  -  -     -  1679 

Boyne,  Ireland    -  -  July  1,  1690 

Bovines  (French  and  Gerjnans)  -  -  1214 
Boxtel      -  -  -  Sept.  17,  1794 

Brandywine  -  -  -    Sept.  11,  1777 

Brechin,  Scotland  -  -  •         -  1452 

Brenau  (Austrians  and  Bavarians)  -  1743 
Breslau    -  -  -  Nov.  22,  1757 

Briar'.s  Creek  -  -  -     -  1779 

Brienne    -  -  -  Feb.  29,  1814 

Bridgewater  (Americans  and  British) 

•July  25,  1814 
Buena  Vista  (Amer.  a7id  Mexicans) 

Feb.  22,  1847 
June  21,  1806 
July  6,  1807 
June  17,  1775 
Sept.  27,  1810 
Aug.  8,  1812 


July  26,  1799 

Mar.  18,  1799 

May  27,  ibid 

Nov.  3,  1810 

-    323 

May  16,  1811 

July  2,  1615 

Mar.  21,  1801 

May  17,  1799 

Aug.  27,  1816 

July  4,  1830 

-     -  1643 

Oct.  25,  1415 

Jan.  20,  1846 

April  4,  1707 

Aug.  27,  1841 

AU2.  5,  1811 

^     -  1121 

Aug.  13,  1792  I  Buenos  Ayres  (Popham) 


■  (  Whitelock) 
Bunker's  Hill 
Busaco     - 
Brownstown  (Careat/a) 


Ca.r\ns  (Victory  of  Hannibal)  -  216 
Carthage  (taken  by  Publius  Scipio)  -  146 
Chceronea  ( Tohnidas)  ■  -  -  447 
(Philip)  -           .           -  -  338 


Bennington  (Amer. 
Bergen 

■         Sept.  W  and  'Oct.  2,  1799 

Bersen-op-Zooni  (taken)  -  ■  1747 

-       Mar.  6,  ISU 

UiM'esiaa  -  -  -  Sf|)t.  7.  181^! 


(Sylla) 

Cnidos  (Lysander  killed)  - 
Cranon,  in  Thessaly 
Cyzicum 

Calais  taken 
Calcutta  (India) 
Camden  (Amer.  ^-  Brit.) 

—  (Amer.  Sf  Brit.)  ■ 

Campo  Santo 

Canton  ( Bogne forts  taken) 

C'afle!  Niiovij    "  - 


-  -    394 

-  322 

-  -    400 

A.  D. 

-  Jan.  7,  15.58 

June  1750 

•  Aug.  16,  1780 

April  25,  1781 

-  1743 
Feb.  2C,  1841 

Sept.  29.  1800 
April  13.  181 L' 


bat] 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES. 


193 


BATTLES,  continued. 

A.  D. 

Cassano  (Prince  Eugene)       -  -  1705 

Castlebar  (French)  -  -    Aug.  28,  1798 

Castiglione  -  -  July  2,  1796 

Castillon,  in  Guienne  -  -     -  1453 

Charleroi  ....  1690 

Charleroi  Fleurus    -  -    June  17,  1794 

Charleston  (taken  by  the  British) 

May  12,  1780 
Chepultepec(^?«.^iViejr.)Sept.  12-14,  1848 
Chippewa  -  July  5  and  25,  1814 

-  -  Oct.  1814 

Ciudad  Rodrigo  (invested)      June  11,  1812 

(stormed)  -     Jan.  19,  1812 

Clontarf,  Ireland  -  -  -  1039 

Cojistantina  (Algiers)  ■  Oct.  13,  18-37 
Contreras  (Amer.  and  Mexicans)  -  1848 
Corunna,  (Moore)    •  ■     Jan.  16,  1809 

Cowpens  (Amer.  Sr  Brit.)       -  -  1781 

Craney  island  (Americans  and  Brit.) 

June  21,  1813 

Cressy  (Teh  Dien)    -  .      ■        ~ 

CuUoden  (Pretetider)  - 
Cunnersdorf  - 
Detroit  (surrendered)   - 
TloUmgen  (George-II.) 
Dresden   - 
Dreux,  in  France 
Drogheda  (taken  by  storm) 
Dumblain  (Sheriff-Muir)  ■ 
Dunbar    - 

—  (King  of  Scots  taken) 

-,  Siege  of. 


Aug.  25,  1346 
April  16,  1746 
Aug.  12,  1759 
Aug.  16,  1812 

-  -  1743 
Aug.  26,  1813 

-  -  1562 

-  1649 
Nov.  12,  1715 

Sept.  3,  16.50 

-  -  1296 

-  1337 
DungariHill-  '  -  -  July  10,  1647 
Dunkirk  -  -  -  Sept.  7,  1793 
Dunsinane  -  -  -  -  -  1054 
Durham,  Nevil's  Cross  .  -  -  1346 
Eastport  (Atnericans  and  British) 

July  1814 
Edgehill  fight     -  -  Oct.  23,  1642 

Erie,  Fort      -  -  •    Aug.  15,  1814 

Erzeroum  (  Turks  and  Prussians)    -  1745 


Eutaw  Springs 

Evesham 

Eylau 

Fairfield  (Amer.  ^  Brit.) 

Falkirk,  ( Wallace) 


-  1781 
Aug.  4,  1265 
Feb.  8,  1807 

-  1779 
July  22,  1298 


Flatbush,  L.  I.  (Am.  i?-  Brit.)  Aug.  27,  1776 


Flodden 

Fontainebleau    - 

Fontenoy 

Fort  du  Q,uesne  - 

French  Town,  Canada 

Friedburg 

Friedland      -  r 

Granicus  - 


Sept.  9,  1513 
Feb.  17,  1814 
April  30,  1745 
July  9,  1755 
Jan.  22,  1813 
June  4,  1745 
June  14,  1807 

B.C. 

-    334 

A.  D. 

Germantown    -  -  -    Oct.  4,  1777 

Gisors  (Dieu  et  mon  droit)  ■  -  1198 

Guilford        -  -  -  Mar.  16,  1781 

Halidon  Hill,  Berwick  -  July  19,  1333 

Halle  (Bernadotle)  ■  -  Oct.  17,  1806 

Hanau  (  Wrede)  -  Oct.  29,  1813 

Hastings  (Conquest)  -  Oct.  14,  1066 

Hexham  ( Yorkists  defeated)  May  15,  1464 

Hochkirchen  -  -  Oct.  14,  1758 

Hohenlinden       •  -  Nov.  3,  1800 


Ipsus  (Antigomis  slain) 
Issus  (110,000  Persians  slain) 


.301 
3.33 


Jamac           ...  Mar.  3, 

Jemappe             •           .  Nov.  5, 

Jena   ....  Oct.  14, 

Ket  and  Warwick         ... 

Killiecrankie,  Scotland       -  July  27, 

Kowno     .           -           .  Dec.  14, 

Krasnoi         -          -           •  Nov  16, 

Leuctra   ..... 

Laffeldt  (Duke  of  Cumberland)    - 
Landshut  (Prussians  and  Austrians) 

(Austrians)        -    April  21, 

Langside  -  -  May  13, 

Leipzic  -  -  -     Oct.  16, 

Lepanto  ( Greeks)       -    ''      .-    May  9, 
Lewes      -  -  -  May  14, 

Lexington  (Amer.  revolution)  April  19,  177: 


Ligny 
Lincoln 


Lisle  (taken  by  the  Allies) 

Lissa  -  .  -  - 

Lodi 

Long  Island  - 

Lutzen     - 

Lutzingen  (Gustavus  slain) 


June  16, 

Feb.  2, 

May  19, 

Dec.  5, 
May  10, 

Aug.  27, 
May  2, 


Mantinea  (Epaminondas  slain) 
Munda,  in  Spain 

McHenry,  Fort  (Americans  and  Brit.) 
Oct.  13, 
Malplaquet  (Marlborough) 
Manheim      -  -  -     May  30, 
-  July  12, 

-  Sept.  23, 
May  29, 

■     Jan.  31, 
June  14, 

-  Sept.  15, 
July  3, 

Sept.  12-14, 

April  27, 

Aug.  1, 


Mantua 


Marengo  - 
Marignan,  Italy 
Marston  Moor     - 
Mexico 
Milan 
Minden 

ISIittau  (Swedes  and  Russians) 
Mockern        -  -  -     April  1, 

Oct.  14, 


Mohartz,  Hungary 
Molwitz   -  -  -         April  10, 

Monmouth  (Amer.  S)'  Brit.)-  June  28, 
Monterey  (Mexico)  ■  Sept.  24, 
Montmorenci  -  -    Aug.  10, 

Moodkee,  India  -  -  Dec.  18, 

Morea  (Castle  surrenders)  Oct.  28, 
Moscow  (burnt)  ■  Sept.  4, 

Moskwa        -  -  ■     Sept.  7, 

Moscow  (retaken)  -  Oct.  22, 

Narva  (  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden) 
Naseby    -  -  •  June  14, 

Newark         •  -  ■         •  -     - 

Newbury  -  ...  - 

(second  battle)    ■     Oct.  20. 


New  London  (burnt  by  the.  British) 
New  Orleans  -  •        Jan  3, 

Niagara,  Fort     -  -  •    Nov. 

Nisbet  -  -  -       May  7, 

Norfolk  (burnt  by  the  British)     June 
Northallerton,  (or  the  .battle  of  the 
Standard)       .  -  -  . 


A.D. 

1569 
1792 
1806 
1549 
1689 
1812 
1812 

B.  C. 

370 

A.D. 

1747 
1745 
1809 
1568 
1813 
1829 
1264 
1775 

S15 
1141 
1217 
1708 
1796 
1757 
1776 
1813 
1632 
B.  c. 

363 
45 

A.D. 

1814 
1709 
1793 
1794 
1795 
1796 
1797 
1800 
1515 
1644 
1848 
1799 
1759 
1705 
1813 
1813 
1687 
1741 
1778 
1846 
1759 
iai5 
1828 
1812 
1812 
1812 
>70i) 
1645 
1644 
1(>W 
164i 
17S1 
1815 
1813 
1402 
1779 


!94 


THE   world's   progress. 


[bav 


BATTLES,  continued. 

A.  D. 

Norwalk  (.burnt  by  the  Brit.)  Aug.  22,  1779 
Novi  {Suwarrow)         •  Aug.  16,  1799 

...       Jan.  8,  1800 

Ogdensburg  {British  and  Americans) 

Feb.  22,  1813 
Oporto     -  -  -  May  11,  1809 

Otterburn  (CAer'y  CAose)  -  -     -1308 

Oudenard  (Marlborough)        July  11,  1708 

B.  C. 

Pharsalia  -  -  -  -      48 

Philippi  (,Ro7nan  Republic  ends)       •      42 

A.D. 

Palo  Alto  (ist  o/Amer.  Sr  Mex.)  May  8, 1846 
Parma  (Austrians  and  French)         -  1734 

■  (Suwarrow)  ■  -     July  12,  1799 

Patay  (Joan  of  Arc  and  the  English)  1429 
Pavia  (French  andAu^trians)  Feb.  24, 
Pensacola  (taken  by  general  Jackson) 

Nov.  20, 
Peterwarden       •  -  Aug.  5 

Pfaffendorf   -  -  -    Aug.  15, 

Piakey     -  -  -  Sept.  lOi 

Plattsburg  (Americans  and  Biitish) 

Sept.  11 
Poitiers         -  - 

Prague     - 


Sept.  19 
Nov.  9. 
Maya: 
Jan.  2: 
July  8, 

Dec.  26 

July  28; 

June  16 


Princeton  (Amer.  £)•  Brit.) 
Pultowa  (Charles  XII.) 
Pultusk    - 
Pyrenees 
Uuatre  Bras 
Quebec  (or  the  plains  of  Abraham) 
Sept.  13 

(death  qfMontgo}nery)X)ec.  21 

-  -  -   April  28, 

ftueenstown  (Amer.  S/-  Brit.)  Oct.  13, 
Ramilies  (Marlborough)  ■  May  23! 
Resaca  de  la  Palma  (Mexico)  May  9. 
kosbach        •  -  -    Nov.  17j 

Nov.  b. 


1525 

1814 
1717 
1760  I 
1547 


A.  D. 

Sobraon  (India)  •  Feb.  IC,  1846 

Solway  Moss  -  -    Nov.  25,  1542 

St.  Albans  ( York  and  Lancaster)      -  1455 


1814 
1356 
1620 
1757 
1777 
1709 
1806 
1813 
1815 

1759 
1775 
1760 
1812 
1706 
1846 
1382 
1787 


Sackett's    Harbor    (Americans    and 

British)  ....  1813 

■salamanca    -  -  ■     July  22,  1812 

san  Maretal  (Spajiiards)  Aug.  4,  1813 

Saratoga  (Burgoyne's  surrender) 

Oct.  17,  1777 
Savannah  (taken  Inj  the  British) 

Dec.  29.  1778 
Schwerdnitz        -  -  Aug.  16,  1762 

Sedgemoor    -  -         .  -       July  5,  1685 

Seidlitz  (Poles)  -  -  Mar.  31,  1831 

Sempach       -  -  -       July  9,  1386 

Seringapatam     ....  1791 

— (Tippoo  reduced)   -     -1791 

(  Tippoo  killed)  May  4,  1799 

Shrewsbury  -  -       July  21,  1403 

Skenesborough   -  -  July  7,  1777 

Smolensko     -  -  -    Aug.  27,  1812 


(second) 


1461 

-  1567 

Jan.  27,  1814 

May  5,  1836 

Mar.  13,  1470 


St.  Denis  (Montinorenci) 
Si  Dizier,  France    - 
St.  Sebastian 
Stamford 

Stony  Point  (taken  by  the  Americans)  1779 
Stratton  (jwet  Waller)  ■  May  16,  1643 
Talavera  de  la  Reyna   -  July  27,  1809 

Tai-ragona     -  -  -     Jan.  24,  1812 

Tev.'kesbury       -  .-  May  4,  1471 

Thames  (Americajts  and  Brit.)  Sept.  1813 
Thermopylae  (Greeks)  -  July  13,  1822 

Tirh  mont  (French  and  Allies)  -  1705 

Toplitz  (Austfians  and  Prussians)  -  1762 

-  -    Aug.  30,  1813 

Toumay        -  -  -       May  8,  1793 

ToulSn     -  -  Oct.  1,  1793 

Touli.use       -  -  -    April  10,  1814 

Towton    -  -  -  Mar.  29,  1461 

Trenton  (Amer.  ^  Brit.)  ■  Dec.  26,  7,  1776 
Turin  (French  and  Germans)  -  1706 

Ulm    ....    June  21,  1800 

(surrendered)        ■  Oct.  29,  1805 

Valenciennes  -  •     May  23,  1793 

Vania  (surrenders)       -  Oct.  11,  1E.25 

Vera  Cruz  (taken  by  Amer.  Gen.  Scott) 

March  27, 1847 
Villa  Franca 
Vimiera  (  Wellington) 
Vittoria,  Spain 


Wagram 

Wakefield 

Waisaw 


April  10,  1812 
Oct.  21,  1808 

-  -  1702 
June  21,  1813 

.Tuly5,  1809 
Dec.  31,  1460 
Oct.  10,  1794 
Nov.  8,  ibid 
Sept.  8,  1831 
••«Z  by  the  Britisli) 

Aug.  1814 

June  18,  1815 

mer.  ^  Brit.)  Oct.  28,  1776 

Nov.  30,  ibid 

-    June  12,  1&31 

Sept.  J3,  1642 

-  -  1651 
July  1778 


".n) 


■  (Charles  II.)* 


Wyoming  massacre 
York  (Canada)  captured  by  Ameri- 
cans       -  -  -        April  27,  1813 
York  Town  (surrender  of  Cornwallis) 

Oct.  19,  1781 

B.  C. 

Zama  (Scipio  and  Hannibal)       ■     ■    202 
Zela  ( Coisar :  veni,  vidi,  vici)  -      47 

A.  D. 

Zeuta,  Hungary  (Prince  Eugene)     -  1697 
Zurich 1799 


;AV ARIA,  House  OF.  The  dukedom  founded  in  tlie  eleventh  century:  this 
house  has  the  same  origin  as  that  of  Saxony,  and  is  a  branch  of  the  Guel- 
phian  family ;  Henrj^  Guelph  was  made  duke  of  Bavaria  by  Conrad  II.,  em- 
peror of  Germany,  who  reigned  in  1024.  Otho,  count  Wittelpatch,  was 
made  duke  in  1179 ;    and  Maximilian  I.  elector  in  1624.      Bavaria  was 


*  This  battle  and  defeat  of  Charles  put  a  period  to  the  civil  war  in  England, 
N.  B, — Many  of  the  above  battles  are  described  more  fully  under  each  name. 


BEA  ]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  19£ 

erected  into  a  kingdom  by  Bonaparte  in  December  1805  ;  and  obtained  by 
the  treaty  of  Presburg  the  incorporation  of  the  whole  of  tlae  Italian  and 
German  Tyrol,  the  bishopric  of  Anspach,  and  lordships  in  Germany.  This 
kingdom  joined  the  coalition  against  France  in  Oct.  1813.  Bavarian  cham- 
ber recommends  freedom  of  the  press,  &c.,  by  almost  unanimous  vote,  Oct, 
17,  1847.  Riots  at  Munich  on  account  of  Lola  Montes,  the  king's  mistress, 
Feb.  9,  1848.  Violent  movement  at  Munich;  the  king  abdicates  in  favor  of 
his  son,  Maximillian  II.,  March  22,  1848. 

KINGS  OF  BAVARIA.  I   1825  Louis,    13th    October   ; — abdicated, 

1805  Maximilian  Joseph,  the  preceding  elec-  I  Maixh  22,  1848. 

tor,  created  king.  |   1848  Maximilian  II. 

LiAYEUX  TAPESTRY.  This  important  historical  document  was  wrought  by 
Matilda,  the  queen  of  William  I.,  and  represents  the  facts  of  the  Conquest, 
from  the  signature  of  theawill  of  the  Confessor  down  to  the  crowning  of 
William,  1066. — Rapin.  This  curious  monument  of  antiquity  embroidered 
by  Matilda,  is  19  inches  wide,  214  feet  long,  and  is  divided  into  compart- 
ments showing  the  train  of  events,  commencing  with  the  visil^of  Harold  to 
the  Norman  court,  and  entling  with  his  death  at  Hastings ;  it  is  now  presei  ;ed 
in  the  town-house  of  Rouen. — Agnes  Strickland. 

BAYONETS.  The  short  sword  or  dagger  fixed  at  the  end  of  a  musket.  This 
weapon  was  invented  at  Bayonne,  in  France  (whence  the  name),  about  1670. 
According  to  the  abbe  Lenglet,  it  was  first  used  in  battle  by  the  French,  in 
1603,  "  with  great  success  against  an  enemy  unprepared  for  the  encounter 
with  so  formidable  a  novelty." 

BAZAAR,  OR  Covered  Market.  The  word  is  of  Arabic  origin.  The  bazaar 
of  Ispahan  is  magnificent,  yet  it  is  excelled  by  that  of  Tauris,  which  has 
several  times  held  30,000  men  in  order  of  battle. 

BEADS.  The  Druids  appear  to  have  used  beads.  They  were  early  used  by 
Dervises  and  other  holy  men  of  the  East.  They  were  in  general  use  in 
Roman  Catholic  devotions,  a.  d.  1213.  The  bead-roll  was  a  list  of  deceased 
persons  for  the  repose  of  whose  souls  a  certain  nunijjer  of  prayers  were  re- 
cited, which  the  devox^t  counted  by  a  string  of  beads. — Butler. 

BEARDS.  Various  have  been  the  customs  of  most  nations  respecting  them. 
The  Tartars,  out  of  a  -eligious  principle,  waged  a  long  and  bloody  war  with 
the  Persians,  declaring  them  infidels,  because  they  would  not  cut  their 
beards  after  the  rite:,  of  Tartary.  The  Greeks  wore  their  beards  till  the 
time  of  Alexander,  who  ordered  the  Macedonians  to  be  shaved  lest  the 
beard  should  give  a  handle  to  their  enemies,  330  b.  c.  Beards  were  worn 
by  the  Romans,  297  b.  c.  They  have  been  worn  for  centuries  by  the  Jews. 
In  England,  they  were  not  fiishionable  after  the  Conquest,  a.  d.  1066,  until 
the  thirteenth  century,  and  were  discontinued  ■  at  the  Restoration.  The 
Russians,  even  of  rank,  did  not  cut  their  beards  until  within  these  few 
years ;  and  Peter  the  Great,  notwithstanding  his  enjoining  them  to  shave, 
was  obliged  to  keep  officers  on  foot  to  cut  ofi"  the  beard  by  force. 

BEARDS  ON  WOMEN.  A  bearded  woman  was  taken  by  the  Prussians  at  the 
battle  of  Pultowa,  and  presented  to  the  Czar,  Peter  I.  1724 :  her  beard 
measiu-ed  1^  yards.  A  Avoman  is  said  to  have  been  seen  in  Paris  with  a  bushy 
beard,  and  her  whole  body  covered  with  hair. — Diet,  de  Trevoux.  The 
great  Margaret,  governess  of  the  Netherlands,  had  a  very  long  stiff  beard. 
In  Bavaria,  in  the  time  of  Wolfius,  a  virgin  had  a  long  black  beard. 

BEAUVAIS,  Heroines  of.  On  the  town  of  Beauvais  being  besieged  by 
Charles  the  Bold,  duke  of  Burgundy,  at  the  head  of  80,000  men.  the  womeii 
under  the  conduct  of  Jeanne  de  la  Hachette,  or  Laine,  particularly  distin- 
guished themselves,  and  the  duke  was  obliged  to  raise  the  siege/july  10, 
1472.     In  memory  of  their  noble  exploits  during  the  siege,  the  females  of 


l96  THE    world's    progress.  [  BEl 

Beauvais  walk  first  in  a  procession  on  the  anniversary  of  tlieir  deliverance 
— Henault. 

BECKET'S  MURDER.  Thomas,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  was  murdered  at 
the  altar,  Dec.  29,  1171.  Four  barons  hearing  Henry  II.  say,  in  a  moment 
of  exasperation,  "What  an  unhappy  prince  am  I,  who  have  not  aboirt  me 
one  man  of  spirit  enough  to  rid  me  of  this  insolent  prelate,"  resolved  upon 
Becket's  assassination ;  and  rushing  with  drawn  swords  into  the  cathedral 
of  Canterbury,  where  he  was  at  vespers,  they  announced  their  design,  when 
he  cried  out,  "I  charge  you,  in  the  name  of  the  Almighty,  not  to  hurt  any 
other  person  here,  for  none  of  them  have  been  concerned  in  the  late  trans- 
actions." The  confederates  then  strove  to  drag  him  from  the  church ;  but 
not  being  able  to  do  so,  on  account  of  his  resolute  deportment,  they  killed 
him  on  the  spot  with  repeated  wounds,  all  which  he  endured  without  a 
groan.  The  bones  of  Becket  were  enshrined  in  gold  and  set  with  jewels,  in 
1220;  and  were  taken  up  and  burned  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  1539. — 

Stowe. 

» 

BED.  The  practice  was  universal  in  the  first  ages,  for  mankind  to  sleep  upon  the 
skins  of  beasts. —  Whittaker.  Tliis  was  the  custom  of  the  early  Greeks  and 
Romans,  and  of  the  Britons,  before  the  Roman  invasion.  They  were  after- 
wards changed  for  loose  rushes  and  heather.  Straw  followed,  and  was  used 
in  the  royal  chambers  of  England  so  late  as  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury.   The  Romans  were  the  first  who  used  feathers. 

BEER.  See  Ale.  A  beverage  of  this  sort  is  made  mention  of  by  Xenophon,  in 
his  famous  retreat,  401  b.  c.  Beer  was  drunk  generally  in  England  in  the 
thirteenth  century.  By  a  law  of  James  I.,  when  there  was  a  kind  of  duty 
paid  on  "afe  called  here"  one  quart  of  the  best  thereof  was  to  be  sold  foro, 
penny.  Subjected  to  excise  in  1660.  In  England  the  number  of  retailers  in 
1834  amounted  to  about  60,000.     See  Brewers. 

BEES.  Mount  Hybla,  on  account  of  its  odoriferous  flowers,  thyme,  and  abun- 
dance of  honey,  has  been  poetically  called  the  "  empire  of  bees."  Hymettus, 
in  Attica,  is  also  famous  for  its  bees  and  honey.  The  economy  of  bees  was 
admired  in  the  earliest  ages ;  and  Eumelus,  of  Corinth,  wrote  a  poem  on 
bees,  741  b.  c.  There  are  292  species  of  the  bee,  or  apis  genus,  and  111  in 
England.  Strange  to  say,  bees  were  not  originally  natives  of  New  England : 
they  were  inti-oduced  into  Boston  by  the  English,  in  1670,  and  have  since 
spread  over  the  whole  continent ;  the  first  planters  never  saw  any. — Hardie's 
America. 

BEET-ROOT.  It  is  of  recent  cultivation  in  England.  Margraff"  first  produced 
sugar  from  the  white  beet-root,  in  1747.  M.  Achard  produced  excellent 
sugar  from  it  in  1799 ;  and  the  chemists  of  France  at  the  instance  of  Bo- 
naparte, largely  extracted  sugar  from  the  beet-root  in  1800.  A  refinery  of 
sugar  from  beet-root  was  lately  erected  at  the  Thames-bank,  Chelsea. 

BEGUINES.  Nuns,  first  established  at  Liege,  and  afterwards  at  Nivelle,  in 
1207.  The  '•  Grand  Beguinage  "  of  Bruges  is  the  most  extensive  of  modern 
times. — Some  of  these  nuns  once  fell  into  the  extravagant  error  that  they 
could,  in  this  life,  arrive  at  the  highest  moral  perfection,  even  to  impec- 
cability. The  council  of  Vienne  condemned  this  error,  and  abolished  a 
branch  of  the  order  in  1311. 

BEHEADING — or  Decollatio  of  the  Romans,  introduced  into  England  from  Nor- 
mandy (as  a  less  ignominious  mode  of  putting  high  criminals  to  death)  by 
WilHam  the  Conqueror,  1074,  when  Waltheof,  earl  of  Huntingdon,  North- 
ampton, and  Northumberland,  was  first  so  executed.  —  Salmon's  Chron. 
English  history  is  filled  with  instances  of  this  mode  of  execution,  particu- 


BEL  ] 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES. 


19/ 


larly  in  the  reigns  of  Henrj"-  VIII.,  and  Mary,  when  even  women  of  the  noblest 
blood,  greatest  virtues,  and  most  innocent  lives,  thus  suffered  death.* 
BEHRING'S  STRAIT.  Explored  by  a  Danish  navigator  in  the  service  of  Rus- 
sia whose  name  it  bears.  Behring  thus  established  that  the  continents 
of  Asia  and  America  are  not  united,  but  are  distant  from  each  other  about 
ihirtj'-nine  miles,  1728. 
BELGIUM.  Late  the  southern  portion  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands, 
and  anciently  the  territory  of  the  Belgae,  who  were  conquered  by  Julius 
Cajsar,  47  b.  c.  Under  the  dominion  of  France  so  late  as  a.  d.  1369 ;  formed 
into  a  kingdom  in  1831. 

Became  an  acquisition  of  the  house  of 

Austria         ....       1477 
Charles  V.  annexed  the  Netherlands  to 

the  crown  of  Spain      -  -  -1556 

Seven  provinces,  under  William,  prince 
of  Orange,  revolt,  owing  to  the  tyranny 
of  Philip  11.;  freed-  -  -       1579 

The  ten  remaining  provinces  are  given 

to  the  archduke  -  -  - 1598 

These  again  fall  to  Spain     -  -     -  1648 

Seven  again  ceded  to  Germany  - 1714 

And  three  to  France         -  -         - 1748 

Austrians  expelled ;  but  their  rule  after- 
wards restored       .  .  .     .  1789 
The  French  entered  Belgium     Nov.  1,  1792 
United  to  France           -           Sept.  30, 1795 
Placed  under  the  sovereignty  of  the 

house  of  Orange  -  -  -1814 

The  revoluiion  commences  at  Brussels 

Aug.  25,  1830 
The  Provisional  Government  declares 

Belgium  independent       -        Oct.  4,  1830 
The  Belgian  troops  take  Antwerp  ;  the 
Dutch  are  driven  to  the  citadel,  from 
whence    they  cannonade  the  town, 

Oct.  27, 1830 
Belgian    independence    acknowledged 

This  last  treaty  arose  out  of  the  conference  held  in  London  on  the  Belgian 
question ;  by  the  decision  of  which,  the  treaty  of  November  15,  1831,  was 
maintained,  and  the  pecuniary  compensation  of  sixty  millions  of  francs, 
offered  by  Belgium  for  the  territories  adjudged  to  Holland,  was  declared  in- 
admissible. 

BELGRADE.  Battle  of,  between  the  German  and  Turkish  armies,  in  which 
the  latter  was  defeated  with  the  loss  of  40,000  men,  fought  1456.  Belgrade 
was  taken  by  Solyman,  1522 ;  and  re-taken  by  the  Imperialists  in  1688,  from 
whom  it  again  reverted  to  the  Turks  in  1690.  Taken  by  prince  Eugene  in 
1717  {see  next  article),  and  kept  till  1739,  when  it  was  ceded  to  the  Turks. 
It  was  again  taken  in  1789,  and  restored  at  the  peace  of  Reichenbach,  in 
1790. 

BELGRADE,  Siege  op.  The  memorable  siege,  so  often  quoted,  was  undei- 
taken  in  May,  1717,  under  prince  Eugene.  On  August  5,  of  that  year,  the 
Tui'kish  army,  of  200,000,  approached  to  relieve  it,  and  a  battle  was  fought, 
in  which  the  Turks  lost  20,000  men ;  after  which  Belgrade  surrendered. 
Belgrade  has  been  frequently  besieged.     See  Sieges. 


by  the  Allied  Powers,  announced  by 
Van  der  Weyer       -        -      Dec.  26,  1830 

Duke  de  Nemours  elected  king;  but 
his  father,  the  king  of  France,  refuses 
his  consent         -  -  Feb.  3, 1831 

M.  Surlet  de  Chokier  is  elected  regent 
of  Belgium  -  -      Feb.  24, 1831 

Leopold,  prince  of  Coburg,  is  elected 
king       -  -  -  July  12,  1831 

He  enters  Brussels    -  -     July  19,  1831 

The  king  of  the  Netherlands  recom- 
mences the  war  -  Aug.  3,  1831 

[France  sends  50,000  troops  to  assist 
Belgium,  and  an  armistice  ensues.] 

A  conference  of  the  ministers  of  the  five 
great  powers  is  held  in  London,  which 
terminates  in  the  acceptance  of  the 
24  articles  of  pacification  -   Nov.  15, 1831 

Leopold  marries  Louise,  eldest  daughter 
ol  Louis  Philippe        -        -    Aug.  9, 1832 

The  French  army  returns  to  France 

Dec.  27, 1832 

Riot  at  Brussels  (see  Brussels) ;  much 
mischief  ensues       -        -       April  6, 1834 

Treaty  between  Holland  and  Belgium, 
signed  in  London         -         April  19, 1839 


*  Among  other  instances  (besides  queens  of  England),  may  be  mentioned  the  Lady  Jane  Grey, 
beheaded,  Feb.  12,  1554 ;  and  the  venerable  countess  of  Salisbury — the  latter  remarkable  for  her 
resistance  of  the  executioner.  When  he  directed  her  to  lay  her  head  on  the  block,  she  refused  to 
do  it;  telling  him,  that  she  knew  of  no  guilt,  and  would  not  submit  to  die  like  a  criminal.  He  pur- 
sued her  round  and  round  the  scaffold,  aiming  at  her  hoary  head,  and  at  lencth  took  it  off,  aftei 
mangling  the  neck  and  shoulders  of  the  illustrious  victim  in  a  horrifying  manner.  She  was  daughter 
of  George,  duke  of  Clarence,  and  last  of  the  royal  line  of  Plantagcnet."  May  27,  liAl.—Hume. 


l98  THE    world's    progress.  [  BEiV 

BELL,  BOOK,  and  CANDLE  ;  an  ecclesiastical  ceremony  of  the  Romish 
churcli.  used  in  excommunication,  which  see. 

BELLES-LETTRES,  or  Polite  Learning.  We  owe  the  revival  of  the  belles- 
lettres  in  Europe,  after  the  darkness  of  previous  ages  to  Brunetto,  Latini, 
and  other  learned  men  in  diflerent  countries,  about  a.  d.  1272. —  Gen.  Hist. 
Learning  greatly  promoted  by  the  Medici  family  in  Italy,  about  1550. — Fon- 
tana.  Literature  began  to  flourish  in  France,  Germany,  and  England,  about 
this  time.  The  belles-lettres  commenced  in  England  in  the  reign  of  Eliza- 
beth, and  flourished  in  that  of  Anne. 
ELLOWS.  Anacharsis,  the  Scythian,  is  said  to  have  been  the  inventor  of 
them,  about  569  b.  c.  To  him  is  also  ascribed  the  invention  of  tinder,  the 
potter's  wheel,  anchors  for  ships,  &c.  Bellows  were  not  used  in  the  furna- 
ces of  the  Romans. 

■JELLS.  Used  among  the  Jews,  Greeks,  Roman  Catholics,  and  heathens.  The 
responses  of  the  Dodonsean  oracle  were  in  part  conveyed  by  bells. — Strabo. 
The  monument  of  Porsenna  was  decorated  by  pinnacles,  each  surmounted 
by  bells. — Pliny.  Introduced  bj'  Paulinus,  bishop  of  Nole,  in  Campagna, 
about  A.  D.  400.  First  known  in  France  in  550.  The  army  of  Clothair  II., 
king  of  France,  was  frighted  from  the  siege  of  Sens  by  the  ringing  of  the 
bells  of  St.  Stephen's  church.  The  second  Excerption  of  our  king  Egbert 
commands  every  priest,  at  the  proper  hours,  to  sound  the  bells  of  his  church. 
Bells  were  used  in  churches  by  order  of  pope  John  IX.,  as  a  defence,  hj  ring- 
ing Ihem,  against  thunder  and  lightning,  about  900.  First  cast  in  England 
by  Turkeytel,  chancellor  of  England,  under  Edmund  I.  His  successor  im- 
proved the  invention,  and  caused  the  first  tunable  set  to  be  put  up  at 
Croyland  abbey,  960. — Slowc. 

Great  Bell  of  St.  Pauls,  weighs    -  lbs.  8,400  I  St.  Peter's,  at  Rome       -  -    lbs.  18,607 

Great  Tom  of  Lincoln  -  -    9,894    Great  Bell  at  Erfurth  -  -      28,224 

Great  Tom  of  Oxford       -  -    -  17,000  |  St.  Iv-an's  Bell,  Moscow  -       -    127.836 

Bell  of  the  Palazzo,  Florence  -  17,000  |  Bell  of  the  Kremlin  -  -    443,772 

The  last  is  the  great  unsuspended  bell,  the  wonder  of  travellers.  Its  metal 
alone  is  valued,  at  a  veiy  low  calculation,  at  i'66,565  sterling.  In  its  fusion 
great  quantities  of  gold  and  silver  were  thrown  in  as  votive  offerings  by  the 
people. 

BELLS,  Baptism  of.  They  were  early  anointed  and  baptized  m  churches. — 
Du  Presnoy.  The  bells  of  the  priory  of  Little  Dunmow,  in  Essex,  were 
baptized  by  the  name  of  St.  Michael,  St.  John,  Virgin  Mary,  Holy  Trinity, 
&c.,  in  1501. —  Weever.  The  great  bell  of  Notre  Dame,  in  Paris,  was  bap- 
tized by  the  name  of  Duke  of  Angouleme,  in  1816.  On  the  Continent,  in 
the  Catholic  states,  they  baptize  bells  as  we  do  ships,  but  with  religious 
solemnity. — Ashe. 

BENEDICTINES.  An  order  of  monks  founded  by  Benedict,  who  was  the 
first  that  introduced  the  monastic  life  into  the  western  part  of  Europe,  in 
the  beginning  of  the  sixth  century.  No  religious  order  has  been  so  remark- 
able for  extent,  wealth,  and  men  of  note,  as  the  Benedictine.  It  spread 
over  a  large  portion  of  Europe,  but  was  superseded  in  the  vast  influence  it 
possessed  over  other  religious  communities,  about  a.  d.  1100.  The  Bene- 
dictines appeared  early  in  England ;  and  William  I.  built  them  an  abbey  on 
the  plain  where  the  battle  of  Hastings  was  fought,  1066. 
William  de  Warrenne,  earl  of  Warren,  built  them  a  convent  at  Lewes  in 
Essex,  in  1077.  At  Hammersmith  is  a  nunnery,  whose  inmates  are  denomi- 
nated Benedictine  dames. — Leigh.  Of  this  order,  it  is  reckoned  that  there 
have  been  40  popes,  200  cardinals,  50  patriarchs,  116  archb-shops,  4G0C 
bishops,  4  emperors,  12  empresses,  46  kings,  41  queens,  and  3600  saints. 
Their  founder  was  canonized. — Baronius. 


BEN  ]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  199 

BENEFICES.  Clerical  benefices  originated  in  the  twelfth  century ;  till  then 
the  priests  were  supported  by  alms  and  oblations  at  mass.  All  that  should 
become  vacant  in  the  space  of  sis  months  were  given  by  pope  Clement  VII. 
to  his  nephew,  in  1534. — Notitia  Monastica.  The  number  of  benefices  in 
England,  according  to  parliamentary  returns,  is  10,533,  and  the  number  of 
glebe-houses  5,527  ;  these  are  exclusive  of  bishoprics,  deaneries,  canonries, 
prebendaries,  priest-vicars,  lay-vicars,  secondaries,  and  similar  church  pre- 
ferments. The  number  of  parishes  is  11,077,  and  of  churches  and  chapels 
about  12,000.  The  number  of  benefices  in  Ireland  is  1456,  to  which  there 
are  not  more  than  about  900  glebe-houses  attached,  the  rest  having  no 
glebe-houses. — See  Church  of  England. 

BENEFIT  OF  CLERGY.  A  privilege  first  enjoyed  only  by  clergymen,  but 
afterwards  extended  to  lettered  laymen,  relating  to  divers  crimes,  and  pai-- 
ticularly  manslaughter.  The  ordinary  gave  the  prisoner  at  the  bar  a  Latin 
book,  in  a  black  Gothic  character,  from  which  to  read  a  verse  or  two  ;  and 
if  the  ordinary  said  "  Legit  ut  clericus,"  the  ofiender  was  only  burnt  in  the 
hand,  otherwise  he  suSered  death,  3  Edward  I.,  1274.  This  privilege  was 
abolished  with  respect  to  murderers  and  other  great  criminals,  as  also  the 
claim  of  sanctuary,  by  Henry  VIII.,  1513. — Stowe.  Benefit  of  clergy  was 
wholly  repealed  by  statute  7  and  8  George  IV.,  June  1827. 

BENEVOLENT  INSTITUTIONS,  PUBLIC  CHARITIES,  &c.,  m  the  Unite: 
States.  The  known  voluntary  contributions  by  citizens  of  Boston  alone, 
during  45  years,  ending  1845,  was  ascertained  to  be  (see  details  in  American 
Almanac,  1846)  as  follows : 

For  miscellaneous  objects  (such  as 
monuments,  &c.)       -  -     -     438,321 


For  theological  education  and  other 

religious  objects       -  -       #1,054,966 

For  purposes  of  instruction  -  1,09.5,594 

For  charitable  purposes       -        -  2,162,412 


Total    -    $4,751,293 

[Exclusive  of  the  contributions  in  chiirches,  for  the  poor,  &c.  The  popula- 
tion of  Boston,  in  1800,  was  about  25,000 ;  in  1845,  about  114,000.  Few 
cities  can  boast  of  such  munificence,  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  in- 
habitants.] 

BENEVOLENT  SOCIETIES— some  of  the  principal  in  the  United  States. 

Formed.   Income. 


Form.ed.  Income, 
Amer.  Board  of  Com.  Foreign  1849. 

Missions  -  -      - 1810  - 1260,897 

Amer.  Sunday  Sch.  Union  -  1824      207,764 

"  Bible  Society  -  -  1816  -  284,514 
■    "       Tract  Society       -    -  1814  -    308,428 

"       Home  Miss.  Society  -  1826  -    157,460 


1849. 

Amer.  Education  Society    -  1816  -   $32,754 

"       Colonization  Society  1819         17,414 

"       Seamen's  Friend  Society    -     23,497 

Miss.  Soc.  Methodist  Church  1819  -     99,635 

Presbyterian  Board  Missions  -    126,013 


United  States  ship,  Jamestown,  sailed  from  Boston  for  Cork,  loaded  with  provisions,  to  be 
given  to  the  distitute  Irish,  March  28th,  1847.  The  frigate  Macedonian  sailed  from 
New  York  on  same  errand,  July  8,  1847. 

Abbott  Lawrence  gave  $50,000  to  Harvard  College,  for  scientific  department,  June,  1847. 

BENGAL.  Of  the  existence  of  Bengal  as  a  separate  kingdom,  there  is  no 
record.  It  was  ruled  by  governors  delegated  by  the  sovereigns  of  Delhi  in 
1340,  when  it  became  independent,  until  1560.  It  afterwards  fell  to  the 
Mogul  empire. — See  India. 

The  English  were  first  permitted  to 

trade  to  Bengal        -  -        a.  d.  1534 

Factories  of  the  French  and  Danes      -  1664 
First  factory  at  Calcutta  -  -  1690 

The  settlements  first  placed  in  a  state 

of  defence         -  -  -  -1694 

Calcutta  bought,  and  fortified         -      - 1700 
Its  garrison  consisted  of  only  129  sol- 
diers, of  whom  but  55  were  Europeans  1706 


Calcutta  taken  by  Surrjah  Dowla ;  and 
the  dreadful  affair  of  the  Black-hole-  17.56 

Retaken  by  Colonel  Clive  -         -  1757 

Imperial  grant,  vesting  the  revenues  of 
Bengal  in  the  Company,  by  which 
the  virtual  sovereignty  of  the  country 
was  obtained    -  -  Aug.  12, 1765 

Celebrated  India-bill ;  Bengal  made  the 
chief  presidency     -  -    June  16,  1773 

See  India. 


^00  THE    world's    progress.  [_  BET 

BERESINA,  Battle  of.  Total  defeat  of  the  French  main  army  by  the  Rus- 
sians on  the  banks  of  the  Beresina,  followed  by  their  disastrous  passage  of 
it  when  escaping  out  of  Russia.  The  French  lost  20,000  men  in  the  battle, 
and  in  their  retreat  the  career  of  their  glory  was  closed,  Nov.  28,  1812. 

BERGEN,  Battle  op,  between  the  French  and  allies,  the  latter  defeated,  April 
14,  1759.  The  allies  again  defeated  by  the  French  with  great  loss,  Sept.  19, 
1799.  In  another  battle,  fought  Oct.  2,  same  year,  the  allies  lost  4,000  men; 
and  on  the  6th,  they  were  again  defeated  before  Allcmaer,  losing  5,000  men. 
On  the  20th,  the  duke  of  York  entered  into  a  convention  by  which  he 
exchanged  his  army  for  6,000  French  and  Dutch  prisoners  in  England. 

BERGEN-OP-ZOOM,  whose  works  were  deemed  impregnable,  taken  by  the 
French,  Sept.  16,  1747,  and  again  in  1794.  Here  a  gallant  attempt  was 
made  by  the  British,  under  Graham,  to  carry  the  fortress  by  storm,  but  it 
was  defeated ;  after  forcing  an  entrance  their  retreat  was  cut  off,  and  a 
dreadful  slaughter  ensued ;  nearly  all  were  cut  to  pieces  or  made  prisoners, 
March  8,  1814. 

BERLIN.  Founded  by  the  margrave  Albert,  surnamed  the  Bear,  in  1163.  Its 
five  districts  were  united  under  one  magistracy,  in  1714 ;  and  it  was  subse- 
quently made  the  capital  of  Prussia.  This  city  was  taken  by  an  army  of 
Russians,  Austrians,  and  Saxons,  in  1760,  but  they  were  obliged  to  retire  m 
a  few  days.  On  Oct.  27,  1806,  thirteen  days  after  the  battle  of  Jena,  the 
French  entered  Berlin,  and  from  its  palace  Napoleon  issued  his  famous 
Berlin  decree. — See  next  article. 

BERLIN  DECREE,  a  memorable  interdict  against  the  commerce  of  England. 
It  declared  the  British  islands  to  be  in  a  state  of  blockade,  and  all  Enghsh- 
men  found  in  countries  occupied  by  French  troops  were  to  be  treated  as 
prisoners  of  war ;  the  whole  world,  in  fact,  was  to  cease  from  any  commu- 
nication with  Great  Britain :  issued  by  Bonaparte  from  the  court  of  the 
Prussian  king,  shortly  after  the  battle  of  Jena  (which,  for  the  time,  decided 
the  fate  of  Prussia),  Nov.  21,  1806.— See  Jena. 

BERMUDAS,  or  SOMMERS'  ISLES,  discovered  by  Joao  Bermudas,  a  Spaniard, 
in  1527 ;  but  they  were  not  inhabited  until  1609,  when  sir  George  Sommers 
was  cast  away  upon  them.  They  were  settled  by  a  statute  of  9  James  I., 
1612.  Awful  and  memorable  hurricane  here,  October  31,  1780.  Another, 
by  which  a  third  of  the  houses  was  destroyed,  and  all  the  shipping  driven 
ashore,  July  20,  1813. 

BERNARD,  MOUNT  St.  Hannibal,  it  is  said,  conducted  the  Carthaginian 
army  by  this  pass  into  Italy ;  and  it  was  by  the  same  route  that  Bonaparte 
led  his  troops  to  the  plains  of  Lombardy,  before  the  battle  of  Marengo, 
fought  June  14,  1800. 

BERNARDINE  MONKS.  This  order  was  founded  by  Robert,  abbot  of  Mo- 
leme,  in  the  twelfth  century.  On  the  summit  of  the  Great  St.  Bernard  is  a 
large  community  of  monks,  who  entertain  in  their  convent  aU  travellers 
gratis  for  three  days. — Brooke. 

BERWICK.  '  This  town  was  the  theatre  of  many  bloody  contests  between  the 
English  and  Scots ;  and  while  England  and  Scotland  remained  two  king- 
doms, was  always  claimed  by  the  Scots  as  belonging  to  them,  because  it 
stood  on  their  side  of  the  river.  Berwick  was  burned  in  1173,  and  again  in 
1216.  It  was  taken  from  the  Scots,  and  annexed  to  England,  1333 ;  and 
after  having  been  taken  and  retaken  many  times,  was  finally  ceded  to  Eng- 
land in  1502.  The  town  surrendered  to  Cromwell  in  1648,  and  afterwards 
to  general  Monk.  Since  the  union  of  the  crowns  (James  I.  1603),  the  forti- 
fications, which  were  formerly  very  strong,  have  been  much  neglected. 

BETHLEHEM,  the  birth-place  of  Christ.     The  Bethlehemite  monks,  who 


BIB  J  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  201 

had  an  order  in  England  in  1257,  are  named  from  this  once  distinguished 
city.  It  now  contains  a  chm-ch,  erected  by  the  famous  St.  Helena,  in  the 
form  of  a  cross ;  also  a  chapel,  called  the  Chapel  of  the  Nativity,  where 
they  pretend  to  show  the  manger  in  which  Christ  was  laid ;  another,  called 
the  Chapel  of  Joseph ;  and  a  third,  of  the  Holy  Innocents.  Bethlehem  is 
much  visited  by  pilgrims. — Aslie. 

BEYROUT.  This  city,  which  was  colonized  from  Sidon,  was  destroyed  by  an 
earthquake,  a.  d.  566.  It  was  rebuilt,  and  was  alternately  possessed  by  the 
Christians  and  Saracens ;  and  after  a  frequent  change  of  masters,  fell  into 
the  power  of  Amurath  IV.,  since  when  it  remained  with  the  Ottoman  em- 
pire up  to  the  revolt  of  Ibrahim  Pacha,  in  1832.  Total  defeat  of  the  Egyp- 
tian army  by  the  allied  British,  Turkish,  and  Austrian  forces,  and  evacua- 
tion of  Beyrout,  the  Egyptians  losing  7000  in  killed,  wounded,  and  prisoners, 
and  20  pieces  of  cannon,  Oct.  10,  1840.  ^ 

BIARCHY".  When  Aristodemus,  king  of  Sparta,  died,  he  left  two  sons  twins, 
Eurysthenes  and  Procles ;  and  the  people  not  knowing  to  whom  precedence 
should  be  given,  placed  them  both  upon  the  throne,  and  thus  established 
the  first  biarchy,  1102  b.  c.  The  descendants  of  each  reigned  alternately 
for  800  years. — HerodoHs. 

BIBLE.  The  first  translation  from  the  Hebrew  into  the  Greek  was  made  by 
seventy-two  interpreters,  by  the  order  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus ;  it  is  thence 
called  the  Septuagint  version,  and  was  completed  in  seventy-two  days,  at 
Alexandria,  277  e.  c. — Josep/ms.  It  was  commenced  284  b.  c. — Lenglet.  In 
283. — Blair.  The  Jewish  sanhedrim  consisted  of  seventy  or  seventy-two 
members ;  and  hence,  probably,  the  seventy  or  seventj^-two  translators  of 
Josephus. — Hewlett.  The  seventy-two  were  shut  up  in  thirty-six  cells,  and 
each  pair  translated  the  whole;  and  on  subsequent  comparison,  it  was 
found  that  the  thirty-six  copies  did  not  vary  by  a  word  or  a  letter. — Justin 
Martyr. 

BIBLE,  Ancient  copies  of  the.  The  oldest  version  of  the  Old  and  New  Tes- 
tament belonging  to  the  Christians,  is  that  in  the  Vatican,  which  was  writ- 
ten in  the  fourth  or  fifth  century,  and  published  in  1455.  The  next  in  age 
is  the  Alexandrine  MS.,  in  the  British  Museum,  presented  by  the  Greek 
patriarch  to  Charles  I.,  and  said  to  have  been  copied  nearly  about  the  same 
time.  The  most  ancient  copy  of  the  Jewish  Scriptures  existed  at  Toledo, 
about  A.  D.  1000  ;  and  the  copy  of  Ben  Asher,  of  Jei'usalem,  was  made  about 
1100. 

BIBLE,  Bishops'.  Bishop  Alley  prepared  the  Pentateuch ;  bishops  Davis  and 
Sandys,  the  Historical  Books :  bishop  Bentham,  the  Psalms,  &c. ;  bishop 
Home,  the  prophets  ;  bishop  Grindal,  the  Minor  Prophets ;  bishops  Pai'k- 
hurst  and  Barlow,  the  Apocrypha ;  bishop  Cox,  the  Gospels  and  Acts ;  and 
archbishop  Parker,  the  remainder.     Printed  a.  d.  1568. 

BIBLE,  Division  of  the.  The  Bible  was  divided  into  twenty-two  books  by  the 
Jews,  the  number  of  letters  in  their  alphabet.  The  Christians  divided  the 
Bible  into  thirty-nine  books.  The  Hebrew  division  into  chapters  was  made 
by  the  rabbi  Nathan,  about  1445.  Our  Bible  was  divided  into  chapters,  and 
a  part  into  verses,  by  archbishop  Langton,  who  died  in  1228;  and  this 
division  was  perfected  by  Robert  Stephens,  about  1534. 

BIBLE,  Editions,  OF  the.  The  vulgate  edition,  in  Latin,  was  made  by  St.  Je- 
rome, A.  D.  405 ;  and  is  that  acknowledged  by  the  Catholic  church  to  be 
authentic :  it  was  first  printed  by  Guttenberg  at  Mayence,  1450 — 55.  (See 
Books.)  The  first  perfect  edition  in  Enghsh  was  finished,  as  appears  from 
the  colophon,  by  Tindal  and  Coverdale,  Oct.  4,  1535.  A  revision  of  this 
edition  was  made,  1538-9.    This  last  was  ordered  to  be  read  '■'■>  churches. 


202 


THE    world's    progress. 


[bil 


1549.  In  1604,  at  the  conference  at  Hampton-court  (see  Conference),  a  new 
translation  was  resolved  upon,  which  was  executed  1607-11,  and  is  that  now 
generally  used  in  Great  Britain.  J.  Eliot's  Indian  Bible,  one  of  the  first 
books  printed  in  North  America,  at  Cambridge,  1663.  The  Bible  was  first 
printed  in  Ireland,  at  Belfast,  in  1704.  Permitted  by  the  pope  t-o  be  trans- 
lated into  the  language  of  the  Catholic  states,  1759.    The  Bible  was  printed 


Spanish 

-1478 

Russian 

-1581 

Manks  - 

-1771 

German  - 

-     -1522 

Hungarian 

-       -  1589 

Italian 

-      -  1776 

English 

-1534 

Polish 

-  1595 

Bengalee 

-1801 

French    - 

-     -1535 

Modern  Greek    - 

-       -  1633 

Tartar 

-     - 1813 

Swedish 

-1.541 

Turkish 

-  1666 

Persian 

-1815 

Danish    - 

-      -  1550 

Irish 

-       -  1685 

African 

-     - 1816 

Dutch 

-1560 

Portuguese 

-  1748 

Chinese 

-1820 

Editions  of  t.he  Old  and  New  Testament,  separatelj^  appeared  in  several  in- 
stances at  earlier  dates,  particularly  in  European  languages.  The  Polyglot 
Bible,  edited  by  Walton,  bishop  of  Chester,  in  the  Hebrew,  Syriac,  Chaldee, 
Samaritan,  Arabic,  Ethiopic,  Persic,  Greek,  and  Latin  languages,  1657. — 
Wood's  Fasti.  Oxon. 

BIBLE  SOCIETIES.  Among  the  principal  and  oldest  societies  which  have 
made  the  dissemination  of  the  Scriptures  a  collateral  or  an  exclusive  object, 
are  the  following : — The  Society  for  Promoting  Christian  Knowledge  was 
formed  1698;  Society  for  Propagating  the  Gospel  in  Foreign  Parts,  1701; 
Society,  in  Scotland,  for  Promoting  Christian  Knowledge,  1709 ;  French 
Bible  Society,  1792 ;  British  and  Foreign  Bible  Society,  1801 ;  Hibernian 
Bible  Society,  1806 ;  City  of  London  Auxiliary  Bible  Society,  1812 ;  American 
Bible  Society  (which  now  has  numerous  branches),  founded  1816  ;  Ameri- 
can and  Foreign  Bible  Society  (Baptist),  founded  at  New- York,  1838.  A 
bull  from  the  pope  against  Bible  Societies  appeared  in  1817. 

BIGAMY.  The  Romans  branded  the  guilty  parties  with  an  infamous  mark: 
with  us,  the  punishment  of  this  offence,  formerly,  was  death.  The  first  act 
respecting  it  was  passed  5  Edward  I.  1276. —  Viner's  Statutes.  Declared  to 
be  felony,  without  benefit  of  clergy,  1  James  I.  1602.  Subjected  to  the 
same  punishments  as  grand  or  petit  larceny,  35  George  IE.  1794. — Statutes 
at  large. 

BILL  OF  RIGHTS.  One  of  the  great  foundations  of  the  British  constitution, 
was  obtain  ^d  from  Charles  I.  by  parliament,  1628.  This  bill  recognized  the 
legal  privileges  of  the  subject;  and  notwithstanding  the  employment  of  all 
manner  of  arts  and  expedients  to  avoid  it,  Charles  was  constrained  to  pass 
it  into  a  law.  The  Bill  of  Rights,  declaratory  of  the  rights  of  British  subjects, 
passed  1  William  and  Mary,  February  1689.  This  is  the  only  written  law 
respecting  the  liberties  of  the  people,  except  Magna  Charta. —  Virier's 
Statutes. 

BILLS  OF  EXCHANGE.  Invented  bj^  the  Jews,  as  a  means  of  removing  their 
property  from  nations  where  they  were  persecuted,  a.  d.  1160. — Anderson. 
Bills  were  used  in  England,  1807. — The  onlv  legal  mode  of  sending  money 
from  England,  4th  Richard  II.,  1381.  Regulated,  1698— first  stamped,  1782 
— duty  advanced,  1797 — again,  June  1801 ;  and  since.  It  was  made  capital 
to  coimterfeit  bills  of  exchange  in  1734.  In  1825,  the  year  of  disastrous 
speculations  in  bubbles,  it  was  computed  that  there  were  400  millions  of 
pounds  sterling  represented  by  bills  of  exchange  and  promissory  notes. 
The  present  amount  is  not  supposed  to  exceed  50  millions.  The  many 
statutes  regarding  bills  of  exchange  were  consolidated  by  act  9  George  IV. 
1828.    A  new  act  regulating  bills  of  exchange,  passed  3  Victoria,  July  1839. 

BILLS  OF  MORTALITY  for  London.  These  bills  were  first  compiled  about 
A.  D.  1536,  but  in  a  more  formal  and  recognized  manner  in  1593,  after  the 


BIS  ]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  20o 

great  plague  of  that  year ;  and  however  imperfect  they  still  are,  they  yet 
afford  valuable  mat-erials  for  computation  on  the  duration  of  life ;  no  com- 
plete series  of  them  has  been  preserved.  The  following  are  returns,  show- 
ing the  numbers  at  decennial  distances,  within  the  last  sixty  years : — 


Iti  the  year  1780,  Christenings 
1790,  Christenings 
1800,  Christenings 
1810,  Christenings 
1820,  Christenings 
1830,  Christenings 
1840,  Christenings 


16,634 

In  the 

year  1780,  Burials 

18,980 

1790,  Burials  - 

19,176 

1800,  Burials 

19,930 

1810,  Burials  - 

26,158 

1820,  Burials 

27,028 

1830,  Burials  - 

30,387 

1840,  Burials 

-  20,507 
18,038 

-  23,068 
19,892 
19,348 
23,524 

-  26,774 

BILLIARDS.  Invented  by  the  French,  by  whom,  and  by  the  Germans,  Dutch, 
and  Italians,  they  were  brought  into  general  vogue  throughout  Europe. — 
Nouv.  Diet.  The  French  ascribe  their  invention  to  Henrique  Devigne,  an 
artist,  in  the  reign  of  Charles  IX.,  about  1571.  Slate  biUiard-tables  were 
introduced  in  England  in  1827. 

BIRDS.  Divided  by  Linnseus  into  six  orders ;  by  Blumenbach  into  eight ;  and 
by  Cuvier  into  six.  Man  is  especially  enjoined  not  to  harm  the  nest  of  the 
bird :  "  If  a  bird's  nest  chance  to  be  before  thee  in  the  way  in  any  tree,  or 
on  the  ground,  whether  they  be  young  ones  or  eggs,  and  the  dam  sitting  upon 
the  young,  or  upon  the  eggs,  thou  shalt  not  take  the  dam  with  the 
young." — Duteronomy,  xxii.  6. 

BIRMINGHAM,  England.  This  town  existed  in  the  reign  of  Alfred,  a.  d.  872 ; 
but  its  importance  as  a  manufacturing  town  commenced  in  the  reign  of  Wil- 
liam III.  Birmingham  was  besieged  and  taken  by  prince  Rupert  in  1643. 
The  great  works  of  Soho  were  established  by  the  illustrious  engineer,  Mat- 
thew Boulton,  in  1764. 

BIRTHS.  Parish  registers  of  them^and  of  marriages  and  burials,  were  insti- 
tuted by  Cromwell,  earl  of  Essex,  28  Henry  VIII.  1536.  The  births  of  chil- 
dren were  taxed  in  England,  viz. :  birth  of  a  duke,  30Z. — of  a  common 
person,  2s. — 7  WiUiam  III.  1695.  Taxed  again,  1783.  The  instances  of 
four  children  at  a  birth  are  numerous ;  but  the  most  extraordinary  delivery 
recorded  in  modern  times  is  that  of  a  woman  of  Konigsberg,  who  had  five 
children  at  a  birth,  September  3. 1783. — Phillips.  The  wife  of  a  man  named 
Nelson,  a  journeyman  tailor,  of  Oxford-market,  London,  had  five  children  at 
a  birth,  in  October  1800. — Annals  of  London. 

BISHOPS.  The  name  was  given  by  the  Athenians  to  those  who  had  the  in- 
spection of  the  city.  The  Jews  and  Romans  had  also  a  like  officer ;  but 
now  it  means  only  that  person  who  has  the  government  of  church  affairs  in 
a  certain  district.  In  England,  the  dignity  is  coeval  with  Christianity.  St. 
Peter,  the  first  bishop  of  Rome,  was  martyred  a.  d.  65.  The  bishops  of 
Rome  assumed  the  title  of  pope  in  138,  the  rank  was  anciently  assumed  by 
all  bishops ;  but  it  was  afterwards  ordained  that  the  title  of  pope  should 
belong  only  to  the  occupant  of  St.  Peter's  chair. —  Warner. 

BISHOPS  OF  ENGLAND.  The  first  was  appointed  in  a.  d.  180.  See  York, 
London.  They  were  made  barons,  1072.  The  Conge  d''  Elire  of  the  king 
to  choose  a  bishop  originated  in  an  arrangement  of  king  John  with  the 
clergy.  Bishops  were  elected  by  the  king's  Congi  d'  Elire,  26  Henry  "VIII. 
1535.  Seven  were  deprived  for  being  married,  1554.  Several  suffered  mar- 
tyrdom lender  queen  Mary,  1555-6.  See  Cranmer.  Bishops  were  excluded 
.  from  voting  in  the  house  of  peers  on  temporal  concerns,  16  Charles  I.  1640. 
Twelve  were  committed  fur  high  treason,  in  protesting  against  the  legality 
of  all  acts  of  parliament  passed  while  they  remained  deprived  of  their  votes, 
1641.  Regained  their  seats,  Nov.  1661.  Seven  were  sent  to  the  tower  for  not 
reading  the  king's  declaration  for  liberty  of  conscience,  contrived  to  bring 
the  Catholics  into  ecclesiastical  and  civil  power,  and  were  tried  and  acquit- 


204  THE    world's    progress.  [  BLA 

ted,  June  29-30,  1688.  The  archbishop  of  Canterbury  (Dr.  Bancroft)  and 
five  bishops  were  suspended  for  refusing  to  take  the  oaths  to  WilUam  and 
Mary,  1689,  and  were  deprived  1690. —  Wa,rner's  Eccles.  Hist.  The  sees  of 
Bristol  and  Gloucester  were  united,  and  that  of  Ripon  created,  in  1836.  An 
order  in  council,  in  Oct.  1838,  directed  the  sees  of  Bangor  and  St.  Asaph  to 
be  united  on  the  next  vacancy  in  either,  and  Manchester,  a  new  see,  to  be 
created  thei-eupon.  This  order,  as  regarded  the  union  of  the  sees,  rescinded 
in  1846. — See  Manchester. 

BISHOPS  OF  IRELAND.  Bishops  are  said  to  have  been  consecrated  in  this 
country  as  early  as  the  second  century.  The  bishopric  of  Ossory,  first 
planted  at  Saiger,  was  founded  a.  d.  402,  thirty  years  before  the  arrival  of 
St.  Patrick. 

BISHOPS  OF  SCOTLAND.  They  were  constituted  in  the  fourth  century.  The 
see  of  St.  Andrew's  was  founded  by  Hergustus,  king  of  the  Picts,  who, 
according  to  a  legendary  tale  of  this  prelacy,  encouraged  the  mission  of 
Regulus,  a  Greek  monk  of  Patrse,  about  a.  d.  370.  The  bishops  were  deprived 
of  their  sees,  and  episcopacy  abolished  in  Scotland  at  the  period  of  the  revo- 
lution, 1688-9.  Warners  Eccles.  Hist. — There  are  now,  however,  six  bishops 
belonging  to  the  Scotch  Episcopal  Church,  viz :  Aberdeen,  Brechin,  Edin- 
burgh, Glasgow,  Moray,  and  St.  Andrew's. 

BISHOPS,  Precedency  of,  was  settled  by  statute  31  Henry  VIII.  to  be  vcxt  to 
viscounts,  they  being  barons  of  the  realm,  1540 ;  and  they  have  the  title  of 
Lord,  and  Right  Rev.  Father  in  God.  The  archbishops  of  Canterbury  and 
York,  taking  place  of  all  dukes,  have  the  title  of  Grace.  The  bishops  of 
London,  Durham,  and  Winchester  have  precedence  of  all  bishops ;  the 
others  rank  according  to  the  seniority  of  consecration.  A  late  contest  in 
Ireland  between  the  bishops  of  Meat^  and  Kildare  for  precedency  was  de- 
cided in  favor  of  the  former,  who  now  ranks  after  the  archbishop  of  Dublin. 
The  others  rank  according  to  consecration. 

BISHOPS  IN  AMERICA.  The  first  was  the  Right  Rev.  Doctor  Samuel  Sea- 
bury,  consecrated  bishop  of  Connecticut  by  four  nonjuring  prelates,  at 
Aberdeen,  in  Scotland,  Nov.  14,  1784.  The  bishops  of  New- York  and  Penn- 
sylvania were  consecrated  in  London,  by  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
Feb.  4.  1787 ;  and  the  bishop  of  Virginia  in  1790.  The  first  Catholic  bishop 
of  the  United  States  was  Dr.  Carroll  of  Maryland,  in  1789. 

BISSEXTILE  OR  LEAP  YEAR.  An  intercalary  day  was  throvra  into  every 
fourth  year  to  adjust  the  calendar,  and  make  it  agree  with  the  sun's  course. 
It  originated  with  Julius  Csesar,  who  ordered  a  day  to  be  counted  before 
the  24th  of  February,  which  among  the  Romans  was  the  6th  of  the  calends, 
and  which  was  therefore  reckoned  twice,  and  czWudi  bissextile:  this  added 
day  we  name  the  29th  of  February  every  fourth  year,  45  b.  c. — See  Calen- 
dar and  Leap  Year. 

BITHYNIA.  Conquered  by  Croesus,  about  560  b.  c.  ;  and  again  by  Alexander, 
332  B.  c.  It  afterwards  recovered  its  liberty;  but  its  last  king  bequeathed 
it'to  the  Romans,  40  b.  c.  In  modern  history  Bithynia  makes  no  figure, 
except  that  from  its  ruins  rose  the  Othman  Turks,  who,  in  a.  d.  1327,  took 
Prusa  its  capital,  and  made  it  the  seat  of  their  empire  before  they  possessed 
Constantinople. 

BLACK  BOOK,  a  book  kept  in  the  English  monasteries,  wherein  details  of  the 
scandalous  enormities  practised  in  religious  houses  were  entered  for  the 
inspection  of  visitors  under  Henry  VIIL,  1535,  in  order  to  blacken  them  and 
hasten  their  dissolution ;  hence  the  vulgar  phrase  "  I'll  set  you  down  in  the 
black  book." 

BLASPHEMY.     This  crime  is  recognized  both  by  the  civil  and'canon  law  of 


BLO  ]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  205 

England.  Justinian  adjudged  it  the  punishment  of  death.  In  Scotland,  the 
tongue  was  amputated.  Visited  by  fine  and  imprisonment,  9  &  10  William 
III.,  1696-7.— Stetetes  at  large.  In  England  this  offence  has  been  subjected, 
on  some  late  occasions,  to  the  visitation  of  the  laws.  Daniel  Isaac  Eaton 
was  tried  and  convicted  in  London  of  blasphemy,  13th  March,  1812.  A  pro- 
testant  clergyman,  named  Robert  Taylor,  was  tried  in  London  twice  for  the 
same  crime,  and  as  often  convicted.  Taylor  was  last  brought  to  the  bar, 
and  sentenced  to  two  years'  imprisonment,  and  largely  fined,  for  (among 
other  things)  reviling  the  Redeemer  in  his  discourses,  July,  1831.  Even  as 
late  as  in  Dec.  1840,  two  prosecutions  against  publishers  of  blasphemous 
writings,  subjected  the  offenders  to  the  sentence  of  the  court  of  Queen's 
Bench. 
BLAZONRY.  The  bearing  coats-of-arms  was  introduced,  and  cecame  heredi- 
tary in  families  in  France  and  England,  about  a.  d.  1192,  owing  to  the 
knights  painting  their  banners  with  different  figures,  thereby  to  distinguish 
them  in  the  crusades. — Dugdak. 

BLEACHING.  This  art  was  known  early  in  Egypt,  Syria,  and  India.  Known 
in  ancient  Gaul. — Pliny.  In  the  last  century  an  improved  chemical  system 
was  adopted  by  the  Dutch,  who  introduced  it  into  England  and  Scotland  in 
1768.  There  are  now  immense  bleachfields  in  both  countries,  particularly 
in  Lancashire,  and  in  the  counties  of  Fife,  Forfar,  and  Renferew,  and  in  the 
vale  of  the  Leven,  in  Dumbarton.  The  chemical  process  of  Berthollet  was 
introduced  in  VJ^t.^—Blanchiment  des  Toiles. 

BLENHEIM,  Battle  op  ;  between  the  English  and  confederates,  commanded 
by  the  duke  of  Marlborough,  and  the  French  and  Bavarians,  under  marshal 
Tallard  and  the  elector  of  Bavaria,  whom  Marlborough  signally  defeated 
with  the  loss  of  27,000  in  killed,  and  13,000  prisoners,  Tallard  being  among 
the  latter :  the  electorate  of  Bavaria  became  the  prize  of  the  conquerors. 
The  nation  testified  its  gratitude  to  the  duke  by  the  gifts  of  the  honor  of 
Woodstock  and  hundred  of  Wotton,  and  erected  for  him  one  of  the  finest 
seats  in  the  kingdom,  known  as  the  domain  and  house  of  Blenheim. 
Fought  Aug.  2,  llOL— Hume. 

BLINDING,  by  consuming  the  eyeballs  with  lime  or  scalding  vinegar,  a  punish- 
ment inflicted  anciently  on  adulterers,  perjurers,  and  thieves.  In  the  mid- 
dle ages  they  changed  the  penalty  of  total  blindness  to  a  diminution  of 
sight.  Blinding  the  conquered  was  a  practice  in  barbarous  states ;  and  a 
"whole  army  was  deprived  of  their  eyes  by  Basilius,  in  the  eleventh  century. 
See  Bulgarians.  Several  of  the  Eastern  emperors  had  their  eyes  torn  from 
their  heads.     See  article  Eastern  Empire. 

BLISTERS.  They  were  first  made,  it  is  said,  of  cantharides. — Freind.  Blisters 
are  said  to  have  been  first  introduced  into  medical  practice  by  Aretseus,  a 
physician  of  Cappadocia,  about  50  b.  c. — Le  Clerch  Hist,  of  Physic. 

BI<O0D,  Circulation  of  the,  Ihroiigh  the  lungs,  first  made  public  by  Michael 
Servetus,  a  Spanish  physician,  in  1553.  Cisalpinus  published  an  account  of 
the  general  circulation,  of  which  he  had  some  confused  ideas ;  improved 
afterwards  by  experiments,  1569.  Paul  of  Venice,  commonly  called  Father 
Paolo,  whose  real  name  was  Peter  Sarpi,  certainly  discovered  the  valves 
which  serve  for  the  circulation ;  but  the  honor  of  the  positive  discovery  of 
the  circulation  of  the  blood  belongs  to  Harvey,  an  English  physician,  by 
whom  it  was  fully  confirmed,  1628. — Freind' s  Hist,  of  Physic. 

BLOOD,  Drinking  of.  Anciently  a  mode  was  tried  of  giving  vigor  to  the  sys- 
tem, by  administering  blood  as  a  draught.  Louis  XI.,  in  his  last  illness, 
drank  the  warm  blood  of  infants,  in  the  vain  hope  of  restoring  his  decayed 


206  THE    world's    progress.  [  BCEO 

strength,  1438. — Renault.  Eating  blood  was  prohibited  to  Noah,  Gen.  ix. , 
and  to  the  Jews,  Lev.  xvii.  The  prohibition  repeated  by  the  apostles  at 
the  council  of  Jerusalem,  Acts  xv. 

BLOOD,  Transfusion  op.  In  the  fifteenth  century  an  opinion  prevailed  that 
the  declining  strength  and  vigor  of  old  people  might  be  repaired  by  trans- 
fusing the  blood  ofyoiing  persons,  drawn  from  their  veins,  into  those  of  the 
infirm  and  aged.  It  was  countenanced  in  France  by  the  physicians,  and 
prevailed  for  many  years,  till  the  most  fatal  eSects  ensued  from  the  opera- 
tion. Some  of  the  principal  nobility  having  died,  and  others  turned  raving 
mad,  it  was  suppressed  by  an  edict.  Attempted  in  France  in  1797.  Prac- 
tised more  recently  there,  in  a  few  cases,  with  success ;  and  in  England 
(but  the  instances  are  rare)  since  1823. — Med.  Jour.  "  One  English  physi- 
cian, named  Louver,  or  Lower,  practised  in  this  way ;  he  died  in  1691." — 
F^reincfs  Hist,  of  Physic. 

BLOOD'S  CONSPIRACY.  Blood,  a  discarded  officer  of  Oliver  Cromwell's 
household,  and  his  confederates,  seized  the  duke  of  Ormond  in  his  coach, 
and  had  got  him  to  Tyburn,  intending  to  hang  him,  when  he  was  rescued 
by  his  friends.  Blood  afterwards,  in  the  disguise  of  a  clergyman,  stole  the 
regal  crown  from  the  Jewel-office  in  the  Tower :  yet,  notwithstanding  these 
and  other  offences,  he  was  not  only  pardoned,  but  had  a  pension  of  X500 
per  annum  settled  on  him  by  Charles  II.  1673. 

BLUE  STOCKING.  This  term  is  applied  to  literary  ladies,  and  was  originally 
conferred  on  a  society  of  literary  persons  of  both  sexes.  One  of  the  most 
active  promoters  of  the  society  was  Benjamin  Stillingfleet,  the  distinguished 
naturalist  and  miscellaneous  writer,  who  always  wore  blue  worsted  stock- 
ings, and  hence  the  name :  the  society  existed  in  1760,  et  seq. — Anec.  of 
Bowyer.  The  beautiful  and  fascinating  Mrs.  Jerningham  is  said  to  have 
worn  blue  stockings  at  the  conversaziones  of  lady  Montague ;  and  this  pecu- 
liarity also  fastened  the  name  upon  accomplished  women. 

BOARD  OF  TRADE  and  PLANTATIONS.  Charles  II.,  on  his  restoration, 
established  a  council  of  trade  for  keeping  a  control  over  the  whole  com- 
merce of  the  nation,  1660 ;  he  afterwards  instituted  a  board  of  trade  and 
plantations,  which  was  remodelled  by  William  III.  This  board  of  superin- 
spection  was  abolished  in  1782 ;  and  a  new  council  for  the  affairs  of  trade  ' 
was  appointed,  Sept.  2,  1786. 

BOATS.  Their  invention  was  so  early,  and  their  use  so  general,  the  art  cannot 
be  traced  to  any  age  or  country.  Flat-bottomed  boats  were  made  in  Eng- 
land in  the  reign  of  the  Conqueror:  the  flat-bottomed  boat  was  again 
brought  into  use  by  Barker,  a  Dutchman,  about  1690.  The  life-boat  was 
first  suggested  at  South  Shields ;  and  one  was  built  by  Mr.  Greathead,  the 
inventor,  and  was  first  put  to  sea,  Jan.  30,  1790. 

BOCCACCIO'S  BOOK,  II  Decamerone,  a  collection  of  a  hundred  stories  or 
novels,  not  of  moral  tendency :  feigned  to  have  been  related  in  ten  days,  and, 
as  is  said  by  Petrarch,  "  possessing  many  charms."  A  copy  of  the  first 
edition  (that  of  Valdafer,  in  1471)  was  knocked  down,  at  the  duke  of  Rox- 
burgh's sale,  to  the  duke  of  Marlborough,  for  £2260,  June  17,  1812.  This 
identical  copy  was  afterwards  sold,  by  public  auction,  for  875  guineas, 
June  5,  1819. 

BCEOTIA,  the  country  of  which  Thebes  was  the  capital.  Thebes  was  equally 
celebrated  for  its  antiquity,  its  grandeur,  and  the  exploits  and  misfortunes 
of  its  kings  and  heroes.  The  country  was  kno^vn  successively  as  Aonia, 
Messapia,  Hyantis,  Ogygia.  Gadmeis,  and  Boeotia;  and  it  gave  birth  to  Pin- 
dar, Hesiod,  Plutarch,  Democritus,  Epaminondas,  and  the  accomplished 
and  beautiful  Corinna. 


BOl] 


DICTIONARY    OF    PATES. 


207 


BCEOTIA  continued. 

Arrival  of  Cadmus,  the  founder  of  Cad- 
mea  -  -  -  b.  c.  1493 

Reign  of  Poly dore  -  -  -1459 

Labdacus  ascends  the  throne  -        1430 

Amphion  and  Zethus  besiege  Thebes, 
and  dethrone  Laius     -  -  -  1388 

CEdipus,  not  knowing  his  father  Laius, 
kiUs  him  in  an  affray,  confirming  the 
oracle  as  to  his  death  by  the  hands  of 
his  son 1276 

CEdipus  encounters  the  Sphinx,  and  re- 
solves ber  enigmas  -  -        1266 

War  of  the  Seven  Captains       -  -  1225 

Here  the  greatness  of  this  country  ends. 


Thebes  besieged  and  taken  -  b.  c.  1216 

Thersander  reigns  in  Thebes     -  -  1215 

Tlie  Thebans  abolish  royalty,  and  ages 
of  obscurity  follow      -  -  -  1125 

Battle  of  Chaeronea,  in  which  the  The- 
bans defeat  the  Athenians       -  -    44? 

Epaminondas  defeats  the  Lacedemo- 
nians at  Leuctra,  restores  his  country 
to  independence,  and  puts  it  in  a  con- 
dition to  dictate  to  the  rest  of  Greece   37 1 

Philip,  king  of  Macedon,  defeats  the  The- 
bans and  Athenians,  near  Chaeronea  -  338 

Alexander  destroyed  Thebes,  the 


capital,  3B5  e.  c.  when  the  house  of  Pindar  alone  was  left  standing 
the  inhabitants  were  either  killed  or  sold  as  slaves. — Strabo. 


and  all 


BOGS.  Commonly  the  remains  of  fallen  forests,  covered  with  peat  and  loose 
soil.  Moving  bogs  are  slips  of  land  carried  to  lower  levels  by  accumulated 
water.  Acts  relating  to  Ireland,  for  their  drainage,  passed,  March,  1830. 
The  bog-land  of  Ireland  has  been  estimated  at  3,000,000  acres ;  that  of  Scot- 
land, at  upwards  of  2,000,000 ;  and  that  of  England,  at  near  1,000,000  of  acres. 

BOH,  a  fierce  barbarian  general,  son  of  Odin,  lived  60  b.  c.  The  exclamation 
of  his  name  petrified  his  enemies,  and  is  yet  used  to  frighten  children. 

BOHEMIA.  This  country  was  originally  governed  by  dukes :  the  title  of  king 
was  obtained  from  the  emperor  Henry  IV.  The  kings  at  first  held  their 
territory  of  the  Empire,  but  they  at  length  threw  off  the  yoke  :  the  crown 
was  elective  till  it  came  into  the  house  of  Austria,  in  which  it  is  now  here- 
ditary.— See  Germanij. 


The  Sclavonians,  seizing  Bohemia,  are  ] 

ruled  by  dukes  -  -        a.  d.    550 

City  of  Prague  founded     -  -       -    795 

Introduction  of  Christianity      -  -    894 

Bohemia  conquered  by  the  emperor 
Henry  III.,  who  spreads  devastation 
through  the  country    -  -  -  1041 

The  regal  title  is  conferred  on  Uratislas, 
the  first  king    -  -  .  -  1061 

The  regal  title  is  farther  confirmed  to 
Ottoacre  I.  -  -  -  -     -  1199 

Reign  of  Ottoacre  11.,  who  carries  his 
arms  into  Prussia       -  -  -  1258 

Ottua  ;re,  refusing  to  do  homage  to  the 
emperor  Rodolphus,  is  by  him  van- 
quished, and  deprived  of  Austria, 
Styria,  and  Carniola   -  -  -  1282 

In  the  reign  of  Winceslas  III.  mines  of 
silver  are  first  discovered,  and  agri- 
culture is  encouraged  and  improved 
(eJ  seq.)  .  .  -  .  1-284 

Winceslas  IV.  becoming  odious  for  Ms 
vices,  is  assassinated        -  -      -  1305 

John,  count  of  Luxemburgh,  is  chosen 
to  succeed        ....  1310 

Silesia  is  made  a  province  of  Bohemia  1342 

King  John  slain  at  the  battle  of  Crecy, 
fought  with  the  English    -  -     -  1346 


John  Huss  and  Jerome  of  Prague,  two 
of  the  first  Reformers,  are  burnt  for 
heresy,  which  occasions  an  insurrec- 
tion ;  when  Sigismund,  who  betrayed 
them,  is  deposed,  and  the  Imperialists 
are  driven  from  the  kingdom  1415  &  1416 

Albert,  duke  of  Austria,  marries  the 
daughter  of  the  late  emperor  and 
king,  and  receives  the  crowns  of  Bo- 
hemia and  Hungary         -  -      -  1437 

The  succession  infringed  by  Ladislas, 
son  of  the  king  of  Poland,  and  George 
Podiebrad,  a  protestant  chief  1440  to  14.58 

Ladislas  VI.,  king  of  Poland,  elected 
king  of  Bohemia,  on  the  deatli  of  Po- 
diebrad     1471 

The  emperor  Ferdinand  I.  marries 
Anne,  sister  of  Louis  the  late  king, 
and  obtains  the  crown  -  -  1527 

The  elector  palatine  Frederick  is  driven 
from  Bohemia       -  -  -     -  1618 

The  crowri  is  secured  to  the  Austrian 
family  by  the  treaty  of  -  -  1648 

Silesia  and  Glatz  ceded  to  Prussia  -  1742 
-1744 
-  17-57 
-1775 
-1806 


Prague  taken  by  the  Prussians 
The  memorable  siege  of  Prague 
Revolt  of  the  peasantry 
The  French  occupy  Prague 
See  Germany. 

BOILING  TO  DEATH.  A  capital  punishment  in  England,  by  statute  23  Henry 
VIII.,  1532.  This  act  was  occasioned  by  seventeen  persons  having  been 
poisoned  by  Rouse,  the  bishop  of  Rochester's  cook,  when  the  oflence  of 
poisoning  was  made  treason,  and  it  was  enacted  to  to  be  punislied  by  boil- 
ing the  criminal  to  death  !  Margaret  Davie,  a  young  woman,  sufl'ered  in  the 
same  manner  for  a  similar  crime,  in  1541. 


208  THE  world's  progress.  [boo 

BOLOGNA.  Distinguished  for  its  many  rare  and  magnificent  specimens  of 
architecture.  Its  ancient  and  celebrated  university  was  founded  by  Theo- 
dosius,  A.  D.  433.  Pope  Julius  II.,  after  besieging  and  taking  Bologna,  made 
his  triumphal  entry  into  it  with  a  pomp  and  magnificence  by  no  means  fitting 
(as  Erasmus  observes)  for  the  vicegerent  of  the  meek  Redeemer,  Nov.  10, 
1506.  Here,  in  the  church  of  St.  Patronius,  which  is  remarkable  for  its 
pavement,  Cassini  drew  his  meridian  line,  at  the  close  of  the  seventeenth 
century.  Taken  by  the  French,  i  796 ;  by  the  Austrians,  1799 ;  again  by  the 
French,  after  the  battle  of  Marengo,  in  1800 ;  restored  to  the  pope  in  1815 ; 
Austrians  expelled  by  the  people,  August  8,  1848. 

BOMBAY,  India.  Given  as  part  of  the  marriage-portion  of  the  princess  Cath- 
erine of  Portugal,  on  her  marriage  with  Charles  II.,  1661.  Granted  by  Wil- 
liam lU.  to  the  East  India  Company  in  1688,  and  it  now  forms  one  of  the 
three  presidencies.  An  awful  fire  raged  here,  and  a  number  of  lives  were 
lost,  Feb.  27,  1803.— See  India. 

BOMBS,  invented  at  Venlo,  in  1495,  but  according  to  some  authorities  near  a 
century  after.  They  came  into  general  use  in  1634,  having  been  previously 
used  only  in  the  Dutch  and  Spanish  armies.  Bomb-vessels  were  invented  in 
France,  in  1681. —  Voltaire.  The  Shrapnel  shell  is  a  bomb  filled  with  balls, 
and  a  lighted  fuse  to  make  it  explode  before  it  reaches  the  enemy ;  a  thirteen- 
inch  bomb-shell  weighs  198  lbs. 

BONDAGE,  OR  VILLANAGE,  was  enforced  under  William  I.  A  villain  in 
ancient  times  meant  a  peasant  enslaved  by  his  lord.  A  release  from  this 
species  of  servitude  Avas  ordered  on  the  manors  of  Elizabeth,  in  1574.  See 
Villain. 

BONE-SETTING.  This  branch  of  the  art  of  surgery  cannot  be  said  to  have 
been  practised  scientifically  until  1620,  before  which  time  it  was  rather  im- 
perfectly understood. — Bdl.  The  celebrity  obtained  by  a  practitioner  at 
Paris,  about  1600,  led  to  the  general  study  of  bone-setting  as  a  science. 
— fVcind's  Hist  of  Physic. 

BOOKS.  Ancient  books  were  originally  boards,  or  the  inner  bark  of  trees ;  and 
bark  is  still  used  by  some  nations,  as  are  also  skins,  for  which  latter  parch- 
ment was  substituted.  Papyrus,  an  Egyptian  plant,  was  adopted  in  that 
country.  Books  whose  leaves  were  vellum,  were  Invented  by  Attalus,  king 
of  Pergamus,  about  198  b.  c,  at  which  time  books  were  in  volumes  or  rolls. 
The  MSS.  in  Herculaneum  consist  of  papyi-us,  rolled  and  charred,  and  matted 
together  by  the  fire,  and  are  about  nine  inches  long,  and  one,  two,  or  three 
inches  in  diameter,  each  being  a  separate  treatise.  The  Pentateuch  of 
Moses,  and  the  history  of  Job,  are  the  most  ancient  in  the  world ;  and  in 
profane  literature,  the  poems  of  Homer,  though  the  names  of  others  still 
more  ancient  are  preserved. 

BOOKS,  Pricks  of.  Jerome  states  that  he  had  ruined  himself  by  buying  a  copy 
of  the  works  of  Origen.  A  large  estate  was  given  for  one  on  cosmography, 
by  Alfred,  about  a.  d.  872.  The  Roman  de  la  Rose  was  sold  for  above  30Z.,- 
and  a  Homily  was  exchanged  for  200  sheep  and  five  quarters  of  wheat;  and 
they  usually  fetched  double  or  treble  their  weight  in  gold.  They  sold  at 
prices  varying  from  lOZ.  to  40?.  each,  in  1400.  In  our  own  times,  the  value 
of  some  volumes  is  very  great.  A  copy  of  MacUin's  Bible,  ornamented  by 
Mr.  Tomkins,  has  been  declared  worth  500  guineas.— jB^'T^fcr.  A  yet  more 
superb  copy  is  at  present  insured  in  a  London  office  for  3,000?. —  Times.  II 
Decamerone  of  Boccacio,  edition  of  1471,  was  bought  at  the  duke  of  Rox- 
burgh's sale  by  the  duke  of  Marlborough  for  2260/..  June  17, 1?>\2.— Phillips. 
A  copji"  of  the  "Mazarin  Bible,"  being  the  first  edition  and  first  book  ever 
printed  (hj  Guttemberg  at  Mentz  in  1455)  was  sold  at  auction  in  London 


BOO  ]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  209 

in  April  1846  for  500Z.  This  copy,  the  only  one  known  to  exist  exeept  19 
in  public  libraries,  is  now  in  a  private  library  in  New  York. 

BOOKS,  Printed.  The  first  printed  books  were  trifling  hymns  and  psalters,  and 
being  printed  only  on  one  side,  the  leaves  were  pasted  back  to  back.  The 
first  printing  was,  as  a  book,  the  Book  of  Psalms,  by  Faiist  and  SchseflPer,  his 
son-in-law,  Aug.  14,  1457.  Several  works  weve  printed  many  years  before ; 
but  as  the  inventors  kept  the  secret  to  themselves,  they  sold  their  first  printed 
works  as  manuscripts.  This  gave  rise  to  an  adventure  that  brought  calamity 
on  Faust;  he  began  in  1450  an  edition  of  the  Bible,  which  was  finished  in 
1460.  See  article  Devil  and  Dr.  Faustus.  The  second  printed  was  Cicero  de 
Officiis,  1466. — Blair.  The  first  book  printed  in  England  was  The  Game  and 
Play  of  the  Chesse,  by  Caxton,  1474.  The  first  in  Dublin  was  the  Liturgy, 
in  1550.  The  first  classical  work  printed  in  Russia  was  Corn.  Nepotis  Vitce, 
in  1762.  Ldccian's  Dialogues  was  the  first  Greek  book  printed  in  America 
(at  Philadelphia),  1789.  Books  of  astronomy  and  geometry  were  all  de- 
stroyed in  England  as  being  infected  with  magic,  6  Edward  VI.  1552. — 
Stowe's  Chronicles. 

The  above  is  from  Haydn;  but  according  to  Pettigreto,  {Biblio.  Sussex.) 
the  first  book  printed  with  movable  types  was  tlie  Latin  Bible,  printed  by 
John  Gnttemberg  at  Mayence,  about  1455.  It  was  in  two  folio  volumes ; 
and  so  excellent  was  the  workmanship,  both  in  type,  ink,  paper,  and  press- 
work,  that  it  has  scarcely  been  surpassed  since.  The  succeeding  editions 
for  200  years  were  much  inferior.  This  edition  is  called  the  Mazarin  Bible, 
as  a  copy  was  first  found  in  the  library  of  cardinal  Mazarin.  Only  20  copies 
are  now  known  to  exist — all  but  one  being  in  public  libraries  in  Europe. 
[See  previous  article.]  Specimens  of  the  block  books,  printed  with  engraved 
wooden  blocks,  instead  of  type,  are  now  very  rare.  Of  the  Biblia  Pauperum, 
done  in  this  way,  only  two  copies  exist,  one  of  which  belongs  to  a  citizen  of 
New  York. 

BOOK-BINDING.  The  book  of  St.  Cuthbert,  the  earliest  ornamented  book,  is 
supposed  to  have  been  bound  about  a.  d.  650.  A  Latin  Psalter  in  oak  boards 
was  bound  in  the  ninth  century.  A  MS.  copy  of  the  four  evangelists,  the 
book  on  which  our  kings  from  Henry  I.  to  Edward  VI.  took  their  coronation 
oath,  was  bound  in  oaken  b6ards,  nearly  an  inch  thick,  a.  d.  1100.  Velvet 
was  the  covering  in  the  fourteenth  century ;  and  silk  soon  after.  Vellum 
was  introduced  early  in  the  fifteenth  centurj'- ;  it  was  stamped  and  orna- 
mented about  1510.  Leather  came  into  use  about  the  same  time.  Cloth 
binding  superseded  the  common  boards,  generally,  about  1831.  Caoutchouc, 
or  India-rubber  backs  to  account-books  and  large  volumes  introduced  1841. 

BOOK-KEEPING.  The  system  by  double-entry,  called  originally  Italian  book- 
keeping, was  taken  from  the  course  of  algebra  which  was  published  by 
Burgo,  at  Venice,  then,  a  great  commercial  stalCj  in  the  fifteenth  century. 
It  was  made  known  in  England  by  James  Peele,  who  published  his  Book- 
keeping  in  1569. — Anderson. 

BOOK  TRADE  of  Great  Britain,  France,  and  Germany.  The  number  of  new 
works  published  in  successive  years  is  thus  stated : 

Gt.  Brit.    France.  Germany. 

1828       -         842       -      —  -      5,654 

laSO       -      1,142       -      —  -      5,926 

1834       -      1,220       -      —  -      6,074 

The  number  of  printed  books  received  from  1814  to  1847  inclusive,  under 
the  copyright  acts,  from  the  trustees  of  the  British  Museum,  amount  to 
55,474,  or  1681  each  year. 

England. —Ttid  Avhole  number  of  books  printed  in  England  during  14  years, 
from  1666  to  1680,  was  3,550 ;    equal  to  253  yearly ;— but  deducting  the 


Gt.  Brit.    France.     Germany. 
1836       -      1,332       -      —        .      7,891 

1849  -         —         .      _        .        _ 

1850  -         —         -    7,208      -        — 


210  THE  world's  progress.  [boo 

reprints,  pamplilets,  single  sermons,  and  maps,  the  annual  average  of  new 
books  may  be  computed  at  much  less  than  100. 
The  number  of  new  works,  exclusive  of  "all  pamphlets  and  other  tracts," 
issued  during  56  years,  as  appears  from  a  "  Complete  Catalogue  of  Modern 
Books  published  from  the  beginning  of  the  century  (1700)  to  1756,"    was 
5,280 ;  equal  to  a  yearly  average  of  94. 
The  number  of  new  works,  exclusive  of  reprints  and  pamphlets,  issued 
during  eleven  years,  from  1792  to  1802  inclusive,  was  4,096  ;   equal  to  372 
each  year. 
The  number  of  new  publications  issued  in  27  years,  from  1800  to  1827,  in- 
cluding reprints  altered  in  size  and  price,  but  excluding  pamphlets,  was, 
according  to  the  London  Catalogue,  19,860  : — deducting  one  fifth  for  reprints, 
we  have  15,888,  equal  to  588  each  year. 

Mr.  McCulloch  estimates  the  nimiber  of  volumes  of  new  publications  pro- 
duced annually  in  Great  Britain  (exclusive  of  reprints,  pamphlets,  and 
periodical  publications  not  in  volumes)  at  about  1,500 ;  and  the  average 
impression  of  each  volume  at  750  copies ; — annual  total,  1,125,000  volumes : 
— value  at  95.  a  volume,  £506,250.  "The  number  of  reprinted  volumes, 
particularly  of  school-books,  is  very  great;  and  if  to  these  we  add  the 
reviews,  magazines,  pamphlets,  and  all  other  publications,  exclusive  of  news- 
papers, the  total  publication  value  of  the  new  works  of  all  sorts,  and  new 
copies  of  old  works  that  are  annually  produced,  may  be  estimated  at  about 
£750,000." 

France. — The  activity  of  the  French  press  has  been  very  greatly  increased 
since  the  downfall  of  Napoleon.  The  count  Daru,  in  a  very  instructive 
work  {Notions  Statistiques  sur  la  Librarie)^  published  in  1827,  estimated  the 
number  of  printed  sheets,  exclusive  of  newspapers,  produced  by  the  French 
press  in  1816  at  66,852,883 ;  and  in  1825,  at  128,011,483  ;  and  we  believe 
that  the  increase  from  1825  down  to  the  present  period  has  been  little  if  any 
thing  inferior. 
The  first  six  months  of  the  year  1837,  as  stated  by  the  "Foreign  Quarterly 
review,"  there  were  printed  in  France,  3.413  works,  in  French  and  other 
languages ;  also  571  engravings  and  lithographs. 

Germany. — The  book-trade  of  Gei-many  is  greatly  facilitated  by  the  book- 
fairs  held  at  Leipsic  at  Easter  and  Micheelmas,  which  are  attended  by  the 
booksellers  of  Germany,  and  by  many  of  those  of  the  neighboring  countries, 
as  France,  Switzerland,  Denmai'k,  &c.  This  trade  began  to  flourish  in  1814 ; 
the  number  of  works  then  annually  offered  for  sale  was  about  2,000 ;  but 
the  number  has  been  gradually  increasing,  having  for  the  first  time  exceeded 
5,000  in  1827 ;  and  it  now  exceeds  7,000. 

"An  Augsburg  paper  states."  (says  the  "  Foreign  Quarterly  Review,"  1836,) 
"  that,  on  a  moderate  calculation,  10,000,000  of  ^t)lumes  are  annually  printed 
in  Germany,  and  as  every  half-yearly  fair  catalogue  contains  the  names  of 
more  than  1,000  German  writers,  it  may  be  assumed,  that  there  are  now 
living  upwards  of  50,000  persons  who  have  written  one  or  more  books.  The 
total  value  of  all  the  books  published  annually  in  Germany  is  estimated 
from  5  to  6,000,000  dollars." 

Russia. — In  the  year  1836,  674  original  works,  and  124  translations  were 
published  in  Russia,  exclusive  of  46  periodicals. 

Sweden. — There  are  only  28  or  30  printing  presses  in  Sweden ;    10  in  Stock- 
holm, 3  in  Gottenburg,  2  in  Upsal,  2  in  Norkoping,  and  1  in  several  other 
places. 
BOOK-TRADE  op  thr  UNITED  STATES.    The  number  of  new  works  which 
appeared  in  the  United  States,  in  1834  and  1835,  amounted  to  1,013,  forming 


nOK.  J  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  211 

1,300  volumes,  and  the  cost  of  which  may  be  estimated  at  ^1,220,000.  In 
1836,  the  number  was  considerably  increased,  and  the  cost  of  the  books 
published  in  that  year  cannot  be  computed  at  less  than  S  1,500,000.  Boston, 
New  York;  Philadelphia,  and  Hartford  furnished  19  20ths  of  the  amount. 
Another  statement  for  the  years  1833, 1834,  and  1835,  is  as  follows : — originals 
1,030,  reprints,  854 ;  total,  1,884 ; — number  of  volumes  printed  (1,000  for 
each  edition),  1,884,000. 

In  most  cases  the  editions  of  one  and  the  same  work  are  larger  and  more 
frequent  in  the  United  States  than  in  any  other  countrj^.  Many  reprinted 
English  works  have  here  passed  three  or  four  editions,  while  the  publishers 
of  the  original  in  England  have  but  'one.  In  one  instance,  the  sale  cf  a 
book  in  America  amounted  to  100,000  copies,  whereas  in  England  onty  four 
editions,  of  1,000  copies  each,  were  disposed  of 

The  amount  of  literary  productions  in  America  has  more  than  doubled 
during  the  last  ten  years.  The  sales  of  five  book-selling  establishments 
amounted  in  1836,  to  $  1,350,000. 

The  following  statement  will  show  the  relative  proportion  of  native  and  im- 
ported literary  productions  in  1834 : 

Original.  Rej^rint. 

Education  -  -        73  -         9 

Divinity  -  -  -        37  -        18 

Novels  and  Tales  -        19  -        9.5 

History  and  Biography    -    19  -        17 

Jurisprudence         -  -  20  -         3     | 

Thus  it  appears  in  American  literature  the  scientific  and  practically  useful 
predominate,  and  that  works  of  imagination  are  chiefly  derived  from 
foreign  sources.  The  school-books  are  almost  all  written  or  compiled  in  the 
United  States ;  and  some  idea  of  the  extensive  business  done  in  them  may 
be  formed  from  the  circumstance,  that,  of  some  of  the  most  popular  com- 
pilations in  geography,  from  100,000  to  800,000  copies  have  been  sold  in  ten 
years ;  so  that,  in  many  instances,  works  of  this  kind  produce  a  permanent 
income,  as  well  to  the  author  as  the  publisher.  During  the  last  five  years, 
the  number  of  American  original  works  in  proportion  to  reprints,  has  nearly 
doubled. 

[The  preceding  paragraph  is  derived  from  statistics  in  the  Booksellers^  Advertiser,  edited  hy 
G.  P.  Putnam,  New  York,  1835.  Since  then,  no  complete  register  has  been  kept  of  publi- 
cations in  successive  years :  but  the  following  list  is  compiled  from  the  semi-montnly  register 
in  the  Literary  World.] 

American  Vvbi.ications— January  to  June,  1849. 


triginal. 

Reprint. 

Poetiy 

• 

-     i 

3 

Travels 

. 

-  8 

10 

Fine  Arts  - 

. 

-       S 

0 

Miscellaneoi 

.IS  works 

59 

-       43 

Original.    . 

Reprint,  i 

Original,    Reprint. 

Education 

36 

^ 

Travels      -           -           -     21        -         7 

Divinity    - 

-      25 

25      1 

Metaphysics    -           -             3-8 

Novels  and  Tales 

18       - 

28      ! 

Miscellaneous        -           -    25       -        10 

History 

-     20       - 

12      1 

Law             ) 

Biography 

15       - 

6 

Juvenile       >  not  ascertained. 

Political  Economy 

3 

0 

Periodical    ) 

Medicine 

12 

11 



Science 

-    11 

9 

For  six  months    -    200       -       128 

Poetry 

11 

6      1 

Total,  328. 

The  number  of  new  publications  for  the  year  1849  would  thus  be  656,  exclu- 
sive of  law  and  juvenile  books,  and  occasional  pamphlets  and  periodicals. 

BOOTS.  They  are  said  to  have  been  the  invention  of  the  Carians,  and  were 
made  of  iron,  brass,  or  leather ;  of  the  last  material  some  time  after  their 
invention,  boots  were  known  to  the  Greeks,  for  Homer  mentions  them  about 
907  B.  c. 

BORODINO  OR  MOSKWA,  Battle  of.  one  of  the  most  sanguinary  in  the 
records  of  the  world,  fought  Sept.  7, 1812,  between  the  French  and  Russians ; 
commanded  on  the  one  side  by  Napoleon,  and  on  the  other  by  Kutusoff, 


5^12  THE    world's    progress.  [  BOl 

240,000  men  being  engaged.  Each  party  claimed  the  victory,  because  the 
loss  of  the  other  was  so  immense ;  but  it  was  rather  in  favor  of  Napoleon, 
for  the  Russians  subsequently  retreated,  leaving  Moscow  to  its  fate.  The 
road  being  thus  left  open,  the  French  entered  Moscow,  Sept.  14,  with  little 
opposition.  But  a  signal  reverse  of  fortune  now  took  place,  which  preserved 
the  Russian  empire  from  ruin,  and  paved  the  way  to  the  downfall  of  the 
French  military  power  over  Europe.     See  Moscow. 

BOROUGH.  Anciently  a  company  of  ten  families  living  together.  The  term 
has  been  applied  to  such  towns  as  send  members  to  parliament,  since  the 
election  of  burgesses  in  the  reign  of  Henry  HI.  1265.  Burgesses  were  first 
admitted  into  the  Scottish  parliament  by  Robert  Bruce,  1326 — and  into  the 
Irish,  1365. 

BOROUGH  ENGLISH.  This  was  an  ancient  tenure  by  which  the  j'ounger  son 
inherits.  Its  origin  is  thus  explained :  in  feudal  times  the  lord  is  said  to 
have  claimed  the  privilege  of  spending  the  first  night  with  the  vassal's  bride, 
and  on  such  occasions  the  land  was  made  to  descend  to  the  next  son,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  supposed  illegitimacy  of  the  elder.  This  kind  of  tenui'e  is 
mentioned  as  occurring  k.  d.  834.  It  existed  in  Scotland,  but  was  abohshed 
by  Malcolm  HI.  in  ¥)^l.~Haydn. 

BOSPHORUS,  now  called  Circassia.  The  history  of  this  kingdom  is  involved 
in  obscurity,  though  it  continued  for  530  years.  It  was  named  Cimmerian, 
from  the  Cimmcri,  who  dwelt  on  its  borders.  The  descendants  of  Arcliean- 
actes  of  Mytilene  settled  in  this  country,  but  they  were  dispossessed  by 
order  of  the  emperor  Spartacus,  in  438  b.  c.  Mithridates  conducted  a  pris- 
oner to  Rome,  by  Claudius,  and  his  kingdom  soon  afterwards  made  a  pro- 
vince of  the  empire,  a.  d.  40.  The  strait  of  the  Bosphorus  was  closed  by  the 
Turks,  Sept.  8,  1828.  It  was  blockaded  by  the  Russian  squadron  under  ad- 
miral Greig,  Dec.  31,  same  year.     See  Dardanelles. 

BOSTON,  the  capital  of  Massachusetts,  founded  in  August  1630.  Here  com- 
menced the  American  Revolution.  British  soldiers  fired  on  the  peoi^le,  1770. 
The  celebrated  "  Tea-party"  here,  took  place  1773.  The  port  closed  by  par- 
liament 1774.  British  army  evacuated  Boston  in  March  1776.  [See  Lexing- 
ton and  Blinker  Hill.]  The  cause  of  Amei-ican  freedom  was  nowhere  more 
actively  sustained  than  by  the  people  of  Boston.  Benjamin  Franklin  was 
born  here,  Jan.  17,  1706.  John  Hancock,  the  first  signer  of  the  Declaration 
of  Independence,  was  a  Bostonian.  Boston  incorporated  as  a  city,  1822. 
Population  in  1700,  7000;  in  1790,  18,038;  in  1810,  33.250;  in  1820,  43,298; 
in  1830,  61,391 ;  in  1845,  114,366.    Tonnage  of  vessels  in  1840,  220,243  tons. 

BOSWORTH  FIELD,  Battle  of,  the  thirteenth  and  last  between  the  houses 
of  York  and  Lancaster,  in  which  Richard  HI.  was  defeated  by  the  earl  of 
Richmond,  afterwards  Henry  VII.,  the  former  being  slain,  Aug.  22,  1485. 
The  crown  of  Richard  was  found  in  a  hawthorn  bush,  on  the  plain  where  the 
battle  was  fought,  and  Henry  was  so  impatient  to  be  crowned,  that  he  had 
the  ceremony  performed  on  the  spot  with  that  very  crown.  In  the  civil  con- 
tests between  the  "Roses,"  many  of  the  most  ancient  families  in  the  king- 
dom were  entirely  extinguished,  and  no  less  than  100,000  human  beings  lost 
their  lives. 

BOTANY.  Aristotle  is  considered  the  founder  of  the  philosophy  of  botany. 
The  Historia,  Plantaruvi  of  Theophrastus,  written  about  320  b.  c.  Authors 
on  botany  are  numerous  from  the  earlier  ages  of  the  world,  to  the  close  of 
the  15th  century,  when  the  science  became  better  understood.  The  study 
was  advanced  by  Fuchsius,  Bock,  Bauhin,  Csesalpinus,  and  others,  between 
1535  and  1600. — Mdchior  Adam.  The  system  and  arrangement  of  Linnteus, 
the  first  botanist  of  modern  times,  made  known  about  1750.     Jussieu's  sy.s- 


BOU  ]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  213 

tem,  in  1758,  At  the  time  of  Linnasus's  death,  a.  d.  1778,  the  species  of 
plants  actually  described  amounted  in  number  to  11,800.  The  number  of 
species  of  all  denominations  now  recorded  cannot  fall  short  of  100,000. 

BOTANY  BAY,  originally  fixed  on  for  a  colony  of  convicts  from  Great  Britain, 
The  first  governor,  Phillips,  who  sailed  from  England  in  May,  1787,  arrived 
at  the  settlement  in  January,  1788.  The  bay  had  been  discovered  by  cap- 
tain Cook  in  1770,  and  the  place  took  its  name  from  the  great  variety  of 
herbs  which  abounded  on  the  shore.  The  colony  was  fixed  at  Port  Jackson, 
about  thirteen  miles  to  the  north  of  the  bay.  See  Neiv  South  Wales  and 
Ti-ansportation. 

BOTTLES,  of  glass,  were  first  made  in  England,  about  1558. — See  Glass.  The 
art  of  making  glass  bottles  and  drinking  glasses  was  known  to  the  Romans 
at  least  before  79  a.  d.,  for  these  articles  and  other  vessels  have  been  found 
in  the  Ruins  of  Pompeii.  A  bottle  which  contained  two  hogsheads  Avas 
blown,  we  are  told,  at  Leith,  in  Scotland,  in  January,  1747-8. 

BOULOGNE,  France.  Taken  by  the  British  in  1542,  but  restored  to  France 
upon  the  peace,  1550.  Lord  Nelson  attacked  Boulogne,  disabling  ten  vessels, 
and  sinking  five.  Aug.  3,  1801.  Prince  Louis  Napoleon  made  a  descent  here 
with  about  fifty  followers,  Aug.  6,  1840. — See  next  article  and  France. 

BOULOGNE  FLOTILLA.  This  celebrated  armament  against  England  excited 
much  attention  for  some  years,  but  the  grand  demonstration  was  made  in 
1804.  In  that  year,  Bonaparte  had  assembled  160,000  men  and  10,000  horses, 
and  a  flotilla  of  1300  vessels  and  17,000  sailors  to  invade  England.  The 
coasts  of  Kent  and  Sussex  were  covered  with  martello  towers  and  lines  of 
defence ;  and  nearly  half  the  adult  population  of  Britain  was  formed  into 
volunteer  corps.  It  is  supposed  that  this  French  armament  served  merely 
for  a  demonstration,  and  that  Bonaparte  never  seriously  intended  the  inva- 
sion. 

BOUNDARY  QUESTIONS,  in  the  United  States.  Award  of  the  king  of  the 
Netherlands  on  the  ^boundary  between  Maine  and  the  British  possessions, 
Jan.  10,  1831  (rejected  by  both  parties).  Collisions  between  the  people  of 
Maine  and  New  Brunswick  in  the  disputed  territory  on  the  Aroostock,  1838-9, 
suspended  by  a  mutual  agreement  between  sir  J.  Harvey,  Governor  of  New 
Brunswick,  governor  Fairfield,  of  Maine,  and  general  Scott,  of  the  U.  S. 
army,  March  21,  1839.  This  boundary  settled  by  the  Treaty  of  Washing- 
ton, 1842.  Oregon  boundary — 49th  parallel  agreed  upon  as  the  northern 
boundary  of  the  United  States,  in  Oregon,  by  treaty  signed  at  Washington, 
June  1846. 

BOUNTIES.  They  were  first  granted  on  the  exportation  of  British  commodi- 
ties— a  new  principle  introduced  into  commerce  by  the  British  parliament. 
The  first  bounties  granted  on  corn,  were  in  1688.  First  legally  granted  in 
England  for  raising  naval  stores  in  America,  1703.  Bounties  have  been 
granted  on  sail-cloth,  linen,  and  other  goods. — Elements  of  Commerce. 

BOUNTY,  MUTINEERS  of  the  Ship.  Memorable  mutiny  on  board  the  Bounty, 
armed  ship  returning  from  Otaheite,  with  bread-fruit.  The  mutineers  put 
their  captain,  Bligh,  and  nineteen  men  into  an  open  boat,  near  Annamooka. 
one  of  the  Friendly  Islands,  April  28,  1789,  and  they  reached  the  Island  of 
Timor,  south  of  the  Moluccas,  in  June,  after  a  perilous  voyage  of  nearly 
4000  miles,  in  which  their  preservation  was  next  to  miraculous.  The  muti- 
neers were  tried  Sept.  15,  1792,  when  six  were  condemned,  of  whom  three 
were  executed.     See  Pitcairn's  Island. 

BOURBON,  House  op.  Anthony  de  Bourbon  was  the  chief  of  the  branch  of 
Bourbon,  so  called  from  a  fief  of  that  name  which  fell  to  them  by  marriage 
with  the  heiress  of  the  estate.     Henry  IV.  of  France  and  Navarro,  justly 


214  THE    world's    PROGE-ESS.  [  B07 

styled  the  Great,  was  son  of  Anthony,  and  came  to  the  throne  in  1589.  The 
crown  of  Spain  was  settled  on  a  younger  branch  of  this  family,  and  guaran- 
teed by  the  peace  of  Utrecht,  1713. — Rapin.  The  Bom-bon  Family  Compact 
took  place,  1761.  The  Bourbons  were  expelled  France,  1791,  and  were 
restored,  1814.  Re-expelled,  and  again  restored,  1815.  The  elder  branch 
was  expelled  once  more,  in  the  persons  of  Charles  X.  and  his  family  in  1830, 
a  consequence  of  the  revolution  of  the  memorably  days  of  July  in  that 
year. — See  France. 

BOURBON,  Isle  of,  discovered  by  the  Portuguese,  in  1545.  The  French 
first  settled  here  in  1672,  and  built  several  towns.  The  island  surrendered 
to  the  British,  July  2,  1810.  It  is  near  the  Isle  of  France,  and  the  two  are 
styled  the  Mauritius.  There  occurred  an  awful  hurricane  here  in  February 
1829,  by  whicli  immense  mischief  was  done  to  the  shipping,  and  in  the 
Island.     See  Mauritius. 

ROURDEAUX  (or  Bordeaux)  was  imited  to  the  dominions  of  Henry  II.  of 
England,  by  his  marriage  with  Eleanor  of  Aquitaine.  Edward  the  Black 
Prince  brought  his  royal  captive,  John,  king  of  France,  to  this  city  after  the 
battle  of  Poitiers,  in  1356,  and  here  held  his  court  during  eleven  years :  his  son, 
Richard  II.,  (of  Eng.)  was  born  at  Bourdeaux,  in  1362.  The  fine  equestrian 
statue  of  Louis  XV.  was  erected  in  1748.  Bourdeaux  was  entered  by  the 
victorious  British  army,  after  the  battle  of  Orthes,  fought  Feb.  25,  1814. 

BOURIGNONISTS,  a  sect  founded  by  Madame  Antoinette  Bourignon,  a  fanatic, 
who,  in  1658,  took  the  habit  of  St.  Augustin,  and  travelled  into  France, 
Holland,  England,  and  Scotland.  In  the  last  she  made  a  strong  party  and 
some  thousands  of  sectarists,  about  1670.  She  maintained  that  Christianity 
does  not  consist  in  faith  or  practice,  but  in  an  inward  feeling  and  supernatu- 
ral impulse.  This  visionary  published  a  book  entitled  the  Light  of  the 
World.,  in  which,  and  in  several  other  works,  she  maintained  and  taught  her 
pernicious  notions.  A  disciple  of  hers,  named  Court,  left  her  a  good  estate. 
She  died  in  1680. 

BOWLS,  OR  BOWLING,  an  English  game,  played  as  early  as  the  thirteenth 
century,  and  once  in  great  repute  among  the  higher  ranks.  Charles  I. 
plaj^ed  at  it.  It  formed  a  daily  share  in  the  diversions  of  Charles  II.,  at 
Tunbridge. — Memoircs  de  Gramviont. 

BOWS  AND  ARROWS.  See  Archery.  The  invention  of  them  is  ascribed  to 
Apollo.  Known  in  England  previous  to  a.  d.  450.  The  use  of  them  was 
again  introduced  into  England  by  the  Conqueror,  1066 ;  and  greatly  encour- 
aged by  Richard  I.,  1190. — Baker's  Chronicle.  The  u.sual  range  of  the  long- 
bow was  from  300  to  400  yards ;  the  length  of  the  bow  was  six  feet,  and 
the  arrow  three.  Cross-bows  were  fixed  to  a  stock  of  iron  or  wood,  and 
were  discharged  by  a  trigger. 

BOXING,  OR  PRIZE-FIGHTING,  the  ■pugilatus  of  the  Romans,  and  a  favorite 
sport  with  the  British,  who  (possess  an  extraordinary  strength  in  the  arm,  an 
advantage  which  gives  the  British  soldier  great  superiority  in  battles  decid- 
ed by  the  bayonet.  A  century  ago,  boxing  formed  a  regular  exhibition,  and 
a  theatre  was  erected  for  it  in  Tottenham-court — Broughton's  amphitheatre, 
behind  Oxford-road,  built  1742.  Schools  were  opened  in  England  to  teach 
boxing  as  a  science  in  1790.  Owing  to  the  dishonest  practices  in  the  "  ring," 
selling  the  victory,  and  one  combatant  allowing  the  other  to  beat  him,  &c., 
the  fights  have  been  fewer  of  late,  and  the  number  of  the  patrons  of  boxing 
have  declined. 

BOYLE  LECTURES.  Instituted  by  Robert  Boyle  (son  of  the  great  earl  of 
Cork),  an  exceedingly  good  man  and  philosopher,  distinguished  by  his 
genius,  virtues,  and  unbounded  benevolence.  He  instituted  eight  lectures 
in  vindication  of  the  Christian  religion,  which  were  delivered  at  St.  Mary-le- 


bra]  dictionary  of  dates.  215 

Bow  church,  on  the  first  Monday  in  each  month,  from  January  to  May,  and 
September  to  November — endowed  1691. 

BOYNE,  Battle  op,  between  kmg  William  III.  and  his  father-in-law,  James  II., 
fought  July  1,  1690.  The  latter  was  signally  defeated,  his  adherents  losing 
1500  men,  and  the  Protestant  army  about  a  third  of  that  mimber.  James 
immediately  afterwards  fled  to  Dublin,  thence  to  Waterford,  and  escaped  to 
France.     The  duke  of  Schomberg  was  killed  in  the  battle. 

BRABANT.  It  was  erected  into  a  duchy  a.d.  620,  and  devolved  upon  Lam- 
bert I.  count  of  Louvain,  in  1005,  and  from  him  descended  to  Philip  11.  of 
Burgundy,  and  in  regular  succession  to  the  emperor  Charles  V.  In  the 
seventeenth  century  it  was  held  by  Holland  and  Austria,  as  Dutch  Brabant, 
and  Walloon.  These  provinces  underwent  many  changes  in  most  of  the 
great  wars  of  Europe.  The  Austrian  division  was  taken  by  the  French  1746 
— again  in  1794  by  their  Republic ;  and  it  now  forms  part  of  the  kingdom 
of  Belgium,  under  Leopold,  1831.     See  Belgium. 

BRACELETS.  They  were  early  worn  and  prized  among  the  ancients ;  we  read 
of  them  in  almost  all  nations ;  those  that  were  called  armillce  were  usually 
distributed  as  rewards  for  valor  among  the  Roman  legions. — Nouv.  Diet. 
Those  of  pearls  and  gold  were  worn  by  the  Roman  ladies ;  and  armlets  are 
female  ornaments  to  the  present  day. 

BRAGANZA,  House  op,  owes  its  elevation  to  royalty  to  a  remarkable  and 
bloodless  revolution  in  Portugal,  a.  d.  1640,  when  the  nation,  throwing  off 
the  Spanish  yoke,  which  had  become  intolerable,  advanced  John,  duke  of 
Braganza,  to  the  throne,  on  which  this  family  continues  to  reign. — Abbe 
Vertot. 

BRAHMINS,  a  sect  of  Indian  philosophers,  reputed  to  be  so  ancient  that  Py- 
thagoras is  thought  to  have  learned  from  them  his  doctrine  of  the  Metemp- 
sychosis; aird  it  is  affirmed  that  some  of  the  Greek  philosophers  went  to 
India  on  purpose  to  converse  with  them.  The  modern  Brahmins  derive 
their  name  from  Brahme,  one  of  the  three  beings  whom  God,  according  to 
their  theology,  created,  and  with  whose  assistance  he  formed  the  world. 
They  never  eat  flesh,  and  abstain  from  the  use  of  wine  and  all  carnal  enjoy- 
ments.— SLrabo.  The  modern  Indian  priests  are  still  considered  as  the  de- 
positaries of  the  whole  learning  of  India. — Holwell. 

BRANDENBURGH,  Family  op,  is  of  great  antiquitj^,  and  some  historians  say 
it  was  founded  by  the  Sclavonians,  who  gave  it  the  name  of  Banber,  which 
signifies  Guard  of  the  Forests.  Henry  I.,  surnamed  the  Fo^vler,  fortified 
Brandenburgh,  a.  d.  923,  to  serve  as  a  rampart  against  the  Huns.  He  be- 
stowed the  government  on  Sifroi,  count  of  Ringelheim,  with  the  title  of 
Margrave,  which  signifies  protector  of  the  marches  or  frontiers,  in  927. 
The  emperor  Sigismund  gave  perpetual  investiture  to  Frederick  IV.  of  Nurem- 
berg, who  was  made  elector  in  1417.     See  Prussia. 

BRAND YWINE,  Battle  of,  between  the  British  royalist  forces  and  the  Ameri- 
cans, in  which  the  latter  were  defeated  with  great  loss,  and  Philadelphia  fell 
to  the  possession  of  the  victors,  September  11,  1777. 

BRASS.  Its  formation  was  prior  to  the  Flood,  and  it  was  discovered  in  tlie 
seventh  generation  from  Adam. — Bible.  Brass  was  known  among  all  the 
early  nations. —  Usher.  The  Britons  from  the  remotest  period  vrere  acquainted 
with  its  use.—  Whittaker.  When  Lucius  Mumonius  burnt  Corinth  to  the 
ground,  146  b.  c,  the  riches  he  found  were  immense,  and  during  the  confla- 
gration, it  is  said,  all  the  metals  in  the  city  melted,  and  running  together, 
formed  the  valuable  composition  since  known  under  the  name  of  Corinth- 
ian Brass.  This,  however,  may  wvU  be  doubted,  for  the  Corinthian  artists  " 
had  long  liofore  obtained  great  credit  for  their  mothcKl  of  combining  grold 


216  THE  world's  progress.  [bee 

and  silvei  with  copper ;  and  the  Syriac  translation  of  the  Bible  says,  that 
Hiram  made  the  vessels  for  Solomon's  temple  of  Corinthian  brass.  Articles 
made  of  this  brilliant  composition,  though  in  themselves  trivial  and  insig 
nificant,  were  yet  highly  valued. — Du  Fresnoy. 

BRAZIL.  It  was  discovered  by  Alvarez  de  Cabral,  a  Portuguese.  Avho  was 
driven  upon  its  coasts  by  a  tempest  in  1500.  He  called  it  the  Land  of  the 
Holy  Cross  ;  but  it  was"  subsequently  called  Brazil  on  account  of  its  red 
wood,  and  was  carefully  explored  by  Amerigo  Vespucci,  about  1504.  The 
gold  mines  were  first  oijened  in  1684 ;  and  the  diamond  mines  were  discov- 
ered 1730  (see  Diamonds).  The  French  having  seized  on  Portugal  in  1807, 
the  royal  family  and  most  of  the  nobles  embarked  for  Brazil.  A  revolution 
took  place  here  in  1821.  Brazil  was  erected  into  an  empire,  when  Don 
Pedro  assumed  the  title  of  emperor,  in  November  1825.  He  abdicated  the 
throne  of  Portugal,  May  2,  1826 ;  and  that  of  Brazil,  in  favor  of  his  infant 
son,  now  emperor,  April  7,  1831,  and  returned  to  Portugal,  where  a  civil 
war  ensued. — See  Portugal. 

BREAD.  Ching-Noung,  the  successor  of  Fohi,  is  reputed  to  have  been  the 
first  who  taught  men  (the  Chinese)  the  art  of  husbandry,  and  the  method 
of  making  bread  from  wheat,  and  Avine  from  rice,  1998  b.  c. —  Univ.  Hisi. 
Baking  of  bread  was  known  in  the  patriarchal  ages ;  see  Exodus  xii.  15. 
Baking  bread  became  a  profession  at  Rome,  170  b.  c.  During  the  siege  of 
Paris  by  Henry  IV.,  owing  to  the  famine  which  then  raged,  bread,  which 
had  been  sold  whilst  any  remained  for  a  crown  a  pound,  was  at  last  made 
from  the  bones  of  the  charnel-house  of  the  Holy  Innocents,  a.  d.  1594. — 
Henault.  In  the  time  of  James  I.  the  usual  bread  of  the  poor  was  made  of 
barley ;  and  now  in  Iceland,  cod-fish,  beaten  to  powder,  is  made  into  bread; 
and  the  poor  use  potato-bread  in  many  parts  of  Ireland.  Earth  has  been 
eaten  as  bread  in  some  parts  of  tlie  world :  near  Moscow  is  a  portion  of 
land  Avhose  clay  will  ferment  when  mixed  with  flom-.  The  Indians  of  Lou- 
isiana C?)  eat  a  white  earth  with  salt ;  and  the  Indians  of  the  Oronooko  eat 
a  white  unctuous  earth. — ■  Gixig ;  Phillips.  ^ 

BREAKWATER  at  PLYMOUTH.  The  first  stone  of  this  stupendous  work 
was  lowered  in  the  presence  of  the  army  and  navy,  and  multitudes  of  the 
great,  August  12  1812.  It  was  designed-to  break  the  swell  at  Plymouth, 
and  stretches  5280  feet  across  the  Sound ;  it  is  360  feet  in  breadth  at  the 
bottom,  and  more  than  thirty  at  the  top.  and  consumed  3,666,000  tons  of 
granite  blocks,  from  one  to  five  tons  each,  up  to  April,  1841 ;  and  cost  a 
million  and  a  half  sterling.  The  architect  was  Rennie.  The  first  stone  of 
the  lighthouse  on  its  western  extremity  was  laid  Feb.  1,  1841. 

BREAST-PLATES.  The  invention  of  them  is  ascribed  to  Jason,  937  b.  c.  The 
breast-plate  formerly  covered  the  whole  body,  but  it  at  length  dwindled  in 
the  lapse  of  ages  to  the  diminutive  gorget  of  modern  times.     See  Armor. 

BREDA.  This  city  was  taken  by  prince  Maurice  of  Nassau  in  1590 ;  by  the 
Spaniards  in  1625 ;  and  again  by  the  Dutch  in  1637.  Charles  II.  resided 
here  at  the  time  of  the  Restoration,  1660.  See  Restoration.  Breda  was 
taken  by  the  French  in  1793,  and  retaken  by  the  Dutch  the  same  year.  The 
French  garrison  was  shut  out  by  the  burgesses  in  1813,  when  the  power  of 
France  ceased  here. 

BREECHES.  Among  the  Greeks,  this  garment  indicated  slavery.  It  Avas 
Avorn  by  the  Dacians.  Parthians,  and  other  northern  nations  ;  and  in  Itaty, 
it  is  said,  it  Avas  Avorn  in  the  time  of  Augustus  Csesar.  In  the  reign  of  Ho- 
norius,  about  a.  d.  394,  the  braccari,  or  breeches-makers,  were  expelled  from 
Rome ;  but  soon  aftcrvA^ards  the  use  of  breeches  Avas  adopted  in  other  coun- 
tries, and  at  length  it  became  general. 


BRl]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  217 

BREMEN,  a  venerable  Hanse  town,  and  duchy,  sold  to  George  I.  as  elector  of 
Hanover,  in  1716.  It  was  taken  by  the  French  in  1757 ;  they  were  driven 
out  by  the  Hanoverians  in  1758 ;  and  it  was  again  seized  in  1806.  Bremen 
was  annexed  by  Napoleon  to  the  French  empire  in  1810 ;  but  its  indepen- 
dence was  restored  in  1813.    See  Hanse  Toions. 

BRESLAU,  Battle  op,  between  the  Austrians  and  Prussians,  the  latter  under 
prince  Bevern,  who  was  defeated,  but  the  engagement  was  most  bloody  on 
both  sides,  Nov.  22, 1757,  when  Breslau  was  taken ;  but  was  regained  the 
same  year.  This  city  was  for  some  time  besieged  by  the  French,  and  sur- 
rendered to  them  January  5,  1807,  and  again  in  1813. 

BREST.  It  was  besieged  by  Julius  Csesar,  54  b.  c. — possessed  by  the  English, 
A.  D.  1378 — given  up  to  the  duke  of  Brittany,  1391.  Lord  Berkeley  and  a 
British  fleet  and  army  were  repulsed  here  with  dreadful  loss  in  1694. 
The  magazine  burnt,  to  the  amount  of  some  millions  of  pounds  sterling, 
1744.  The  marine  hospitals,  with  fifty  galley-slaves,  burnt,  1766.  The 
magazine  again  destroyed  bj''  a  fire,  July  10,  1784.  From  this  great, depot 
of  the  French  navy,  numerous  squadrons  were  equipped  against  England 
during  the  late  war. 

BRETHREN  in  INIQUITY.  The  designation  arose  from  persons  covenanting 
formerly  to  share  each  other's  fortune,  in  any  expedition  to  invade  a  coun- 
try, as  did  Robert  de  Oily  and  Robert  de  Ivery,  in  William  I.'s  invasion  of 
England,  1066. 

BRETIGNY,  Peace  of,  concluded  with  France  at  Bretigny,  and  bj''  which  Eng- 
land retained  Gascony  and  Guienne,  acquired  Saintonge,  Agenois,  Perigord, 
Limousin,  Bigorre,  Angoumois,  aud  Rovergne,  and  renounced  her  preten- 
sions to  Maine,  Anjou,  Touraine,  and  Normandy;  England  was  also  to 
receive  3,000,000  crowns,  and  to  release  king  John,  who  had  been  long 
prisoner  in  London,  May  8,  1360. 

BREVIARIES.  The  breviary  is  a  book  of  mass  and  prayer  used  by  the  church 
of  Rome.  It  was  first  called  the  custos,  and  afterwards  the  breviary ;  and 
both  the  clergy  and  laity  use  it  publicly  and  at  home.  It  was  in  use  among 
the  ecclesiastical  orders  about  a.  d.  1080 ;  and  was  reformed  by  the  councils 
of  Trent  and  Cologne,  and  by  Pius  V.,  Urban  VIII.,  and  other  popes.  The 
quality  of  tj'pe  in  which  the  breviary  ^^'as  first  printed  gave  the  name  to  the 
type  called  brevier  at  the  present  daJ^ 

BREWERS.  The  first  are  traced  to  Egypt.  Brewing  was  known  to  our  Anglo- 
Saxon  ancestors. —  T'nulal.  "  One  William  JMnrle,  a  rich  maultman  or  bruer, 
of  Dunstable,  had  two  horses  all  traped  with  gold,  1414." — Stowc.  There 
are  about  1700  public  brewers  in  England,  about  200  in  Scotland,  and  250  in 
Ireland :  these  are  exclusively  of  retail  and  intermediate  brewers,  of  which 
there  are  in  England  about  1400 ;  there  are,  besides,  28,000  victuallers,  &c., 
who  brew  their  own  ale.  In  London,  there  are  about  100  wholesale  brewers, 
many  of  them  in  immense  trade.  Various  statutes  relating  to  brev/ers  and 
the  sale  of  beer  have  been  enacted  from  time  to  time.    See  Beer. 

BRIBERY.  In  England  an  indictable  offence  to  bribe  persons  in  the  adminis- 
tration of  public  justice.  Thomas  de  Weyland,  a  judge,  was  banished  the 
land  for  bribery,  in  1288;  he  was  chief  justice  of  the  Common  Pleas.  Wil- 
liam de  Thorpe,  chief  justice  of  the  King's  Bench,  was  hanged  for  bribery 
in  1351.  Another  judge  was  fined  20,000Z.  for  the  like  offence,  1616.  Mr. 
Walpole,  secretary-at-war,  was  sent  to  the  tower  for  bribery  in  1712.  Lord 
Strangford  was  suspended  from  voting  in  the  Irish  House  of  Lords,  for  soli- 
citing a  bribe,  January  1784. 

BRIBERY  at  ELECTIONS,  as  in  the  preceding  cases,  made  an  indictable 
ofience.  Messrs,  Sykes  and  Rumbold  fined  and  imprisoned  for  l)ribery  at 
10 


218  THE  world's  progress.  [  BRj 

an  election,  March  14,  1776.    An  elector  of  Durham  convicted,  July  1803 ; 
and  several  similar  instances  have  occurred  since. 

BRICKS,  for  building,  were  used  in  the  earliest  times  in  Babylon,  Egypt, 
Greece,  and  Rome.  Used  in  England  by  the  Romans,  about  a.  d.  44.  Made 
under  the  directioTi  of  Alfred  the  Great,  about  886. — Saxon  Chroji.  The 
size  regulated  bv  order  of  Charles  I.  1625.  Taxed,  1784.  The  number  of 
bricks  which  paid  duty  in  England  in  1820  was  949,000,000  ;  in  1830,  the 
number  exceeded  1,100,090,000 ;  and  in  1840  it  amounted  to  14,000,000,000. 
See  Building. 

IJRIDAL  CEREMONIES.  Among  the  more  rational  ceremonies  observed  by 
I  he  ancients,  was  the  practice  of  conducting  the  biide  to  the  house  of  her 
spouse  on  a  chariot,  which  was  afterwards  burned ;  it  originated  with  the 
Tiiebans,  and  was  intended  as  a  symbol  of  the  bride's  future  dependence  on 
her  husband,  from  whom  there  was  no  chariot  to  convey  her  back  to  her 
parents ;  it  is  mentioned  880  b.  c. 

BRIDEWELL.  Originally  the  name  of  a  royal  palace  of  king  John,  near 
Fleet-ditch,  London ;  it  was  built  anew  by  Henry  VIII.  in  1522,  and  was 
given  to  the  city  by  Edward  VI.  in  1553.  There  are  several  prisons  of  this'' 
name  throughout  England.  The  first  London  Bridewell  was  in  a  locality 
near  to  Bride's  well;  but  this  is  no  reason,  as  is  justly  observed,  why  simi- 
lar prisons,  not  in  a  similar  locality,  should  have  this  name. 

BRIDGES.  So  early  and  general,  and  the  expedients  for  their  construction  so 
various,  their  origin  cannot  be  traced  ;  they  were  first  of  wood.  The  ancient 
bridges  in  China  are  of  great  magnitude,  and  were  built  of  stone.  Abydos 
is  famous  for  the  bridge  of  boats  which  Xerxes  built  across  the  Hellespont. 
Trajan's  magnificent  stone  bridge  over  the  Danube,  4770  feet  in  length,  was 
built  in  A.  D.  103.  The  Devil's  bridge  in  the  canton  of  Uri,  so  called  from  its 
frightful  situation,  was  built  resting  on  two  high  rocks,  so  that  it  could 
scarcely  be  conceived  how  it  was  erected,  and  many  fabulous  stories  were 
invented  to  account  for  it  At  Shaffhausen  an  extraordinary  bridge  was 
built  over  the  Rhine,  which  is  there  400  feet  wide :  there  was  a  pier  in  the 
middle  of  the  river,  but  it  is  doubtful  whether  the  bridge  rested  upon  it ;  a 
man  of  the  lightest  weight  felt  the  bridge  totter  under  him,  yet  wagons 
heavily  laden  passed  over  without  danger.  This  bridge  was  destroyed  by 
the  French  in  1799.  Suspension  bridge  at  Niagara  Falls  completed  July 
29,  1848. 

BRIDGES  IN  ENGLAND.  The  ancient  bridges  in  England  were  of  wood,  and 
were  fortified  with  planks  and  merlined ;  the  first  bridge  of  Stone  was  built 
at  Bow,  near  Stratford,  a.  d.  1087.  Westminster  bridge,  then  the  finest 
erected  in  these  realms,  and  not  surpassed  by  anj^  in  the  world,  except  in 
China,  was  completed  in  twelve  years,  1750.  The  other  London  bridges  are 
Blackfriars,  completed  1770 ;  London,  (rebuilt)  1831 ;  Southwark,  of  iron, 
1819.  The  first  iron  bridge,  on  a  large  scale,  was  erected  over  the  Severn, 
in  Shropshire,  1779.  The  finest  chain  suspension  bridge  is  that  of  the 
Menai  Strait,  completed  in  1825.     Hungerford  suspension  bridge,  1845. 

BRIDGEWATER  CANAL,  the  first  great  work  of  the  kind  in  England,  was 
begun  by  the  duke  of  Bridgewater,  styled  the  father  of  canal  navigation  in 
that  country,  in  1758 :  Mr.  Brindley  was  the  architect.  The  canal  com- 
mences at  Worsley,  seven  miles  from  Manchester ;  and  at  Barton-bridge  is 
an  aqueduct  which,  for  upwards  of  200  yards,  conveys  the  canal  across  the 
navigable  river  Irwell ;  its  length  is  twenty-nine  miles. 

BRIEF.  A  written  instrument  in  the  Catholic  church,  of  early  but  imcertain 
date.  Briefs  are  the  letters  of  the  pojDe  dispatched  to  princes  and  others  on 
public  affairs,  and  are  usually  "written  short,  and  hence  the  name,  and  are 
without  preface  or  preamble,  and  on  jjaper ;   in..wliic]i  particulars  th  ~  »'•« 


BRI  J  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  219 

distinguished  from  bulls.  The  latter  are  ample,  and  always  written  on 
parchment ;  a  brief  is  sealed  with  red  wax,  the  seal  of  the  fisherman,  or  St. 
Peter  ill  a  boat,  and  always  in  presence  of  the  pope  ;  they  are  used  for  graces 
and  dispensations,  as  well  as  business. 
BRIENNE,  Battle  of,  between  the  allied  armies  of  Russia  and  Prussia,  and 
the  French,  fought  on  the  1st,  and  resumed  on  the  2d  February,  1814.  The 
allies  were  defeated  with  great  loss  ;  this  was  one  of  the  last  battles  in  which 
the  French  achieved  victory,  previously  to  the  fall  of  Napoleon. 

BRISTOL.  This  city,  one  of  the  principal  in  England,  was  built  by  Brennus, 
a  prince  of  the  Britons,  380  b.  c.  It  was  granted  a  charter  and  became  a 
distinct  county  in  the  reign  of  Edward  III.  Taken  by  the  earl  of  Glouces- 
ter, in  his  defence  of  his  sister  Maude,  the  empress,  against  king  Stephen, 
1188.  Bristol  was  attacked  with  great  fury  by  the  forces  of  Cromwell,  1655. 
Riot  at  Bristol,  on  the  entrance  of  sir  Charles  Wetherell,  the  iccorder,  into 
the  city,  attended  by  a  large  police  and  special  force,  to  open  the  sessions. 
He  being  politically  obnoxious  to  the  lower  order  of  the  citizens,  a  riot  en- 
sued, wiiich  was  of  several  days'  continuance,  and  which  did  net  terminate 
until  the  mansion-house,  the  bishop's  palace,  several  merchants'  stores,  some 
of  the  prisons  (the  inmates  liberated),  and  nearly  100  houses  were  burned, 
and  many  lives  lost,  Oct.  29,  1831.  Trial  of  the  rioters,  Jan.  2,  1832;  four 
were  executed,  and  twenty-two  transported.  Suicide  of  col.  Brereton  during 
his  trial  by  court-martial,  Jan.  9,  same  year. 
BRITAIN.  The  earliest  records  of  the  history  of  this  island  are  the  manu- 
scripts and  poetrj'  of  the  Cambrians.  The  Celts  were  the  ancestors  of  the 
Britons  and  modern  Welsh,  and  were  the  first  inhabitants  of  Britain.  Bri- 
tain, including  England,  Scotland,  and  Wales,  was  anciently  called  Albion, 
the  name  of  Britain  being  applied  to  all  the  islands  collectively — Albion  to 
only  one. — Pliny.  The  Romans  first  invaded  Britain  under  Julius  Csesar, 
55  B.  c,  but  they  made  no  conquests.  Tho  emperor  Claudius,  and  his  gen- 
erals, Plautius,  Vespasian,  and  Titus,  subdued  several  provinces  after  thirty 
pitched  battles  with  the  natives,  a.  d.  48  and  44.  The  conquest  was  com- 
I^leted  by  Agricola,  in  the  reign  of  Domitian,  a.  d.  85. 

First  invasion  of  Britain  by  the  Romans, 
under  Julius  Caesar     -  -      b.  c.    55 

Cymbeline,  king  of  Britain  -         -     4 

Expedition  of  Claudius  into  Britain,  a.  d.    40 

London  founded  by  the  Romans  -    49 

Caractacus  carried  in  chains  to  Rome  •    51 

The  Romans    defeated    by  Boadicea; 
70,000  slain,  and  London  burnt  -    61 

A  vast  army  of  Britons  is  defeated  by 


Constantius,  emperor  of  Rome,  dies  at 
York       -  -  -  -  A.  D.    30e 

The  Roman  forces  are  finally  with- 
drawn from  Britain  -  420  to  426 

The  Saxons  and  Angles  are  called  in  to 
aid  the  natives  against  their  northern 
neighbors  the  Picts  and  Scots  -    449 

Having  expelled  these,  the  Anglo-Sax- 
ons attack  the  natives  themselves, 


Suetonius,  and  80,000  slain         -         -    61  :       driving  them  into  Wales  -        -   455 


Reisr,  of  Lucius,  the  first  Christian  kinj^ 
of  Britain,  and  in  the  world     -  -  179 

Severus  keeps  his  court  at  York,  then 
called  Eboracum  -  -  -  207 

He  dies  at  York  -  -  -    -  211 

Carausius,  a  tyrant,  usurps  the  throne 
of  Britain  -  -  -  -  286 

He  is  killed  by  Alectus,  who  continues 
the  usurpation        -  -  -      -  293 

Constantius  recovers  Britain  by  the  de- 
feat of  Alectus   -  -  -  -  296 


Many  of  the  natives  settle  in  Armorica, 

since  called  Brittany   -  -  -    457 

The  Saxon  Heptarchy ;  Britain  divided 

into  seven  kmgdoms         -  -      -   457 

Reign  of  the  renowned  Arthur  -  -    506 

Arrival  of  St.  Augustin  (or  Austin),  and 

establishment  of  Christianity    -        -    596 
Cadwallader,  last  king  of  the  Britons, 

began  his  reign  -  -  -    678 

The  Saxon  Heptarchy  ends  -       -   828 

See  England,  and  also  Tabular  Views,  p. 
75,  &c. 

That  Britain  formerly  joined  the  Continent  has  been  inferred  from  the  simi- 
lar cliffs  of  the  opposite  coasts  of  the  English  Channel,  and  from  the  con- 
stant encroachments  of  the  sea  in  still  widening  the  channel.  For  mstaucc, 
a  large  part  of  the  cliffs  of  Dover  fell,  estimated  at  six  acres,  Nov.  27,  1810. 
Phillips's  Annals. 
BRITISH  MU.SEDM.     The  origin  of  this  ereat  national  in.stttution  was  th- 


220  THE   world's   PHOGRESS.  [  BRtt 

grant  by  parliament  of  20,000Z.  to  the  daugliters  of  sir  Hans  Sloane,  in  pay- 
ment for  his  fine  hbrary,  and  vast  collection  of  the  productions  of  nature 
and  art,  which  had  cost  him  50,000/.  The  library  contained  50,000  volumes 
and  valuable  MSS.,  and  69,352  articles  of  vertu  were  enumerated  in  the  cat- 
alogue of  curiosities.  The  act  was  passed  April  5,  1753 ;  and  in  the  same 
year  Montagu-house  was  obtained  by  government  as  a  place  for  the  recep- 
tion of  these  treasures.  The  museum  has  since  been  gradually  increased 
to  an  immense  extent  by  gifts,  bequests,  the  purchase  of  every  species  of 
curiosity,  MSS.,  sculpture  and  work  of  art,  and  by  the  transference  to  its 
rooms  of  the  Cottonian,  Harleian,  and  other  libraries,  the  Elgin  marbles, 
&c.  George  IV.  presented  to  the  museum  the  library  collected  at  Bucking- 
ham-house by  George  III. — See  Cottonian  Library,  and  other  collections. 

BROAD  SEAL  of  ENGLAND,  first  affixed  to  patents  and  other  grants  of  the 
crown,  by  Edward  the  Confessor,  a.  d.  1048. — Baker's  Chron. 

BROCADE.  A  silken  stuff  variegated  with  gold  or  silver,  and  raised  and  en- 
riched with  flowers  and  various  sorts  of  figures,  originally  made  by  the  Chi- 
nese.— Johnson.  The  trade  in  this  article  was  carried  on  by  the  Venetians. 
— Anderson.  Its  manufacture  was  established  with  great  success  at  Lyons, 
in  1757. 

BROCOLI :  an  Italian  Plant. — Pardon.  The  white  and  purple,  both  of  which 
are  varieties  of  the  cauliflower,  were  brought  to  England  from  the  Isle  of 
Cj'prus,  in  the  seventeenth  century. — Anderson.  About  1603. — Burns.  The 
cultivation  of  this  vegetable  was  greatly  improved  in  the  gardens  of  Eng- 
land and  came  into  great  abundance  about  1680. — Anderson. 

BROKERS.  Those  both  of  money  and  merchandise  were  known  early  in  Eng- 
land. See  Appraisers.  Their  dealings  were  regulated  by  law,  and  it  was 
enacted  that  they  should  be  licensed  before  transacting  business,  8  and  9 
William  III.  1695-6.  The  dealings  of  stock-brokers  were  regulated  by  act 
6  George  I.  1719,  and  10  George  II.  1736. — Statutes  at  large.  See  Pawn- 
brokers. 

BRONZE,  known  to  the  ancients,  some  of  whose  statues,  vessels,  and  various 
other  articles,  made  of  bronze,  are  in  the  British  Museum.  The  equestrian 
statue  of  Louis  XIV.,  1699,  in  the  Place  Vend6me  at  Paris,  (demolished  Aug. 

10,  1792,)  was  the  most  colossal  ever  made ;  it  contained  60.000  lbs.  weight 
of  bronze.  Bronze  is  two  pai'ts  brass  and  one  copper,  and  the  Greeks  added 
one  fifteenth  of  lead  and  silver. 

BROTHELS,  were  formerly  allowed  in  London,  and  considered  a  necessary  evil, 
under  the  regulation  of  a  good  police.  They  were  all  situated  on  the  Bank- 
side,  Southwark,  and  subject  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  bishop  of  Winches- 
ter ;  and  they  were  visited  weekly  by  the  Sheriff's  officers,  and  the  severest 
penalties  being  enacted  against  keeping  infected  or  married  women,  8  Henry 

11.  1162. — Survey  of  London.  Brothels  tolerated  in  France,  1280.  Pope 
SixtTis  IV.  licensed  one  at  Rome,  and  the  prostitutes  paid  him  a  weekly  tax, 
which  amounted  to  20,000  ducats  a  year,  1471. — Ital.  Chron. 

BROWNISTS,  a  sect  founded  by  a  schoolmaster  in  Southwark,  named  Robert 
Brown,  about  1615.  It  condemned  all  ceremonies  and  ecclesiastical  distinc- 
tions, and  affirmed  that  there  was  an  admixture  of  corruptions  in  all  other 
coiumunions.  But  the  founder  subsequently  recanted  his  doctrines  for  a 
benefice  in  the  church  of  England. —  Coltins's  Eccles.  Hist. 

BRUCE'S  TRAVELS,  undertaken  to  discover  the  source  of  the  Nile.  The 
illustrious  Bruce,  the  "  Abyssinian  Traveller,"'  set  out  in  June  1768,  and  pro- 
ceeding first  to  Cairo,  he  navigated  the  Nile  to  Syene,  thence  crossed  the 
desert  to  the  Red  Sea,  and,  arriving  at  Jidda,  passed  some  months  in  Arabia 
Felix,  and  after  various  detentions,  reached  Gondar,  the  capital  of  Abys- 


BUG  ]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  221 

sinia,  in  Feb.  1770.  On  Nov.  14tli,  1770,  he  obtained  the  great  object  of  his 
wishes — a  sight  of  the  sources  of  the  Nile.  Bruce  returned  to  England  in 
1773,  and  died  in  179J:. 
BRUNSWICK,  House  of.  This  house  owes  its  origin  to  Azo,  of  the  family  of 
Este.  Azo  died  in  1055,  and  left,  bj^  his  wife  Cunegonde  (the  heiress  of 
Guelph  III.,  duke  of  Bavaria),  a  son  who  was  Guelph  IV.,  the  great-grand- 
father of  Henry  the  Lion.  This  last  married  Maude,  daughted  of  Henry  II. 
of  England,  and  is  always  looked  upon  as  being  the  founder  of  the  Bruns- 
wick family.  The  dominions  of  Henrj^  the  Lion  were  the  most  extensive  of 
any  prince  of  his  time  ;  but  having  refused  to  assist  the  emperor  Frederick 
Barbarossa  in  a  war  against  pope  Alexander  III.,  he  drew  the  emperor's  re- 
sentment on  him,  and  in  the  diet  of  Wurtzburg,  in  1179,  he  was  proscribed. 
The  duchy  of  Bavaria  was  given  to  Otho,  from  whom  is  descended  the  family 
of  Bavaria ;  the  duch}'^  of  Saxony,  to  Bernard  Ascanius,  founder  of  the 
house  of  Anhalt ;  and  his  other  territories  to  different  persons.  On  this,  he 
retired  to  England ;  but  on  Henry's  intercession,  Brunswick  and  Lxmenburg 
were  restored  to  him.  The  house  of  Brunswick  has  divided  into  several 
branches.  The  present  duke  of  Brunswick-Wolfenbuttel  is  sprung  from  the 
eldest ;  the  duke  of  Brunswick-Zell  was  from  the  second ;  and  from  this 
last  sprang  the  roj'al  familj^  of  England.  A  revolution  took  place  at  Bruns- 
wick, Avhen  the  ducal  palace  was  burnt,  and  tlu^  reigning  prince  obliged  to 
retire  and  seek  shelter  in  England,  Sept.  8,  1830. 

BRUSSELS,  founded  by  St.  Gery  of  Cambray,  in  the  seventh  century.  The 
memorable  bombardment  of  this  city  by  Marshal  Villeroy,  when  14  churches 
and  4000  houses  were  destroyed,  1695.  Taken  by  the  French,  1746. 
Again,  by  Dumouriez,  1792.  The  revolution  of  1830  commenced  here,  Aug. 
25. — See  Belgium.  This  town  is  celebrated  for  its  fine  lace,  camlets,  and 
tapestrj''.  There  is  here  a  noble  building,  called  the  H6tel  de  Ville,  whose  tur- 
ret is  364  feet  in  height ;  and  on  its  top  is  a  copper  figure  of  St.  Michael,  17 
feet  high,  which  turns  with  the  wind.  Riot  in  Brussels,  in  which  the  costly 
furniture  of  16  principal  houses  was  demolished,  in  consequence  of  a  dis- 
play of  attachment  to  the  house  of  Orange,  5th  April,  1834. 

BUBBLE  COMPANIES,  in  commerce,  a  name  given  to  projects  for  raising 
money  upon  false  and  imaginary  grounds,  much  practised,  often  with  disas- 
trous consequences,  in  France  and  England,  in  1719  and  1721.  Many  such 
projects  were  formed  in  England  and  Ireland  in  1825.  See  Covipanies,  and 
Law's  Bubble. 

BUCCANEERS.  These  piratical  adventurers,  chiefly  French,  English,  and 
Dutch,  commenced  their  depredations  on  the  Spaniards  of  America,  soon 
after  the  latter  had  taken  possession  of  that  continent  and  the  West  Indies. 
The  principal  commanders  of  the  first  expedition  were,  Montbar,  Lolonois, 
Basco,  and  Morgan,  who  murdered  thousands,  and  plundered  millions.  The 
expedition  of  Van  Horn,  of  Ostend,  was  undertaken  in  1603 ;  that  of  Gramont, 
in  1685 ;  and  that  of  Pointis,  in  1697. 

BUCHANITES.  Hundreds  of  deluded  fanatics,  followers  of  Margaret  Buchan, 
who  promised  to  conduct  them  to  the  new  Jerusalem,  and  prophesied  the 
end  of  the  world.  She  appeared  in  Scotland  in  1779,  and  died  in  1791,  when 
her  followers  dispersed. 

BUCHAREST,  Treaty  of.  The  preliminaries  of  peace  ratified  at  this  place 
between  Russia  and  Turkey,  it  being  stipulated  that  the  Pruth  should  be 
the  frontier  limit  of  those  empires,  signed  May  28,  1812.  The  subsequent 
war  between  those  powers  altered  many  of  the  provisions  of  this  treaty. 

BUCKINGHAM  PALACE,  London.  Buckingham-house,  built  1703,  was 
pulled  down  in  1825,  and  the  new  palace  commenced  on  its  site ;   and  after 


222  THE    world's    progress.  [  BtTi, 

expenditure  which  must  have  approached  a  million  sterling,  it  was  com- 
pleted, and  was  taken  possession  of  bj'  queen  Victoria,  July  13,  1837. 

BUCKLERS.  Those  used  in  single  combat  were  invented  by  Proetus  and  Acri- 
sius,  of  Argos,  about  1370  e.  c.  When  Lucius  Papirius  defeated  the  Sam- 
nites,  he  took  from  them  their  bucklers,  which  were  of  gold  and  silver,  309 
B.  0.     See  article  Arvior. 

BUCKLES.  The  wearing  of  buckles  commenced  in  the  reign  of  Charles  11. ; 
but  people  of  inferior  rank,  and  such  as  affected  plainness  in  their  garb, 
wore  strings  in  their  shoes  some  years  after  that  period  :  these  last  were, 
however,  ridiculed  for  their  singularity  in  using  them. 

RUDA;  once  called  the  Kej^  of  Christendom.  It  was  taken  by  Solyman  U.  at 
the  memorable  battle  of  Mohatz,  when  the  Hungarian  king,  Louis,  was  killed, 
and  200,000  of  his  subjects  were  carried  away  captives,  1526.  Buda  was 
sacked  a  second  time,  when  the  inhabitants  were  put  to  the  sword,  and  Hun- 
gary was  annexed  to  the  Ottoman  empire,  1540.  Retaken  by  the  Imperial- 
ists, and  the  Mahometans  delivered  up  to  the  fury  of  the  soldiers,  1686.  See 
Hungary. 

BUENA  VISTA,  B  attle  of,  between  the  American  force,  of  about  5,000  men,  un- 
der general  Taylor  and  general  Wool ;  and  the  Mexicans,  about  20,000,  imder 
Santa  Anna :  the  latter  defeated  with  the  loss  of  2500  killed  and  wounded. 
American  loss,  264  killed,  450  wounded.  This  victory  securing  to  the  Ameri- 
cans the  whole  of  the  northern  provinces  of  Mexico,  Feb.  22,  1847. 

BUENOS  AYRES.  The  capital  was  founded  by  Pedro  Mendoza,  in  1535.  It 
was  taken  by  the  British  under  sir  Home  Popham,  J'une  21,  1806 ;  and  was 
retaken,  after  an  attack  of  three  days,  Aug  12.  the  same  year.  The  British 
suffered  a  great  repulse  here  under  general  Whitelock,  who  was  disgraced, 
July  6,  1807.  Declaration  of  independence  of  this  province,  July  19,  1816 : 
the  treaty  was  signed  February  1822.  To  put  a  stop  to  a  war  between  Bue- 
nos Ayres  and  Monte  Video,  England  and  France  blockaded  the  port  of  Bue- 
nos Ayres,  Oct.  24,  1845 ;  the  troops  of  Buenos  Ayres  under  general  Rosas, 
defeated  by  the  combined  forces,  Nov.  20,  1845. 

BUFFOONS.  These  were  originally  mountebanks  in  the  Roman  theatres.  The 
shows  of  the  buffoons  were  discouraged  by  Domitian,  and  were  finally  abol- 
ished by  Trajan,  A.  D.  98.  Our  ancient  kings  had  jesters,  who  are  described 
as  being,  at  first,  practitioners  of  indecent  raillery  and  antic  postures ;  they 
were  employed  under  the  Tudors.  Some  writers  state  that  James  I.  con- 
verted the  jesters  into  poet-laureates ;  but  poet-laureates  existed  long  before ; 
Selden  traces  the  latter  to  1251. —  Warton. 

BUILDING.  The  first  structures  were  of  wood  and  clay,  then  of  rough  stone, 
and  in  the  end  the  art  advanced  to  polished  marble.  Building  with  stone 
was  early  among  the  Tyrians ;  and  as  ornaments  and  taste  arose,  every 
nation  pursued  a  different  system.  The  art  of  building  with  stone  may  be 
referred  in  England  to  Benedict,  or  Benet,  a  monk,  about  a.  d.  670.  The  first 
bridge  of  this  material  in  England  was  at  Bow,  in  1087.  Building  with  brick 
was  introduced  by  the  Romans  into  their  provinces.  Alfred  encouraged  it 
in  England,  in  886.  Brick-building  was  generally  introduced  by  the  earl  of 
Arundel,  about  1598,  London  being  then  almost  built  of  wood.  The  increase 
of  building  in  London  was  prohibited  within  three  miles  of  the  citj^  gates  by 
Elizabeth,  who  ordered  that  one  family  only  should  dwell  in  one  house,  1580. 

BULGARIANS.  They  defeat  Justinian,  a.  d.  687;  and  are  subdued  by  the 
emperor  Basilius,  in  1019.  On  one  occasion,  this  emperor  having  taken 
15,000  Bulgarians  prisoners,  he  caused  their  eyes  to  be  put  out,  leaving  one 
eye  only  to  every  hundredth  man,- to  enable  him  to  conduct  his  countrymen 


BUO] 


DICTIONARY    Of    DATES. 


223 


home.    Bulgaria  was  governed  by  Roman  dukes  till  1186;    subdued  by 
Bajazet,  1396. —  Univ.  Hist.  vol.  xvii. 

BULL,  OR  EDICT  op  the  POPE.  This  is  an  apostolical  rescript,  of  ancient 
use,  and  generally  written  on  parchment.  The  bull  is,  properly,  the  seal, 
deriving  its  name  from  bulla,  and  has  been  made  of  gold,  silver,  lead,  and 
wax.  On  one  side  are  the  heads  of  Peter  and  Paul ;  and  on  the  other,  the 
name  of  the  pope,  and  the  year  of  his  pontificate.  The  celebrated  golden 
bull  of  the  emperor  Charles  IV.  was  so  called  because  of  its  golden  s^:ai; 
and  was  made  the  fundamental  law  of  the  German  empire,  at  the  diet  ol 
Nuremburg,  A.  D.  1856.  Bulls  denouncing  queen  Elizabeth  and  her  abet 
tors,  and  consigning  them  to  hell-fire,  accompanied  the  Spanish  Arma'la 
1588. 

BULL-BAITING,  or  BULL-FIGHTING.  This  atrociously  criminal  sport  of 
Spain  and  Portugal  is  somewhat  equivalent  in  those  countries  to  the  figlits 
of  the  gladiators  among  the  Romans.  It  is  recorded  as  being  an  amuse- 
ment at  Stamford  so  early  as  the  reign  of  John,  1209.  Bull-running  was  a 
sport  at  Tutbury  in  1374.  In  the  Sporls  of  England,  Ave  read  of  the  "  Eastei 
fierce  hunts,  when  foaming  boars  fought  for  their  heads,  and  lusty  bulls  and 
huge  bears  were  baited  with  dogs  ;"  and  near  the  Clink,  London,  was  the 
Paris,  or  Bear  Garden,  so  celebrated  in  the  time  of  Elizabeth  for  the  exhi- 
bition of  bear-baiting,  then  a  fashionable  amusement.  A  bill  to  abolish 
bull-baiting  was  thrown  out  in  the  Commons,  chiefly  through  the  influence 
of  the  late  Mr.  Windham,  who  made  a  singular  speech  in  favor  of  the  cus- 
tom. May  21,  1802. — Bwtler.  It  has  since  been  declared  illegal.  See  Cru- 
elly to  Animals.  Bull-fights  were  introduced  into  Spain  about  1260 :  abol- 
ished there,  "  except  for  piotis  and  patriotic  purposes,"  in  1784.  There  was 
a  bull-fight  at  Lisbon,  at  Campo  de  Santa  Anna,  attended  by  10,000  specta- 
tors, on  Sunday,  June  14,  1840. 

BULLETS.  Those  of  stone  were  in  use  a.  d.  1514 ;  and  iron  ones  are  first 
mentioned  in  the  Pcedera,  1550.  Leaden  bullets  were  made  before  the  close 
of  the  sixteenth  century,  and  continue  to  be  those  in  use  in  all  nations  for 
musketry.  The  cannon-ball  in  some  Eastern  countries  is  still  of  stone, 
instead  of  iron. — Ashe. 

BUNKER  HILL,  Battle  of,  (near  Boston,)  between  the  British  under  Howe, 
and  the  Americans  under  Prescott  and  Putnam,  June  17, 1775.  British  loss, 
1054  killed  and  Avounded ;  American,  453.  The  latter  obliged  to  retreat  for 
want  of  powder.  But  this,  the  first  important  battle  of  the  revolution,  has 
always  justly  been  regarded  as  a  great  victory  for  the  American  cause,  and 
is  so  commemorated  by  the  granite  obelisk  on  the  battle-ground,  of  which  ^ 
the  corner-stone  was  laid  by  general  La  Fayette,  in  1825.  It  Avas  finished ' 
July  23,  1842,  at  the  cost  altogether  of  about  $100,000,  raised  by  voluntary 
contributions.  The  height  is  220  feet.  Its  completion  celebrated  by  a  pro- 
cession, &c.,  and  an  oration  by  Daniel  Webster  ;  president  Tyler  and  50,000 
people  present,  June  17,  1843. 

BUONAPARTE  S  EMPIRE  op  FRANCE.  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  the  most 
extraordinary  man  of  modern  times,  ruled  over  France,  and  subdued  most 
of  the  nations  of  the  Continent,  in  the  early  part  of  the  present  century. 
See  his  A'arious  military  and  other  achievements  under  their  respective  heads 
throughout  the  volume  : — 


Napoleon  bom  at  Ajaccio,  in  Italy, 

Aug.  1.5,  1769 
He  first   distinguishes  himself  in  the 

command  of  the  artillery  at  Toulon  -  179-3 
He  embarks  for  Egypt  •  May  10,  1798 
Is  repulsed  before  Acre  -  May  27,  1799 
lie  returns  from  Egypt  -  Aug.  23,  1799 


Deposes  the  French  directory,  and  be- 
comes first  consul  -        Nov.  9,  1799 

Sends  overtures  of  peace  to  the  king  of 
England  -  -  -  Jan.  1,  1800 

His  life  attempted  by  an  "  infernal  ma- 
chine" -  -  -    Dec.  24,  1800 


2-^4 


tj;k  woiiLo't;  puoghess. 


[buh 


son  -  -  -        June  22, 1815 

Intending  to  embark  for  America,  he 

arrives  at  Rochefort  -     July  3, 1815 

He  surrenders  to  Capt.  Maitland,  of  the ' 

Bellerophon        -  -       July  15, 1815 

Transferred  at  Torbay  to  the  Northum- 

berland.axidi  sails  for  St.  Helena  Aug.  8, 1815 
Arrives  at  St.  Helena  (where  it  is  de- 
creed by  the  allied  sovereigns  he  shall 
remain  for  life)  -  Oct.  15,  1815 

The  family  of  Bonaparte  excluded  for 
ever  from  France  by  the  law  of  am- 
nesty -  -  -      Jan.  72, 1816 
Death  of  Bonaparte           -  May  5, 1821 
His  will  registered  in  England  -    Aug.  1824 
His  son,  ex-king  of  Rome,  dies  July  22, 1832 
The  French  chambers  decree,  with  the 
consent  of  England,  that  the  ashes  of 
Napoleon  be  removed  from  St.  Hele- 
na, and  brought  to  France  -  May  12, 1840 
They  are  exhumed           -         Oct.  16,  1840 
The  Belle  Poule,  French  frigate,  aiTives 
at  Cherbourg  with  the  ^«mains  of 
Napoleon,  in  the  care  of  ^he  prince 
de  Joinville           -           -     Nov.  30, 1810 
They  are  interred  with  great  solemnity 
in  the  Hotel  des  Invalides  -  Dec.  15, 1840 


BUONAPARTE'S  EMPIRE  of  FRANCE,  conlinued. 

Elected  president  of  the  Italian,  late  Is  defeated  at  Waterloo      -      June  18, 1815 

Cisalpine,  republic      -  Jan.  25,  1802  !  Returns  to  Paris  -  June  20,  1815 

Elected  consul  for  10  years    -    May  8,  1802  j  And  abdicates  in  favor  of  his  infant 

Made  first  consul  for  life     -       Aug.  2,  1802  l 

Accepts  the  title  of  emperor  from  the  ! 

senate  in  name  of  the  people  May  18, 1804  i 

Crowned  emperor  by  the  pope  Dec  2,  1804 

Crowned  king  of  Italy         -       May  26,  1805 

Divorced  from  the  empress  Josephine 

Dec.  16,  1809 

Marries  Maria  Louisa       -        April  7,  1810 

A  son,  the  fruit  of  this  marriage,  bom, 
and  styled  king  of  Rome  -  March  20, 1811 

His  overtures  of  peace  to  England  re-     • 
jected  -  -  -  April  14, 1812 

[The  reverses  of  Bonaparte  now  follow 
in  quick  .succession.] 

He  renounces  the  thrones  of  France 
and  Italy,  and  accepts  of  the  Isle  of 
Elba  for  his  retreat        -        April  5,  1814 

Embarks  at  Frejus       -        -  April  28,  1814 

Arrives  at  Elba       -         -  May  3,  1814 

Again  appears  in  France ;  he  quits  Elba 
and  lands  at  Cannes    -         March  1, 1815 

Enters  Lyons        -  -      March  10,  1815 

Arrives  at  Fontainebleau        March  20,  1815 

Joined  by  all  the  army  -        March  22,  1815 

The  allies  sign  a  treaty  for  Iris  exter- 
mination   -  -  -  March  25,  1815 

He  abolishes  the  slave-trade  March  29,  1815 

Leaves  Paris  for  the  army  -    June  12,  1815 

BURGESS,  from  the  French  Bourgeois,  a  distinction  coeval  in  England  witli 
its  corporations.  Burgesses  Avere  called  to  parliament  in  England  a.  d,  1265 ; 
in  Scotland,  in  1326 ;  and  in  Ireland,  about  1365.  Burgesses  to  be  resident 
in  the  places  which  they  are  elected  to  represent  in  parliament,  1  Henry  V. 
1413. —  Viner's  Statutes.     See  Borough. 

BURGLARY.  Until  the  reign  of  George  IV.  this  crime,  in  England,  was  pun- 
ished with  death. 

BURGOS,  Siege  of.  Wellington  entered  Burgos  after  the  battle  of  Salamanca, 
which  was  fought  Jiily  22,  1812,  and  the  castle  M-as  besieged  by  the  British 
and  allied  army,  and  several  attemjits  were  made  to  carry  it  by  assault,  but 
the  siege  was  abandoned  in  October,  same  year.  The  castle  and  fortifica- 
tions were  blown  up  by  the  French  in  June  1813. 

BURGUNDY.  This  kingdom  begins  in  Alsace,  a.  d.  413.  Conrad  II.  of  Ger- 
many being  declared  heir  to  the  kingdom,  is  opposed  in  his  attempt  to  an- 
nex it  to  the  empire,  when  it  is  dismembered,  and  on  its  ruins  are  formed 
the  four  provinces  of  Burgundy,  Provence,  Viennes,  and  Savoy,  1034.  Bur- 
gundy becomes  a  circle  of  the  German  empire,  1521.  It  falls  to  Philip  11. 
of  Spain,  whose  tyi-anny  and  religious  persecutions  cause  a  revolt  in  the 
Batavian  provinces,  1566.  After  various  changes,  Burgundy  annexed  to 
France,  and  formed  into  departments  of  that  kingdom. 

BURIAL.  The  earliest  and  most  rational  mode  of  restoring  the  body  to  eartk. 
The  first  idea  of  it  was  formed  by  Adam,  on  his  observing  a  live  bird  cover- 
ing a  dead  one  with  leaves.  Barrows  were  the  most  ancient  graves.  See 
Barrows.  Places  of  burial  were  consecrated  under  pope  Calixtus  I.  in  210. — 
Eusebius.  The  first  Christian  burial-place  was  instituted  in  596  ;  burial  in 
cities,  742 ;  in  consecrated  places,  750 ;  in  church-yards,  758.  Vaults  were 
erected  in  chancels  first  at  Canterbury,  1075.  Woollen  shrouds  used  in  Eng- 
land, 1666.  Linen  scarfs  introduced  at  funerals  in  Ireland,  1729 ;  and  woollen 
shrouds  used,  1733.    Burials  were  taxed,  1695 — again,  1673..    See  Cemeteries. 

BURIALS.    Parochial  registers  of  them,  and  of  births  and  marriages,  were  in- 


BUU  ]  DICTIONARY-  OF    DATES.  225 

stituted  in  England  by  Cromwell,  Lord  Essex,  about  1536. — Stowe.  A  tax 
was  exacted  on  burials  in  England :  for  the  burial  of  a  duke,  £50,  and  foi 
that  of  a  common  person  4s.,  under  William  III.,  1695,  and  Geo.  III.  1783. — 
Statutes.     See  Bitls  of  Mortality. 

BURKING.  A  new  and  horrible  species  of  murder  committed  in  England.  It 
was  thus  named  from  the  first  known  criminal  by  whom  the  deed  was  perpe- 
trated being  called  Burke.  His  victims  were  strangled,  or  made  lifeless  by 
pressure,  or  other  modes  of  suffocation,  and  the  bodies,  which  exhibited  no 
marks  of  violence,  were  afterwards  sold  to  the  surgeons  for  the  purpose 
of  dissection.  Burke  was  executed  at  Edinburgh  in  February,  1829.  The 
crime  has  been  more  recently  perpetrated  by  a  gang  of  murderers  in  London. 
The  monster  named  Bishop  was  apprehended  in  November  1831,  and  exe- 

-  cuted  with  Williams,  one  of  his  accomplices,  for  the  murder  of  a  poor  Italian 
boy,  named  Carlo  Ferrari,  a  friendless  wanderer,  and  therefore  selected  as 
being  less  likely  to  be  sought  after  (they  confessing  to  this  and  other  similar 
murders),  December  5,  same  year. 

BURMESE  EMPIRE.  Founded  in  the  middle  of  the  last  century,  by  Alom- 
pra,  the  first  sovereign  of  the  present  dynasty. — See  India. 

BURNING  ALIVE.  This  punishment  was  inflicted  among  the  Romans,  Jews, 
and  other  nations,  on  the  betrayers  of  councils,  incendiaries,  and  for  incest 
in  the  ascending  and  descending  degrees.  The  Jews  had  two  ways  of  burn- 
ing alive :  one  with  wood  and  faggots  to  burn  the  body,  the  other  by  pour- 
ing scalding  lead  doAvn  the  throat  of  the  criminal,  cmnbustio  animce,  to  burn 
the  soul.— See  Sitttees. 

BURNING  ALIVE,  in  England.  Even  in  England  (see  preceding  article)  burn- 
ing alive  was  a  punishment  upon  the  statute-book.  The  Britons  punished 
heinous  crimes  by  burning  alive  in  wicker  baskets.  See  Stonehenge.  This 
punishment  was  countenanced  by  bulls  of  the  pope  ;  and  witches  suffered 
in  this  manner. — See  Witches.  Many  persons  have  been  burned  alive  on  ac- 
count of  religious  principles.  The  first  sufferer  was  sir  William  Sawtree, 
parish  priest  of  St.  Osith,  London,  8  Henry  IV.,  February  9,  1401.  In  the 
reign  of  the  cruel  Mary  numbers  were  burned,  among  others,  Ridley,  bishop 
of  London ;  Latimer,  bishop  of  Rochester ;  and  Cranmer,  archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  who  were  burned  at  Oxford  in  1555  and  1556.  Numerous  others 
suffered  this  dreadful  death  in  Mary's  reign.* 

BURNING  THE  DEAD.  The  antiquity  of  this  custom  rises  as  high  as  the  The- 
ban  war ;  it  was  practised  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  and  the  poet  Ho- 
mer abounds  with  descriptions  of  such  funeral  obsequies.  The  practice  was 
verj'  general  about  1225  b.  c,  and  was  revived  by  Sylla,  lest  the  relics  of  the 
dead  in  graves  should  be  violated ;  and  to  this  day  the  burning  of  the  dead 
is  practised  in  many  parts  of  the  East  and  West  Indies. 

BURNING-GLASS  and  CONCAVE  MIRRORS.  Their  power  was  not  unknown 
to  Archimedes,  but  the  powers  of  these  instruments  are  rendered  wonderful 
by  the  modern  improvements  of  Settalla:  of  Tchirnhausen,  1680;  of  Bufibn, 
1747  ;  and  of  Parker  and  others,  more  recently.  The  following  are  experi- 
ments of  the  fLi.«ion  of  substances  made  with  Mr.  Parker's  lens,  or  burning 
mirror : 


*  It  is  cninputeil,  that  during  the  three  years  of  Mary's  reisn  in  which  these  shocking  violences 
and  barbaviiies  were  carried  on,  there  were  277  persons  brought  to  the  stake ;  besides  tho.se  who 
were  punished  by  imprisonment,  fines,  and  confiscations.  Among  those  who  suffered  by  fire  were 
5  bisliops,  21  clergymen,  8  lay  gentlemen,  SI  tradesmen,  100  husbandmen,  servants,  and  laborers, 
h'l  womevi,  and  4  children.  The  unprincipled  agents  of  this  merciless  queen  were  the  bishops  Gar- 
dner and  Honner.  The  latter  especially  was  a  man  of  brutal  character,  who  seemed  to  derive  a 
vage  pleasure  in  witnessing  the  torture  of  the  sufferers. 


226  THE    world's    progress.  [  BYZ 


Substances  fused.  Weight.      Time. 

A  topaz  -        -        -  3  grains  45  seconds. 

An  emerald        -  -    2  grains  25  seconds. 

A  crystal  pebble     -  7  grains    G  seconds. 

Flint   -       -        -  -  10  grains  30  seconds. 

Cornelian      -        -  10  grains  75  seconds. 

Pumice  stone     -  -  10  grains  24  seconds. 


BURNING-GLASS  and  CONCAVE  MIRRORS,  contimi^d. 

Substances/used.  Weight.      Time. 

PiU'e  gold  -        -       20  grains    4  seconds. 

Silver        -  -       -    20  grains    3  seconds. 

Copper  -  -       -       33  grains  20  seconds. 

Platina     -  -       -    10  grains    3  seconds. 

Cast  iron  -       ■        10  grains    3  seconds. 

Steel         -  -       -    10  grains  12  seconds. 

Green  wood  takes  fire  instantaneously ;  water  boils  immediately ;  bones  arc 
calcined ;  and  things,  not  capable  of  melting,  at  once  become  red-hot  like  iron. 

BURYING  ALIVE.  A  mode  of  death  adopted  in  Bceotia,  where  Creon  ordered 
Antigone,  the  sister  of  Polynices,  to  be  buried  alive,  1225  b.  c.  The  Roman 
vestals  were  subjected  to  this  horrible  kind  of  execution  for  any  levity  in  dress 
or  conduct  that  could  excite  a  suspicion  of  their  virtue.  The  vestal  Minutia 
was  buried  alive  on  the  charge  of  incontinence,  337  b.  c.  The  vestal- Sextilia 
was  bui'ied  alive  274  b.  c.  The  vestal  Cornelia  a.  d.  92.  Lord  Bacon  gives 
instances  of  the  resurrection  of  persons  who  had  been  buried  alive  ;  the  fa- 
mous Duns  Scotus  is  of  the  number.  The  assassins  of  Capo  d'Istria,  Presi- 
dent of  Greece,  were  (two  of  them)  sentenced  to  be  immured  in  brick  walls 
built  .around  them  up  to  their  chins,  and  to  be  supplied  with  food  in  this 
species  of  torture  until  they  died,  October,  1831. — See  Greece. 

BUSTS.  This  mode  of  preserving  the  remembrance  of  the  human  features  is 
the  same  with  the  herma  of  the  Greeks.  Lysistratus,  the  statuary,  was  the 
inventor  of  moulds  from  which  he  cast  wax  figures,  328  b.  c. — Pliny.  Busts 
from  the  f;ice  in  plaster  of  Paris  were  first  taken  by  Andrea  Verrochi,  about 

A.  D.  1466. —  Vasari. 

BUTCHERS.  Among  the  Romans  there  were  three  classes :  the  Suarii  pro- 
vided hogs,  the  Boarii  oxen,  and  the  hanii,  whose  office  was  to  kill.  The 
butchers'  trade  is  very  ancient  in  England ;  so  is  their  company  in  London, 
although  it  was  not  incorporated  until  the  second  year  of  James  I.  1604. — 
Annals  of  London. 

BUTTER.  It  was  late  before  the  Greeks  had  any  notion  of  butter,  and  by  the 
early  Romans  it  was  irsed  only  as  a  medicine — never  as  food.  The  Chris- 
tians of  Egj^pt  burnt  butter  in  their  lamps,  instead  of  oil,  in  the  third  cen- 
tury. In  1675,  there  fell  in  Ireland,  during  the  winter  time,  a  thick  yellow 
dew,  which  had  all  the  medicinal  properties  of  butter.  In  Africa,  vegetable 
butter  is  made  from  the  fruit  of  the  shea  tree,  and  is  of  richer  taste,  at  Kebba, 
than  any  butter  made  from  cow's  milk. — Mungo  Park. 

BUTTONS,  of  early  manufacture  in  England";  those  covered  with  cloth  were 
prohibited  by  a  statute,  thereby  to  encourage  the  manufacture  of  metal  but- 
tons, 8  George  I.  1721.  The  manufacture  owes  nothing  to  encouragement 
from  any  quarter  of  late  years,  although  it  has,  notwithstanding,  much  im- 
proved.— PkilMps. 

BYRON'S  VOYAGE.  Commodore  Byron  left  England,  on  his  voyage  round 
the  globe,  June  21,  1764,  and  returned  May  9,  1766.  In  his  voyage  he  dis- 
covered the  populous  island  in  the  Pacific  Ocean  which  bears  his  name,  Au- 
gust 16,  1765.  Though  brave  and  intrepid,  such  was  his  general  ill  fortune 
at  sea,  that  he  was  called  by  the  sailors  of  the  fleet,  "  Foul- weather  Jack." — 
Bellchambe7's. 

BYZANTIUM.     Now  Constantinople,   foimded  by  a  colony  of  Athenians,  715 

B.  c. — Eusebius.  It  was  taken  by  the  Romans,  a.  d.  73,  and  was  laid  in  ruins 
by  Severus  in  196,  Byzantium  was  rebuilt  by  Constantine  in  338  ;  and  after 
him  it  received  the  name  of  Constantinople.     See  Constardinople 


CAD  J  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  22''?' 


CABAL.  A  Hebrew  word,  used  in  various  senses.  The  rabbins  were  cabalists, 
and  the  Christians  so  called  those  who  pretended  to  magic.  In  English  his- 
tory, the  Cabal  was  a  council  which  consisted  of  five  lords  in  administration, 
supposed  to  be  pensioners  of  France,  and  distinguished  by  the  appellation 
of  the  CabaL,  from  the  initials  of  their  names:  Sir  Thomas  Clilford,  the  lord 
Ashley,  the  duke  of  Buckingham,  lord  Arlington,  and  the  duke  of  Lauder- 
dale, 22  Charles  II.  l&lO.—Hume. 

CABINET  COUNCIL.  There  were  councils  in  England  so  early  as  the  reign 
of  Ina,  king  of  the  West  Saxons,  a.  d.  690;  Offa,  king  of  the  Mercians,  758, 
and  in  other  reigns  of  the  Heptarchy.  The  cabinet  council,  in  which  secret 
deliberations  were  held  by  the  king  and  a  few  of  his  chosen  friends,  and  the 
great  officers  of  state,  to  be  afterwards  laid  before  the  second  council,  now 
styled  the  privy  council,  was  instituted  by  Alfred  the  Great,  about  a.  d.  896. 
Spelman.  The  modern  cabinet  council,  as  at  present  constituted,  was  recon- 
structed in  1670,  and  usually  consists  of  the  following  twelve  members  :* 

Lord  president. 

Lord  chancellor. 

Lord  privy  seal. 


First  lord  of  the  treasury. 
Chancellor  of  the  exchequer. 


Home,  foreign,  and  colonial  secretaries  of  state. 

President  of  the  board  of  control. 

President  of  the  boari  of  trade. 

Master  of  the  mint. 

First  lord  of  the  admiralty. 


In  1841  the  number  was  14,  and  included  the  Secretary  at  War,  the  Woods 

and  Forests,  and  Chief  Secretary  for  Ireland,  the  Mint  and  the  Board  of 

Trade  being  united  in  right  hon.  H.  Labouchere.     The  cabinet  ministers  of 

.  the  various  reigns  Avill  be  found  under  the  head  Administrations  of  England. 

CABLES.  Their  use  was  known  in  the  earliest  times :  a  machine  for  making 
the  largest,  by  which  human  labor  was  reduced  nine-tenths,  was  invented 
in  1792.  This  machine  was  set  in  motion  by  sixteen  horses,  when  making 
cables  for  ships  of  large  size.  Chain  cables  were  introduced  into  the  British 
navy  in  1812. 

CADDEE,  OR  League  of  God's  House.  The  celebrated  league  of  independence 
in  Switzerland,  formed  by  the  Grisons,  to  resist  domestic  tyranny,  a.  d.  1400 
to  1419.  A  second  league  of  the  Grisons  M'as  called  the  Grise  or  Gray 
league,  1424. 

CADE'S  INSURRECTION.  Jack  Cade,  an  Irishman,  a  fugitive  from  his  coun- 
ti-y  on  account  of  his  crimes,  assumed  the  name  of  Mortimer,  and  headed 
20,000  Kentish  men,  who  armed  "  to  punish  evil  ministers,  and  procure  a 
redress  of  grievances."  Cad'e  entered  London  in  triumph,  and  for  some  time 
bore  down  all  opposition,  and  beheaded  the  lord  treasurer,  Lord  Saye,  and 
several  other  persons  of  consequence.  The  insurgents  at  length  losing 
ground,  a  general  pardon  was  proclaimed ;  and  Cade,  finding  himself  de- 
serted by  his  followers,  fled :  but  a  reward  being  offered  for  his  apprehen- 
sion, he  was  discovered,  and  refusing  to  surrender,  was  slain  by  Alexander 
Iden,  sheriff  of  Kent,  1451. 

CADIZ,  formerly  Gades,  was  built  by  the  Carthaginians  530  b.  c. — Priestley. 
One  hundred  vessels  of  the  armament  preparing,  as  the  Spanish  Armada, 

'  The  term  cabinet  council  is  of  comparatively  modem  date,  and  originated  thus :  the  affairs 
of  state,  in  the  reign  of  Charles  I.  were  principally  managed  by  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  the 
earl  of  Strafford,  and  the  lord  Cottington ;  to  these  were  added  the  earl  of  Northumberland,  for  or- 
nament; the  bishop  of  London  for  his  place,  being  lord  treasurer;  the  two  secretaries,  Vaae  and 
Windebank,  for  service  and  intelligence ;  only  the  marquis  of  Hamilton,  by  his  skill  and  interest, 
meddled  just  so  far,  and  no  further,  than  he  had  a  mind.  These  persons  made  up  the  committee  of 
state,  reproachfully  called  ihe  junto,  and  afterwards,  enviously,  the  cabinet  council. — Lord  Cr»A- 

RENDON. 


228  THE    world's    progress.  [  CAL 

against  England,  were  destroyed  in  the  port  by  sir  Francis  Drake,  1587. 
Cadiz  was  taken  by  the  English,  under  the  earl  of  Essex,  and  plundered, 
September  15,  1596.     It  was  attempted  by  sir  George  Rooke  in  1702,  but  he 
failed.    Bombarded  by  the  British  in  1797,  and  blockaded  by  their  fleet, 
under  lord  St.  Vincent,  for  two  years,  ending  in  1799.     Again  bombarded  by 
the  British,  on  board  whose  fleet  were  18,000  land  forces,  October  1800. 
Besieged  by  the  French,  but  the  siege  raised  after  the  battle  of  Salamanca 
in  1812.     Massacre  of  the  inhabitants  by  the  soldieiy,  March  10,  1820. 
Cadiz  was  declared  a  free  port  in  1829. 
CjESARS,  era  of  the  ;  or  Spanish  Era,  is  reckoned  from  the  first  of  January 
38  B.  c,  being  the  year  following  the  conquest  of  Spain  by  Augustus.    It  was 
much  irsed  in  Africa,  Spain,  and  the  south  of  France;  but  by  a  synod  held 
in  1180  its  use  was  abolished  in  all  the  churches  dependent  on  Barcelona. 
Pedro  IV..  of  Arragon,  abolished  the  use  of  it  in  his  dominions  in  1350.    John 
of  Castile  did  the  same  in  1383.    It  continued  to  be  used  in  Portugal  till 
1455.     The  mouths  and  days  of  this  era  are  identical  with  the  Julian  calen- 
dar, and  to  turn  the  time  into  that  of  our  era,  subtract  thirty-eight  from  the 
year;  if  before  the  Christian  era  subtract  thirty-nine. 
CAI-FONG,  in  China.    This  city  being  besieged  by  100,000  rebels,  the  com- 
mander of  the  forces  who  was  sent  to  its  relief,  in  order  to  drown  the  enemy, 
broke  down  its  embanlanents :    his  stratagem  succeeded,  and  every  man  of 
■the  besiegers  perished ;  but  the  city  was  at  the  same  time  overflowed  by 
the  waters,  and  300,000  of  the  citizens  were  drowned  in  the  overwhelming 
flood,  A.  D.  1642. 
CAIRO,  OR  GRAND  CAIRO.    The  modern  capital  of  Egypt,  remarkable  for 
the  minarets  of  its  mosques,  and  the  splendid  sepulchres  of  its  caliphs  in 
what  is  called  the  city  of  the  dead :    it  was  built  by  the  Saracens,  in  a.  d. 
969.     Burnt  to  i^revent  its  occupation  by  the  Christian  invaders,  called  Cru- 
saders, in  1220.    Taken  by  the  Turks  from  the  Egyptian  sultans,  and  their 
empire  siibdued,  1517.     Ruined  by  an  earthquake  and  a  great  fire,  June, 
1754;  when  40.000  persons  perished.     Set  on  fire  bj*  a  lady  of  the  beglerbeg, 
Dec,  1755.    Taken  by  the  French  under  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  July  23, 1798. 
Taken  by  the  British  and  Turks,  when  6000  French  capitulated,  June  27, 
1801. 
CALAIS.    Taken  by  Edward  III.  after  a  year's  siege,  Aug.  4,  1347,  and  held 
by  England  210  years.    It  was  retaken  in  the  reign  of  Mary,  Jan.  7,  1558, 
and  the  loss  of  Calais  so  deeply  touched  the  queen's  heart,  historians  say  it 
occasioned  her  death,  which  occurred  soon  afterwards.     Calais  was  bom- 
barded by  the  English,  1694.    Here  Louis  XVIII.  landed  after  his  long 
exile  from  France,  April  24,  1814.     See  France. 
CALCUTTA.    The  first  settlement  of  the  English  here  was  made  in  1689.    It 
was  purchased  as  a  Zemindary,  and  Fort  William  built  in  1698.     Calcutta 
was  attacked  by  a  large  army  of  70,000  horse  and  foot,  and  400  elephants, 
in  June,  1756.     On  the  capture  of  the  fort,  146  of  the  British  were  crammed 
into  the  Black-hole  prison,  a  dungeon  about  18  feet  square,  from  whence 
twenty-three  only  came  forth  the  next  morning  alive.     Calcutta  was  re- 
taken the  following  year,  and  the  inhuman  Soubah  put  to  death.      Supreme 
court  of  Judicatm-e  established  1773.     College  founded  here  1801. — See 
Bengal  and  India. 
CALEDONIA.     Now  Scotland.    The  name  is  supposed  by  some  to  be  derived 
from  Gael  or  Gaelmen,  or  Gadel-doine,  corrupted  by  the  Romans.    Tacitus, 
who  died  a.  d.  99,  distinguishes  this  portion  of  feritian  by  the  appellation  of 
Caledonia;  but  the  etymology  of  the  word  seems  undetermined.     Vener- 
able Bede  says,  that  it  retained  this  name  until  a.  d.  258,  when  it  was  invaded 
by  a  tribe  from  Ireland,  and  called  Scofia.    The  ancient  inhabitants  appei» 


oal]  dictionary  of  dates.  229 

to  have  been  the  Caledonians  and  Picts,  tribes  of  the  Celts,  who  passed 
over  from  the  opposite  coasts  of  Gaul.  About  the  beginning  of  the  fourth 
century  of  the  Christian  era,  they  were  invaded  (as  stated  by  some  autho- 
rities), by  the  Scuyths  or  Scythians  (since  called  Scots),  who,  having  driven 
the  Picts  into  the  north,  settled  in  the  Lowlands,  and  gave  their  name  to 
the  whole  country.  Hence  the  origin  of  that  distinction  of  language,  habits, 
customs,  and  persons,  which  is  still  so  remarkable  between  the  Highlanders 
and  the  inhabitants  of  the  southern  borders, 


Caledonian  monarchy,  said  to  liave  been 
founded  by  Fergus  I.,  about     -    b.  c.  330 

Tlie  Picts  trom  the  north  of  England 
settle  in  the  southern  borders     -       -  140 

Agricola  carries  the  Roman  arms  into 
Caledonia,  with  little  success,  in  the 
reign  of  Galdus,  otherwise  called  Cor- 
bred  11.  "     -  -  -  A.  d.    79 

He  is  signally  defeated  by  the  forces  of 
Corbred 80 

Christianity  is  introduced  into  Caledonia 
in  the  reign  of  Donald  I.         -  ■  201 


The  country  is  invaded  by  the  Scuyths, 
or  Scots,  and  the  government  is  over- 
thrown, about  -  -        A.  D.  300 

The  Caledonian  monarchy  is  revived  by 
Fergus  II. 40i 

After  many  sanguinary  wars  between 
the  Caledonians,  Picts,  and  Scots,  Ken- 
neth II.  obtains  a  victory  over  the  Picls, 
unites  the  whoje  counti-y  under  one 
monarchy,  and  gives  it  the  name  of 
Scotland         -         .  -  -      838  to  843 

See  Scotland. 


The  origin  of  the  Scots,  it  should  be  stated,  is  very  uncertain ;  and  the  his- 
tory of  the  country  until  the  eleventh  century,  when  Malcolm  III.,  surnamed 
Canmore,  reigned  (1057)  is  obscure,  and  intermixed  with  many  and  improb- 
able fictions. 

CALEDONIAN  CANAL,  from  the  North  Sea  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  By  means 
of  this  magnificent  canal,  the  nautical  intercourse  between  the  western 
ports  of  Great  Britain,  and  tliose  also  of  Ireland,  to  the  North  Sea  and  Bal- 
tic, is  shortened  in  some  instances  800,  and  in  others,  1000  miles.  A  sum 
exceeding  a  million  sterling  was  granted  by  parliament  from  time  to  time  ; 
and  this  safe  navigation  for  ships  of  nearly  every  tonnage  was  completed, 
and  opened  in  1822. 

CALENDAR.  The  Roman  calendar,  which  has  in  great  part  been  adopted  by 
almost  all  nations,  was  introduced  by  Romulus,  who  divided  the  year  into 
ten  months,  comprising  304  days,  a.  d.  738  b.  c.  The  year  of  Romulus  was 
of  fifty  days  less  duration  than  the  lunar  year,  and  of  sixty-one  less  than 
the  solar  year,  and  its  commencement  did  not,  of  course,  correspond  with 
any  6xed  season.  Numa  Pompilius,  713  b.  c.  corrected  this  calendar,  by 
adding  two  months ;  and  Julius  Caesar,  desirous  to  make  it  more  correct, 
fixed  the  solar  j^ear  as  being  365  days  and  six  hours,  45  b.  c.  This  ahnost 
perfect  arrangement  was  denominated  the  Julian  style,  and  prevailed  gener- 
ally throughout  the  Christian  world  till  the  time  of  pope  Gregory  XIH. 
The  calendar  of  Julius  Cajsar  was  defective  in  this  particular,  that  the  solar 
year  consisted  of  365  days,  five  hours,  and  forty-nine  minutes :  and  not  of 
365  days  six  hours.  This  difference,  at  the  time  of  Gregory  XIII.  had 
amounted  to  ten  entire  days,  the  vernal  equinox  falling  on  the  11th,  instead 
of  the  21st  of  March.  To  obviate  this  error,  Gregory  ordained,  in  1582, 
that  that  year  should  consist  of  365  days  only ;  and  to  prevent  further  irregu- 
larity, it  was  determined  that  a  year  beginning  a  century  should  not  be  bis- 
sextile, with  the  exception  of  that  beginning  each  fourth  century :  thus, 
1700  and  1800  have  not  been  bissextile,  nor  will  1900  be  so ;  but  the  year 
2000  will  be  a  leap  year.  In  this  manner  three  days  are  retrenched  in  400 
years,  because  the  lapse  of  eleven  minutes  makes  three  days  in  about  that 
period.  The  year  of  the  calendar  is  thus  made  as  nearly  as  possible  to 
correspond  with  the  true  solar  year  ;  and  future  errors  of  chronology  are 
avoided.  See  New  Style. 
CALICO.  The  well-known. cotton  cloth,  is  named  from  Calicut,  a  city  of  India, 
which  was  discovered  by  tlic  Portuguese,  in  1498.  Calico  was  first  brought 
to  England  by  the  East  India  Company,  in  1631.     Calico  printing,  and  the 


230  THE  wokld's  progress.  [  CAl 

Dutch  loom  engine,  were  first  used  in  1676. — Anderson.  Calicoes  were  pro-; 
liibit€d  to  be  printed  or  -worn,  in  1700 ;  and  again,  in  1721.  They  were  first 
made  a  branch  of  manufacture  in  Lancashire,  in  1771.     See  Cotton. 

CALIFORNIA,  Lower,  discovered  by  Grigalon,  sent  by  Cortes,  the  conqueror 
of  Mexico,  1534 ;  explored  by  Cortes  himself,  1536,  and  by  his  subordinate 
TJlloa,  1538.  First  settlement  by  Viscaino  and  a  small  colony  sent  out  by 
Philip  n.  of  Spain,  1596.  Viscaino  explored  the  coast  and  founded  St.  Diego 
and  Monterey,  and  was  the  first  Spaniard  in  Upper  California,  1602. 

CALIFORNIA,  Upper,  discovered  by  sir  Francis  Drake,  and  named  New  Al- 
bion, 1596.  The  Spanish  colonists  having  been  expelled  by  the  ill-used 
natives,  the  country  was  granted  by  Charles  II.  of  Spain  to  the  Jesuits,  in 
1697.  Jesuit  missions  and  Presidios  estabhshed  in  New  ."'alifornia  1769. 
Eighteen  missions  established  up  to  1798.  California  a  province  of  Mexico, 
1824 ;  the  Mexican  governor  expelled  from  Monterey,  1836.  California  ex- 
plored by  the  United  States  expedition,  under  Wilkes,  co-operating  with 
that  of  Fremont,  overland,  in  1811-3.  Another  expedition  under  Fremont, 
1845-6.  Mexican  war  began  1845.  San  Francisco  taken  possession  of  by 
Com.  Montgomery,  July  8,  1845.  Com.  Stockton  takes  possession  of  Uppci 
California  May-August,  1846,  and  institutes  United  States  military  govern- 
ment. Movements  of  general  Kearney,  lieutenant  Emory,  &c,,  1846.  Cali- 
fornia secured  to  the  United  States  by  the  treaty  with  Mexico,  1848.  Gold 
placers  first  discovered  on  the  grounds  of  captain  Suter,  Februaiy,  1848. 
Great  emigration  from  the  United  States  commenced  November,  1848.  Con- 
vention at  Monterey  for  forming  a  state  constitution,  Aug.  31,  1849.  Con- 
stitution adopted  by  popular  vote,  and  P.  H.  Burnet  chcsen  first  governor, 
Dec.  1849. 

CALIPH.  In  Arabic,  vicar,  or  apostle;  the  title  assumed  by  the  Soplii  of 
Persia,  in  the  succession  of  Ali,  and  by  the  Grand  Seigniors  as  the  succes- 
sors of  Mahomet.  The  caliphat  was  adopted  by  Abubeker,  the  father  of 
the  Prophet's  second  wife,  in  whose  arms  he  died,  a.  d.  631.  In  process  of 
time  the  soldans  or  sultans  engrossed  all  the  civil  power,  and  little  but  the 
title  was  left  to  the  caliphs,  and  that  chiefly  in  matters  of  religion. — Sir.  T. 
Herbert. 

CALLIGRAPHY.  Beautiful  writing,  in  a  small  compass,  invented  by  Callicra- 
tes,  who  is  said  to  have  written  an  elegant  distich  on  a  sesamum  seed,  472 
B.  c.  The  modern  specimens  of  this  art  are,  many  of  them,  astonishing  and 
beautiful.  In  the  sixteenth  centurj',  Peter  Bales  wrote  the  Lord's  Prayer, 
creed,  decalogue,  two  short  Latin  prayers,  his  own  name,  motto,  day  of  the 
month,  year  of  our  Lord,  and  of  the  reign  of  queen  Elizabeth,  to  whom  he 
presented  it  at  Hampton-court,  all  within  the  circle  of  a  silver  penny, 
enchased  in  a  ring  and  border  of  gold,  and  covered  with  crystal,  so  accu- 
._  rately  done  as  to  be  plainly  legible,  to  the  great  admiration  of  her  majesty, 
the  whole  of  the  privy  council,  and  several  ambassadors  then  at  court,  1574. 
— Holinshed. 

CALLAO,  IN  Peru.  Here,  after  an  earthquake,  the  sea  retired  from  the  shore, 
and  returned  in  mountainous  waves,  which  destroyed  the  city,  a.  d.  1687. 
The  same  phenomenon  took  place  in  1746,  when  all  the  inhabitants  perished, 
with  the  exception  of  one  man.  who  was  standing  on  an  eminence,  and  to 
whose  succor  a  wave  providentially  threw  a  boat. 

i:ALOMEL.  The  mercurial  compound  termed  calomel  is  first  mentioned  by 
Crollius,  early  in  the  seventeenth  century,  but  must  have  been  previously 
known.  The  first  directions  given  for  its  preparation  were  those  announced 
by  Beguin,  in  1608.  It  is  said  that  corrosive  sublimate  was  known  some 
centuries  before. 


cam]  DIUTIOiN'ARY    OF    DATES.  231 

CALVARY',  Mount.  The  place  where  the  Redbemer  suftered  death,  a.  d.  33. 
Calvary  was  a  small  eminence  or  hill  adjacent  to  Jerusalem,  appropriated 
to  the  execution  of  malefactors.  See  Luke  xxiii.  33.  Adrian  at  the  time 
of  his  persecution  of  the  Christians  erected  a  temple  of  Jupiter  on  Mount 
Calvary,  and  a  temple  of  Adonis  on  the  manger  at  Bethlehem,  a.  d.  142. 
Here  is  the  church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  whither  pilgrims  flock  from  all 
Christian  countries. 

CALVINISTS.  Named  after  their  founder,  John  Calvin,  the  celebrated  re- 
former of  the  Christian  church  from  the  Romish  superstition  and  doctrinal 
errors.  Calvin  was  a  native  of  Noyon,  in  Picardy ;  but  adopting  the  princi- 
ples of  the  Reformers,  he  fled  to  Angoulfime,  where  he  composed  his  Iiisti- 
tutio  Chrisbiana  Religionis,  in  1533,  published  about  two  years  afterwards.  He 
subsequently  retired  to  Basle,  and  next  settled  in  Geneva.  Although  he 
differed  from  Luther  in  essential  points,  still  his  followers  did  'not  consider 
themselves  as  different  on  this  account  from  the  adherents  of  Luther.  A 
formal  separation  first  took  place  after  the  conference  of  Poissy,  in  1561, 
where  they  expressly  rejected  the  tenth  article  of  the  confession  of  Augs- 
burg, besides  some  others,  and  took  the  name  of  Calvinists. 

CAMBRAY.  The  town  whence  the  esteemed  manufacture  called  cambric 
takes  its  name.  This  city  was  taken  by  the  Spaniards  by  a  memorable  sur- 
prise, in  1595.  Cambray  was  taken  and  retaken  several  times.  In  the  war 
of  the  French  revolution  it  was  invested  by  the  Austrians,  August  8,  1793, 
when  the  republican  general,  Declay,  replied  to  the  Imperial  summons  to 
surrender,  that  "he  knew  not  how  to  do  that,  but  his  soldiers  knew  how  to 
fight."  In  the  late  war  it  was  seized  by  the  British  under  general  sir  Chas. 
Colville,  June  24,  1815.  The  citadel  surrendered  the  next  day,  and  was 
occupied  by  Louis  XVIII.  and  his  court. 

CAMBRAY,  League  of.  This  was  the  celebrated  league  against  the  republic 
of  Venice,  comprising  the  pope,  the  emperor,  and  the  kings  of  France  and 
Spain ;  and  whereby  Venice  was  forced  to  cede  to  Spain  her  possessions  in 
the  kingdom  of  Naples,  entered  into  Dec.  10,  1508. 

CAMBRICS.  A  fabric  of  fine  linen  used  for  ruffles. — Skakspeare.  Cambrics 
were  first  worn  in  England,  and  accounted  a  great  luxury  in  dress,  22  Eliza- 
beth, 1580. — Stowe.  The  importation  of  them  was  restricted,  in  1745  ;  and 
was  totally  prohibited  by  statute  of  32  George  II.  1758.  Readmitted  ii 
1786,  but  afterwards  again  prohibited :  the  importation  of  cambrics  is  now 
allowed. 

CAMBRIDGE,  once  called  Granta.,  and  of  most  ancient  standing,  being  fre- 
quently mentioned  in  the  earliest  accounts  of  the  oldest  British  historians. 
Roger  de  Montgomery  destroyed  it  with  fire  and  s\yord  to  be  revenged  o'. 
king  William  Rufus.  The  university  is  said  to  have  been  commenced  bj 
Sigebert,  king  of  East  Angles,  about  a.  d.  631 ;  but  it  lay  neglected  during 
the  Danish  invasions,  from  which  it  suffered  much.  Cambridge  now  containh 
thirteen  colleges  and  four  halls,  of  which  first,  Peter-house  is  the  mos 
ancient,  and  King's  College  the  noblest  foundation  in  Europe,  and  thu 
chapel  one  of  the  finest  pieces  of  Gothic  architecture  in  the  world. 

CAMERA  LUCIDA.  Invented  by  Dr.  Hooke,  about  l^i— Wood's  Ath.  Ox. 
Also  an  instrument  invented  by  Dr.  Wollaston,  in  1807.  The  camera  ob- 
scm-a,  or  dark  chamber,  was  invented,  it  is  believed,  by  the  celebrated  Roger 
Bacon,  in  1297  ;  it  was  improved  by  Baptista  Porta,  the  writer  on  natural 
magic,  about  1500. — Moreri.  Sir  I.  Newton  remodelled  it.  By  the  recent 
invention  of  M.  Daguerre,  the  pictures  of  the  camera  are  rendered  perma- 
nent ;  the  last  was  produced  in  1889. 

CAMERONIANS.  A  sect  in  Scotland  which  separated  from  the  Presbyterians, 
and  continued  to  hold  their  religious  meetings  in  the  fields. — Biirncf. 


232  THE    world's    progress.  [  CAl^ 

CAMP.  All  the  eiLvly  warlike  nations  had  camps,  which  are  consequently 
most  ancient.  The  disijosition  of  the  Hebrew  encampment  was,  we  are 
told,  at  first  laid  out  by  God  himself.  The  Romans  and  Gauls  had  in- 
trenched camps  in  open  plains  ;  and  vestiges  of  such  Roman  encampments 
are  existing  to  this  day  in  numerous  places  in  England  and  Scotland.  The 
last  camp  in  England  was  formed  at  Hyde  Park  in  1745. 

(JAMPEACHY-BAY.  Discovered  about  a,  d.  1520;  it  was  taken  by  the  Eng- 
lish in  1659  ;  and  was  taken  by  the  Buccaneers,  in  1678;  and  by  the  free- 
booters of  St.  Domingo,  in  1685.  These  last  burnt  the  town  and  blew  up 
the  citadel.  The  English  logwood  cutters  made  their  settlement  here,  in 
1662. 

CAMPERDOWN,  Battle  of.  Memorable  engagement  off  Camperdown,  south 
of  the  Texel,  and  signal  victory  obtained  by  the  British  fleet  under  admiral 
Duncan,'  over  the  Dutch  fleet,  commanded  by  admiral  de  Winter ;  the  latter 
losing  fifteen  ships,  which  were  either  taken  or  destroyed,  Oct.  11,  1797. 

CAMPO  FORMIO,  Treaty  op,  concluded  between  France  and  Austria,  the 
latter  power  yielding  the  Low  Countries  and  the  Ionian  Islands  to  France, 
and  Milan,  Mantua,  and  Modena  to  the  Cisalpine  republic.  This  memor- 
able and  humiliating  treaty  resulted  from  the  ill  success  of  Austria  on  the 
Rhine.  By  a  secret  article,  however,  the  emperor  took  possession  of  the 
Venetian  dominions  in  compensation  for  the  Netherlands,  Oct.  17,  1797. 

CANADA.  This  country  was  discovered  by  John  and  Sebastian  Cabot,  a.  d. 
1499,  and  was  settled  by  the  French,  in  1608,  but  it  had  been  previously 
visited  by  them.  Canada  was  taken  by  the  English,  in  1628,  but  was  re- 
stored in  1631.  It  was  again  conquered  by  the  English,  in  1759,  and  was 
confirmed  to  them  by  the  peace  of  1763.  This  country  was  divided  into  two 
provinces,  Upper  and  Lower  Canada,  in  1791 ;  and  it  was  during  the  debates 
on  this  bill  in  the  British  parliament,  that  the  quarrel  between  Mr.  Burke 
and  Mr.  Fox  arose. 

CANADIAN  INSURRECTION.  The  Papineau  rebellion  commenced  at  Mon- 
treal, Dec.  6,  1837.  The  Canadian  rebels  came  to  an  engagement  at  St. 
Eustace,  Dec.  14,  following.  The  insurgents  surrounded  Toronto,  and  wei'e 
repulsed  by  the  governor,  sir  Francis  Head,  Jan.  5,  1838.  Lord  Durham, 
governor  general,  Jan.  16,  1838.  Lount  and  Mathews  hanged  as  traitors, 
April  12,  1838.  Lord  Durham  resigned,  Oct.  9,  1838.  Rebellion  again  man- 
ifested itself  in  Beauharnais,  Nov.  3,  1838.  The  insurgents  concentrated  at 
Napierville  under  command  of  Nelson  and  others,  Nov.  6 ;  some  skirmishes 
took  place,  and  they  were  routed  with  the  loss  of  many  killed  and  several 
hundred  prisoners.  Sir  John  Colborne  announced  the  suppression  of  the  re- 
bellion in  his  disyatches  dated  Nov.  17,  1838.  Lord  Gosford,  governor  of 
Lower  Canada  proclaims  martial  law,  and  a  reward  of  .£1,000  for  Papi- 
neau. Doc.  5,  1837.  M  Leod  (charged  with  the  destruction  of  the  Ca?-oZwie, 
American  steamer,  at  Schlosser,  Dec.  30,  1837)  acquitted  at  Utica,  Oct.  12, 
1841.  President  Van  Buren's  proclamation  warning  citizens  of  the  United 
States  against  meddling  with  the  Canadian  insurrection.  Sir  Charles  Met- 
calfe, governor-general,  1844.  Earl  of  Elgin  appointed  governor-general, 
took  the  oath,  Jan.  30,  1847.  Riots  at  Montreal,  and  burning  of  the  Parlia- 
ment House  by  a  mob  (caiised  by  the  dissatisfaction  about  the  act  for  paying 
losses  by  the  late  rebellion  to  some  of  the  rebels  themselves),  Aug.  15, 1849. 
Movements  in  favor  of  annexation  to' the  United  States.  Warning  against 
such  movements  as  high  treason,  proclaimed  in  the  dispatch  of  earl  Grey, 
the  British  colonial  secretary,  Feb.  1850. 

CANALS.  The  most  stupendous  in  the  world  is  a  canal  in  China,  which  passes 
over  2000  miles,  and  to  41  cities,  commenced  in  the  tenth  centiu-y.  The 
canal  of  Languedoc  which  joins  the  Mediterranean  with  the  Atlantic  Oceao 


CAN  ]  DICTIONARY    UF    DATES.  233 

was  commenced  in  1666.  That  of  Orleans,  from  the  Loire  to  tlie  Seine,  com- 
menced in  1675.  That  between  the  Caspian  Sea  and  the  Baltic,  commenced 
1709.  That  from  Stockholm  to  Gottenburg,  commenced  1751.  That  between 
the  Baltic  and  North  Sea  at  Kiel,  opened  1785.  That  of  Bourbon,  between 
the  Seine  and  Oise,  commenced  1790.  The  first  canal  made  in  England  was 
by  Henry  I.,  when  the  river  Trent  was  joined  to  the  Witham,  a.  d.  1134. 
That  from  the  Durance  to  Marseilles,  France,  83,000  metres,  of  which  17,000 
are  subterranean  passages  through  the  Alps,  finished  July  8,  1847.  In  Eng- 
land, there  are  2800  miles  of  canals,  and  2500  miles  of  rivers,  taking  the 
length  of  those  only  that  are  navigable — total,  5300  miles.  In  Ireland,  there 
are  but  SOO  miles  of  canals  ;  150  of  navigable  rivers,  and  60  miles  of  the 
Shannon,  navigable  below  Limerick,  making  in  all  510  miles. —  Williams. 

CANALS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES.  Act  for  cumraencing  the  great  Erie  canal 
in  New  York,  passed  chiefly  through  the  influence  of  De  Witt  Clinton,  1817. 
The  canal  (363  miles  long)  completed ;  a  grand  celebration,  1825.  Chesa- 
peake and  Delaware  canal  opened,  &c.,  July  4,  1829. 

CANARY  ISLANDS.  These  islands  were  known  to  the  ancients  as  the  Fortti- 
nate  Isles.  The  first  meridian  was  referred  to  the  Canary  isles  by  Hipparchus, 
about  140  B.  c.  They  were  re-discovered  by  a  Norman,  named  Bethencourt, 
A.D.  1402;  and  were  seized  by  the  Spaniards,  who  planted  vines,  which 
flourish  here,  about  1420.  The  canarj'-bird,  so  much  esteemed  in  all  parts 
of  Europe,  is  a  native  of  these  isles ;  it  was  brought  into  England  in  1500. 

CANDIA,  the  ancient  Crete,  whose  centre  is  Mount  Ida,  so  famous  in  history. 
It  was  seized  by  the  Saracens,  a.  d.  808,  when  they  changed  its  name.  Taken 
by  the  Greeks,  in  961 ;  sold  to  the  Venetians,  1194,  and  held  by  them  till  the 
Turks  obtained  it,  after  a  24  years'  siege,  during  which  more  than  200,000 
men  perished,  1669. 

CANDLE.  The  Roman  candles  were  composed  of  strings  surrounded  by  wax, 
or  dipped  in  pitch.  Splinters  of  wood,  fatted,  were  used  for  light  among  the 
lower  classes  in  England  about  a.  d.  1300.  At  this  time  wax  candles  were 
little  used,  and  esteemed  a  luxury,  and  dipped  candles  usually  burnt.  The 
wax-chandlers'  company  was  incorporated,  1484.  Mould  candles  are  said 
to  be  the  invention  of  the  sieur  Le  Brez  of  Paris.  Spermaceti  candles  are  of 
modern  manufacture.  The  Chinese  candles  (see  Candleberry  Myrtle)  are 
made  from  the  berries  of  a  tree,  and  they  universally  burn  this  wax,  which 
is  fragrant,  and  yields  a  bright  light. 

CANDLEMAS-DAY.  A  feasl  instituted  by  the  early  Christians,  who  conse- 
crated on  this  day  all  the  tapers  and  candles  used  in  churches  during  the 
year.  It  is  kept  in  the  reformed  church  in  memory  .of  the  purification  of 
the  Virgin  Mary,  who,  submitting  to  the  law  under  which  she  lived,  pre- 
sented the  infant  Jesus  in  the  Temple.  Owing  to  the  abundance  of  light, 
this  festival  was  called  Candlemas,  as  well  as  the  Purification.  The  practice 
of  lighting  the  churches  was  discontinued  by  English  Protestants  by  an  order 
of  council  2  Edward  VI.  1548 ;  but  it  is  still  continued  in  the  church  of  Rome. 

CANNJ2,  Battle  of.  One  of  the  most  celebrated  in  history,  and  most  fatal  to 
the  Romans.  Hannibal  commanded  on  one  side  50.000  Africans,  Gauls,  and 
Spaniards ;  and  Paulus  ^milius  and  Terentius  Varro,  88,000  Romans,  of 
whom  40  000  were  slain.— i>zt;y.  The  victor,  Hannibal,  sent  three  bushels 
of  rings,  taken  from  the  Roman  knights  on  the  field,  as  a  trophy  to  Carthage. 
Neither  party  perceived  an  awful  earthquake  which  occurred  during  the 
battle.  The  place  is  now  denominated  the  field  of  blood  ;  fought  May  21. 
216  B.  c. — Bossueb. 

CANNIBALISM  has  prevailed  from  the  remotest  times.  The  Greeks  inform 
us  that  it  was  a  primitive  and  universal  cirstom,  and  many  of  the  South 


234  THE    WORLD  S    PROGPv.ESS.  [  CAN 

American  tribes  and  natives  of  the  South  Sea  Islands  eat  human  flesh  at  the 
present  day,  and  the  propensitj'  for  it  prevails  more  or  less  in  all  savage 
nations.  St.  Jerome  says,  that  some  British  tribes  ate  human  flesh ;  and  the 
Scots  from  Galloway  killed  and  eat  the  English  in  the  reign  of  Henry  I. 
The  Scythians  were  drinkers  of  human  blood.  Columbus  found  cannibals  in 
America.     See  Anthropophagi. 

CANNON.  They  are  said  to  have  been  used  as  early  as  a.  d.  1338.  According 
to  some  of  our  historians  they  were  used  at  the  battle  of  Cressy  in  1346 ;  but 
this  Voltaire  disputes.  They  are  said  to  have  been  used  bj'  the  English  at 
the  siege  of  Calais,  1347.  Cannon  were  first  used  in  the  English  service  by 
the  governor  of  Calais,  6  Richard  II.  1883. — Ripner's  Fcedera.  Louis  XIV., 
upon  setting  out  on  his  disastrous  campaign  against  the  Dutch,  inscribed 
upon  his  cannon,  "The  last  argument  of  kings."     See  ArtUlery. 

CANNON,  Remarkable.  The  largest  known  piece  of  ordnance  is  of  brass,  cast 
in  India  in  1685.  At  Ehrenbreitstein  castle,  one  of  the  strongest  forts  in 
Germany,  opposite  Coblentz  on  the  Rhine,  is  a  jarodigious  cannon  eighteen 
feet  and  a  half  long,  a  foot  and  a  half  in  diameter  in  the  bore,  and  three  feet 
four  inches  in  the  breech.  The  ball  made  for  it  weighs  ISOlbs.  and  its  charge 
of  powder  941bs.  The  inscription  on  it  shows  that  it  was  made  by  one  Simon, 
in  1529.  In  Dover  castle  is  a  brass  gun  called  queen  Elizabeth's  pocket- 
pistol,  which  Avas  presented  to  her  b.y  the  States  of  Holland ;  this  piece  is  24 
feet  long,  and  is  beautifully  ornamented,  having  on  it  the  arms  of  the  States, 
and  a  motto  in  Dutch,  importing  thus, 

"  Charge  me  well,  and  sponge  me  clean, 
I'll  throw  a  ball  to  Calais  Green." 

Some  fine  specimens  are  to  be  seen  in  the  Tower.  A  leathern  cannon  was 
fired  three  times  in  the  King's  Park,  Edinburgh,  Oct.  23,  1788. — Phillips. 

CANON.  The  first  ecclesiastical  canon  was  promulgated,  a.  d.  380. —  Usher. 
Canonical  hours  for  prayers  were  instituted  in  391.  The  dignitj'  of  canon 
existed  not  previously  to  the  rule  of  Charlemagne,  about  768. — Paschier. 
Canon  law  was  first  introduced  into  Europe  by  Gratian,  the  celebrated  canon 
law  autho'",  in  1151,  and  was  introduced  into  England,  19  Stephen,  1154. — 
Slowe. 

CANONIZATION  of  pious  men  and  martyrs  as  saints,  was  instituted  in  the 
Romish  church  by  pope  Leo  III.  in  800. —  Tallent's  Tables.  Saints  have  so 
accumulated,  every  day  in  the  calendar  is  now  a  saint's  day. — Henaidt. 

CANTERBURY.  The  Durovcrnum  of  the  Romans,  and  capital  of  Ethelbert, 
king  of  Kent,  who  reigned  a.  d.  560.  Its  early  cathedral  was  erected  during 
the.Heptarchj^  and  was  several  times  burnt,  and  rebuilt.  It  was  once  famous 
for  the  shrine  of  Becket  (see  Beclceb)  and  within  it  are  interred  Henry  IV.  and 
Edward  the  Black  Prince. 

CANTERBURY,  Archbishopric  of.  This  see  was  settled  by  St.  Austin,  who 
preached  the  gospel  in  England  a.  d.  596,  and  converted  Ethelbert,  king  of 
Kent.  The  king,  animated  with  zeal  for  his  new  religion,  bestowed  great 
favors  upon  Austin,  who  fixed  his  residence  in  the  capital  of  Ethelbert's 
dominions.  The  church  was  made  a  cathedral,  and  consecrated  to  Christ, 
although  it  was  formerly  called  St.  Thomas,  from  Thomas  a.  Becket,  mur- 
dered at  its  altar,  December  1171.  The  archbishop  is  primate  and  metropo- 
litan of  all  England,  and  is  the  first  peer  in  the  realm,  having  precedency  of 
all  otncers  of  state,  and  of  all  dukes  not  of  the  blood  royal.  Canterbury  had 
formerly  jurisdiction  over  Ireland,  and  the  archbishop  was  styled  a  patriarch. 
This  see  hath  yielded  to  the  clnirch  of  Rome,  18  saints  and  9  cardinals ;  and 
to  the  civil  state  of  England.  12  lord  chancellors  and  4  lord  treasurers.  St. 
Austin  was  the  first  bishop,  596.     Tlie  see  was  made  superior  to  York,  1073. 


CAP  ]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  235 

— See  York.    The  revenue  is  valued  in  the  king's  books  at  £2816.  ll  $.  2d. — 

CANTHARIDES.  A  venomous  kind  of  insects  Avhich,  when  dried  and  pulver- 
ized, are  used  principally  to  raise  blisters.  They  were  first  introduced  into 
medical  practice  by  Aretseus,  a  physician  of  Cappadocia,  about  50  b.  c. — 
Freind's  History  of  J'kysic. 

CANTON.  The  only  city  in  China  with  which  Europeans  have  been  allowed 
up  to  the  present  time  to  trade.  Merchants  first  arrived  here  for  this  pur- 
pose in  1517.  Nearly  every  nation  has  a  factory  at  Canton,  but  that  of  Eng- 
land surpasses  all  others  in  elegance  and  extent.  Various  particulars  relating 
to  this  city  will  be  found  under  tlie  article  China.  In  1822,  a  fire  destroyed 
15,000  houses  at  Canton ;  and  an  inundation  swept  away  10,000  houses  and 
more  than  1000  persons  in  October  1833. 

CAOUTCHOUC,  or  Indian  Rubber,  is  an  elastic  resinous  substance  that  exudes 
by  incision  from  two  plants  that  grow  in  Cayenne,  Quito,  and  the  Brazils, 
called  H/je.via  caoutchoitc  and  Siflwiiia  elasLica,  and  vulgarly  called  syringe 
trees.  It  Avas  first  brought  to  Europe  from  South  America,  about  1733. — 
See  India  Rubber. 

CAP.  The  Romans  ^vent  for  many  ages,  without  regular  covering  for  the  >ead, 
and  hence  the  heads  of  all  the  ancient  statues  appear  bear.  But  ai  one 
period  the  cap  was  a  symbol  of  liberty,  and  when  the  Romans  gave  it  to  their 
slaves  it  entitled  them  to  freedom.  The  cap  was  sometimes  used  as  a  mark 
of  infamj'',  and  in  Italy  the  Jews  were  distinguished  by  a  yellow  cap,  and  in 
France  those  who  had  been  bankrupts  were  for  ever  after  obliged  to  wear 
a  green  cap.  The  general  use  of  caps  and  hats  is  referred  to  the  year  1449 ; 
the  first  seen  in  these  parts  of  the  world  being  at  the  entry  of  Charles  VII. 
into  Rouen,  from  which  time  they  took  the  place  of  chaperons  or  hoods.  A 
statute  was  passed  that  none  should  sell  any  hat  above  20.^.  (40  cts.)  nor  cap 
above  2s.  U.  (66  cts.)  5  Henry  VII.  1489. 

CAPE  BRETON,  discovered  by  the  English  in  1584.  It  was  taken  by  the 
French  in  1632.  but  Avas  afterwards  restored ;  and  again  taken  in  1745 ;  and 
re-taken  in  1748.  It  was  finally  possessed  by  the  Eu'glish,  when  the  garrison 
and  marines,  consisting  of  5600  men,  were  made  prisoners  of  war,  and  eleven 
ships  of  the  French  navy  were  captured  or  destroyed,  1758.  Ceded  to  Eng 
land  at  the  peace  of  1763. 

CAPE  COAST  CASTLE,  settled  by  the  Portuguese,  in  1610:  but  it  soon  fell  tb 
the  Dutch.  It  was  demolished  by  admiral  Holmes,  in  1661.  All  the  British 
settlements,  factories,  and  shipping  along  the  coast  were  destroyed  by  the 
Dutch  admiral,  de  Ruyter,  in  1665.  This  Cape  was  confirmed  to  the  Enghsh 
by  the  treaty  of  Breda,  in  1667. 

CAPE  OF  GOOD  HOPE;  the  geographical  and  commercial  centre  of  the  East 
Indies :  it  was  discovered  by  Bartholomew  Diaz,  in  1486,  and  was  originally 
called  the  "  Cape  of  Tempests,"  and  was  also  named  the  "  Lion  of  the  Sea," 
and  the  "Head  of  Africa."  The  name  was  changed  by  John  II.,  king  of 
Portugal,  who  augured  favorably  of  future  discoveries  from  Diaz  having 
reached  the  extremity  of  Africa.  The  Cape  was  doubled,  and  the  paasage 
to  India  discovered  by  Vasco  da  Gama,  Nov.  20,  1497.  Planted  by  the 
Dutch,  1651.  Taken  by  the  English,  under  admiral  Elphinstone  and  general 
Clarke,  Sept.  16,  1795,  and  restored  at  the  peace  in  1802 ;  again  taken  by 
sir  David  Baird  and  sir  Home  Popham,  Jan.  8,  1806 ;  and  finally  ceded  to 
England  in  1814.  Emigrants  began  to  arrive  here  from  Britain  in  March, 
1820.  The  Caffres  have  made  several  irruptions  on  the  British  settlements 
here;  and  they  committed  dreadful  ravages  at  Grahamstown.  in  Oct,  1834. 
Battle  between  the  English  and  the  Boors,  Aug.  26,  1848. 


236  THE    world's    progress.  [  CAP 

CAPE  DE  VERD  ISLANDS.  These  islands  were  known  to  the  ancients  under 
tlie  name  of  Gorgades ;  but  were  not  visited  by  the  moderns  till  discovered 
by  Antonio  de  Noli,  a  Genoese  navigator  in  the  service  of  Portugal,  a.  d.  1446. 

CAPE  ST.  VINCENT,  Battles  op.  Admiral  Rooke,  with  twenty  ships  of  war, 
and  the  Turke3''  fleet  under  his  convoy,  was  attacked  by  admiral  Tourville, 
with  a  force  vastly  superior  to  his  own,  oft"  Cape  St.  Vincent,  when  twelve 
English  and  Dutch  men-of-war,  and  eighty  merchantmen,  were  captured  or 
destroyed  by  the  French,  June  16,  1693.  Battle  of  Cape  St.  Vincent,  one  of 
the  most  glorious  achievements  of  the  British  navy.  Sir  John  Jervis,  being- 
in  command  of  the  Mediterranean  fleet  of  fifteen  sail,  gave  battle  to  the 
Spanish  fleet  of  27  ships  of  the  line  ofi"  this  Cape,  and  signally  defeated  the 
enemy,  nearly  double  in  strength,  taking  four  ships,  and  destroying  several 
others,  Feb.  14,  1797.  For  this  victory  Sir  John  was  raised  to  the  English 
peerage,  by  the  titles  of  baron  Jervis  and  earl  St.  Vincent,  with  a  pension  of 
SOOOl.  a  year. 

CAPET,  House  of,  the  third  race  of  the  kings  of  France.  Hugo  Capet,  count 
of  Paris  and  Orleans,  tlie  first  of  this  race  (which  was  called  from  him  Cape- 
vigians).  was  raised  to  the  throne  for  his  military  valor,  and  public  virtues, 
A.  D.  987. — Henwult. 

CAPITOL,  the  principal  fortress  of  ancient  Rome,  in  which  a  temple  was  built 
to  Jupiter,  thence  called  Jupiter  Capitolinus.  The  foundation  laid  by  Tar- 
quinius  Prisons.  616  b.  c.  The  Roman  Consuls  made  large  donations  to 
this  temple,  and  the  emperor  Augustus  bestowed  2000  pounds  weight  of 
gold,  of  which  precious  metal  the  roof  was  composed,  whilst  its  thresholds 
were  of  brass,  and  its  interior  was  decorated  Avith  shields  of  solid  silver.  De- 
stroyed by  lightning,  188  b.  c.  ;  by  fire,  a.  n.  70.  The  Capitoline  games  in- 
stituted by  Domitian,  a.  d.  86. 

CAPPADOCIA.  This  kingdom  was  fotmded  by  Pharnaces,  744  b.  c.  The  suc- 
cessors of  Pharnaces  are  almost  wholly  unknown,  until  about  the  time  of 
Alexander  the  Great,  after  whose  death  Eumenes,  by  defeating  Ariarathes  11. 
became  king  of  Cappadocia. 

Pharnaces  is  declared  king       -        b.  c.  744        mg  the  throne,  poisons  five  of  her  own 


His  successors  are  unknown  for  nearly 
three  centuries. 

Reign  of  Ariarathes  I.      -  -  -  362 

Perdiccas  takes  Cappadocia,  and  Aria- 
rathes is  crucified  -  -  -      -  322 
Defeat  of  the  Parthians    -           -  -  217 
Irruption  of  the  Trocmi        -           -      -  164 
INIithridates,  surnamed  Philopator,  as- 
cends the  throne           -           -  -  162 
Orophernes  dethrones  Philopator         -  161 
Attalus    assists    Philopator,    and  Oro- 
phernes dethroned  -           -           -      -  154 
Philopator   joins   the  Romans  against 

Aristonicus,  and  perishes  in  battle     -  153 
His  queen,  Laodice,  desirous  of  usurp- 


children,  the  sixth  and  only  remaining 

child  is  saved,  and  the  queen  put  to 

death  .....  153 
This  young  prince  reigns  as  Ari.arathes 

VII. 153 

Gordius  assassinates  Ariarathes  VII.  -  97 
Ariarathes  VIII.  assassinated  .      .    96 

Cappadocia  declared  a  free  country  by 

the  senate  of  Rome        -  -  -    95 

The  people  elect  a  new  king  Ariobar- 

zanes  1.        -  -  .  -      -    94 

His  son,  Ariobarzanes  II.  reigns  .    65 

He  is  dethroned  by  Marc  Antony  -    38 

Archelaus,  the  last  king  of  Cappadocia, 

dies,  and  bequeathes  his  .tingdom  to. 

the  Roman  empire  •  a.  d.    17 


CAPRI.  The  Caprese  of  the  Romans,  and  memorable  as  the  residence  of  Tibe- 
rius, and  for  the  debaucheries  he  committed  in  this  once  delightful  retreat, 
during  the  seven  last  years  of  his  life :  it  was  embellished  by  him  with  a 
sumptuous  palace,  and  most  magnificent  Avorks.  Caj^ri  was  taken  by  sir 
Sidney  Smith,  April  22,  1806. 

(!APUCHIN  FRIARS.  A  sort  of  Franciscans  to  whom  this  name  Avas  giA'en, 
from  their  Avearing  a  great  Capuchoii,  or  coaa'1,  Avhich  is  an  odd  kind  of  cap,  or 
hood,  sewn  to  their  habit,  and  hanging  doAvn  upon  their  backs.  The  Capu- 
chins Avere  founded  by  MatthcAv  Baschi,  about  a.  d.  1525.     Although  the 


CAR  ]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  237 

rigors  of  this  order  have  abated,  still  the  brethren  are  remarkable  for  their 
extreme  poverty  and  privations.— ^s/ie. 

CAR.  Its  invention  is  ascribed  to  Ericthonius  of  Athens,  about  1486  b.  c.  The 
covered  cars  {currus  arcuati)  were  in  use  among  the  Romans.  Triumphal 
cars  Avere  introduced  by  Romulus,  according  to  some ;  and  by  Tarquin  the 
Elder,  according  to  others. 

CARACCAS.  One  of  the  early  Spanish  discoveries,  a.  d.  1498.  The  pit)vince 
declared  its  independence  of  Spain,  May  9,  1810.  In  1812,  it  was  visited  by 
a  violent  convulsion  of  nature ;  thousands  of  human  beings  were  lost ;  rocks 
and  mountains  split,  and  rolled  into  valleys ;  the  rivers  were  blackened  or 
their  courses  changed ;  and  many  towns  swallowed  up,  and  totally  destroyed. 

CARBONARI.  A  dangerous  and  powerful  society  in  Italy,  a  substitute  for 
freemasonry,  which  committed  the  most  dreadful  outrages,  and  spread  terror 
in  several  states ;  they  were  suppressed,  however,  by  the  Austrian  govern- 
ment in  Sept.  1820. 

CARDINALS.  Thej^  are  properly  the  council  of  the  pope,  aLd  constitute  the 
conclave  or  sacred  college.  At  first  they  were  only  the  principal  priests,  or 
incumbents  of  the  parishes  in  Rome.  On  this  footing  they  continued  till  the 
eleventh  century.  They  did  not  acquire  the  exclusive  power  of  electing  the 
popes  till  A.  D.  1160.  They  first  wore  the  red  hat  to  remind  them  that  they 
ought  to  shed  their  blood,  if  required,  for  religion,  and  were  declared  princes 
of  the  church,  by  Innocent  IV.,  1243.  Paul  II.  gave  the  scarlet  habit,  1464 ; 
and  Urban  VIII.  the  title  of  Eminence  in  1630 ;  some  say  in  1623. — Du  Cange. 

CARDS.  Their  invention  is  referred  to  the  Romans ;  but  it  is  generally  supposed 
that  they  were  invented  in  France  about  the  year  1390,  to  amuse  Charles  VI. 
during  the  intervals  of  a  melancholy  disorder,  which  in  the  end  brought 
him  to  his  grave. — Mezerai,  Hist,  de  France.  The  universal  adoption  of  an 
amusement  wliich  was  invented  for  a  fool,  is  no  very  favorable  specimen  of 
wisdom. — Malkin.  Cards  are  of  Spanish,  not  of  French  origin. — Daines 
Barrins^ton.  Picquet  and  all  the  early  games  are  French.  Cards  first  taxed 
in  England,  1756.  428,000  packs  were  stamped  in  1775,  and  986,000  in  1800. 
In  1825,  the  duty  being  then  2s.  &d.  per  pack,  less  than  150,000  packs  were 
stamped ;  but  in  1827,  the  stamp  duty  was  reduced  to  Is.,  and  310,854  packs 
paid  duty  in  1830.  Duty  was  paid  on  239,200  packs,  in  the  year  ending  5th 
Jan.  1840. — Pari.  Reports. 

'  ARICATURES  originated,  it  is  said,  with  Bufalmaco,  an  Italian  painter:  he 
first  put  labels  to  the  mouths  of  his  figures  with  sentences,  since  followed  by 
bad  masters,  but  more  particularly  in  caricature  engravings,  about  1330. — 
De  Piles.  A  new  and  much  improved  style  of  caricatures  has  latterly  set  in ; 
and  the  productions  in  this  way  of  a  clever  but  concealed  artist,  using  the 
initials  H.  B.,  aro  political  satires  of  considerable  humor  and  merit. — Haydn. 

CARLISLE.  The  frontier  town  and  key  of  England,  wherein  for  manj^  ages  a 
strong  garrison  was  kept.  The  castle,  founded  in  1092,  by  William  II.,  was 
made  the  prison  of  the  unfortunate  Mary  queen  of  Scots,  in  1568.  Taken 
by  the  parliament  forces  in  1645.  and  by  the  pretender  in  1745. 

CARLSBAD,  Congress  of,  on  the  affaii'S  of  Europe:  The  popular  spirit  of 
emancipation  that  prevailed  in  many  of  the  states  of  Europe  against  despotic 
government,  led  to  this  congress,  in  which  various  resolutions  were  com(! 
to,  denouncing  the  press,  and  liberal  opinions,  and  in  Avhich  the  great  conti- 
nental pov/ers  decreed  measures  to  repress  the  rage  for  limited  monai-chies 
and  free  institutions,  August  1,  1819. 

CARMELITES,  or  White  Friars,  named  from  jMount  Carmel.  and  one  of  the 
four  orders  of  mendicants,  distinguished  by  austere  rules,  appeared  in  1141. 
Their  rigor  was  moderated  about  1540.     They  claim  their  descent  in  an  nn- 


238  THE    world's    PIIOGRESS.  [  CAB 

interrupted  succession  from  Elijah,  Elisha,  &c.  Mount  Carmel  Las  a  monas- 
tery, and  the  valley  of  Sharon  lies  to  the  south  of  the  mount,  which  is  2000 
feet  high,  shaped  like  a  flatted  cone,  with  steep  and  barren  sides :  it  is  often 
referred  to  in  Jewish  histories. 

"  See  spicy  clouds  from  lowly  Sharon  rise, 
And  Carmel's  flowery  top  perfumes  the  skies." — Pope. 

CAROLINA,  discovered  by  Sebastian  Cabot,  in  1550.  A  body  of  English, 
amounting  to  about  850  persons,  landed  and  settled  here  in  1667 ;  and  Caro- 
lina was  granted  to  lord  Berkeley  and  others  a  few  years  afterwards.  See 
N.  4"  S.  Carolina. 

("ARPETS  They  were  in  use,  at  least  in  some  kind,  as  early  as  the  days  of 
Amos,  about  800  b.  c. — Amos  ii  8.  Carpets  were  spread  on  the  ground,  on 
which  persons  sat  who  dwelt  in  tents:  but  when  first  used  in  houses, 
even  in  the  East,  we  have  no  record.  In  the  12th  century  carpets  were  arti- 
cles of  luxury ;  and  in  England,  it  is  mentioned  as  an  instance  of  Becket's 
splendid  style  of  living,  that  his  sumptuous  apartments  were  every  day  in 
winter  strewii  with  clean  straw  or  hay;  about  a.  d.  1160.  The  manufacture 
of  woollen  carpets  was  introduced  into  France  from  Persia,  in  the  reign  of 
Henry  IV.,  between  1589  and  1610.  Some  artisans  who  had  quitted  France 
in  disgust  went  to  England,  and  established  the  carpet  manufacture,  about 
1750.  There,  as  Avith  most  nations,  Persian  and  Turkey  carpets,  especially 
the  former,  are  most  prized.  The  famous  Axminster,  Wilton,  and  Kidder- 
minster mairafacture  is  the  growth  of  the  last  hundred  j^ears.  The  manu- 
fiicture  of  Kidderminster  and  Brussels  carpets  has  much  advanced  within 
fifteen  years,  at  Lowell,  Mass.  and  Thomsonville  Conn. 

CARRIAGES.  The  invention  of  them  is  ascribed  to  Ericthonius  of  Athens,  who 
jToduced  the  first  chariot  about  1486  b.  c.  Carriages  were  known  in  France 
in  the  reign  of  Henry  II.  a.  d.  1547 ;  but  they  were  of  very  rude  construction, 
and  rare.  They  seem  to  have  been  known  in  England  in  1555;  but  not  the 
art  of  making  them.  Close  carriages  of  good  workmanship  began  to  be  used 
by  persons  of  the  highest  quality  at  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century.  Hen- 
ry IV.  had  one,  but  without  straps  or  springs.  Their  construction  was  va- 
rious: they  were  first  made  in  England  in  the  i-eign  of  Elizabeth,  and  were 
then  called  whirlicotes.  The  duke  of  Buckingham,  in  1619,  drove  six  horses ; 
and  the  duke  of  Northumberland,  in  rivalry,  drove  eight.  They  were  first 
let  for  hire  in  Paris,  in  1650,  at  the  Hotel  Fiacre;  and  hence  their  name. 
See  Coaches. 

C'ARTESIAN  DOCTRINES.  Their  author  was  Rene  des  Cartes,  the  French 
philosopher,  who  promulgated  them  in  1647.  He  was  an  original  thinker: 
his  metaphysical  principle  "I  think,  therefore  I  am,"  is  refuted  by  Mr.  Locke; 
and  his  physical  principle,  that  "nothing  exists  but  substance,"  is  disprov- 
ed by  the  Newtonian  philosophy.  His  celebrated  system  abounds  in  great 
singularities  and  originalities;  but  a  spirit  of  independent  thought  prevails 
throughout  it.  and  has  contributed  to  excite  the  same  spirit  in  others.  Des 
Cartes  was  the  most  distinguished  philosopher  of  his  time  and  country. — 
Dufresnoy. 

r.^RTHAGE.  founded  by  Dido,  or  Elissa,  sister  of  Pj'gmalion,  king  of  Tyre, 
869  B.  c.  She  fled  from  that  tyrant,  ^vho  had  killed  her  husband,  and  took 
refuge  in  Africa.  Carthage  became  so  jiowerful  as  to  dispute  the  empire  of 
the  world  with  Rome,  which  occasioned  the  Punic  wars,  and  the  total  demo- 
lition of  that  city.  Taken  by  Scipio,  and  burned  to  the  ground,  146  b.  c. 
when  the  flames  raged  during  seventeen  days,  and  many  of  the  inhabitants 
perished  in  them  rather  than  survive  the  subjection  of  their  country.  The 
Roman  senate  ordered  the  walls  to  be  razed,  that  no  trace  might  remain  of 
this  once  P'^wcrful  republic. — Euscbius. 


CAS] 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  239 


CARTHAGE,  continued. 

Dido  arrives  in  Africa,  and  builds  Eyrsa. 

—Blair  -  -  -        b.  c.  869 

First  alliance  of  the  Carthaginians  with 

the  Romans  -  -  -       -  509 

The  Carthaginians  in  Sicily  are  defeated 

by  Gelo ;  the  elder  Hamilcar  perishes. 

Herodotus,  I.  vii.  -  -  480 

They  send  300,000  men  into  Sicily         -  407 
The  siege  of  Syracuse  -  -      -  396 

The  Carthaginians  land  in  Italy  -  379 

Their  defeat  by  Timoleon  -  -  340 

They  are  defeated  by  Agathocles,  and 

immolate  their  children  on  the  altar  of 


Hannibal,  at  the  age  of  nine  years, 
having  first  made  him  swear  an  eter- 
nal enmity  to  the  Romans        -     b.  c.  237 
Hamilcar  is  killed  in  battle  by  the  Vet- 
tones       .  .  -  .  .  227 
Asdrubal  is  assassinated  -           -  -  220 
Hannibal  subjects  all  Spain,  as  far  as 

thelberus  -  -  -  -  219 

The  second  Punic  war  begins  -     -  218 

First  great  victory  of  Hannibal  -  -  217 

Hannibal  crosses  the  Alps,  and  enters 

Italy  with  100,000  men      -  -      -  217 

Great  battle  of  Cannas  (which  see)        -  216 


Saturn,  thereby  to  propitiate  the  gods  -  310  :   New  Carthage  taken  by  Pub.  Scipio    -  210 
The  first  Punic  war  begins  -         -264  1   Asdrubal,  brother  of  Hannibal,  defeated 

The  Carthaginians  defeated  by  the  Ro-         |       and  slain  in  Italy  -  -  -  207 

mans  in  a  naval  engagement  -  -  260  i   The  Carthaginians  expelled  Spain  -      -  206 

Xantippus  defeats  Regulus  -         -  255  1   Scipio  arrives  in  Africa,  and  lays  siege 

Re^ulus  is  crucified    -  -  -    -  256 !       to  Utica       -  -  -  -      -  204 

Asdrubal  defeated  by  Metellus       -        -  251  j  Hannibal  recalled  from  ;(aly      -  -  203 

Romans  defeated  be'fore  LilybcBum       -  250  i   Great  battle  of  Zama  (i.*/n'c7i  see)  -202 

End  of  the  first  Punic  war  -  -  241 1   An  ignominious  peace  ends  the  second 

War    between  the   Carthaginians  and         I       Punic  war         -  .  .  .  201 

African  mercenaries     -  -  -  241  i   The  third  Punic  war  begins  -      -  149 

Hamilcar  Barcas  is  sent  into  Spain ;  he  Destructionof  Carthage,  which  is  burned 

takes  with  him  his  son,  the  famous         i       to  the  ground     -         '  -  -  -  146 

CARTHAGENA.  or  New  Carthage,  in  Spain;  built  by  Asiirnbal,  the  Ca.  tba-' 
ginian  general,  227  b.  c.  From  licre  Hannibal  set  out  in  his  memorable 
march  to  invade  Italy,  crossing  the  Alps,  217  b.  c.  Carthagena,  in  Colombia, 
was  taken  by  sir  Francis  Drake  in  1584.  It  was  pillaged  by  the  French  of 
£1,200,000  in  1697  ;  and  was  bombarded  by  admiral  Vernon  in  1740-1,  but 
he  was  obliged,  though  he  took  the  forts,  to  raise  the  siege. 

CARTHUSIANS.  A  religious  order  founded  by  Bruno  of  Cologne,  who  retired 
from  the  converse  of  the  world,  in  1084,  to  Chartreuse,  in  the  mountains  of 
Dauphine.  Their  rules  were  formed  by  Basil  VII.,  general  of  the  order,  and 
were  peculiarly  distinguished  for  their  austerity.  The  monks  could  not 
leave  their  cells,  nor  speak,  without  express  leave;  and  their  clothing  was 
cwo  hair  cloths,  two  cowls,  two  pair  of  hose,  and  a  cloak,  all  coarse.  The 
general  takes  the  title  of  prior  of  the  Chartreuse,  the  principal  monastery, 
from  which  the  order  is  named. — Auberti;  Mirai  Origines  Cartlms. 

CARTOONS  OF  RAPHAEL.  They  were  designed  in  the  chambers  of  the  Va- 
tican, under  Juhus  II.  and  Leo  X..  about  1510  to  1515.  The  seven  of  them 
that  are  preserved  were  purchased  in  Flanders  by  Rubens  for  Charles  I.  of 
England,  for  Hampton-court  palace,  in  1629.  These  matchless  works  repre- 
sent— 1,  The  miraculous  draught  of  Fishes;  2,  the  Charge  to  Peter;  3,  Peter 
and  John  healing  the  Lame  at  the  gate  of  the  Temple ;  4,  the  Death  of  Ana- 
nias; 5,  Elymas,  the  Sorcerer,  struck  with  Blindness;  6,  the  Sacrifice  to 
Paul  and  Barnabas,  by  the  people  of  Lystra ;  7,  Paul  preaching  at  Athens. 

CARVING.  We  have  scriptural  authority  for  its  early  introduction.  See  Ex- 
odiis  xxxi.  The  art  of  carving  is  first  mentioned  in  profane  history  772  b.  c. 
and  is  referred  to  the  Egyptians.  It  was  first  in  Avood,  next  in  stone,  and 
s.fterwards  in  marble  and  brass.  Dipoenus  and  Scyllis  were  eminent  carvers 
and  sculptors,  and  opened  a  school  of  statuary,  568  b.  c. — Pliny.  See  arti- 
cle Sculptvres.  Carvers  of  meat,  called  by  the  Greeks  deribitarcs,  are  mention- 
ed by  Homer. 

(.'ASHMERE  SHAWLS.  The  district  from  whence  come  these  costly  shawls 
is  described  as  being  -the  happy  valley,  and  a  paradise  in  perpetual  spring." 
The  true  Cashmere  shawls  can  be  manufactured  of  no  other  wool  than  that 
Thibet.  They  were  first  brought  to  England  in  1666 ;  but  they  were  well 
imitated   by  the  spinning   at   Bradforcl   and   the   looms  of  Hudderslield 


240  THE    world's    progress.  [  CAT 

Shawls  for  the  omrahs,  of  the  Thibetian  wool,  cost  150  rupees  each,  about 
the  year  1650. — Bernier. 
CASTEL  NUOVO,  Battle  of.  The  Russians  defeated  by  the  French  army, 
Sept.  29,  1806.  Castel  Nuovo  has  several  times  sufiered  under  the  dreadful 
visitation  of  earthquakes :  in  the  great  earthquake  which  convulsed  all  Na- 
ples and  Sicily,  in  1783,  this  town  was  almost  obliterated.  It  is  recorded 
that  an  inhabitant  of  Castel  Nuovo,  being  on  a  hill  at  no  great  distance, 
looking  back,  saw  no  remains»of  the  town,  but  only  a  black  smoke ;  4000 
persons  perished;  and  in  Sicity  and  Naples,  more  than  40,000. 

CASTIGLIONE,  Battle  of.  One  of  the  most  brilliant  victories  of  the  French 
arms,  under  genei-al  Bonaparte,  against  the  main  ai'my  of  the  Austrians, 
commanded  by  general  Wurmser :  the  battle  lasted  five  days  successively, 
from  the  2d  to  the  6th  Julj'',  1796.  Bonaparte  stated  the  enemy's  loss  in 
this  obstinate  conflict  at  70  field-pieces,  all  his  caissons,  between  12  and  15,- 
000  prisoners,  and  6000  killed  and  wounded. 

CASTILE.  The  most  powerful  government  of  the  Goths  was  established  here 
about  A.  D.  800.  Ferdinand,  count  of  Castile,  assumed  the  title  of  king  in 
1020.  Ferdinand  of  Arragon  married  Isabella  of  Castile,  and  nearly  the 
whole  of  the  Christian  dominions  in  Spain  were  united  in  one  monarchy,  1474. 
See  Arragon  and  Spain. 

CASTLES.  Anciently  British  castles  were  tall  houses,  strongly  fortified,  and 
built  on  the  tops  of  hills,  with  gates  and  walls.  The  castle  of  the  Anglo 
Saxon  was  a  tower-keep,  either  round  or  square,  and  ascended  by  a  flight  oi 
steps  in  front.  There  were  eleven  hundred  castles  built  in  England  by  the 
nobles,  by  permission  of  king  Stephen,  a.  d.  11-35,  and  1154:  most  of  these 
were  demolished  by  Henry  II.,  who  deprived  the  barons  of  such  i^ossessions, 
on  his  accession,  in  1154. 

CATACOMBS;  the  early  depositories  of. the  dead.  The  name  first  denoted 
the  tombs  of  Saints  Peter  and  Paul  at  Rome,  and  afterwards  the  burial-places 
of  all  martyrs.  They  were  numerous  in  Egypt ;  and  Belzoni,  in  1815  and  1818, 
explored  many  catacombs  both  in  that  country  and  Thebes,  built  3000  j^ears 
ago:  among  others,  a  chef-d'amrre  of  ancient  sculpture,  the  temple  of  Psam- 
maticus  the  Powerful,  whose  sarcophagus,  formed  of  the  finest  oriental 
alabaster,  exquisitely  sculptured,  he  brought  to  England.  Many  other  na- 
tions had  their  catacombs ;  there  were  some  of  great  extent  at  Rome.  The 
Parisian  catacombs  were  projected  a.  d.  1777.  The  bodies  found  in  cata- 
combs, especiallj  'hose  of  Egjqjt,  are  called  mummies.     See  Embalming. 

CATANIA,  OR  C ATANE A .  At  the  foot  of  mount  Etna.  Founded  by  a  colony 
from  Chalcis,  753  b.  c.  Ceres  had  a  teiuple  here,  in  which  none  but  women 
were  permitted  to  appear.  This  ancient  city  is  remarkable  for  the  dreadful 
overthrows  to  which  it  has  been  subjected  at  various  times  from  its  vicinity 
to  Etna,  which  has  discharged,  in  some  of  its  eruptions,  a  stream  of  lava 
four  miles  broad  and  fift}'  feet  deep,  advancing  at  the  rate  of  seven  miles  in 
a  day.  Catania  was  almost  totally  overthrown  by  an  eruption  of  Etna,  in 
1669.  By  an  earthquake  which  happened  in  1693,  Catania  was  nearly  swal- 
lowed up,  and  in  a  moment  more  than  18,000  of  its  inhabitants  were  buried 
in  the  ruins  of  the  city.  An  earthquake  did  great  damage,  and  a  number 
of  i^ersons  perished  here,  Feb.  22,  1817. 

CATAPHRYGIANS.  A  sect  of  heretics,  so  called  because  they  were  Phry- 
gians, who  followed  the  errors  of  Montanus.  They  made  up  the  bread  of 
the  eucharist  with  the  blood  of  infants,  whom  they  pricked  to  death  with 
needles,  and  then  looked  upon  them  as  martyrs. — Pardon. 

CATAPULTS.  Ancient  military  engines  for  throwing  stones  of  immense 
weight,  darts,  and  arrows ;  invented  by  Dionysius-.  399  b.'c. — Joxphta.   They 


CAUJ  PICTIONARY    OF   DATES.  241 

were  capable  of  throwing  darts  and  javelins  of  four  and  five  yards  length.—' 
Pardon. 

CATHOLIC  MAJESTY.  The  title  of  Catholic  was  first  given  by  pope  Gre- 
goiy  III.  to  Alphonsus  I.  of  Spain,  who  was  thereupon  surnamed  the  Catho- 
lic; A.  D.  739.  The  title  of  Catholic  was  also  given  to  Ferdinand  V.,  1474. 
See  Spain. 

CATILINE'S  CONSPIRACY.  Sergius  L.  Catiline,  a  Roman  of  noble  family, 
having  squandered  away  his  fortune  by  his  debaucheries  and  extravagauce, 
and  having  been  refused  the  consulship,  he  secretly  meditated  tlie  ruin  cf 
his  country,  and  conspired  with  many  of  the  most  illustrious  of  the  Romans, 
as  dissolute  as  himself,  to  extirpate  the  senate,  plunder  the  treasury,  and  aei- 
Rome  on  fire.  This  conspiracy  was  timely  discovered  by  the  consul  Cicero, 
whom  he  had  resolved  to  murder ;  and  on  seeing  five  of  his  accomplices 
arrested,  he  retired  to  Gaul,  where  his  partisans  were  assembling  an  army. 
Cicero  punished  the  condemned  conspirators  at  home,  while  Petreius 
attacked  Catiline's  ill-disciplined  forces,  and  routed  them,  and  the  conspir- 
ator was  killed  in  the  engagement,  about  the  middle  of  IDecember,  63  b.  c. 
His  character  has  been  branded  Avith  the  foulest  infamy,  and  to  the  violence 
he  offered  to  a  vestal,  he  added  the  murder  of  his  own  brother ;  and  it  is 
said  that  he  and  his  associates  drank  human  blood  to  render  their  oaths 
more  firm  and  inviolable. — Sallust. 

C  ATO,  SUICIDE  OF.  Termed  as  the  "  era  destructive  of  the  liberties  of  Rome." 
Cato,  the  Roman  patriot  and  philosopher,  considered  freedom  as  that  which 
alone  "  sustains  the  name  and  dignity  of  man:"  imable  to  survive  the  inde- 
pendence of  his  country,  he  stabbed  himself  at  Utica.  By  this  rash  act  of 
suicide,  independently  of  all  moral  considerations,  Cato  carried  his  patriot- 
ism to  the  highest  degree  of  political  frensy ;  for  Cato,  dead,  could  be  of 
no  use  to  his  country ;  but  had  he  preserved  his  life,  his  counsels  might 
have  moderated  Ctesar's  ambition,  and  have  given  a  different  turn  to  public 
affairs.     Feb.  5,  45  b.  c.  — Montesquieu. 

CATO-STREET  CONSPIRACY.  The  mysterious  plot  of  a  gang  of  low  and 
desperate  politicians,  whose  object  was  the  assassination  of  the  ministers  of 
the  crown,  with  a  view  to  other  sanguinary  and  indiscriminate  outrages, 
and  the  overthrow  of  the  government :  tlie  conspirators  were  arrested  Feb. 
23,  1820 ;  and  Thistlewood  and  his  four  principal  associates.  Brunt,  Davison, 
Ings,  and  Tidd,  after  a  trial  commenced  on  April  17th,  which  ended  in  their 
CO  :viction,  were  executed  according  to  the  then  horrid  manner  of  traitors, 
on  May  1,  following. — Haydn. 

CAUCASUS.  A  mountain  of  immense  height,  a  continuation  of  the  ridge  of 
Mount  Taurus,  between  the  Euxine  and  Caspian  seas,  inhabited  anciently 
by  various  savage  nations  who  lived  upon  the  wild  fruits  of  the  earth,  it 
was  covered  with  snow  in  some  parts,  and  in  others  was  variegated  with 
fruitful  orchards  and  plantations :  its  people  were  at  one  time  supposed  to 
gather  gold  on  the  shores  of  their  rivulets,  but  they  afterwards  lived  with- 
out making  use  of  money.  Prometheus  was  tied  on  the  top  of  Caucasus  by 
Jupiter,  and  continually  devoured  by  vultures,  according  to  ancient  authoi-s 
1548  B.  c.  The  passes  near  the  mountain  were  called  Caucasicc  Porta,  an(' 
it  is  supposed  that  through  them  the  Sarmatians,  called  Huns,  ma^e  their 
way,  when  they  invaded  the  provinces  of  Rome,  a.  d.  447. — Strabo.  Hera- 
dotus. 

CAUSTIC  IN  PAINTING.  The  branch  of  the  art  so  called  is  a  method  of 
burning  the  colors  into  wood  or  ivory.  Gausias,  a  painter  of  Sicyon,  was 
the  inventor  of  this  ijrocess.  He  made  a  beautiful  painting  of  his  mistress 
Glycere,  whom  he  represented  as  sifting  on  tlie  ground,  and  making  gar- 
liinds    of  flowers;    and    from   this  circumstance    the    picture,   which   was 

11 


242  THE    world's   progress.  [  CEM 

bought  afterwards  by  Lucullus  for  two  talents,  received  the  name  of  Stepha- 
noplocon,  335  b.  c. — Plinii  Hist.  Nat. 

CAVALIERS.  This  appellation  was  given  as  a  party  name  in  England  to  those 
who  espoused  the  cause  of  the  king  during  the  unhappy  war  which  brought 
Charles  I.  to  the  scaffold.  They  were  so  called  in  opposition  to  the  Round- 
heads, or  friends  of  the  parliament,  between  1642  and  1649. — Hume. 

TAVALRY.  Of  the  ancient  nations  the  Romans  were  the  most  celebrated  for 
their  cavalry,  and  for  its  discipline  and  eflSciency.  Attached  to  each  of  the 
Roman  legions  was  a  body  of  horse  300  strong,  iu  ten  turmte ;  the  com- 
mander was  always  a  veteran,  and  chosen  for  his  exijcrience  and  valor.  In  the 
early  ages,  the  Persians  brought  the  greatest  force  of  cavalry  into  the  field: 
they  had  10,000  horse  at  the  battle  of  Marathon,  490  b.  c.  :  and  10,000 
Persian  horse  were  slain  at  the  battle  of  Issus,  333  b.  c. — Plutarch. 

CAYENNE.  First  settled  by  the  French  in  1625,  but  they  left  it  in  1654,  It 
was  afterwards  successively  in  the  hands  of  the  English,  French,  and  Dutch. 
These  last  were  expelled  by  the  French  in  1677.  Cayenne  was  taken  by 
the  British,  Jan.  12,  1809,  but  was  restored  to  the  French  at  the  peace  in 
1814.  In  this  settlement  is  produced  the  capsicum  baccalum,  or  cayenne 
pepper,  so  esteemed  in  Europe. 

wELESTIAL  GLOBE.  A  celestial  sphere  was  brought  to  Greece  from  Egypt, 
368  B.  c.  A  planetarixim  was  constructed  by  Archimedes  before  212  b.  c. 
The  celestial  globe  was  divided  into  constellations  after  the  age  of  Perseus. 
The  great  celestial  globe  of  Gottorp,  planned  after  a  design  of  Tycho  Brache, 
and  erected  at  the  expense  of  the  duke  of  Holstein,  was  eleven  feet  in 
diameter :  and  that  at  Pembroke-hall,  Cambridge,  erected  by  Dr.  Long,  is 
eighteen  feet.     See  Globes. 

f 'ELESTINS.  A  religious  order  of  monks,  reformed  from  the  Bernardins  by 
pope  Celestine  V.  in  1294.  The  order  of  nuns  was  instittited  about  the 
same  period. 

CELIBACY,  and  the  monastic  life,  preached  by  St.  Anthony  in  Egypt,  about 
A.  D.  305.  The  early  converts  to  this  doctrine  lived  in  caves  and  desolate 
places  till  regular  monasteries  were  founded.  The  doctrine  was  rejected  at 
the  council  of  Nice,  a.  d.  325.  Celibacy  was  enjoined  on  bishops  only  in 
692.  The  Romish  clergy  generally  were  compelled  to  a  vow  of  celibacy  in 
1073.  Its  observance  was  finally  established  by  the  council  of  Placentia, 
held  in  1095.  Among  the  illustrious  philosophers  of  antiquity,  the  follow- 
ing were  imfriendly  to  matrimony: — Plato,  Pythagoras,  Epicurus,  Bion, 
Anaxagoras,  Heraclitus,  Democritus,  and  IDiogenes ;  and  the  folloAving 
among  the  moderns : — Newton,  Locke,  Boyle,  Gibbon,  Hume,  Adam  Smith, 
Harvey,  Leibnitz,  Bayle,  Hobbes,  HamiDden,  sir  F.  Drake,  earl  of  Essex, 
Pitt,  Michael  Angelo,  the  three  Caraccis,  sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  Haydn, 
Handel,  Wolsey,  Pascal,  Fenelon,  Pope,  Akenside,  Goldsmith,  Gray,  Collins, 
Thompson,  and  Jeremy  Bentham. 

CEMETERIES.  The  ancients  had  not  the  unwise  custom  of  crowding  all 
their  dead  in  the  midst  of  their  towns  and  cities,  within  the  narrow  pre- 
cincts of  a  place  reputed  sacred,  much  less  of  amassing  them  in  the  bosom 
of  their  fanes  and  temples.  The  burying  places  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans 
were  at  a  distance  from  their  towns ;  and  the  Jews  had  their  sepulchres  in 
gardens — John  xix.  41 ;  and  in  fields,  and  among  rocks  and  mountains — 
Matthew  xxvii,  60.  The  present  practice  was  introduced  by  the  Romish 
clergy,  who  pretended  that  the  dead  enjoyed  peculiar  privileges  by  being 
interred  in  consecrated  ground.  The  burying-places  of  the  Turks  are  hand- 
some and  agreeable,  and  it  is  owing  chiefly  to  the  many  fine  plants  that 
grow  in  them,  and  which  they  carefully  place  over  their  dead.     It  is  only 


CEY  ]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  243 

within  a  very  few  years  tliat  public  cemeteries  have  been  formed  in  these 
countries,  although  the  crowded  state  of  our  many  churchyards,  and  the 
danger  to  health  of  burial-places  in  the  midst  of  dense  populations,  called 
for  some  similar  institutions  to  that  of  the  celebrated  Phre  la  Chaise  at 
Paris.  Six  public  cemeteries  have  been  recently  opened  in  London 
suburbs.  The  inclosed  area  of  each  of  these  cemeteries  is  planted  and  laid 
out  in  walks  after  the  manner  of  Pere  la  Chaise.*  There  are  similar  ceme- 
teries in  Manchester,  Liverpool,  and  other  towns ;  and  in  Ireland,  at  Cork, 
Dublin,  &c.  Some  of  the  rural  cemeteries  of  the  United  States,  especially 
that  at  Mount  Auburn,  near  Boston  (opened  1831),  Laurel  Hill,  Philadelphia 
(183-),  and  Greenwood,  near  New- York  (1839),  are  far  more  beautiful  in 
their  natural  features  than  any  of  those  near  London  or  Paris. 

CENSORS.  Roman  magistrates,  whose  duty  it  was  to  survey  and  rate,  and 
correct  the  manners  of  the  people ;  their  power  was  also  extended  over 
private  families,  and  they  restrained  extravagance.  The  two  first  censors 
were  appointed  443  b.  c.    The  office  was  abolished  by  the  emperors. 

CENSUS.  In  the  Roman  polity,  a  general  estimate  of  every  man's  estate  and 
personal  effects,  delivered  to  the  government  upon  oath  every  five  years : 
established  by  Servius  Tullius,  566  b.  c. — Legal  Polity  of  t/ie  Roman  State. 
In  England  the  census,  formerly  not  periodical,  is  now  taken  at  decennial 
periods,  of  which  the  last  were  the  years  1811, 1821,  and  1831 ;  and  the  new 
census,  1841. 

CENSUS  OP  THE  UNITED  STATES,  has  been  taken  at  six  different  periods, 
viz.  1790,  1800,  1810,  1820,  1030,  and  1840.  The  seventh  census  is  taken 
this  year,  1850. — See  Population. 

CENTURION.  The  captain,  head,  or  commander  of  a  subdivision  of  a  Ro- 
man legion,  which  consisted  of  100' men,  and  was  called  a  centuria.  He  was 
distinguished  by  a  branch  of  vine  which  he  carried  in  his  hand.  By  the 
Roman  census,  each  hundred  of  the  people  was  called  a  centuria,  566  e.  c. 

CENTURY.  The  method  of  compirting  by  centuries  was  first  generally 
observed  in  ecclesiastical  history,  and  commenced  from  the  time  of  our 
Redeemer's  incarnation,  a.  d.  1.  It  is  a  period  that  is  particularly  regarded 
by  church  historians. — Pardon. 

CERES.  This  planet,  which  is  only  160  miles  in  diameter,  was  discovered"  by 
M.  Piazzi,  astronomer  royal  at  Palermo,  on  the  1st.  of  Jan.  1801 .  To  the 
naked  eye  it  is  not  visible,  nor  will  glasses  of  a  very  high  magnifying 
power  show  it  with  a  distinctly  defined  diameter.  Pallas,  discovered  by 
Dr.  Olbers,  is  still  smaller. 

CEYLON.  The  natives  claim  for  this  island  the  seat  of  paradise ;  it  was  dis- 
covered by  the  Portuguese  a.  d.  1505  ;  but  it  was  known  to  the  Romans  in 
the  time  of  Claudius,  a.  d.  41.  The  capital,  Colombo,  was  taken  by  the 
Hollanders  in  1603 ;  and  was  recovered  by  the  Portuguese  in  1621.  The 
Dutch  again  took  it  in  1656.  A  large  portion  of  the  country  was  taken  by 
the  British  in  1782,  but  was  restored  the  next  year.    The  Dutch  settlements 

■  Pere  la  Chaise  takes  its  name  from  a  French  Jesuit,  who  was  a  favorite  of  Louis  XIV.,  and 
.'lis  confessor.  He  died  in  1709 ;  and  the  site  of  his  house  and  grounds  at  Paris  is  now  occupied  by 
this  beautiful  cemetery.  It  was  a  practice  of  high  antiquity  to  plant  herbs  and  flowers  about  the 
graves  of  the  dead.  The  women  in  Egypt  go  weekly  to  pray  and  weep  at  the  sepulchres,  .and  it  is 
then  usual  to  throw  a  sort  of  herb  (our  sweet-basil)  upon  the  tombs:  which  in  Asia  Minor,  and 
Turkey  in  Europe,  are  also  adorned  either  with  the  leaves  of  the  palin-tree,  boughs  of  myrtle,  or 
cypresses  planted  at  the  head  and  feet.  Between  some  of  the  tombs  is  placed  a  chest  of  ornamentel 
stone,  tilled  with  earth,  in  which  are  planted  herbs  and  aromatic  flowers.  These  are  regularly  cul- 
tivated by  females,  who  assemble  in  croups  for  that  duty.  At  Aleppo,  there  grow  many  mynlo?. 
which  they  diligently  propagate,  becau=!e  they  are  be-uuiful,  and  remain  long  green,  to  put 'about 
their  graves.— /lfa//e/;  C/iandler  ;  Butler. 


244  THE  world's  PROGKESS.  [  CHa 

were  seized  by  the  British;  Trincomalee  Aug.  26,  1795,  and  Jaffnapatam,  in 
Sept.  same  year.  Ceylon  was  ceded  to  Great  Britain  by  the  peace  of  Amiens 
in  1802.  The  British  troops  were  treacherously  massacred,  or  imprisoned 
by  the  Adigar  of  Candy,  at  Colombo,  June  26,  1803.  The  complete  sove- 
reignty of  the  island  was  assumed  by  England  in  1815. 

CILERONEA,  Battles  of.  The  Athenians  are  defeated  by  the  Boeotians, 
and  Tolmidas,  their  general,  is  slain,  447  b.  c.  Battle  of  Chferonea,  in  which 
Greece  lost  its  liberty  to  Philip,  32,000  Macedonians  defeating  the  confed- 
erate army  of  Thebans  and  Athenians  of  30,000,  Aug.  2,  338  b.  c.  Battle 
of  Chasronea  in  which  Arclielaus,  lieutenant  of  Mithridates,  is  defeated  by 
Sylla,  and  110,000  Cappadocians  are  slain,  86  b.  c. 

CHAIN-BRIDGES.  The  largest  and  oldest  chain-bridge  in  the  world  is  saiu  to 
be  that  at  Kingtung,  in  China,  where  it  forms  a  perfect  road  from  the  top  of 
one  mountain  to  the  top  of  another.  The  honor  of  constructing  the  tirst 
chain-bridge  on  a  grand  scale  belongs  to  Mr.  Telford,  who  commenced  the 
chain-suspension  bridge  over  the  strait  between  Anglesey  and  the  coast  of 
Wales,  July  1818. — See  Menai  Bridge. 

CHAIN-CABLES,  PUMPS,  and  SHOT.  Iron  chain-cables  were  in  use  by  the 
Veneti,  a  people  intimately  connected  with  the  BelgcB  of  Britain  in  the  time 
of  Cfesar,  55  b.  c.  These  cables  came  into  modern  use,  and  generally  in  the 
royal  navy  of  England,  in  1812.  Chain-shot,  to  destroy  the  rigging  of  an 
enemy's  ships,  was  invented  by  the  Dutch  admiral  De  Witt,  in  1666.  Chain- 
pumps  were  first  used  on  board  the  Flora,  British  frigate,  in  1787. 

CHAISE  OR  CALASH.  The  invention  of  the  chaise,  which  is  described  as  a 
light  and  open  vehicle,  is  ascribed  to  Augustus  Csesar,  about  a.  d.  7.  Aure- 
lius  Victor  mentions  that  the  use  of  post-chaises  was  introduced  by  Trajati, 
about  A.  D.  100.    The  chariot  was  in  use  fifteen  centuries  before.    See  Chariot. 

CHALDEAN  REGISTERS.  Registers  of  celestial  observations  were  commenced 
2234  B.  c,  and  were  brought  down  to  the  taking  of  Babylon  by  Alexander, 
331  B.  c,  being  a  period  of  1903  years.  These  registers  were  sent  by  Callis- 
thenes  to  Aristotle.  Chaldean  Characters  :  the  Bible  was  transcribed 
from  the  original  Hebrew  into  these  characters,  now  called  Hebrew,  by  Ezra. 

CHAMP  DE  MARS;  an  open  square  space  in  front  of  the  Military  School  at 
Paris,  with  artificial  embankments  raised  on  each  side,  extending  nearly  to 
the  r'ver  Seine,  with  an  area  sufficient  to  contain  a  million  of  people.  Plere 
was  held,  on  the  14th  July,  1790,  the  famous  "  federation,"  or  solemnity  of 
.swearing  fidelity  to  the  "  jjatriot  king"  and  new  constitution.  In  the  even- 
ing great  rejoicings  followed  the  pi'oceedings ;  public  balls  were  given  by 
the  municipality  in  the  Champs  Elysecs  and  elsewhere,  and  Paris  was  illumi- 
nated throughout.  1791,  July  17,  a  great  meeting  of  citizens  and  others  held 
here,  directed  by  the  Jacobin  clubs,  to  sign  petitions  on  the  "  altar  of  the 
country" — left  standing  for  some  time  afterwards — praying  for  the  enforced 
abdication  of  Louis  XVI.  Another  new  constitution  sworn  to  here,  under 
the  eye  of  Bonaparte,  May  1,  1815,  a  ceremony  called  the  Champ  de  Mai. 

CHAMPION  OF  ENGLAND.  The  championship  was  instituted  at  the  corona- 
tion of  Richard  II.  1377.  At  the  coronations  of  English  kings  the  champion 
still  rides  completely  armed  into  Westminster-hall,  and  challenges  any  one 
that  would  deny  their  title  to  the  crown.  The  championship  is  hereditary 
in  the  Dymocke  family. 

CHANCELLORS,  LORD  HIGH,  of  ENGLAND.  The  Lord  Chancellor  ranks 
after  the  princes  of  the  Blood  Royal  as  the  first  lay  subject.  Formerly,  the 
ofiSce  was  conferred  upon  some  dignified  clergyman.  Maurice,  afterwards 
bishop  of  London,  was  created  chancellor  in  1067.     The  first  personage  who 


cha] 


PICTiOiMARY    OF    DATKS. 


245 


was  qualified  by  great  legal  education,  and  who  decided  causes  upon  his  own 
judgment,  was  Sir  Thomas  More,  in  1530,  before  which  time  the  office  was 
more  that  of  a  high  state  functionary  than  the  president  of  a  court  of  justice. 
Sir  Christopher  Hatton,  who  was  appointed  chancellor  in  1587,  was  very 
ignorant,  on  which  account  the  first  reference  was  made  to  a  master  in  1588, 
In  England,  the  great  seal  has  been  frequently  put  in  commission ;  but  it 
was  not  until  1813  that  the  separate  and  co-existent  office  of  Vice-  Chancello?- 
was  permanently  held. 


LORD  CHANCELLORS  OF  ENGLAND, 

(From  the  time  of'  Cardinal  Wolsey.) 
1515  Cardinal  Wolsey. 
1530  Sir  Thomas  More  (beheaded). 

1533  Sir  Thomas  Audley. 

1534  Thomas,  bishop  of  Ely. 
1545  Lord  Wriothesley. 
15J7  Lord  St.  Jolm. 

1547'  Lord  Rich. 

1551  Bishop  of  Ely  again. 

1551  Sir  Nich.  lia.ve,  Lord  Keeper. 

1(353  Bishop  of  Winchester. 

1555  Archbishop  of  York. 

1559  Sir  Nicholas  Bacon. 

1579  Sir  Thomas  Bromley. 

15S7  Sir  Christopher  Hatton. 

1.592  Sir  John  Packering. 

1596  Sir  Thomas  Egerlon. 

1616  Sir  Francis  Bacon,    afterwards  lord 

Verulam. 
1625  Sir  Thomas  Coventry. 

1639  Sir  John  Finch. 

1640  Sir  Edward  Littleton,  afterwards  lord 

Littleton. 
1645  Sir  Richard  Lane. 
1648  In  commission. 
1653  Sir  Edward  Herbert. 
1658  Sir  Edward  Hyde,  aftericards  earl  of 

Clarendon. 
1667  Sir  Orlando  Bridgeman,  L.  K. 

1672  Earl  of  Shaflesbmy. 

1673  Sir  Heneage  Finch,  afterwards  earl  of 

Nottingham. 
1682  Lord  Guilford,  L.  K. 
1685  Sir  George  Jeffreys,  lord  Jeffreys. 
1690  In  commission. 
1690  Sir  John  Trevor,  Sir  William  Rawlin- 

son,  and  Sir  Geo.  Hutchins,  L.  K. 


\  1692  Sir  John    Somers,    afterwards  lord 
Somers. 
1702  Sir  Nathan  Wright,  L.  K. 
I  1705  Lord  Cowper,  L.  K. 
!  1710  In  commission. 
j  1713  Lord  Harcourt. 
1714  Lord  Cowper  again. 
1718  In  commission. 

1718  Viscount  Parker,  afterwards  earl  of 
Macclesfield. 
I  1725  Sir  Peter  King,  L.  K.  afterwards  lord 
King. 
1733  Lord  Talbot. 
1737  Philip,  lord  Hardwicke. 
1761  Sir  Robert  Henley,  aftericards  lord 

Henley,  and  earl  of  Northington. 
1766  Charles  Pratt,  lord  Camden. 
1770  Hon.  Chas.  Yorke,  Jan.  18 ;  died  next 
day. 

1770  In  commission. 

1771  Henry  Bathurst,  lord  Apsley,  succeed- 
ed as  earl  Bathurst. 

1778  Lord  Thurlow. 

1783  Lord  Loughborough  and  others 

April  9 
-  Dec.  23 


(in  comviission)  - 
1-83  Lord  Thurlow  again    - 

1792  In  commission. 

1793  Lord  Loughborough  again. 

1801  Lord  Eldon.  -  -        April  14 

1806  Lord  Erskine.  -  -      Feb.  7 

1807  Lord  Eldon  again.  -  March  25 
1827  Lord  Lyndhurst.  -  -  April  20 
1830  Lord  Brougham.           -  Nov.  22 

1834  Lord  Lyndhurst  again        •      Nov.  14 

1835  In  commission. 

1836  Lord  Cottenham. 


Jan.  16 

Aug.  31 

Julys 


1841  Lord  Lyndhurst  agam. 
'  1846  Lord  Cottenham  agaiii 

CHANCELLOR  op  IRELAND,  LORD  HIGH.  The  earliest  nomination  was  by 
Richard  I.  a.  d.  1186,  when  Stephen  Ridel  was  elevated  to  this  rank.  The 
office  of  vice-chancellor  was  known  in  Ireland,  but  not  as  a  distinct  appoint- 
ment, in  the  reign  of  Henry  III.,  GefiTrey  Turville,  archdeacon  of  Dublin, 
being  so  named,  1232. 

CHANCELLOR  OF  SCOTLAND.  In  the  laws  of  Malcolm  II.  who  reigned 
A.  D.  1004,  this  officer  is  thus  mentioned:  "The  Chancellar  sal  at  al  tymes 
assist  the  king  in  giving  him  counsall  mair  secretly  nor  of  the  rest  of  the 
nobility.  The  Chancellar  sail  be  ludgit  near  unto  the  kingis  Grace,  for 
keiping  of  his  bodie,  and  the  seill,  and  that  he  maybe  readie,  baith  day  and 
nicht,  at  the  kingis  command." — Sir  James  Balfour.  James,  earl  of  Seafield, 
afterwards  Findlater,  was  the  last  lord  high"  Chancellor  of  Scotland,  the 
office  having  been  abolished  in  1708. — Scott. 

CHANCERY,  COURT  of.  Instituted  as  early  as  a.  d.  605.  Settled  upon  a 
better  footing  by  William  I.,  in  imi.—Stoice.  This  court  had  its  origin  in 
the  desire  to  render  justice  complete,  and  to  moderate  the  rigor  of  other 
courts  that  are  bound  to  the  strict  letter  of  the  law.  It  gives  relief  to  or 
against  infants,  notwithstanding  their  minority ;  and  to  or  against  married 


246  THE  world's  progress.  I  CHA 

women,  notwithstanding  tlieiv  coverture ;  and  all  frauds,  deceits,  breaches 
of  trust  and  confidence,  for  which  there  is  no  redress  at  common  law,  are 
relievable  here. — Blackstone. 

EFFECTS   OF   SUITORS   LODGED   IN   COURT   AT    THE   FOLLOWING  DECENNIAL  PERIODS. 

1770  -      Amount  locteed  -      £.5,300,000  I  1810  -        Amount  lodged    -  £26,212,000 

1780       -           ditto          -  -    7,741,000  |  1820         -           ditto       -  -    34,208,785 

1790  -           -  ditto  -         13.338,000  |  1830  -         -      ditto           -  38,886,135 

1800       -           ditto       -  -     19;8.34,000  |  1840         -           ditto        -  -    39,772,746 

There  are  about  10,000  accounts.  By  the  last  official  returns  the  number 
of  committals  for  contempt  was  ninety-six  persons  in  three  years. — Pari. 
Returns. 

CHANTRY.  A  chapel  endowed  with  revenue  for  priests  to  sing  mass  for  the 
souls  of  the  donors. — Skakspeare.  First  mentioned  in  tlie  commencement  of 
the  seventh  century,  Avhen  Gregory  the  great  established  schools  of  chant- 
ers.— See  Chayithig. 

CHAOS.  A  rude  and  shapeless  mass  of  matter,  and  confused  assemblage  of 
inactive  elements  which,  as  the  poets  suppose,  pre-existed  the  formation  of 
the  world,  and  from  which  the  universe  was  formed  by  the  hand  and  power 
of  a  superior  being.  Thi.s  doctrine  was  first  advanced  by  Hesiod,  from  Avhom 
the  succeeding  poets  have  copied  it ;  and  it  is  probable  that  it  was  obscurely 
drawn  from  the  account  of  Moses,  by  being  copied  from  the  annals  of  San- 
choniathon,  whose  age  is  fixed  antecedent  to  the  siege  of  Ti"oy  in  1193  b.  c. 
See  Geology. 

CHARIOTS.  The  invention  of  chariots,  and  the  manner  of  harnessing  horses 
to  draw  them,  is  ascribed  to  Erichthonius  of  Athens,  1486  b.  c.  Chariot 
racing  was  one  of  the  exercises  of  Greece.  The  chariot  of  the  Ethiopian 
officer,  mentioned  in  Acts  viii.  27,  28,  31,  was,  it  is  supposed,  something  in 
the  form  of  our  modern  chaise  with  four  wheels.  Csesar  relates  that  Cassi- 
belanus,  after  dismissing  all  his  other  forces,  retained  no  fewer  than  4000 
war  chariots  about  his  person.  The  chariots  of  the  ancients  were  like  our 
phastons,  and  drawn  by  one  horse.     See  Carriages,  Coaches,  4'C. 

CHARITIES  in  the  United  States. — See  Benevolence.  In  England  there  are  tens 
of  thousands  of  charit-able  foundations ;  and  the  charity  commission  reported 
to  parliament  that  the  endowed  charities  alone  of  Great  Britain  amounted  to 
£1,500,000  annually,  in  1840. — Pari.  Hep.  Charity  schools  were  instituted 
in  London  to  prevent  the  seduction  of  the  infant  poor  into  Roman  Catholic 
seminaries,  3  James  II.  1687. — Rapin. 

CHARLESTON,  S.  C,  was  first  settled  in  1680.  In  1690  a  colony  of  French 
refugees,  exiled  in  consequence  of  the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes, 
settled  in  Carolina,  and  some  of  them  in  Charleston :  from  them  are  de- 
scended many  of  the  most  respectable  of  the  inhabitants.  At  the  close  of 
1779,  the  city  was  taken  by  the  British,  and  held  by  them  until  ]May  follow- 
ing. Population  in  1790,  16,359 ;  in  1810,  24,711 ;  in  1820,  24.780 ;  in  1830, 
30,289;  in  1840,  29,261— (a  decrease  of  1,028  in  ten  years)  including  14,673 
slaves. 

CHARTERS  op  RIGHTS.  The  first  charters  of  rights  granted  by  the  kings  of 
England  to  their  subjects,  were  by  Edward  the  Confessor,  and  by  Henry  }. 
A.  D.  1100.  The  famoiis  bulwark  of  English  liberty,  known  as  Magjia  Chart.c 
or  the  great  charter,  was  granted  to  the  barons  by  king  John,  June  15, 1215. 
The  rights  and  privileges  granted  bj^  this  charter  were  renewed  and  ratified 
by  Henry  III.  in  1224,  et  seq.  Sir  Edward  Coke  says  that  even  in  his  days  it 
had  been  confirmed  above  thirty  times.  Charters  to  corporations  were  of 
frequent  grant  from  the  reign  of  William  I.     See  Magna  Charta. 

CHARTERS,  to  the  American  colonies.  That  to  Virginia  granted  by  James  I., 
1606 ;  to  Massachusetts,  by  the  same,  1020,  but  withdrawn  by  Charles  II., 


CHE  ]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  247 

1684 ;  that  granted  to  Connecticixt  by  Charles  II.,  1665,  was  concealed  in  an 
aik  to  preserve  it  from  the  tyrannical  Andros.  General  suppression  of 
charter  governments  in  America,  1688. 

CHARTER  PARTY.  The  same  species  of  deed  or  agreement  as  the  ancient 
chirograph.  A  covenant  between  merchants  and  masters  of  ships  relating 
to  the  ship  and  cargo.  It  was  first  used  in  England  in  the  reign  of  Henry 
in.,  about  1243. 

CHARTISTS.  The  agitators  for  radical  political  reforms  in  England  were  so 
called  from  the  Charter  which  they  drew  up  and  urged  for  adoption  as  th" 
law  of  the  land,  1838.  The  petition  for  it,  signed  by  about  5,000,000  names. 
Proclamation  against  tumultuous  assemblies  of  the  Chartists,  Dec.  12,  1838. 
Chartist  attack  on  Newport,  Wales,  headed  by  John  Frost,  an  ex-magistrate, 
defeated,  Nov.  4,  1839.  Frost  and  others  taken  prisoner,  tried,  and  trans- 
ported. Another  Chartist  demonstration  on  Kennington  Common,  near 
London,  exciting  great  alarm  (chiefly  because  of  the  recent  revolution  in 
Paris),  April  10,  1848.  The  six  chief  demands  of  the  Chartists  are :  1.  Uni- 
versal suifrage.  2.  Vote  by  ballot.  3.  No  property  qualification.  4.  Annual 
parliaments.    5.  Payment  of  members.    6.  Equal  electoral  districts. 

CHARTS.  Anaximander  of  Miletus  was  the  inventor  of  geographical  and  celes- 
tial charts,  about  570  b.  c.  Modern  sea-charts  were  brought  to  England  by 
Bartholomew  Columbus,  with  a  view  to  illustrate  his  brother's  theory  respect- 
ing a  western  continent,  1489.  Mercator's  chartj  in  which  the  world  is  taken 
as  a  plane,  was  drawn,  1556. 

CHARYBDIS,  a  dangerous  whirlpool  on  the  coast  of  Sicily,  opposite  another 
whirlpool  called  Scylla,  on  the  coast  of  Italy.  It  was  very  dangerous  to  sail- 
ors, and  it  proved  fatal  to  part  of  the  fleet  of  Ulysses.  The  exact  situation 
of  the  Charybdis  is  not  discovered  by  the  moderns,  as  no  whirlpool  suffi- 
ciently tremendous  is  now  found  to  coiTCspond  to  the  description  of  the 
ancients.  The  words  Incidit  in  Scijllam  qui  vult  vitare  Charybdim,  became  a 
proverb,  to  show  that  in  our  eagerness  to  avoid  an  evil,  we  fall  into  a  greater. 

CHANTING,  Chanting  the  psalms  was  adopted  by  Ambrose  from  the  pa- 
gan ceremonies  of  the  Romans,  about  a.  d.  350. — Lenglet.  Chanting  in 
churches  was  introduced  into  the  Roman  Catholic  service  in  602,  by  Gregory 
the  Great,  who  established  schools  of  chanters,  and  corrected  the  church 
song. — Dufrcsnoy. 

CHEATS.  The  convicted  cheat  punishable  by  pillory  (since  abolished),  impri- 
sonment, and  fine,  1  Hawk.  L.  C.  188.  A  rigorous  statute  was  enacted 
against  cheats,  33  Henry  VIII.  1542.  Persons  cheating  at  play,  or  winning 
at  any  time  more  than  10^.,  or  any  valuable  thing,  were  deemed  infamous, 
and  wei-e  to  .suffer  punishment  as  in  cases  of  perjury,  9  Anne,  1711. — Black- 
stone's  Comm. 

CHEESE.  It  is  supposed  by  Camden  and  others  that  the  English  learned  the 
process  of  making  cheese  from  the  Romans  (who  brought  many  useful  arts 
with  them)  about  the  Christian  ei'a.  Cheese  is  made  by  almost  all  nations. 
Wilts,  Gloucester,  and  Cheshire,  make  vast  quantities ;  the  last  alone,  annu- 
ally, about  31,000  tons.  The  Cheddar  of  Somerset,  and  Stilton  of  Hunting- 
don, are  as  much  esteemed  as  the  cheese  of  Parma,  and  Gruyere  of  Switz- 
erland. In  1840  England  imported,  chiefly  from  the  U.  States,  for  home  use, 
a  quantity  exceeding  10,000  tons. 

CHEMISTRY  and  DISTILLING.  Introduced  into  Europe  by  the  Spanish 
Moors,  about  a.  d.  1150;  they  had  learned  them  from  the  African  Moors, 
and  these  from  the  Egyptians.  In  Egypt,  they  had,  in  very  early  ages,  ex- 
tracted salts  from  their  bases,  separated  oils,  and  prepared  vinegar  and  wine ; 


l!d4S  THE    world's    ritOGRESS.  [  CHI 

and  embalming-  Avas  a  kind  of  chemical  process.  The  Chinese  also  claim  an 
early  acquaintance  Avith  chemistry ;  but  the  fathers  of  true  chemical  philo- 
sophy were  of  our  own  country;  Bacon,  Boyle,  Hooke,  Mayow,  NeAvton,  &c. 
The  modern  character  of  chemistry  was  formed  under  Beecher  and  Stahl, 
who  perceived  the  connection  of  the  atmosphere  and  the  gases,  with  the 
production  of  phenomena.  Bergman  and  Scheele  were  cotemporary  with 
Priestley  in  England,  and  Lavosier  in  France ;  then  followed  Thomson,  Davy, 
and  other  distinguished  men. 

CHERRIES.  They  were  brought  from  Pontus,  to  Lucullus,  to  Rome,  about  70 
B.  c.  Apricots  from  Epirus :  peaches  from  Persia;  the  finest  ph;ms  from 
Damascus  and  Armenia;  pears  and  figs  from  Greece  and  EgjqDt;  citrons 
from  Media;  and  pomegranates  from  Carthage;  114  b.  c.  The  cherry  tree 
was  first  planted  in  Britain,  it  is  said,  about  a.  d.  100.  Fine  kinds  were 
brought  from  Flanders,  and  planted  in  Kent,  and  with  such  success  that  an 
orchard  of  thirty-two  acres  produced  in  one  year  jCIOOO,  a.  d.  1540.  See 
Gardening. 

CHESAPEAKE,  Battle  of.  At  the  mouth  of  the  bay  of  that  name,  between 
the  British  admiral  Greaves,  and  the  French  admiral  De  Grasse,  with  the 
naval  force  sent  to  assist  the  United  States ;  the  former  was  obliged  to  retire, 
1781.  The  Chesapeake  and  Delaware  were  blockaded  by  a  British  fleet 
in  1812.  The  Chesapeake  American  frigate  struck  to  the  Shaniwn  British 
frigate,  commanded  by  captain  Broke,  after  a  severe  action,  June  2,  181B. 

CHESS,  Game  of.  Invented,  according  to  some  authorities,  680  b.  c;  and  ac- 
cording to  others,  in  the  fifth  centurj'  of  our  era.  The  learned  Hyde  and 
Sir  William  Jones  concur  in  stating  (as  do  most  writers  on  the  subject)  that 
the  origin  of  chess  is  to  be  traced  to  India.  The  automaton  chess-player 
Avas  exhibited  in  England  in  1769. 

CHEVALIER  DEON.  This  extraordinary  personage,  who  had  been  acting  in 
a  diplomatic  capacity  in  several  countries,  and  who  was  for  some  time  a 
minister  plenipotentiary  from  France  in  London,  was  proved  upon  a  trial 
had  in  the  King's  Bench,  in  an  action  to  recover  wagers  as  to  his  sex,  to  be 
ajvoman,  July  1,  1777.  He  subsequently  wore  female  attire  for  many  years; 
yet  at  his  death,  in  London,  in  1810,  it  was  manifest,  by  the  dissection  of 
his  body,  and  other  undoubted  evidence,  that  he  was  of  the  male  sex. — 
Bio.  Die. 

CHILDREN.  Most  of  the  ancient  nations  had  the  unnatural  custom  of  expos- 
ing their  infants — the  Egyptians  on  the  banks  of  rivers,  and  the  Greeks  on 
highways — when  they  could  not  support  or  educate  them;  in  such  cases 
they  were  taken  care  of,  and  humanely  protected  by  the  state.  The  custom 
which  long  previously  existed  of  English  parents  selling  their  children  to 
the  Irish  for  slaves,  was  prohibited  in  the  reign  of  Canute,  about  1017. — 
Mat.  Paris.  At  Darien,  it  was  the  practice  when  a  widow  died,  to  bury 
with  her,  in  the  same  grave,  such  of  her  children  as  were  unable,  from  their 
tender  years,  to  take  care  of  themselves.  And  in  some  parts  of  China,  su- 
perstition has  lent  her  hand  to  sanction  the  horrid  deed  of  offering  infants 
to  the  spirit  of  an  adjoining  river,  first  attaching  a  gourd  to  their  necks  to 
prevent  them  from  immediately  droAvning. 

CHILI.  Discovered  by  Diego  de  Almagro,  one  of  the  conquerors  of  Peru,  a.  d. 
1535.  Almagro  crossed  the  Cordilleras,  and  the  natives,  regarding  the  Span- 
iards on  their  first  visit  as  allied  to  the  DiA'inity,  collected  for  them  gold  and 
silver,  amounting  to  290,000  ducats,  a  present  which  led  to  the  subsequent 
cruelties  and  rapacity  of  the  iuA'aders.  Chili  was  subdued,  but  not  Avholly, 
in  1546.  The  Chilians  fought  for  liberty  at  A'arious  times,  and  Avith  A^arious 
success,  until  1817,  when,  by  the  decisive  victory  gained  by  San  Martin  over 


CHI  ] 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES. 


249 


the  royal  forces,  Feb.  12,  in  that  year,  the  province  was  released  from  its  op- 
pressors, and  declared  independent. 
CHILTERN  HUNDREDS.  An  estate  of  the  crown  in  England,  on  the  chain 
of  chalk  hills  that  pass  from  east  to  west  through  the  middle  of  Bucking- 
hamshire, the  stewardship  Avhereof  is  a  nominal  office,  conferred  on  members 
of  parliament  when  they  wish  to  vacate  their  seats,  as,  by  accepting  an 
office  under  the  crown,  a  member  becomes  disqualified,  unless  he  be  again 
returned  by  his  constituents :  this  custom  has  existed  time  immemorial. 

' 'HIMNEYS.  Chafing-dishes  were  in  use  previous  to  the  invention  of  chim- 
neys, which  were  first  introduced  into  these  countries  in  a.  d.  1200,  when 
they  were  confined  to  the  kitchen  and  large  hall.  The  family  sat  round  the 
stove,  the  funnel  of  which  passed  through  the  ceiling,  in  1300.  Chimneys 
were  general  in  domestic  architecture  in  1310.  The  ancients  made  use  of 
stoves,  although  Octavio  Ferrari  affirms  that  chimneys  were  in  use  among 
them ;  but  this  is  disputed. 

CHINA.  This  empire  is  very  ancient,  and  the  Chinese  assert  that  it  existed 
many  thousands  of  years  before  Noah's  flood :  but  it  is  allowed  by  some  author- 
ities to  have  commenced  about  2500  years  before  the  birth  of  Chri&t.  By 
others  it  is  said  to  have  been  founded  by  Fohi,  supposed  to  be  the  Noah  of 
the  Bible,  2240  b.  g.  We  are  told  that  the  Chinese  knew  the  periods  of  the 
sun,  moon,  and  planets,  and  were  acute  astronomers,  in  the  reign  of  Yao, 
which  is  set  down  2857  b.  c.  But  dates  cannot  be  relied  upon  until  towards 
the  close  of  the  seventh  century,  b.  c.  when  the  history  of  China  becomes 
more  distinct.  In  the  battle  between  Phraates  and  the  Scythians  129  b.  c, 
the  Chinese  aided  the  latter,  and  afterwards  ravaged  the  countries  on  the 
coasts  of  the  Caspian,  which  is  their  first  appearance  in  history. — Lev.glet. 

Jesuit  missionaries  endeavor  to  esta- 
blish Christianity  -  -  -     - 1692 
The  .Jesuits  are  expelled  through  their 
own  misconduct          -           -  - 1724 

ENGLISH   INTBRCOUKSE   WITH  CHINA. 


Tlie  Chinese  state  their  first  cycle  to 
have  commenced  -  -   b.  c  2700 

Tiie  first  of  the  22  Chinese  dynasties 
commenced      -  -  .  .  2207 


In  the  history  of  China,  the  first  dates 
whicii  are  fixed  to  his  narrative,  by 
Se-ma-tsien,  begin  -  -      -    651 

Confucius,  the  father  of  the  Chinese 

philosophers,  born       -           -           -    551 
Stupendous  wall  of  China  completed  -    211 
The  dynasty  of  Han  -           -           -    -    206 
Literature  find  the  art  of  printing  encou- 
raged      202 

Religion  of  Ta  tse  commenced  •  -  15 
Religion  of  the  .'bllowers  of  Fo,  com- 
menced about  -  -  A.  D.  60 
Embassy  from  Rome  ■  -  -  166 
Nankin  becomes  the  capital  -  -  420 
The  atheistical  philosopher,  Fan-Shin, 

flourishes  ....    449 

Tlie  Nestorian  Christians  permitted  to 

preach  their  doctrines      -  -      -    635 

They  are  proscribed,  and  extirpated    -    845 
The  seat  of  the  imperial  government  is 

transferred  to  Pekin         -  -      •  1260 

Wonderful  canal,  called  the  Yn  Ho, 

completed  about  -  -  -  1400 

Euc;'  ^ans  first  arrive  at  Canton  -  1517 

Macao  is  granted  as  a  settlement  to  the 

Portuguese  -  -  -      - 1536 

.Jesuit  missionaries  are  sent  by  the  pope 

from  Rome       ....  1575 
The  country  is  conquered  by  the  East- 
em  Tartars,  who  establish  the  pre- 
sent reigning  house  -  -     -  1644 
An  earthquake  throuEhout  China  buries 
300,000  persons  ui  Pekin  alone  -  1662 

11* 


Earl  Macartney's  embassy:  he  leaves 
England  -  -  Sept.  26, 1792 

He  is  ordered  to  depart  from  Pekin, 

Oct.  7,  1793 

Edict  against  Christianity         -  -  1812 

Lord  Amherst's  embassy;  he  leaves 
England     -  -  -        Feb.  8, 1816 

[His  lordship  failed  in  the  objects  of 
his  mission,  having  refused  to  make 
the  prostration  of  ihe  kou-tou,  lest  he 
should  thereby  compromise  the  ma- 
jesty of  England.] 

The  exclusive  rights  of  the  East  India 
Company  cease  -         April  22,  1834 

Lord  Napier  arrives  at  Macao,  to  super- 
intend British  commerce  -    July  15, 1834 

Opium  trade  interdicted  by  the  Chinese, 

Nov.  7,  1831 

Commissioner  Lin  issues  an  edict  for 
the  seizure  of  opiuin     -     March  18,  1839 

British  and  otlier  residents  forbidden  to 
leave  Canton    -  -        March  19,  1839 

The  factories  surrounded,  and  outrages 
committed  -  -     March  24,  1839 

The  opium  destroyed  during  several 
days  by  the  Chinese         -       June  3, 1839 

The  British  trade  with  China  ceases,  by 
an  edict  of  the  emperor,  and  the  last 
servant  of  the  company  leaves  the 
country  this  day        -  -    Dec.  6,  1839 

Edict  of  the  emperor  interdicting  all 
trade  and  intercourse  with  England 
for  ever  -  -  -  Jan.  5, 1840 


250 


THE    WORLD  S    PROGRESS. 


[cm 


CHINA,  continued. 


Blockade  of  Canton  by  a  British  fleet  of 
15  sail  and  several  war  steamers,  hav- 
ing 4,000  troops  on  board,  by  orders 
from  Sir  Gordon  Bremer    -  June  28,  1810 

Seizure  of  Capt.  Anstruther  -  Sept.  16,  1840 

Lin  deprived  of  his  authority,  and 
finally  degraded;  Keshin  appointed 
imperial  commissioner    -    Sept.  16, 1840 

Capt.  Elliott  declares  a  truce  with  the 
Chinese         -  -  -    Nov.  6,  1840 

Hong-Kong  ceded  by  Keshin  to  Great 
Britain,  and  6,000,0(10  dollars  agreed  to 
be  paid  within  ten  days  to  the  British 
authorities   -  -  -    Jan.  '20,  1841 

Imperial  edict  from  Pekin  rejecting  the 
conditions  of  the  treaty  made  by  Ke- 
shin -  -  -       Feb.  11,  1841 

Hostilities  are  in  consequence  resumed 
against  the  Chinese    -        -    Feb.  2-3,  1841 

Chusan  evacuated    -         -       Feb.  24,  1841 

Rewards  proclaimed  at  Canton  for  the 
bodies  of  Englishmen,  dead  or  alive ; 
50,000  dollars  to  be  given  for  i-ing- 
leaders  and  chiefs        -  Feb.  23, 1841 

Bogue  Forts  taken  by  Sir  Gordon  Bre- 
mer ;  admiral  Kvvan  killed,  and  459 
guns  captured         -  -    Feb.  26,  1841 

Sir  Hugh  Gough  takes  the  command  of 
the  army  -  -         March  2,  1841 

Heights  behind  Canton  taken,  and  94 
guns  captured        •  -     May  25,  1841 

The  city  ransomed  for  6,000,000  dollars, 
of  which  5,000,000  are  paid  dowjt, 
and  hostilities  cease    -  May  31,  1841 

British  trade  re-opened       -      July  16,  1341 

Arrival  at  Macao  of  Sir  Henry  Pottin- 
ger,  who,  as  plenipotentiary,  pro- 
claims the  objects  of  his  mission ; 
Capt.  Elliott  superseded    -   Aug.  10,  1841 

Amoy  taken,  and  296  guns  found  and 
destroyed  -  -         Aug.  27,  1841 

The  Bogue  forts  destroyed  -   Sept.  14,  1841 

The  city  of  Tinghae  taken,  136  guns 
captured,  and  the  island  of  Chusan 
re-occupied  by  the  British    -   Oct.  1, 1841 

Chin-hae  taken,  with  157  guns,  many 
of  them  brass  -  -    Oct.  10,  1841 


Treaty  of  peace  signed  before  Nankin, 
on  board  the  Cornwallis  by  sir  Henry 
Pottinger  for  England,  and  Keying 
Elepoo  and  Neu-Kien  on  the  part  of 
the  Chinese  emperor       -     Aug.  29, 1&15 

CONDITIONS    OF  THE   TREATY. 

Lasting  peace  and  friendship  between 
the  two  empires. 

China  to  pay  21,000,000  of  dollars,  part 
forthwith  and  the  remainder  within 
three  years. 

The  ports  of  Canton,  Amoy,  Poo-choo- 
foo,  Ning-po,  and  Shan^-hae  to  be 
thrown  open  to  the  British. 

Consuls  to  reside  at  these  cities. 

Tarifis  of  import  and  export  to  be  esta- 
blished,   ifec.  &c. 

The  emperor  signifies  his  assent  to  the 
conditions  -  -         Sept.  8,  1842 

Mr.  Davis  succeeds  Sir  Henry  Pottinger 
as  British  commissioner    •    Feb.  16, 1844 

Bogue  Forts  captured  by  Gen.  Aguilar 
and  Sir  John  Davis,  836  pieces  ol'  ar- 
tillery seized  and  spiked   -  April  5,  1847 

Treaty  between  China  and  the  Uni- 
ted States  negotiated  by  Caleb 
Cushing,  Aniierican  Commis- 
sioner -  •  July  3, 1844 

ratified  at  Washington 

Jan.  16, 1845 

Alexander  H.  Everett  appointed 
commissioner  to  China  from  the 
United  States       -  -  -  1845 

John  W.  Davis  appointed  commis- 
sioner from  the  United  States    - 1847 

CHINESE   EMPERORS. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  those  who  have 
reigned  for  the  lajst  two  centuries : — 

Chwang-lei 1627 

Shun-che   -----  1644 

Kang-he 1669 

Yung-ching         ....  1693 
Keen-lung     .    '       -  -  -     -  1736 

Kea-ding 1796 

Taou-kwang-  -  -  -     -  182] 

Sze-Hing,  present  emperor      -  -  1850 


The  embassy  of  lord  Macartney  from  England  procured  the  first  authentic 
information  respecting;  this  empire :  it  appears  that  it  is  divided  into  15  pro- 
vinces, containing  4402  walled  cities;  the  population  of  the  whole  country  is 
given  at  333  000,000 ;  its  annual  revenues  at  £66,000,000;  and  the  army,  in- 
cluding the  Tartars,  1,000,000  of  infantry,  and  800,000  cavalry;  the  rehgion 
is  pagan,  and  the  government  is  absolute.  Learning,  with  the  arts  and  sci- 
ences in  general,  are  encouraged,  and  ethics  are  studied  profoundly,  and 
influence  the  manners  of  the  people.  See  details  in  Williams's  "  Middle 
Kingdom." 
CHINA  PORCELAIN.  This  manufacture  is  first  mentioned  in  history  in  1531 ; 
it  was  introduced  into  England  so  early  as  the  sixteenth  century.  Porcelain 
was  made  at  Dresden  in  1706 ;  fine  ware  in  England,  at  Chelsea,  1752 ;  at 
Eovv  in  1758 ;  in  various  other  parts  of  England,  about  1760 ;  and  by  the 
ingenious  Josiah  Wedgwood,  who  much  improved  the  British  manufacture, 
in  Staffordshire,  1762  etseq. 

CHINESE  ERAS.  They  are  very  numerous,  fabulous,  and  mythological. 
Like  the  Chaldeans,  they  represent  the  world  as  having  existed  some  hun- 
dreds of  thousands  of  years;  and  their  annals  and  histories  record  events 


CHO  ]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  251 

said  to  have  occurred,  and  name  philosophers  and  heroes  said  to  have  lived, 
more  than  27,000  years  ago.  B3'  their  calculation  of  time,  which  must,  of 
course,  differ  essentially  from  ours,  they  date  the  commencement  of  their 
empire  41,000  years  b.  c. — Abbe  Lengkt. 

CHIPPEWA,  Battles  of.  The  British  forces  under  general  Riall  were  de- 
feated by  the  Americans  under  general  Brown,  July  5,  1814.  Another  ac- 
tion with  the  British,  commanded  by  generals  Drummond  and  Riall ;  the 
latter  taken  prisoner  at  Bridgwater,  near  Chippewa,  July  25,  1814. 

CHIVALRY.  Began  in  Europe  about  a.  d.  912.  From  the  twelfth  to  the  fif- 
teenth century  it  bad  a  considerable  influence  in  refining  the  manners  of 
most  of  the  nations  of  Europe.  The  knight  swore  to  accomplish  the  duties 
of  his  profession,  as  the  champion  of  God  and  the  ladies.  He  devoted  him- 
self to  speak  the  truth,  to  maintain  the  right,  to  protect  the  distressed,  to 
practise  courtesy,  to  fulfil  obligations,  and  to  vindicate,  in  every  perilous 
adventure,  his  honor  and  character.  Chivalry,  which  OAved  its  origin  to  the 
feudal  system,  expired  with  it. — Robertson ;   Gibbon. 

CHIVALRY,  Court  of.  It  was  commonly  after  the  lie-direct  had  been  given, 
that  combats  took  place  in  the  court  of  chivalry.  By  letters  patent  of 
James  I.  the  earl-marshal  of  England  had  ""the  like  jurisdiction  in  the  court 
of  chivalry,  when  the  office  of  lord  high  constable  was  vacant,  as  this  latter 
and  the  marshal  did  jointly  exercise,"  1623.  The  following  entries  are 
found  in  the  pipe-roll  of  31  Henry  I.,  the  date  of  which  has  been  fixed  by 
the  labors  of  the  record  commission  : — "  Robert  Fitz  Seward  renders  account 
of  fifteen  marks  of  silver,  for  the  office  and  wife  of  Hugh  Chivill.  Paid  into 
the  exchequer  four  pounds.  And  he  owes  six  pounds;"  p.  53.  "William 
de  Hocton  renders  account  of  ten  marks  of  gold  that  he  may  have  the  wife  of 
Geoffrey  de  Faucre  i?i  marriage,  with  her  land,  and  may  have  her  son  ih 
custody  until  he  is  of  age  to  become  a  knight ;  he  paid  into  the  exchequer 
ten  marks  of  gold,  and  is  discharged." — Pari.  Reports. 

CHOCOLATE.  First  introduced  into  Europe  from  Mexico  about  a.  d.  1520.  It 
is  the  flour  of  the  cocoa-nut,  and  makes  a  wholesome  beverage,  much  used 
in  Spain.  It  was  sold  in  the  London  coffee-houses  soon  after  their  establish- 
ment, 1650.— Tte&r. 

CHOIR.  The  choir  was  separated  from  the  nave  of  the  church  in  the  time 
of  Constantine.  The  choral  service  was  first  used  in  England  at  Canter- 
bury, a.  d.  677.  The  service  had  been  previously  in  use  at  Rome  about  602. 
— See  Chanting.  The  Choragus  was  the  superintendent  of  the  ancient 
chorus. —  Warburton. 

CHOLERA  MORBUS.  This  fatal  disease,  known  in  its  more  malignant  form 
as  the  Asiatic  cholera,  after  having  made  great  ravages  in  many  countries 
of  the  north,  east,  and  south  of  Europe,  and  in  the  countries  of  Asia,  where 
alone  it  had  carried  off  more  than  900,000  persons  in  its  progress  within  two 
years,  made  its  first  appearance  in  England,  at  Sunderland,  October  26, 1831. 
Proclamation,  ordering  all  vessels  from  Sunderland  to  London,  to  perform 
quarantine  at  the  Nore,  December  4,  1831.  Cholera  first  appeared  at  Edin- 
burgh, Feb.  6, 1832.  First  observed  at  Rotherhithe  and  Limehouse,  London. 
February  13  ;  and  in  Dublin,  March  3,  same  year.  The  mortality  was  very 
great,  but  more  so  on  the  Continent ;  the  deaths  by  Cholera  in  Paris  were 
18,000  between  IMarcli  and  August,  1832.  Cholera  first  appeared  on  this 
continent  at  Quebec,  June  8,  1832 ;  and  at  New- York,  June  27,  1832.  Cho- 
lera again  raged  in  Rome,  the  Two  Sicilies,  Genoa,  Berlin,  &c.  in  1836-7.  It 
again  appeared  in  Asia  and  the  east  of  Europe  in  1848,  and  raged  in  Lon- 
don, Edinburgh,  Liverpool,  and  Paris  at  intervals,  in  1848-9.  First  ap- 
peared again  on  this  continent  in  1849,  on  the  Mississippi,  in  New  York  in 


252  THE    world's    progress.  [  CKR 

May,  and  continued  more  or  less  in  various  parts  of  the  United  States 
until  November  of  that  year. 

CHRIST.  See  Jesus  Christ.  This  name,  so  universally  given  to  the  Redeemer 
of  the  world,  signifies,  in  Greek,  The  Anointed,  being  the  same  with  Mes- 
siah in  the  Hebrew,  which  the  Jews  called  that  Saviour  and  Deliverer  whom 
they  expected,  and  who  was  promised  to  them  by  all  the  prophets.  This 
appellation  is  commonly  put  to  our  Jssus  (signifying  Savioiir),  the  name  of 
the  great  object  of  our  faith,  and  divine  author  of  our  religion.  St.  Clement, 
the  earliest  father,  according  to  St.  Epiphanius,  fixes  the  birth  of  Christ  oa 
the  18th  of  November,  in  the  28th  year  of  Augustus,  i.  e.  two  years  before 
the  Christian  era  as  adopted  in  the  sixth  century.  Cerinthus  Avas  the  first 
Christian  writer  against  the  divinity  of  Christ,  about  a.  d.  67.  The  divinity 
of  Christ  was  adopted  at  the  council  of  Nice,  in  a.  d.  325,  by  two  hundred 
and  ninety-nine  bishops  against  eighteen. 

CHRISTIAN.  This  name  was  first  given  to  the  believers  and  followers  of 
Christ's  doctrines  at  Antioch,  in  Syria,  Acts  xi.  26,  in  the  year  38,  accoi'd- 
ing  to  Bictlcr;  in  the  year  40,  according  to  Tacitus;  and  according  to  other 
authorities  in  the  year  60.  The  Christians  were  divided  into  episcopoi, 
presbyteroi,  diacouoi,  pistoi,  catachumens,  or  learners,  and  energumens  who 
Avere  to  be  exorcised. 

CHRISTIAN  ERA.  The  era  which  is  used  by  almost  all  Christian  nations ;  it 
dates  from  January  1st,  in  the  middle  of  the  fourth  year  of  the  194th 
Olympiad,  in  the  753d  of  the  building  of  Rome,  and  4714th  of  the  Julian 
period.  It  was  first  introduced  in  the  sixth  century,  but  was  not  very 
generally  employed  for  some  centuries  after.  We  style  the  Christian  era 
A.  D.  1.    It  was  fii-st  used  in  modern  chronology  in  516. 

CHRISTIAN  KING;  Most  Christian  King;  Christianissimus.  This  title  was 
given  by  pope  Paul  II.  to  Louis  XI.  of  France  in  1469 ;  and  never  was  a 
distinction  more  unworthily  conferred.  His  tjTanny  and  oppressions 
obliged  his  subjects  to  enter  into  a  league  against  him ;  and  4,000  persons 
were  executed  publicly  or  privatelj^  in  his  merciless  reign. — Henault ;  Fleury. 

CHRISTIANITY.  Founded  by  the  Saviour  of  the  world.  The  persecutions  of 
the  Christians  commenced  a.  d.  64. — See  Perscciotions.  Christianity  was  first 
taught  in  Britain  about  this  time ;  and  it  was  propagated  with  some  success 
in  156. — Bede.  Lucius  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  Christian  king  of  Bri- 
tain, and  in  the  world :  he  reigned  in  179.  But  the  era  of  Christianity  in 
England  commenced  with  the  mission  of  St.  Austin  in  596,  from  which  time 
it  spread  rapidly  throughout  the  whole  of  Britain.*  It  was  introduced  into 
Ireland  in  the  second  century,  but  with  more  success  after  the  arrival  of  St. 
Patrick  in  432.  It  was  received  in  Scotland  in  the  reign  of  Donald  I.  about 
201,  when  it  was  embraced  by  that  king,  his  queen,  and  some  of  his  nobility. 

Constantine  the  Great  made  his  solemn  In  Sweden,  hetween  10th  and  11th  centuries. 

declarationofthe  Christian religionA.D.  312     In  Prussia,  by  the  Teutonic  knights, 
Christianity  was  establislred  in  France 

under  Clovis  the  Great  -  -    496 

In  Helvetia,  by  Irish  missionaries        -    643 


In  Flanders  in  the  seventh  century. 

In  Denmark,  under  Harold       -  -  827 

In  Bohemia,  under  Borzivoi           -  -  894 

In  Russia,  by  Swiatoslaf           -  -  940 

In  Poland,  under  Meicislaus  I.        -  •  992 

In  Hungary,  under  Geisa           -  -  994 

In  Norway  and  Iceland,  under  Olaf  I.  - 1000 


when  they  were  returning  from  the 
holy  wars       -  -  -      a.  d.  1227 

In  Lithuania,  where  Paganism  was  abo- 
lished, about        ....  1386 

In  China,  where  it  made  some  progress 
(but  was  afterwards  extirpated,  and 
thousands  of  Chinese  Christians  were 
put  to  death)     ....  1575 

In  Greece,  where  it  was  once  more  re- 
established      ....  1628 


*  It  is  said  that  Gregory  the  Great,  shortly  before  his  elevation  to  the  papal  chair,  chanced  one 
day  to  pass  through  the  slave-market  at  Rome,  and  perceiving  some  children  of  great  beauty  who 
were  set  up  for  sale,  he  inquired  about  their  country,  and  finding  they  were  English  Pagans,  he  is 
Raid  to  have  cried  out,  in  the  Latin  language,  "  Noii  Angli,  sed  AngeU.furent,  si  assent  Christimii," 


CHU  ]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  253 

Christianity  was  propagated  in  varions  parts  of  Africa,  as  Guinea,  Angola, 
and  Congo,  in  the  fifteenth  centuiy ;  and  in  America  and  India  it  made  some 
progress  in  the  sixteenth,  and  now  rapidly  gains  ground  in  all  parts  of  the 
world. 

CHRISTMAS-DAY.  A  festival  of  the  church,  universally  observed  in  com- 
memoration of  the  nativity  of  orrr  Saviour.  It  has  been  denominated  Christ- 
mass,  from  the  appellative  Christ  having  been  added  to  the  name  of  Jesus  to 
express  that  he  was  the  Messiah,  or  The  Anointed.  It  was  first  observed  as  a 
festival  a.  d.  98.  Ordered  to  be  held  as  a  solemn  feast,  and  Divine  service  to  be 
performed  on  the  25th  of  December,  by  pope  Telesphorus,  about  a.  d.  137.* 
In  the  eastern  primitive  church,  Christmas  and  Epiphany  {ivhich  see)  were 
deemed  but  one  and  the  same  feast ;  and  to  this  day  the  church  universally 
keeps  a  continued  feast  within  those  limits.  The  hc^ly  and  misleioe  used 
at  Christmas  are  remains  of  the  religious  observances  of  the  Druids,  and  so 
with  many  other  like  customs. 

CHRONICLES.  The  earliest  chronicles  are  those  of  the  Chinese,  Hindoos, 
Jews,  and  perhaps  those  of  the  Irish.  After  the  invention  of  writing,  all 
well-informed  nations  appear  to  have  kept  clironiclers,  who  were  generally 
priests  or  astrologers,  and  who  mingled  popular  legends  with  their  records. 
— Phillips. 

CHRONOLOGY.  The  Chinese  pretend  to  the  most  ancient,  but  upon  no  cer- 
tain authority.  The  most  authentic,  to  which  all  Europe  gives  credit,  is  the 
•Tewish ;  but  owing  to  the  negligence  of  the  Jews,  they  have  created  abun- 
dance of  difficulties  in  this  science,  and  very  little  certainty  can  be  arrived 
at  as  to  the  exact  time  of  man}'-  memorable  events.  The  earliest  epoch  is 
the  creation  of  the  world,  4004  b.  c.  Theophilns,  bishop  of  Antioch,  was  the 
first  Christian  chronologist,  about  a.  d.  169.  See  the  different  eras  through  the 
volume. 

CHURCH.  It  is  said  that  a  church  was  built  for  Christian  worship  in  the  first 
century;  and  some  will  have  it  that  one  was  built  in  England,  a.  d.  60.  See 
Glastonbury.  In  the  small  island  of  Whitehorn,  Scotland,  are  the  remains  of 
an  ancient  "church,  Avhich  Avas  the  first  place  of  Christian  worship,  it  is  be- 
lieved, in  that  coimtry,  and  supposed  to  have  been  built  before  the  cathedral 
at  Whitehorn,  in  Wigtonshire,  where  Nenian  was  bishop  in  the  fourth  cen- 
tury. The  Christians  originally  preached  in  woods,  and  in  caves,  by  candle- 
light, whence  the  practice  of  candle-light  in  churches.  Most  of  the  early 
churches  were  of  wood.  The  first  church  of  stone  was  built  in  London,  in 
1087.  The  first  Irish  church  of  stone  was  built  at  Bangor,  in  the  county  of 
Down,  by  Malachy,  archbishop  of  Armagh,  who  was  prelate  in  1134. —  Gor- 
doii's  Ireland.  Church  towers  were  originally  parochial  fortresses.  Church- 
yards were  permitted  in  cities  in  742. 

CHURCH  OF  ENGLAND,  (the  present).  Commenced  with  the  Reformation, 
and  was  formally  established  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  1534.  This  church 
consists  of  two  archbishops  and  twenty-four  bishops,  exclusively  of  that  of 
Sodor  and  Man ;  and  the  other  dignitaries  are  chancellors,  deans  (of  cathe- 
drals and  collegiate  churches),  archdeacons,  prebendaries,  canons,  minor 
canons,  and  priest  vicars  ;  these,  and  the  incumbents  of  rectories,  vicarages, 

mat  IS,  "  they  would  not  be  English,  but  angels,  if  they  were  Christians."  From  that  time  he  was 
struck  with  an  ardent  desire  to  convert  that  unenlightened  nation,  and  ordered  a  monk,  named 
Austin,  or  Augustin,  and  others  of  the  same  fraternity,  to  undertake  the  mission  to  Britain,  in  the 
yc&r  596  — Goldsmith. 

'  Diocletian,  the  Roman  emperor,  keeping  his  court  at  Nicomedia,  being  informed  that  the 
Christians  were  assembled  on  ihi.'?  day  in  great  multitudes,  to  celebrate  Christ's  nativity,  ordered  the 
doors  to  be  shut,  and  the  chutch  to  be  set  on  fire,  and  six  hundred  jjerished  in  thi;  burning  p.ie. 
This  was  the  commencement  of  the  tenth  persecution,  which  lasted  ten  years,  a.  d  303. 


254  THE  world's  PKOGUESS.  [  CIN 

and  c?id,pelries,  make  the  number  of  preferments  of  the  estabUshed  chiirch, 
according  to  the  last  official  returns,  12,327.  The  number  of  churches  for 
Protestant  worship  in  England  was  11,742  in  1818. 

CHURCH  OP  IRELAND.  Called,  in  connection  with  that  of  England,  the 
United  Church  of  England  and  Ireland.  Previously  to  the  Church  Tempo- 
ralities Act  of  William  IV.  in  1833,  there  were  four  archbishoprics  and 
eighteen  bishoprics  in  Ireland,  of  which  several  have  since  ceased ;  that  act 
providing  for  the  union  of  sees,  and  for  the  abolition  of  certain  sees,  accord- 
ingly as  the  present  possessors  of  them  die.  There  are  1,659  places  of  Prot- 
estant worship,  2,109  Catholic  chapels,  452  Presbyterian,  and  414  other 
houses  of  prayer.     See  Bishops. 

CHURCH  OF  SCOTLAND.  Presbyterianism  is  the  religion  of  Scotland.  Its 
distinguishing  tenets  seem  to  have  been  first  embodied  in  the  formulary  of 
faith  attributed  to  John  Knox,  and  compiled  by  that  reformer  in  1560.  It 
was  approved  by  the  parliament  and  ratified  in  1567 ;  was  finally  settled  by 
an  act  of  the  Scottish  senate  in  1696,  and  was  afterwards  secured  bj''  the 
treaty  of  union  with  England  in  1707.  Previously  to  the  abolition  of  episco- 
pacy in  Scotland  in  1688,  there  existed  two  archbishoprics  and  twelve  bish- 
oprics, which  Avere  then  dissolved ;  but  there  are  now  six  bishops.  The 
Church  of  Scotland  is  regulated  bj^  four  courts — the  General  Assembly,  the 
Synod,  the  Presbytery,  and  Kirk  Session.     See  Presbyterians. 

CHURCH  MUSIC,  was  introduced  into  the  Christian  church  by  Gregory  the 
Great,  in  a.  d.  602.  Choir  service  was  first  introduced  in  England,  at  Can- 
terbury, in  677.  Church  organs  were  in  general  use  in  the  tenth  century. 
Church  music  was  first  performed  in  English  in  1559.   See  Choir;  Chanting. 

CHURCH-WARDENS.  Officers  of  the  parish  chu-«h,  appointed  by  the  first 
canon  of  the  synod  of  London  in  1127.  Overseers  in  cA^ery  parish  Avere  also 
appointed  bj'  the  same  body,  and  they  continue  noAV  nearly  as  then  consti- 
tuted.— Johnson's  Canons. 

CHURCHING  OF  WOMEN.  It  originated  in  the  JcAA'ish  rite  of  purification, 
A.  D.  214.  Churching  is  the  act  of  returning  thanks  in  the  church  for  any 
signal  deliverance,  and  particularly  after  the  delivery  of  Avomen. —  IVheatley. 
It  was  a  Jewish  law  that  a  Avoman  should  keep  within  her  house  forty  days 
after  her  lying  in,  if  she  had  a  son,  and  eightj'  if  she  had  a  daughter,  at  the 
expiration  whereof  she  Avas  to  go  to  the  temple,  and  offer  a  lamb  Avith  a 
young  pigeon  or  turtle  and  in  case  of  poverty,  two  pigeons  or  turtles. 
See  Purification. 

CIDER.  Anciently  this  beverage,  Avhen  first  made  in  England,  AA'as  called  wine, 
about  A.  D.  1284.  When  the  earl  of  Manchester  Avas  ambassador  in  France, 
he  is  said  to  have  frequentty  passed  off  cider  upon  the  nobility  of  that  coim- 
try  for  a  delicious  Avine.  It  Avas  subjected  to  the  excise  regulations  in 
England,  1763,  ct  seq.  A  powerful  spirit  is  draAvn  from  cider  by  distillation. — 
Butler. 

03MBRI.  The  Avar  of  the  Cimbri,  113  e.  c.  They  defeat  the  consul  Marcus 
Silanus,  109  b.  g.  They  defeat  the  Romans  under  Manlius,  on  the  banks  of 
the  Rhine.  AA'here  80  000  Romans  are  slain.  105  b.  c.  The  Teutones  are  de- 
feated by  Marius  in  two  battles  at  Aquse  Sextise  (Aix)  in  Gaul,  200,000  are 
killed,  and  70  000  made  prisoners,  102  b.  c.  The  Cimbri  are  defeated  by 
Marius  and  Catullus  as  they  AA-ere  again  endeavoring  to  enter  Italy ;  120,000 
are  killed,  and  60,000  taken  prisoners,  101  b.  c.  Their  name  afterwards  sunk 
in  that  of  the  Teutones  or  Saxons. 

CINCINNATI.  Ohio,  the  most  populous  city  Avest  of  the  Alleghanies  in  the 
United  States,  AA'as  founded  in  1789,  hy  emigrants  from  Ncav  England  and 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES. 


255 


New  Jersej'.     Population  in  1795,  500;  in  1800,  750 ;  in  1810,  2,510  ;  in  1820, 
9,642 ;  in  1830,  21,831 ;  in  1810,  46,338. 

CINCINNATI,  Society  of.  Establislied  by  the  officere  of  tlie  American«army, 
in  1783,  after  the  Revolution,  and  still  continued  by  them  and  their  descend- 
ants. There  was  at  one  time  a  popular  jealousy  of  this  society  as  suggest- 
ing a  sort  of  hereditary  nobility  or  aristocracy ;  but  this  has  long  since  passed 
away,  and  the  society  is  now  but  seldom  mentioned. 

CIRCASSIA.  The  Circassians  are  descended  from  the  Alanians.  They  contin- 
ued unsubdued,  even  by  the  arms  of  the  celebrated  ""imur ;  but  in  the  six- 
teenth century  the  greater  part  of  them  acknowledged  the  authority  of  the 
Czar,  Ivan  II.  of  Russia.  About  a  d.  1745,  the  princes  of  Great  and  Little 
Kabarda  took  oaths  of  fealty  to  that  power.  One  branch  of  their  traffic  is 
the  sale  of  their  daughters,  famed  throughout  the  world  for  their  beauty, 
and  wliom  they  sell  for  the  use  of  the  seraglios  of  Tui'key  and  Persia  :  the 
merchants  who  come  from  Constantinople  to  i^ui'chase  these  girls  are  gener- 
ally Jews. — KlaprotKs  Travels  in  the  Caucasus  and  Georgia. 

CIRCULATING  LIBRARY".  The  first  in  England,  on  a  public  plan,  was  opened 
by  Samuel  Fancourt,  a  dissenting  minister  of  Salisbury,  about  1740.  He  had 
little  encouragement  in  the  undertaking,  which  in  the  end  failed. — IPergu- 
soji's  Biog. 

CIRCULATION  of  the  BLOOD,  and  the  motion  of  the  heart  in  animals,  con- 
firmed experimentally  by  William  Harvey,  the  celebrated  English  physician 
and  anatomist,  between  1619  and  1628.  See  article  Blood.  By  this  dis- 
covery the  medical  and  surgical  art  became  greatly  improved,  to  the  benefit 
of  mankind.— /'Vei«rf'5  Hist,  of  Physic. 

CIRCUMCISION.  A  rite  instituted  1897  b.  c.  It  was  the  seal  of  the  covenant 
made  by  God  with  Abraham. — Josephus.  Even  to  the  present  day  many  of 
the  Turks  and  Persians  circumcise,  although  not  regarding  it  as  essential  to 
salvation ;  but  in  some  eastern  and  African  nations  it  is  rendered  necessary 
by  a  peculiar  conformation,  and  is  used  without  any  reference  to  a  religious 
rite. — Bell.  The  festival  of  the  Circumcision  was  originally  called  the  Octave 
of  Christmas.  The  first  mention  found  of  it  is  in  a.  d.  487.  It  Avas  instituted 
by  the  church  to  commemorate  the  ceremony  under  the  Jewish  law  to 
which  Christ  submitted  on  the  eighth  day  of  his  nativity ;  it  was  introduced 
into  the  Liturgy  in  1550. 

CIRCUMNAVIGATORS.  Among  the  greatest  and  most  daring  of  human  en- 
terprises was  the  circumnavigation  of  the  earth  at  the  period  when  it  was 
first  attempted,  a.  d.  1519.*  The  following  are  the  most  renowned  of  this 
illustrious  class  of  men ;  their  voj^ages  were  undertaken  at  the  dates  affixed 
to  their  names.     See  Navigators. 


Magellan,  a  Portuguese,  the  first  who 


entered  the  Pacific  ocean 
Groalva,  a  Spanish  navigator 
Avalradi,  a  Spaniard 
Mendana,  a  Spaniard  - 
Sir  Francis  Drake,  first  English 
Cavendish,  his  first  voyage 
Le  Maire,  a  Dutchman  -  ' 
Quiros,  a  Spaniard 
Tasman,  Dutch   - 
Cowley,  British 
Dampier,  an  Englishman 
Cooke,  an  Englishman 


1519 
1537 
1.537 

-  1567 
•  1577 
.  1585 
-1615 

-  1625 

-  1642 

-  1683 
-1689 

-  1708 


Clipperton,  British  -           -           a.  d.  1719 

Roggewein,  Dutch            •            -  -  1721 

Anson  (afterwards  Lord)     -           •  -  1740 

Byron  (grandfather  of  Lord  Byron)  -  1764 

Wallis,  British          -           -           -  -  1766 

Carteret,  an  Englishman           -  -  1766 

Cook,  the  illustrious  captain          -  -  1768 
On  the  death  of  Captain  Cook,  his  last 

voyage  was  continued  by  King  -  JiT) 

Bougainville,  French           -           -  -1776 

Ponlocke,  British           •           -  -  178S 

Wilkes,  American    -           -           -  -  1837 

D'Urville,  French           -           •  -  ia37 


*  The  first  ship  that  sailed  round  the  earth,  and  hence  determined  its  being  globular,  was 
Magellan's,  or  Magelhoen's ;  he  was  a  native  of  Portugal,  in  the  service  of  Spain,  and  by  keeping  a 
westerly  course  he  returned  to  the  same  place  he  had  set  out  from  in  1519.  The  voyage  was  com- 
pleted in  three  years  and  twenty-nine  days ;  but  Rlasellan  was  killed  on  his  homeward  prissage,  at 
the  Philippines,  in  1521. — Bull'ei: 


256  THi;  world's  progress.  [  ciV 

Several  voyages  have  been  since  undertaken,  and,  among  other  nations,  bj 
the  Russians.  The  early  navigators,  equally  illustrious,  are  named  else- 
where. 

CIRCUS.  There  were  eight  (some  say  ten)  buildings  of  this  kind  at  Rome ; 
the  largest  of  them  was  called  the  Circus  Maximus,  which  was  built  by  the 
elder  Tarquin,  605  b.  c.  ;  it  was  of  an  oval  figure ;  its  length  was  three  stadia 
and  a  half,  or  more  than  three  English  furlongs,  and  its  breadth  960  Roman 
feet.  This  circus  was  enlarged  by  Caesar  so  as  to  seat  150,000  persons,  and 
was  rebuilt  by  Augustus.  All  the  emperors  vied  in  beautifying  it,  and 
Julius  Caesar  introduced  in  it  large  canals  of  water,  which  on  a  sudden  could 
be  covered  with  an  infinite  number  of  vessels,  and  represent  a  sea-fight. — 
Pliny. 

CISALPINE  REPUBLIC.  Founded  by  the  French  in  June  1797.  It  was  ac- 
knowledged by  the  emperor  of  Germany  to  be  independent,  by  the  treaty  of 
Campo  Formio  {which  see'),  Oct.  17,  following.  Received  a  new  constitution 
in  Sept.  1798.  It  merged  into  the  kingdom  of  Italy  in  March,  1805 ;  Napo- 
leon was  crowned  king  in  May  following,  and  was  represented  by  his  vice- 
roy,  Eugene  Beauharnois.     See  Italy. 

CISTERCIANS.  An  order  founded  by  Robert,  a  Benedictine,  in  the  eleventh 
century.  They  became  so  powerful  that  they  governed  almost  all  Europe 
in  spiritual  and  temporal  concerns.  They  observed  a  continual  silence,  ab- 
stained from  flesh,  lay  on  straw,  wore  neither  shoes  nor  shirts,  and  were  most 
austere. — De  Vitri. 

CITIES.  The  word  ciiy  has  been  in  use  in  England  only  since  the  Conquest,  at 
which  time  even  London  was  called  Londonburgh,  as  the  capital  of  Scotland 
is  still  called  Edinburgh.  The  English  cities  were  very  inconsiderable  in 
the  twelfth  century.  Cities  were  first  incorporated  a.  d.  1079.  The  institu- 
tion of  cities  has  aided  much  in  introducing  regular  governments,  police, 
manners,  and  arts. — Robcftson. 

CITIZEN.  It  was  not  lawful  to  scourge  a  citizen  of  Rome. — Livy.  In  England 
a  citizen  is  a  person  who  is  free  of  a  city,  or  who  doth  carrj^  on  a  trade 
therein. —  Camden.  Various  privileges  have  been  conferred  on  citizens  as 
freemen  in  several  reigns,  and  powers  granted  to  them.  The  wives  of  citi- 
zens of  London  (not  being  aldermen's  wives,  nor  gentlewomen  by  descent) 
were  obliged  to  wear  minever  caps,  being  white  woollen  knit  three-cornered, 
with  the  peaks  projecting  three  or  four  inches  beyond  their  foreheads;  alder- 
men's wives  made  them  of  velvet,  1  Elizabeth,  1558. — Stowe.  The  title  of 
citizen,  only,  was  allowed  in  France  at  the  period  of  the  revolution,  1792,  et  seq. 

CIUDAD  RODRIGO.  This  strong  fortress  of  Spain  was  invested  by  the  French 
June  11,  1810;  and  it  surrendered  to  them  July  10,  following.  It  remained 
in  their  possession  until  it  was  gallantly  stormed  by  the  British  commanded 
by  Wellington,  Jan.  19,  1812.  Wellington  had  made  a  previous  attack  upon 
Ciudad  Rodrigo  (Sept.  25,  1811),  which  ended  in  his  orderly  retreat  from 
the  ijosition. 

CIVIL  LAW.  Several  codes  come  under  this  denomination  of  laws.  A  body 
of  Roman  laws,  founded  upon  the  laws  of  nature  and  of  nations,  was  first 
collected  by  Alfrenus  Varus,  the  Civilian,  who  flourished  about  66  s.  c. ;  and 
a  digest  of  them  was  made  by  Servius  Sulpicius,  the  Civilian,  53  b.  c.  The 
Gregorian  laws  were  compiled  a.  d.  290 ;  the  Theodosian  in  435 ;  and  the 
Justinian,  529-534.  Many  of  the  former  laws  having  grown  out  of  use,  the 
emperor  Justinian  ordered  a  revision  of  them,  which  was  called  the  Justinian 
code,  and  this  code  constitutes  a  large  part  of  the  present  civil  law.  Civil 
law  was  restored  in  Italy,  Germany,  &c.  1127. — Blctir.  Civil  law  was  intro- 
duced into  England  by  Theobald,  a  Norman  abbot,  who  was  afterwards 


CLE  J  DICTIONARY    OF    DATKiJ.  257 

arclibishop  of  Canterbury,  in  1138.     It  is  now  used  in  tlie  spiritual  courts 
only,  and  in  maritime  affairs.     See  Laws. 

CIVIL  LIST  IN  ENGLAND.  This  comprehends  the  revenue  awarded  to  the 
kings  of  England,  partly  in  lieu  of  their  ancient  hereditary  income.  The 
entire  revenue  of  Elizabeth  was  not  more  than  600, 000^.  and  that  of  Charles  I. 
was  but  800,000Z.  After  the  Revolution  a  civil  list  revenue  was  settled  on 
the  new  king  and  queen  of  700,000Z.,  the  parliament  taking  into  its  own 
hands  the  support  of  the  forces,  both  maritime  and  military.^  The  civil  list 
of  George  II.  was  increased  to  800.000L  ;  and  that  of  George  III.  in  the  55th 
year  of  his  reign,  was  l,O3O,000Z.'  By  the  act  1  William  IV.  1831,  the  civil 
list  of  that  sovereign  was  fixed  at  510,000Z.  By  the  act  of  1  Victoria,  Dec. 
1837j  the  civil  list  of  the  queen  was  fixed  at  385  OOOZ. ;  and  Prince  Albert 
obtained  an  exclusive  sum  from  parliament  of  3O,O0OZ.  per  arm.  4  Victoria, 
1840. 

CLANSHIPS.  These  were  tribes  of  the  same  race,  and  commonly  of  the  same 
name,  and  originated  in  feudal  times. — See  Feudal  Laws.  They  may  be 
said  to  have  arisen  in  Scotland,  in  the  reign  of  Malcolm  II.,  about  1008. 
Clanships  and  other  remains  of  heritable  jurisdiction  were  abolished  in  Scot- 
land (where  clans  ivere  taken  to  be  the  tenants  of  one  lord),  and  the  liberty 
of  the  English  was  granted  to  clansmen.  20  George  II.,  1746. — Ruffhead. 
The  chief  of  each  respective  clan  was,  and  is,  entitled  to  wear  two  eagle's 
feathers  in  his  bonnet,  in  addition  to  the  distinguishing  badge  of  his  clan. — 
Ckambers. 

CLARENDON,  Statutes  of.  These  were  statutes  enacted  in  a  parliament 
held  at  Clarendon,  the  object  of  which  was  to  retrench  the  then  enormous 
power  of  the  clergy.  They  are  rendered  memorable  as  being  the  ground  of 
Becket's  quarrel  -svith  Henry  II.  A  number  of  regulations  were  drawn  up 
under  the  title  of  the  statutes  or  constitutions  of  Clarendon,  and  were  voted 
without  opposition,  a.  d.  1164.  These  stringent  statutes  were  enacted  to 
prevent  the  chief  abuses  which  at  that  time  prevailed  in  ecclesiastical 
affairs,  and  put  a  stop  to  church  usurpations  which,  gradually  stealing  on, 
threatened  the  destruction  of  the  civil  and  royal  power. — Huvie. 

CLARION.  This  instrument  originated  with  the  Moors,  in  Spain,  about  a.  d. 
800 ;  it  was  at  first  a  trumpet,  serving  as  a  treble  to  trumpets  sounding  their 
tenor  and  bass. — Ashe.  Its  tube  is  narrower,  and  its  tone  shriller  than  the 
common  trumpet. — Pardon. 

CLASSIS.  The  name  was  first  given  by  TuUius  Servius  in  making  divisions  of 
the  Roman  people.  The  first  of  sis  classes  were  called  dassici,  by  way  of 
eminence,  and  hence  authors  of  the  first  rank  came  to  be  called  classics, 
573  B.  c. 

CLEMENTINES.  Apocryphal  pieces,  fable  and  error,  attributed  to  a  primi- 
tive father,  Clemens  Romanus,  a  cotemporary  of  St.  Paul;  some  say  he 
succeeded  Peter  as  bishop  of  Rome.  He  died  a.  d.  102. — Niceron.  Also  the 
decretals  of  pope  Clement  V.,  who  died  1314,  published  by  his  successor. — • 
Boii-yer.  Also  Augustine  monks,  each  of  whom  having  been  a  superior  nine 
j^ears,  then  merged  into  a  common  monk. 

CLEMExMTINES  and  URBANISTS.  Parties  by  whom  Europe  was  distracted 
for  several  years.  The  Urbanists  were  the  adherents  of  pope  Urban  VI.,  the 
others  those  of  Robert,  son  of  the  count  of  Geneva,  who  took  the  title  of 
Clement  VII.  All  the  kingdoms  of  Christendom  according  to  their  various 
interests  and  inclinations  were  divided  between  these  two  pontiffs ;  the  courts 
of  France,  Castile,  Scotland,  &c.  adhering  to  Clement,  and  Rome,  Italy,  and 


258  THE    world's    progress.  [  CLC 

England  declaring  for  Urban.  This  contention  was  consequent  upon  the 
death  of  Gregory  XI.  1378. — Hmiie. 

CLERGY.  In  the  first  century  the  clergy  were  distinguished  by  the  title  of 
presbyters  or  bishops.  The  bishops  in  the  second  century  assumed  higher 
functions,  and  the  presbyters  represented  the  inferior  priests  of  the  Levites: 
this  distinction  was  still  further  promoted  in  the  third  century ;  and,  under 
Constantine,  the  clergy  attained  the  recognition  and  protection  of  the  secu- 
lar power. 

CLERGY  IN  England.  They  increased  rapidly  in  number  early  in  the  seventh 
century,  and  at  length  controlled  the  king  and  kingdom.  Drunkenness  was 
forbidden  among  the  clergy  by  a  law,  so  eai-ly  as  747  a.  d.  The  first  frnitf 
of  the  then  clergy  were  assigned  by  parliament  to  the  king,  1534.  The  cler- 
gy were  excluded  from  parliament  in  1536.  .The  conference  between  the 
Protestant  and  Dissenting  clergy  was  held  in  1604.  See  Conferenct.  Two 
thousand  resigned  their  benefices  in  the  church  of -England,  rathei  than 
subscribe  their  assent  to  the  book  of  common  prayer,  including  the  thirty- 
nine  articles  of  religion,  as  enjoined  by  the  Act  of  Uniformity,  1661-2.  The 
Irish  Protestant  clergy  were  restored  to  their  benefices,  from  which  they  had 
been  expelled,  owing  to  the  state  of  the  kingdom  xmder  cSimes  II.,  1689. 
The  Clergy  Incapacitation  act  passed,  1801.     See  Church  of  England. 

CLERK.  The  Clergy  were  first  styled  clerks,  owing  to  the  judges  being  chosen 
after  the  Norman  custom  from  the  sacred  order ;  and  the  otticers  being  cler- 
gy;  this  gave  them  that  denomination,  which  they  keep  to  this  day. — Black- 
stone's  Comm. 

CLOCK.  That  called  the  clepsydra,  or  water-clock,  was  introduced  at  Rome 
158  B.  c.  by  Scipio  Nasica.  Toothed  wheels  were  applied  to  them  by  Ctesi- 
bius,  about  140  b.  c.  Said  to  have  been  found  by  Caesar  on  invading  Britain, 
55  E.  c.  The  only  clock  supposed  to  be  then  in  the  world  was  sent  by  pope 
Paul  I.  to  Pepin,  king  of  France,  a.  d.  760.  Pacificus,  archdeacon  of  Verona, 
invented  one  in  the  ninth  century.  Originally  the  wheels  were  three  feet  in 
diameter.  The  earliest  complete  clock  of  which  there  is  any  certain  record, 
was  made  by  a  Saracen  mechanic,  in  the  13th  centurj'. 

Thescapement,  ascribed  to  Gerbert,A.D.  1000  ,       den)  and  the  younger  Galileo  con- 

A  clock  constructed  by  Richard,  abbot  '■      structed  the  pendulum        -        a.  d.  1641 

of  St.  Alban's,  about   -  -  -1326     Christian  Huygens  contested  this  disco- 

A  striking  clock  in  Westminster  -  1368        very,  and  made  his  pendulum  clock 

A  perfect  one  made  at  Paris  by  Vick  -  1370        some  time  previously  to  -         - 1658 

The  first  portable  one  made        -  -  1530     Fromantil,  a  Dutchman,  improyed  the 

In  England  no  clock  went  accurately  i      pendulum,  about         -  .  -  1659 

before  that  set  up  at  Hampton-court  i  Repeating  clocks  and  watches  invented 

(maker's  initials,  N.  O.)         -  -  1510        by  Barlow,  about  -  -        -  1676 

Richard  HaiTis  (who  erected  a  clock  in  The  dead  beat,  and  horizontal  escape- 

the  church  of  St.  Pauls,  Covent-Gar-  >       ments,  by  Graham,  about   -         -    -1700 

The  subsequent  improvements  were  the  spiral  balance  spring  suggested,  and 
the  duplex  scapement  invented  bj^  Dr.  Hooke ;  pivot  holes  jewelled  by  Facio ; 
the  detached  scapement  invented  by  Mudge,  and  improved  by  Berthoud, 
Arnold,  Earnshaw  and  others. 

CLOCK,  MAGNETIC.     Invented  by  Dr.  Locke  of  Cincinnati,  1847-8. 

CLOTH.  Both  woollen  and  linen  cloth  were  known  in  very  early  times.  Coarse 
woollens  were  introduced  into  England  a.  d.  1191;  and  seventy  families  of 
cloth-workers  from  the  Netherlands  settled  in  England  by  Edward  III.'s  in- 
vitation, and  the  art  of  weaving  was  thereby  introduced,  1331. — Rpmr's  Fa- 
dera.  Woollens  were  first  made  at  Kendal,  in  1390.  Medleys  were  manu- 
factured. 1614.  Our  fine  broad  cloths  were  yet  sent  to  Holland  to  be  dyed, 
1654.  Dyed  and  dressed  in  England,  by  one  Brewer,  from  the  Low  Coun- 
tries, 1667.    The  manufacture  was  discouraged  in  Ireland  and  that  of  linen 


coa] 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  259 


countenanced,  at  the  i-equest  of  both  houses  of  pariiament,  1698.  See 
Woollen  Cloth. 

CLOVTS,  Family  of.  Kings  of  France.  The  real  founder  of  the  French  mo- 
narchy was  Clovis  I.,  who  commenced  his  reign  a.  d.  481,  and  was  a  warlike 
prince.  He  expelled  the  Romans,  embraced  the  Cliristian  religion,  and  pub- 
lished the  Salique  law.  On  his  being  first  told  of  the  suflferings  of  Christ, 
he  exclaimed,  "  O,  had  I  been  there  with  my  valiant  Gauls,  how  I  would 
have  avenged  him !"  Clovis  imited  his  conquests  from  the  Romans,  Germans, 
and  Goths,  as  provinces  to  the  then  scanty  dominions  of  France :  removed 
the  seat  of  Government  from  Soissons  to  Paris,  and  made  this  the  capital  of 
his  new  kingdom;  he  died  in  511. — Henault. 

COACH.  The  coach  is  of  French  invention.  Under  Francis  I.,  who  was  a  co- 
temporary  with  our  Henry  VIII.,  there  were  but  two  in  Paris,  one  of  Avhich 
belonged  to  the  queen,  and  the  other  to  Diana,  the  natural  daughter  of 
Henry  II.  There  were  but  three  in  Paris  in  1550 ;  and  Henry  IV.  had  one,  but 
without  straps  or  springs.  The  first  courtier  who  set  uj^  this  equipage  was 
John  de  Laval  de  Bois-Dauphiu,  who  could  not  travel  otherwise  on  account 
of  his  enormous  bulk.  Previously  to  the  use  of  coaches  the  kings  of  France 
travelled  on  horseback,  the  princesses  were  carried  in  litters,  and  ladies  rode 
behind  their  squires.  The  first  coach  seen  in  England  was  in  the  reign  of 
Mary,  about  1553. — Priestley's  Led.  They  were  introduced  much  earlier. — 
Andrews'  Hist.  Great  Brit.  They  were  introduced  by  Fitz-Allen,  earl  of 
Arundel,  in  1580. — Stowe.  And  in  some  years  afterwards  the  art  of  making 
them. — Anderson's  Hist,  of  Commerce.  A  bill  was  brought  into  parliament 
to  prevent  the  effeminacy  of  men  riding  in  coaches,  43  Eliz.  1601.* — Carle. 
See  Carriages.  Hackney  Coaches,  Mail  Coaches,  &c. 

COALITIONS.  The  great  coalitions  against  France  since  the  period  of  the 
French  revolution,  have  been  six  in  number  ;  and  they  generally  arose  out 
of  the  subsidizing  hj  England  of  the  great  powers  of  the  Continent.  They 
were  entered  into  as  follows : 


1st.  The  king  of  Prussia  issues  liis  ma- 
nifesto   -  -  -    June  26,  1792 

2nd.  By  Great  Britain,  Germany,  Rus- 
sia, Naples,  Portugal,  and  Turkey, 
signed     -  -  -    June  22, 1799 

3rd.  By  Great  Britain,  Russia,  Austria, 

and  Naples  -  -  Aug.  5,  1805 


4tli.  By  Great  Britain,  Russia,  Prussia, 

and  Saxony  -  -  Oct.  6,  1806 

5th.  By  England  and  Austria  -  April  6,  1809 
6th.  By  Russia  and  Prussia ;  the  treaty 

ratified  at  Kalisch     -     March  17,  1813 
See  Treaties. 


COALITION  MINISTRY.  This  designation  was  given  to  the  celebrated  mia- 
istr}'  of  Mr.  Fox  and  lord  North,  and  which  was. rendered  memorable  as  an 
extraordinary  union  in  political  life,  on  account  of  the  strong  personal  dis- 
like which  had  always  been  displayed  by  these  personages,  each  towards 
the  other.  The  ministrj-  was  formed  April  5,  1783,  and  dissolved  Dec.  19, 
same  year.     See  Administrations. 

COALS.  It  is  contended,  with  much  seeming  truth,  that  coals,  although  they 
are  not  mentioned  by  the  Romans  in  their  notices  of  Britain,  were  yet  in  use 
by  the  ancient  Britons. — Brandt.  They  were  first  discovered  at  Newcastle- 
upon-Tyne  in  1234,  some  say  earlier ;  and  others  in  1239.  Sea-coal  was  pro- 
hibited from  being  used  in  and  near  London,  as  being  "  prejudicial  to  human 
health ;  "  and  even  smiths  were  obliged  to  burn  wood,  1273. — Stowe.  Coals 
were  first  made  an  article  of  trade  from  Newcastle  to  London,  4  Richard  U. 
1381. — Rymer's  Feeder  a.     Notwithstanding  the  many  previous  comj^lainls 


*  In  the  beginning  of  the  year  1619,  the  earl  of  Northumberland,  who  had  been  imprisoned  ever 
emcc  the  Gutipowtier  Plot,  obtained  his  liberation  Hearing  that  Buckingham  was  drawn  about 
with  six  hort-cs  in  his  coach  (being  the  first  that  was  so),  he  put  on  eight  to  his,  and  in  that  manner 
passed  from  the  tower  through  the  city. — Rapin. 


260  THE    AVOELTd's    PKUGRESS.  [  COD 

against  coal  as  a  public  nuisance,  it  was  at  length  generally  burned  in  Lon- 
don in  1400 ;  but  coals  were  not  in  common  use  in  England  until  the  leign 
of  Charles  I.,  1625. 

NUMBER   OP   CHALDRONS   OP  COALS    CONSUMED   IN   LONDON   IN   THE   FOLLOWING  YEARS: 

1650       -       -    160.000  chald.  I  1800  -       -  814,000  chald.  i  1830    -         -  1,.588,360  chald. 

1700  -         317,000  ditto.     1810       -        -      980,372  ditto.      18:35         -        2,299,816  tons.     - 

1750    -  -    510,000  ditto.  |  1820       -     -      1,171,178  ditto.  |  1810    -  -  2,638,256  ditto. 

The  coal-fields  of  Durham  and  Northumberland  are  723  square  miles  in 
extent ;  those  of  Newcastle,  Sunderland,  Whitehaven,  and  other  places,  arc 
also  of  vast  magnitude  ;  and  there  are  exhaustless  beds  of  coal  in  Yorkshire. 
The  coal  in  South  Wales  alone,  would,  at  the  present  rate  of  consumption, 
supply  all  England  for  2000  j'ears. — Blakeivell.  It  is  supposed  that  there  are 
now  about  25,000,000  of  tons  consumed  annually  in  Great  Britain. — Phillips. 
Scotland  teems  with  the  richest  mines  of  coal,  and  besides  her  vast  collieries 
there  must  be  vast  fields  unexplored. — Pennant.  Fine  coal  is  found  in  Kil- 
kenny, Ireland.  Tlae  first  sliip  laden  with  Irish  coal  arrived  in  Dublin  from 
Newry,  in  1742. —  Burns. 

COALS  IN  THE  United  States.  Lehigh  coal  from  Mauch  Chunk,  Pennsylva- 
nia, first  mined  and  used,  1806.  According  to  Mr.  Lyell,  the  coal  strata  in 
Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  &c.,  extend  700  miles. 

COCCEIANS.  A  sect  founded  by  John  Cocceius  of  Bremen;  they  held, 
amongst  other  singular  opinions,  that  of  a  visible  reign  of  Christ  in  this  world, 
after  a  general  conversion  of  the  Jews  and  all  other  people  to  the  Christian 
faith,  1665. 

COCHINEAL.  The  projjerties  of  this  insect  became  known  to  the  Spaniards 
soon  after  their  conquest  of  Mexico,  in  1518.  Cochineal  was  not  known  in 
Italy  in  1548,  although  the  art  of  dyeing  then  flourished  there. — See  Dyeing. 
The  annual  import  of  this  article  into  England  was  260,000  lbs.  in  1830 ;  and 
1,081,776,  in  1845. 

COCK-FIGHTING.  Practised  by  the  early  barbarous  nations,  and  by  Greece. 
It  was  instituted  at  Rome  after  a  victory  over  the  Persians,  476  b.  c.  ;  and 
was  introduced  by  the  Romans  into  England.  William  Fitz-Stephen,  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  II.,  describes  cock-fighting  as  the  sport  of  school-boys  on 
Shrove  Tuesdaj"".  Cock-fighting  was  prohibited,  39  Edward  III.,  1365;  and 
again  by  Henry  VIII.  and  Cromwell.  Till  within  these  few  years  there  was 
a  Cock-pit  Royal,  in  St.  James's-park  :  but  this  practice  is  happily  now  dis- 
couraged by  the  law. 

COCK-LANE  GHOST.  A  famous  imposition  (1)  practised  upon  the  credulous 
multitude  by  William  Parsons,  his  wife,  and  daughter.  The  contrivance 
was  that  of  a  female  ventriloquist,  and  all  who  heard  her  believed  she 
was  a  ghost :  the  deception,  which  arose  in  a  malignant  conspiracy,  was 
carried  on  for  some  time  at  the  house,  No.  33  Cock-lane,  London ;  but 
it  was  at  length  detected,  and  the  parents  were  condemned  to  the  pillory 
and  imprisonment,  July  10,  1762. 

COCOA.  Unknown  in  Europe  until  the  discovery  of  America,  about  1500, 
The  cocoa-tree  supplies  the  Indians  with  almost  whatever  they  stand  in  need 
of  as  bread,  water,  wine,  vinegar,  brandy,  milk,  oil,  honey,  sugar,  needles, 
clothes,  thread,  cups,  spoons,  basins,  baskets,  paper,  masts  for  ships,  sails, 
■iordage,  nails,  covering  for  their  houses,  &c. — Ray. 

CODES  OP  LAWS.  The  laws  of  Phoroneus  were  instituted  1807  b.  c.  :  those 
of  Lycurgus,  884  b.  c.  ;  of  Draco,  623  b.  c.  ;  of  Solon,  587  b.  c.  Alfrenus 
Varus,  the  civilian,  first  collected  the  Roman  laws  about  66  b.  c.  ;  and  Ser- 
vius  Sulpicius,  the  civilian,  embodied  them  about  53  b.  c.  The  Gregorian 
and  Hermoginian  codes  were  pubhshed  a.  d.  290  ;  the  Theodosian  code  in 
435  •  the  celebrated  code  of  the  emperor  Justinian,  in  529— a  digest  from 


(;OIJ  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  261 

this  last  was  made  in  533. — Blair.    Alfred's  code  of  laws  is  the  foundation 
of  the  common  law  of  England,  887. — See  Laws. 

CODICILS  TO  WILLS.  C.  Trebatius  Testa,  the  civilian  of  Rome,  was  the 
first  who  introduced  the  use  of  this  supplementary  instrument  to  wills, 
about  31  B.  c. 

CGEUR  DE  LION,  OR  the  Lion-hearted.  Tlie  surname  given  to  Richard  Plan- 
tagenet  I.  of  England,  on  account  of  his  dauntless  courage,  about  a.  d.  1192. 
This  surname  was  also  conferred  on  Louis  VIII.  of  France,  who  signalized 
himself  in  the  crusades  and  in  his  wars  against  England,  about  1223.  This 
latter  prince  had  also  the  appellation  of  tbe  Lion  given  !:im. 

COFFEE.  It  grows  in  Arabia,  Persia,  the  Indies,  and  America.  Its  use  as  a 
beverage  is  traced  to  the  Persians.*  It  came  into  great  repute  in  Arabia 
Felix  about  a.  d.  1454 ;  and  passed  thence  into  Egj^pt  and  Syria,  and  thence, 
in  1511,  to  Constantinople,  where  coffee-houses  were  opened  in  1554.  M. 
Thevenot,  the  traveller,  was  the  first  Mdio  brought  it  into  France,  to  which 
country  he  returned  after  an  absence  of  seven  years,  in  1662. —  Chambers.  Cof- 
fee was  brought  into  England  by  Mr.  Nathaniel  Canopus,  a  Cretan,  who 
made  it  his  common  beverage  at  Baliol  College,  Oxford,  in  1641. — Anderson.^ 

COFFEE  and  TEA.  The  consumption  in  the  United  States  at  different  periods 
is  reported  by  the  secretary  of  the  treasury  (see  American  Almanac,  1848) 
thus : — 


1821   - 

-  Tea,  4,536,223  lbs. 

-   -  Coffee,  11,886,063  lbs. 

1830  - 

"   6,873,091  lbs.  - 

"   38,363.687  lbs 

1885   - 

-   "  12.331,638  lbs. 

"   91,753,002  lbs. 

1842  -   - 

"  13,482,645  lbs.  - 

"   107,387,567  lbs. 

lSi6 

-   "  16,891,020  lbs. 

"   124,336,054  lbs. 

COFFEE-HOUSES.  The  first  in  England  was  kept  by  a  Jew,  named  Jacobs, 
in  Oxford,  1650.  In  that  year,  Mr.  Edwards,  an  English  Turkey  merchant, 
brought  home  with  him  a  Greek  servant  named  Pasquet,  who  kept  the  first 
house  for  making  coffee  in  London,  which  he  opened  in  George-j'ard,  Lom- 
bard-street, in  1652.  Pasquet  afterwards  went  to  Holland,  and  opened  the 
first  house  in  that  country. — Anderson.  The  Rainbow  coffee-house,  near 
Temple-bar,  was  represented  as  a  nuisance  to  the  neighborhood,  1657. 
Coffee-houses  were  suppressed  by  proclamation,  26  Charles  II.,  1675.  The 
proclamation  was  afterwards  suspended  on  the  petition  of  the  traders  in  tea 
and  coffee. 

COFFEE-TREES.  These  trees  were  conveyed  from  Mocha  to  Holland  in  1616; 
and  were  carried  to  the  West  Indies  in  the  year  1726.  First  cultivated  at 
Surinam  by  the  Dutch  about  1718.  The  culture  was  encouraged  in  the 
plantations  about  1732. 

COFFINS.  The  Athenian  heroes  were  buried  in  coffins  of  the  cedar  tree;  ow- 
ing to  its  aromatic  and  incorruptible  qualities. —  Thucy did.es.  Coffins  of 
marble  and  stone  were  used  by  the  Romans.  Alexander  is  said  to  have  been 
buried  in  one  of  gold :  and  glass  coffins  have  been  found  in  England. —  Gough. 
The  earliest  record  of  wooden  coffins  amongst  us,  is  that  of  the  burial  of 
king  Arthur,  who  was  buried  in  an  entire  trunk  of  oak,  hollowed,  a.  d.  542 
— Asser.    The  patent  coffins  were  invented  in  1796. 

COIN.  Homer  speaks  of  brass  money  as  existing  1184  b.  c.  The  invention  of 
coin  is  ascribed  to  the  Lydians,  who  cherished  commerce,  and  whose  nu)ney 

*  Some  ascribe  the  discovery  of  coffee  as  a  beverage  to  the  prior  of  a  monastery,  who,  being  in- 
formed by  a  2oat-hci-d  that  his  cattle  sometimes  browsed  upon  the  tree,  and  that  they  would  Iher 
wake  at  night,  and  snort  ami  bound  upon  the  hills,  became  curious  to  prove  its  virtues.  He  ac- 
cordingly tried  it  on  liis  monks,  t6  prevent  their  sleeping  at  malias,  and  he  found  that  it  rhrd.c  I 
their  slumb.^TM. 


262  THE  world's  progress.  feoi 

was  of  gold  and  silver.  Both  were  coined  by  Phidon  tyrant  of  Argos,  862 
B.  c.  Money  was  coined  at  Rome  under  -  Servius  Tullius,  about  573  b.  c. 
The  most  ancient  known  coins  are  Macedonian,  of  the  fifth  century  b.  c.  ;  but 
others  are  believed  to  be  more  ancient.  Brass  money  only  was  in  use  at 
Rome  previously  to  269  b.  c.  (when  Fabius  Pictor  coined  silver),  a  sign  that 
little  correspondence  was  then  held  with  the  East,  where  gold  and  silver 
were  in  use  long  before.  Gold  was  coined  206  b.  c.  Iron  money  was  used 
in  Sparta,  and  Iron  and  tin  in  Britain. — Dufresnoy.  Julius  Caesar  was  the 
first  who  obtained  the  express  permission  of  the  senate  to  place  his  portrait 
on  the  coins,  and  the  example  was  soon  followed.  In  the  earlier  and  more 
simple  days  of  Rome,  the  likeness  of  no  living  personage  appeared  upon 
their  money :  the  heads  were  those  of  their  deities,  or  of  those  who  had  re- 
ceived divine  honors. 

COIN  IN  ENGLAND.  The  fii-st  coinage  in  England  was  under  the  Romans  at 
Camulodunum,  or  Colchester.  English  coin  was  of  different  shapes,  as 
square,  oblong,  and  round,  until  the  middle  ages,  when  round  coin  only  was 
used.  Groats  were  the  largest  silver  coin  until  after  a,  d.  1351.  Coin  was 
made  sterling  m  1216,  before  which  time  rents  were  mostly  paid  in  kind,  and 
maney  was  found  only  in  the  cofiers  of  the  barons. — Stowe 


The  first  gold  coins  on  certain  record, 
struck,  42  Henry  III.  -        a.  d.  1257 

Gold  florin  first  struck,  Ed.  III.  (Cam- 
den) 13.37 

First  large  copper  coinage,  putting  an 


end  to  the  circulation  of  private  lead- 
en pieces,  &c.  -  -  .  .  1620 
Halfpence  and  J'arthings  coined  - 1665 
Guineas  first  coined,  25  Char.  II.  - 1673 
Sovereigns,  new  coinage  -  - 1816 
Half-fariliings           -           -           -      -  1843 

Gold  coin  was  introduced  in  six  shilling  pieces  by  Edward  III.  and  nobles 
followed,  at  six  shillings  and  eightpence,  and  hence  the  lawyer's  fee :  aftei'- 
wards  there  were  half  and  quarter  nobles.  Guineas  Avei-e  of  the  same  size; 
but  being  made  of  a  superior  gold  from  sovereigns,  guineas  passed  for 
more.  SeeGuiiieas.  English  and  Irish  money  were  assimilated  Jan.  1. 1826. 
See  Gold. 

MONEYS    COINED   IN   THE   FOLLOWING   REIGNS,   AND    THEIR   AMOUNT. 


George  III.  and  regency, 

gold  -  -  £74,501,586 
George  IV.  -  -41.782,815 
William  IV.  -  -  10,827,603 
Victoria,  to  1848,    32.370.814 


Elizabeth  ■        -    £5,832,000  1  .lames  II.      -  -  £3.740,000 

James  I.  ■        -   2,500,000  |  William  III.  -  -  10^511,900 

Charles  I.  -        -    -  10,500,000  i  Anne         -  -    -    2,691,626 

Cromwell  ■        -    1,000,000    George  I.       -  ■    8,72.1,920 

Charles  II.        -    -    7,524,100  |  George  II.  •    -  11,966,576 

The  coin  of  the  realm  M^as  about  twelve  millions  in  1711. — Davenant.  It  was 
estimated  at  sixteen  millions  1762. — Anderson.  It  was  supposed  to  be  twen- 
ty millions  in  1786. — Chalmers.  It  amounted  to  thirty-seven  millions  in  1800. 
— Philtips.  The  gold  is  twenty-eight  millions,  and  the  rest  of  the  metallic 
currency  is  thirteen  millions,  while  the  paper  largely  supplies  the  place  of 
coin,1830. — Diike  of  Wellington.  In  1841,  it  may  be  calculated  as  reaching 
forty-five  millions.     See  Gold. 

COIN  OF  THE  U.  S.    The  U.  S.  Mint  was  established  in  1792.   The  coinage  from 
that  time  to  1836  was  thus : — 

Pieces.  Value. 

Gold  -  -       4,716,325  -  -     $22,102,035 

Silver     -  -    -    115,421,762      -  46,739,182 

Copper       -  -      77,752,965  -  -  740,331 

Total  -   197,891,502       -  .  $69,581,549 

1837  to  1SJ8  inclusive    145,389,748  -  -      $81,436,165 

Total  in  56  years    -    343,281,250  pieces.         -        $151,017,714 
The  gold  coinage  consists  of  double  eagles  S'20,  eagles,  half  eagles,  quarter 
eagles  and  dollars.     Gold  dollars  were  first  coined  in  1849.     The  first  de- 
posit of  California  gold  for  coining,  was  made  by  Mr.  David  Carter,  1804 
ounces.  Dec.  8.  1848. 


COI,  J  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  263 

COINING,  lliis  operation  was  originally  performed  by  the  metal  being  placed 
between  two  steel  dies,  and  struck  by  a  hammer.  In  1553,  a  mill  was 
invented  by  Antonie  Brucher,  and  introduced  into  England  in  1562.  An  en- 
gine for  coining  was  invented  by  Balancier  in  1617.  The  great  improvements 
of  the  art  were  effected  by  Boulton  and  Watt,  at  Soho.  1788,  and  subsequently. 
The  art  was  rendered  perfect  by  the  creation  of  the  present  costly  machinery 
at  the  mint,  London,  commenced  in  1811. 

1  OLD.  The  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  are  found  to  prtduce  the  same  percep- 
tions on  the  skin,  and  when  mercury  is  frozen  at  forty  degrees  below  zero, 
the  sensation  is  the  same  as  touching  red-hot  iron.  During  the  hard  frost 
1740,  a  palace  of  ice  was  built  at  St.  Petersburg,  after  an  elegant  model,  and 
in  the  just  proportions  of  Augustan  architecture. —  Grcig.  Perhaps  the  cold- 
est day  ever  known  in  London  was  Dec.  25, 1796,  when  the  thermometer  was 
16"  below  zero.  Quicksilver  was  frozen  hard  at  Moscow  Jan.  13,  1810.  See 
Frosts,  Ice. 

COLISEUM.  The  edifice  of  this  name  at  Rome  was  built  by  Vespasian,  in 
the  jjlace  where  the  basin  of  Nero's  gilded  house  had  previously  been  a.  d. 
72.  The  splendid  Colisseum  of  London,  and  one  of  its  most  worthy  objects 
of  admiration,  is  built  near  the  Regent's  Park,  and  was  completed  in  1827-8. 

COLLEGES.  University  education  preceded  the  erection  of  colleges,  which 
were  munificent  foundations  to  relieve  the  students  from  the  expense  of  liv- 
ing at  lodging-houses  and  at  inns.  Collegiate  or  academic  degrees  are  said 
to  have  been  first  conferred  at  the  University  of  Paris,  a.  d.  1140;  but  some 
authorities  say,  not  before  1215.  In  England,  it  is  contended  that  the  date 
is  much  higher,  and  some  hold  that  Bede  obtained  a  degree  formally  at 
Cambridge,  and  John  de  Beverley  at  Oxford,  and  that  they  were  the  first 
doctors  of  those  universities.     Cambridge,  Oxford,  &c. 

Cheshunt  College  Ibuiided  -    a.  d.  1792     Mareschal  College,  Aberdeen    -    a-  d.  1591 

Doctor's  Commons,  civil  law    •  -1670 

Durham  "University  -  .      .  *  * 

Edinburgh  University    -  •  - 1580 

Eton  College 1441 

Glasgow  University        •  -  -  1451 


Maynooth  College  -  -  -  1795 

Physicians,  London  -  -  -      - 1518 

Sion  College        ....  1329 
Sion  College,  re-founded     •  -      -  1530 

Surgeons,  London  -  -  - 1745 


Harrow 1585  I  Trinity  College,  Dublin  -  -      -  1591 

Highbury  College  -  -  -  1820  !  University,  London         -  -  -  1826 

•   King's  College,  Aberdeen   •  -      -  1494  |  Winchester  College  -  -  -      -  1387 

King's  College,  London  -  -  -  1829 

^'OLLEGES  IN  THE  UNrrED  States.  The  first  established  was  Harvard,  at 
Cambridge,  Mass.,  by  John  Harvard,  1638;  and  this  is  now  the  most  im- 
portant and  best  endowed  in  the  United  States.  The  second  was  William 
and  Mary,  in  Virginia,  1693.  Third,  Yale,  at  New  Haven,  1700.  Fourth, 
College  of  New  Jersey,  Princeton,  1746.  Fifth,  Columbia,  New- York,  1754. 
Sixth,  University  of  Pennsylvania,  Philadelphia,  1755.  Seventh,  Brown 
University,  Providence,  1764.  Eighth,  Dartmouth,  at  Hanover,  N.  H.,  1769. 
Ninth,  Rutgers.  New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  1770.  These  were  all  prior  to  the 
Revolution.  The  first  medical  school  was  that  at  Philadelphia,  founded 
1764.  The  first  law  school  was  founded  at  Litchfield,  Conn.,  1782.  In 
1849  there  were  118  colleges  in  the  United  States ;  42  theological  schools  ; 
12  law  schools ;  36  medical  schools.  See  list  in  American  Almanac.  Girard 
College  opened  Jan.  1,  1848. 

COLOGNE.  A  member  of  the  Hanseatic  league,  1260.  The  Jews  were  expelled 
from  here  in  1485,  and  the  Protestants  in  1618,  and  it  has  since  fallen  into 
ruin.  Cologne  was  taken  by  the  French,  under  Jourdan,  Oct.  6,  1794.  In 
the  cathedral  are  shown  the  heads  of  the  three  Magi;  and  in  the  church  of 
St.  Ursula  is  the  tomb  of  that  saint  and  bones  belonging  to  the  11,000  vir- 
gins said  to  have  been  put  to  death  along  with  her. 

(vOLOMBTA.     A  rej)ublic   in   Sohth   America,   formed  of  slates  which  have 


264  THE  world's  progress.  [  COl. 

declared  their  independence  of  the  crown  of  Spain ;  but  its  several  chie^ 
have  been  contending-  one  against  another,  and  each  state  has  been  a  prey 
to  civil  war,  and  the  stability  of  the  union  is  far  from  assured. 

Battle  of  Carabobo,  the  Royalists  wholly 

overthrown         -  -       June  24, 1821 

Bolivar  is  named  Dictator  by  the  Con- 
gress of  Peru  -  -    Feb.  10, 1834 
Alliance  between  Colombia  and  Mexico 

formed  -  -  -  June  30,  1824 

Alliance  with  Guatimala     -        March  1825 


New  Grenada,  discovered  by  Colum- 
bus        -  -  -  -    A.  D.  1497 
Venezuela  discovered           -  -     -  1498 
IheCaraccas  formed  into  a  kingdom, 

under  a  captain-general  -  -  1547 

The  history  of  those  provinces  under 
the  tyranny  and  oppression  of  the  Spa 


niards,  presents  but  one  continuous  |  Congress  at  Lima  names  Bolivar  Pre- 

scene  of^rapine  and  blood.  sident  of  the  republic  -       Aug.  182t) 

*******  '  Bolivar's  retui-n  to  Bogota         -    Nov.  18^0 

Confederation  of  Venezuela       -  -1810     He  assumes  the  dictatorship  -  Nov.  23, 1826 

Independence  formally  declared    -      -  1811  '  Padilla's  insurrection       -         April  9,  ISiS 
Defeat  of  General  Miranda        -  -  1812  |  Conspiracy  of  Santander  against  the 

Bolivar  defeated  by  Boves  -  -      -  1816  i      life  of  Bolivar  -  Sept.  25, 1828 

Bolivar  defeats  Morillo  in  the  battle  of  i  Bolivar  resigns  his  office  of  president  of 

Sombrero        -  -  -      Feb.  1818        the  republic  -  -    April  11,  1829 

Union  of  the  States  of  Grenada  and  Ve-  He  dies  -  -  -     Dec.  17,  1830 

nezuela  -  -     Dec.  17,  1819     Santander  dies     ■  -  May  26, 1840 

COLON.    This  point  was  known  to  the  ancients,  but  was  not  expressed  as  it 
is  in  modern  times.     The  colon  and  period  were  adopted  and  explained  by 
Thrasymachus  about  373  b.  c.—Siddas.    It  was  kno-\^Ti  to  Aristotle.     Our 
punctuation  appears  to  have  been  introduced  with  the  art  of  printing. 
Tlie  colon  and  semicolon  were  both  first  used  in  British  literature,  in  the 
sixteenth  century. 
COLONIES  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN.   They  are  described  under  the  name  of  each. 
The  wliite  and  the  free  colored  population,  as  far  as  it  has  been  ascertained, 
amounts  to  about  2  500,000,  and  tlie  slaves  at  the  period  of  their  emancipa- 
tion, were  770,280.     The  number  of  convicts  in  New  South  Wales  and  Van 
Diemen's  Land,  is  36,267  ;  the  aborigines  of  the  latter  place  have  not  been 
ascertained.     The  act  for  the  abolition  of  slavery  throughout  the  British 
colonies,  and  for  compensation  to  the  owners  of  slaves  (£20,000,000  sterling) 
was  passed  3  &-  4  William  IV.  1833.     Bj'  the  provisions  of  this  statute  all 
the  slaves  throughout  the  British  colonies  were  emancipated  on  August  1, 
183i. 
COLONIZATION.      The  American  Colonization  Society,  for  colonizing  free 
people  of  color  ou  the  coast  of  Africa,  founded  December,  1816,  at  Wash- 
ington, chiefly  through  the  exertions  of  Rev.  Robert  Finley.     [Plan  advo- 
cated by  Jetferson  as  early  as  1777,  urged  bj'  Dr.  Thornton,  1787,  and  by  the 
legislature  of  Virginia,  1801.]      First  president  of  the  society,  Bushrod 
Washington;    succeeded  by  Charles  Carroll,  James  Madison,  and  Hemy 
Clay      Liberia  purchased  1821. 
COLOSSLS  OP  RHODES.      A  brass  statue  of  Apollo,  seventy  cubits  high, 
erected  at  the  port  of  Rhodes  in  honor  of  the  sun,  and  esteemed  one  of  the 
wonders  of  the  world.     Built  by  Chares  of  Lindus,  290  b.  c.     It  was  thrown 
down  by  an  earthquake  224  b.  c.  ;  and  was  finally  destroyed  by  the  Saracens 
on  their  taking  Rhodes  in  a.  d.  672.    The  figure  stood  upon  two  moles,  a  leg 
being  extended  on  each  side  of  tire  harbor,  so  that  a  vessel  in  full  sail  could 
enter  between.     A'winding  staircase  ran  to  the  top,  from  which  could  be 
discerned  the  shores  of  Syria,  and  the  ships  that  sailed  on  the  coast  of  Egypt. 
The  statue  had  lain  in  ruins  for  nearly  nine  centuries,  and  had  never  been 
repaired ;    but  now  the  Saracens  pulled  it  to  pieces,  and  sold  the  metal, 
weighing  720,900  lbs  ,  to  a  Jew,  who  is  said  to  have  loaded  900  camels  in 
transporting  it  to  Alexandria — Dw  Frcsnoy. 
COLTJaVlBIA,  District  op.     A  tract  of  country  10  miles  square,  ceded  by  Vir- 
ginia and  Maryland  to  the  United  States,  for  the  purpose  of  forming  the 
seat  of  ffovornmcnt.      It  included  the  cities  of  Washington,  Georgetown. 


COM  J  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  265 

and  Alexandria ;  but  in  1843  the  latter  was  re-ceded  to  Virginia.    Popula- 
tion in  1800,  14,093 ;   in  1840,  43,712,  including  8,861  free  colored  persons, 
and  4,694  slaves. 
COMEDY.    Thalia  is  the  muse  of  comedy  and  lyiic  poetry.    Susarion  and 
Dolon  were  the  inventors  of  theatrical  exhibitions,  562  b.  c.   They  performed 
the  first  comedy  at  Athens,  on  a  wagon  or  movable  stage,  on  four  wheels, 
for  which  they  were  rewarded  with  a  basket  of  figs  and  a  cask  of  wine. — 
Arundelian  Marbles.    Aristophanes  was  called  the  prince  of  ancient  comedy, 
434  B.  c,  and  Menander  that  of  new,  320  b.  c.    Of  Plautus,  20  comedies  are 
extant ;  he  flourished  220  b.  c.     Statius  Csecilius  wrote  upwards  of  30  come- 
dies ;  he  flourished  at  Rome,  180  b.  c.    The  comedies  of  Ltelius  and  Terence 
were  first  acted  154  b.  c.    The  first  regular  comedy  was  performed  in  Eng- 
land about  A.  D.  1551.   It  was  said  of  Sheridan,  that  he  wrote  the  best  comedy 
(the  Sr.liool  for  Scandal),  the  best  opera  (the  Duenna),  and  the  best  after- 
piece (the  Critic),  in  the  English  language. — See  Drama. 
COMETS.    The  first  that  was  discovered  and  described  accurately,  was  by 
Nicephorus.      At  the  birth  of  the  great    Mithridates  two  large  comets 
appeared,  Avhich  were  seen  for  seventy-two  days  together,  and  whose  splen- 
dor eclipsed  that  of  the  mid-day  sun,  and  occupied  forty-five  degrees,  or 
the  fourth  part  of  the  heavens,  135  b.  c. — Justin.     A  remarkable  one  was 
seen  in  England,  10  Edward  III.,  1337. — Stowe.    These  phenomena  were  first 
rationally  explained  by  Tycho  Brache,  about  1577.     A  comet,  which  terri- 
fied the  people  from  its  near  approach  to  the  earth,  was  visible  from  Nov. 
3,  1679,  to  March  9,  1680.    The  orbits  of  comets  were  proved  to  be  ellipses, 
by  Newton,  1704.     A  most  brilliant  comet  appeared-  in  1769,  which  passed 
within  two  millions  of  miles  of  the  earth.     One  still  more  brilliant  appeared 
in  Sept.,  Oct.,  and  Nov.,  1811,  visible  all  the  autumn  to  the  naked  eye. 
Another  brilliant  comet  appeared  in  1823. — See  the  three  next  articles. 
COMET,  BIELA'S.    This  comet  has  been  an  object  of  fear  to  many  on  account 
of  the  nearness  with  which  it  has  approached,  not  the  earth,  but  a  point  of 
the  earth's  path :    it  was  first  discovered  by  M.  Biela,  an  Austrian  oflicer, 
Feb.  28,  1826.    It  is  one  of  the  three  comets  whose  reappearance  was  pre- 
dicted, its  revolution  being  performed  in  six  years  and  thirty-eight  weeks. 
Its  second  appearance  was  in  1832,  when  the  time  of  its  perihelion  passage 
was  Nov.  27.    Us  third  appearance  was  in  1839,  and  its  fourth  in  1845. 
COMET,  ENCKE'S.     First  discovered  by  M.  Pons,  Nov.  26,  1818,  but  justly 
named  by  astronomers  after  professor  Encke,  from  his  success  in  detecting 
its  orbit,  motions,  and  perturbations ;  it  is,  like  the  preceding,  one  of  the 
three  comets  which  have  appeared  according  to  prediction,  and  its  revolu- 
tions are  made  in  3  years  and  15  weeks. 
COMET,  HALLEY'S.    This  is  the  great  and  celebrated  comet  of  the  greatest 
astronomer  of  England. — Lalancle.    Doctor  Halley  first  proved  that  many  of 
the  appearances  of  comets  were  but  the  periodical  returns  of  the  same  bodies, 
and  he  demonstrated  that  the  comet  of  1682  was  the  same  with  the  comet 
of  1456,  of  1531,  and  1607,  deducing  this  fact  from  a  minute  observation  of 
the  first  mentioned  comet,  and  being  struck  by  its  wonderful  resemblance  to 
the  comets  described  as  having  appeared  in  those  years  :  Halley,  therefore, 
first  fixed  the  identity  of  comets,  and  first  predicted  their  periodical  returns 
—  Viiiceh  Astronoiny .    The  revolution  of  Halley's  comet  is  performed  in 
about  seventy-six  years:  it  appeared  in  1759,  and  came  to  its  perihelion  on 
March  13 ;  and  its  last  appearance  was  in  1835. 
COMMERCE.     Flourished  in  Arabia,  Egypt,  and  among  the  Phoenicians  in 
the  earliest  ages.     In  later  times  it  was  spread  over  Europe  by  a  confed- 
eracy of  maritime  cities  A.  D.  1241. — Sua  Han se  Towns.    The  discoveries  of 
Columbus  and  the  enterprises  of  the  Dutch  and  Portuguese.  'MiJarged  the 
12 


266  THE   world's   PK.OGRESS.  [  COM 

sphere  of  commerce,  and  led  other  nations,  particularly  England,  to  engage 
extensively  in  its  pursuit. — See  the  various  articles  connected  with  this  subject. 

COMMERCE.     See  Navigation. 

COMMERCE,  New- York  Chamber  of,  instituted  1783. 

COMMERCIAL  TREATIES.    The  first  treaty  of  commerce  made  by  Eng- 
land with  any  foreign  nation,  was  entered  into  with  the  Flemings,  1  Edward 
I.,  1272.    The  second  was  with  Portugal  and  Spain,  2  Edward  11.  1308.— 
Anderson.     See  Treaties. 
COMMON  COUNCIL  of  LONDON.     Its  formation  commenced  about  1208. 
The  charter  of  Henry  I.  mentions  the  folk-mote,  this  being  a  Saxon  appella- 
tion, and  which  may  fairly  be  rendered  the  court  or  assembly  of  the  people. 
COMMON  LAW   of   ENGLAND.     Custom,  to  which  length  of  time  has 
given  the  force  of  law,  or  rules  generally  received  and  held  as  law,  called 
Lex  non  scripta,  in  contradistinction  to  the  written  law.      Common  law 
derives  its  origin  from  Alfred's  body  of  laws  (wLich  was  lost),  a.  d.  890. 
The  common  law  of  the  United  States  is  founded  on  that  of  England. — See 
Custom.    Laws. 
COMMON  PRAYER.    Published  in  the  English  language  by  the  authority  of 
parliament,  in  1548.    The  Common  Prayer  was  voted  out  of  doors,  by  par- 
liament, and  the  Directory  {which  see),  set  up  in  its  room  in  1644.     A  pro- 
clamation Avas  issued  against  it,  1647.     See  Directory. 
COMMONS,  House  of.     The  great  representative  assembly  of  the  people  of 
Great  Britain,  and  third  branch  of  the  Imperial  legislature,  originated  with 
Simon  de  Montfort,  earl  of  Leicester,  who  ordered  returns  to  be  made  of 
two  Ivuiglits  from  every  sliire,  and  deputies  from  certain  boroughs,  to  meet 
the  barons  and  clergy  who  Avere  his  friends,  Avith  a  vieAv  thereby  to  strengthen 
his  OAvn  power  in  opposition  to  that  of  his  sovereign  Henry  HI.    This  was 
the  first  confirmed  outline  of  a  house  of  commons  ;    and  the  first  commons 
Avere  summoned  to  meet  the  king  in  parliament  42  &  43  Henry  HI.  1258. 
— Goldsmith.      Stoice.     According  to  other  authorities,  the  first  parliament 
formally  conA'ened  Avas  the  one  summoned  49  Henry  III.,  Jan.  23,  1265;  and 
Avrits  of  the  latter  date  are  tlie  earliest  extant.     Some  historians  date  the 
first  regularly  constituted  parliament  from  the  22d  of  Edward  1. 1294.    The 
first  recorded  speaker,  duly  chosen,  Avas  Petre  de  Montfort  in  1260 ;  he  was 
killed  at  the  battle  of  EA'esham,  in  1265.     The  city  of  London  first  sent 
members  to  parliament  in  the  reign  of  Henry  III.,  while  Westminster  was 
not  represented  in  that  assembly  until  the  latter  end  of  Henry  VIII's  life, 
or  rather  in  the  first  House  of  Commons  of  EdAvard  VI.    The  following 
is  the  constitution  of  the  House  of  Commons  since  the  passing  of  the 
Reform  Bills  {which  see,)  in  1832 : — 


English. — County  members  -  144 

Universities  -  ■  -        4 

Cities  and  boroughs  -  -  323—171 

Welsh. — County  members    -  -  15 

Cities  and  Boroughs    -  -  14 — 29 


English  and  Welsh  -      500 

Scotch. — County  members  -  30 

Cities  and  Boroughs       -  •  23- — 53 

Irish. — County  members  -  -  64 

University    -  -  ■  ■      2' 

Cities  and  boroughs       -  -  39 — 105 


English  and  Welsh     -      500 

Total  (see  Parliament)      -     658 

COMMONWEALTH  of  ENGLAND.  This  Avas  the  interregnum  between  the 
decollation  of  Charles  I.  and  the  restoration  of  Charles  U.  The  form  of  the 
government  Avas  changed  to  a  republic  on  the  execution  of  Charles  I.  Jan.  30, 
1649.  Oliver  CromAvell  Avas  made  Protector,  Dec.  12,  1653.  Richard  Crom- 
AveU  was  made  Protector,  Sept.  1658.  Monarchy  Avas  restored  in  the  person 
of  Charles  II.,  Avho  returned  to  London  May  29,  1670.     See  England. 

COMMONWEALTH  of  ROME.  Sec  Rome.  The  greatest  and  most  renoAvn- 
ed  republic  of  the  ancient  world.    It  dates  from  609  b.  c,  Avhen  the  goven> 


CON  ]  DICTIONAE.Y    OF    DATES.  26V 

mentof  kings  ceased  with  the  expulsion  of  Tarquinius  Superbus,  tlie  seventh 
and  last  king  of  Rome,  and  the  election  of  consuls.  After  this  revolution  Rome 
advanced  by  rapid  strides  towards  universal  dominion.  The  whole  of  Italy 
received  her  laws.  Sicily,  Sardinia,  Spain,  Carthage,  Africa,  Greece,  Asia,  Sy- 
ria. Egypt.  Gaul,  Britain,  and  even  a  part  of  Germany,  were  successively  sub- 
dued by  her  arms :  so  that  in  the  age  of  Julius  Csesar  this  republic  had  the 
Euphrates,  Mount  Taurus,  and  Armenia,  for  the  boundaries  in  the  east; 
Ethiopia,  in  the  south;  the  Danube,  in  the  north;  and  the  Atlantic  Ocean, 
in  the  west.  The  republic  existed  under  consuls  and  other  magistrates  un- 
til the  battle  of  Actium,  from  which  we  commonly  date  the  commencement 
of  the  Roman  empire,  31  b.  c. 
COMMUNION.  It  originated  in  the  Lord's  supper,  and  was  practised  early  in 
the  primitive  church.  Communicating  under  the  form  of  bread  alone  is 
said  to  have  its  rise  in  the  west,  under  pope  Urban  II.  1096.  The  fourth 
Lateran  council  decreed  that  every  believer  shall  receive  the  communion  at 
least  at  Easter,  1215.  The  communion  service,  as  now  observed  in  the 
church  of  England,  was  instituted  by  the  authority  of  council,  1548. 

COMPANIES.  Among  the  earliest  commercial  companies  in  England  may  be 
named  the  Steel-yard  society,  established  a.  d.  1232.  The  second  company 
was  the  merchants  of  St.  Thomas  k  Becket,  in  124S.—Stoioe.  The  third  was 
the  Merchant  Adventurers,  incorporated  by  Elizabeth,  1564.  Thv  re  are 
ninety-one  city  companies  in  London ;  the  first  twelve  are 


1  Mercers 

-      A.  D.  1393 

7  Merchant  Tailors  - 

A.  D.  146G 

2  Grocers     - 

-        -  1345 

8  Haberdasliers 

- 1447 

3  Drapers 

-  1439 

9  Salters      - 

-      - 1558 

4  Fishmongers 

-      -  1384 

10  Ironmongers  - 

-  1464 

5  Goldsmiths 

-  1327 

11  Vintners   - 

-      - 1437 

6  Skinners     - 

.      -  1327 

12  Clothworkers - 

-  1482 

COMPANIES,  BUBBLE.  Ruinous  speculations  coming  under  this  name  have 
been  formed,  commonly  by  designing  persons.  Law's  Bubble,  in  1720-1, 
was  perhaps  the  most  extraordinary  of  its  kind,  and  the  South  Sea  Bubble, 
in  the  same  year,  was  scarcelj^  less  memorable  for  its  ruin  of  thousands  of 
families.  Many  companies  were  established  in  Great  Britain  in  1824  and 
1825,  and  most  of  them  turned  out  to  be  bubbles;  and  owing  to  the  rage  for 
taking  shares  in  each  scheme  as  it  was  projected,  immense  losses  were  in- 
curred by  individuals,  and  the  families  of  thousands  of  speculators  were 
totally  ruined.     See  Law's  Bubble,  and  Bankrupts. 

COMPASS,  The  MARINER'S.  It  is  said  to  have  been  known  to  the  Chinese, 
1115  B.  c. ;  but  this  seems  to  be  a  mistake.  They  had  a  machine  which  self- 
moved,  "jjointed  towards  the  south,  and  safely  guided  travellers  by  land  or 
water;  and  some  authors  have  mistaken  it  for  the  mariner's  compass,  the 
invention  of  which  is  by  some  ascribed  to  Marcus  Paulus,  a  Venetian,  a.  d. 
1260;  while  others,  with  more  seeming  justice,  assign  it  to  Flavio  Gioja,  of 
Pasitano,  a  navigator  of  Naples.  Until  his  time  the  needle  was  laid  upon  a 
couple  of  pieces  of  straw,  or  small  split  sticks,  in  a  vessel  of  water ;  Gioja  in- 
troduced the  suspension  of  the  needle  as  we  have  it  now,  1302.  Its  variation 
was  discovered  by  Columbus,  in  1492.  The  compass-box  and  hanging  com- 
pass used  by  navigators  were  invented  by  William  Barlowe,  an  English  di- 
vine and  natural  philosopher,  in  1608. — Biog.  Die.  The  measuring  compass 
was  invented  by  Jost  Byng,  of  Hesse,  in  1602. 

CONCEPTION  OF  THE  VIRGIN.  This  is  a  feast  in  the  Romish  church  in 
honor  of  the  Virgin  Mary  having  been  conceived  and  born  immaculate,  or 
without  original  sin.  The  festival  was  appointed  to  be  held  on  the  8th  of 
Dec.  bv  the  church,  in  1889.  Conckptionists.  an  order  of  nuns,  established 
1488.  " 


268  THE    world's    progress.  [  CON 

CONCERT.  The  first  public  subscription  concert  was  performed  at  Oxford,  in 
1665,  when  it  was  attended  by  a  great  number  of  personages  of  rank  and 
talent  from  every  part  of  England.  The  first  concert  of  like  kind  perform- 
ed in  London  was  in  1678.  Concerts  afterwards  became  fashionable  and 
frequent. 

CONCHOLOGY.  This  branch  of  natural  history  is  mentioned  by  Aristotle  and 
Pliny,  and  was  a  favorite  with  the  most  intellectual  and  illustrious  men.  It 
was  first  reduced  to  a  system  by  John  Daniel  Major  of  Kiel,  who  published 
his  classification  of  the  Testacea  in  1675.  Lister's  system  was  published  in 
1685 ;  and  that  of  Largius  in  1722. 

CONCLAVE  FOR  THE  ELECTION  of  POPES.  The  cone  ave  is  a  range  of  small 
cells  in  the  hall  of  the  Vatican,  or  palace  of  the  pope  at  Rome,  where  me 
cardinals  usually  hold  their  meetings  to  elect  a  pope.  The  word  is  also  used 
for  the  assembly,  or  meeting  of  the  cardinals  shut  up  for  the  election  of  a 
pope.  The  conclave  had  its  rise  in  a.  d.  1271.  Clement  IV.  being  dead  at 
Viterbo  in  1268,  the  cardinals  were  nearly  three  years  unable  to  agree  in  the 
choice  of  a  successor,  and  were  upon  the  point  of  breaking  up,  when  the 
magistrates,  by  the  advice  of  St.  Bonaventure,  then  at  Viterbo.  shut  the 
gates  of  their  city,  and  locked  up  the  cardinals  in  the  pontifical  p&lace  till 
they  agreed.  Hence  the  present  custom  of  shutting  up  the  cardinals  while 
they  elect  a  pope. 

CONCORDANCE  to  the  BIBLE.  An  index  or  alphabetical  catalogue  of  all 
the  words  in  the  Bible,  and  also  a  chronological  account  of  all  the  transac- 
tions of  that  sacred  volume.  The  first  concordance  to  the  Bible  was  made 
under  the  direction  of  Hugo  de  St.  Charo,  who  emploj'ed  as  many  as  500 
monks  upon  it,  a.  d.  12-17. — Ahbh  Lenglct. 

CONCORDAT.  The  name  given  to  an  instrument  of  agreement  between  a 
prince  and  the  pope,  usuallj^  concerning  benefices.  The  celebrated  concordat 
between  Napoleon  Bonapaj-te  and  Pius  VII.,  whereby  the  then  French  consul 
was  made,  in  effect,  the  head  of  the  Gallican  Church,  as  all  ecclesiastics 
were  to  have  their  appointments  from  him,  was  signed  at  Paris,  July  15, 
1801.  Another  concordat  between  Bonaparte  and  the  same  pontifl'was  sign- 
ed at  Fontainbleau,  Jan.  25,  1813. 

CONCUBINES.  They  are  mentioned  as  having  been  allowed  to  the  priests,_A.  d. 
1132.  Cujas  observes,  that  although  concubinage  was  beneath  marriage, 
both  as  to  dignity  and  civil  eflects,  yet  concubine~was  a  reputable  title,  very 
difierent  from  that  of  mistress  among  us.  This  kind  of  union,  which  is 
formed  by  giving  the  left  hand  instead  of  the  right,  and  called  half-marriage, 
is  still  in  i;se  in  some  parts  of  Germany. 

CONFEDERATION  at  PARISH.  Upwards  of  600,000  citizens  formed  this 
memorable  confederation,  held  on  the  anniversary  of  the  taking  of  the  bas- 
tile,  at  which  ceremony  the  king,  the  national  assembly,  the  army,  and  the 
people,  solemnly  swore  to  maintain  the  new  constitution,  July  4,  1790.    See 

Champ  de  Mars,  Bastilc. 

CONFEDERATION  or  the  RHINE,  or  League  of  the  Germanic  States  form- 
ed under  the  auspices  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte.  By  this  celebrated  league, 
the  minor  German  princes  collectively  engaged  to  raise  258,000  troops  to 
serve  in  case  of  war,  and  they  established  a  diet  at  Frankfort,  July  12, 1806. 
See  Germanic  Confederation. 

CONFERENCE.  The  celebrated  rehgious  conference  held  at  Hampton  Com  t 
palace,  between  the  prelates  of  the  church  of  England  and  the  dissenting 
ministers,  in  order  to  effect  a  general  imion,  at  the  instance  of  the  king,  2 
James  I.  1004.    This  conference  led  to  a  new  translation  of  the  Bible,  which 


CON  ]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  269 

was  esecnted  in  1607-11,  and  is  that  now  in  general  use  in  England  and  the 
United  States ;  and  during  the  meeting  some  alterations  in  the  church  liturgy 
were  agreed  upon,  but  this  not  satisfying  the  dissenters,  nothing  more  was 
done.  A  conference  of  the  bishops  and  presbyterian  ministers  with  the  same 
view  was  held  in  1661. 

CONFESSION.  Auricular  confession  in  the  Romish  church  was  first  instituted 
about  A.  D.  1204,  and  was  regularly  enjoined  in  1215.  It  is  made  to  a  priest, 
in  order  to  obtain  absolution  for  the  sins  or  faults  acknowledged  by  the  pe- 
nitent, who  performs  a  penance  enjoined  by  the  priest;  and  if  this  be  done 
with  a  contrite  heart,  the  sins  thus  absolved  are  supposed  to  be  absolved  in 
heaven.  At  the  reformation,  the  practice  was  at  first  left  wholly  indifferent, 
by  the  council ;  but  this  was  the  prelude  to  its  entire  abolition  in  the  clwirch 
of  England. — Burnet. 

CONFIRMATION.  One  of  the  oldest  rites  of  the  Christian  hurch ;  it  was 
used  by  Peter  and  Paul ;  and  was  general,  according  to  some  church  au- 
thorities, in  A.  D.  190.  It  is  the  public  profession  of  the  Christian  I'eligion 
bj^  an  adiilt  person,  who  was  baptized  in  infancy.  It  is  still  retained  in  the 
church  of  England ;  but  to  make  it  more  solemn,  it  has  been  advanced  into 
a  saci'ament  by  the  church  of  Rome. 

CONGE  D'ELIRE.  The  license  of  the  king,  as  head  of  the  church,  to  chap- 
ters, and  other  bodies,  to  elect  dignitaries,  particularly  bishops.  After  the 
interdict  of  the  pope  upon  England  had  been  removed  in  1214,  king  John  had 
an  arrangement  with  the  clergj^'  for  the  election  of  bishops.  Bishops  were 
elected  by  the  king's  Conge  d  Elire,  26  Henry  VIII. ,  1535. 

CONGRESS.  An  assembly  of  princes  or  ministers,  or  meeting  for  the  settle- 
ment of  the  affairs  of  nations,  or  of  a  people.  Several  congresses  were  held 
during  the  continental  wars ;  but  the  following  were  the  most  remarkable 
congresses  of  Europe : — 

Congress  of  Soissons  -      June  14,  1728     Congress  of  Carlsbad  -      Aus.  1,  1819 

Congress  of  Troppau      •  Oct  20,  1820 


Congress  of  Antwerp  -           April  8,  1793 

Congress  of  Radstadt  -        Dec.  9,  1797 

Congress  of  Chatillon  -           -  Feb.  5,  1814 

Congress  of  Vienna  -        Nov.  3,  1814 


Congress  of  Laybach  -        May  6, 1821 

Congress  of  Verona       -  Aug.  25, 1822 

See  Alliances,  Conventions,  Sic 


CONGRESS,  U.  S.  A.  The  first  Colonial  Congress,  composed  of  the  delegates 
from  nine  of  the  colonies  (Mass.,  R.  I.,  Conn.,  N.  Y.,  N.  J.,  Pa.,  Del.,  Md.,  S. 
Ca.),  met  at  N.  Y.  Dec.  7, 1765.-Tim.  Ruggles,  Prest.  The  Continental  Congress 
met  at  Phila.  Sep.  5,  1774 :  again  May  10,  1775 :  adopted  Dec.  Indep.  July  4, 
1776;  met  at  Bait.  Dec.  20,  1776;  at  Phila.  March  4,  1777;  at  Lancaster,  Pa. 
Sep.  27,  1777;  at  York,  Pa.  Sep.  30.  1777 ;  at  Phila.  July  2,  1778;  at  Prince- 
ton, June  30,  1783;  at  Annapolis,  Nov.  26,  1783;  at  Trenton,  Nov.  30,  17"84; 
at  N.  York,  Jan.  1785 ;  and  that  continued  to  be  the  place  of  meeting  until 
the  adoption  of  the  constitution,  1789 :  removed  to  Phila.  1790 :  to  Wash- 
ington, 1800. 

CONVENTION,  The,  for  forming  the  Constitution  of  the  U.  S.  met  at  Phila. 
May  10,  1787 ;  in  session  till  Sep.  17,  same  year. 

CONGREVE  ROCKETS.  Invented  by  general  su-  William  Congreve,  in  1803. 
They  were  used  with  great  effect  in  the  attack  upon  Boulogne,  in  Oct.  1806, 
when  they  set  a  part  of  the  town  on  flre,  which  burned  for  two  days;  they 
M'ere  employed  in  various  operations  in  the  late  war  with  much  success,  dis- 
charged by  a  corps  called  rocket-men. 

CONIC  SECTIONS.  Their  most  remarkable  properties  were  probably  known 
to  the  Greeks  four  or  five  centuries  before  the  Christian  era.  Tlie  study  of 
them  was  cultivated  in  the  time  of  Plato  390  b.  c.  The  earliest  treatise 
was  written  by  Aristteus,  about  380  c.  c.     Appolonius's  eight  books  were 


270  THE    world's    progress.  [  CON 

written  about  240  b.  c    The  parabola  was  applied  to  projectiles  by  Galileo; 
the  ellipse  to  the  orbit  of  planets,  by  Kelper. 
CONJURATION  and  WITCHCRAFT.    They  were  declared  to  be  felony  by 
various  statutes,  and  the  most  absurd  and  wicked  laws  were  in  force  against 
them  in  England  in  former  times.    See  article  Witchcraft.     Conjuration  was 
felony  by  statute  1  James  I.,  1603.    This  law  was  repealed  9  George  II., 
1735 ;  but  pretensions  to  such  skill  was  then  made  punishable  as  a  misde- 
meanor.— English  Statutes. 
CONNECTICUT.    One  of  the  U.  States :  first  settled  in  1633,  at  Windsor,  by 
a  eolony  from  Massachusetts.     Hartford,  settled  by  the  English  in  1635,  the 
Dutch  having  previously  built  a  foi't  there,  which  they  did  not  permanently 
hold.   English  colonj^  founded  at  New  Haven,  1638.  The  two  colonies  of  New 
Haven  and  Hartford  united  by  a  charter  of  Charles  II.,  in  1655.    This  char- 
tor,  when  in  danger  from  the  tyranny  of  Andros,  was  preserved  in  an  oak, 
near  Hartford,  since  called  the  Charter  Oak.     Conn,  took  an  active  part  in 
the  revolution;  a  number  of  its  towns,  Danbury,  N.  London,  &c.,  burnt  by 
the  British  during  that  struggle.     It  became  one  of  the  original  13  states, 
adopting  the  constitution  of  the  Union  in  1788,  by  a  vote  of  128  to  40.    Pop- 
ulation 1713,  17.000:    1790,  237.946;    1810,  261,942;    1830,  297,655;  1840, 
309,978. 
CONQUEST,  The.    The  memorable  era  in  British  history,  when  William  duke 
of  Normandy  overcame  Harold  II.,  at  the  battle  of  Hastings,  and  obtained  the 
crown  which  had  been  most  unfairly  bequeathed  to  him  by  Edward  the 
Confessor  (for  Edgar  was  the  rightful  heir)  Oct.  15, 1066.   William  has  been 
erroneously  styled  the  Cnnqueror,  for  he  succeeded  to  the  crown  of  England 
by  compact.     He  killed  Harold,  who  was  himself  a  usurper,  and  defeated 
his  army,  but  a  large  portion  of  the  kingdom  afterwards  held  oiit  against 
him,  and  he,  unlike  a  conqueror,  took  an  oath  to  observe  the  laws  and  cus- 
toms of  the  realm,  in  order  to  induce  the  submission  of  the  people.    For- 
merly the  judges  were  accustomed  to  reprehend  any  gentleman  at  the  bar 
who  casually  gave  him  the  title  of  William  the  Conqueror,  instead  of  Wil- 
liam I. — Seidell. 
CONSCRIPT  FATHERS.     Patres  conscripii  was  the  designation  given  to  the 
Roman  senators,  and  used  in  speaking  of  them,  in  the  eras  of  the  republic 
and  the  Caesars :  becaiise  their  names  were  written  in  the  registers  of  the 
senate. 
CONSECRATION.    Tlia/  of  churches  was  instituted  in  the  second  century, 
the  temple  of  worship  being  dedicated  with  pious  solemnity  to  God  and  a 
patron  saint.     Tl>?  consecration  of  churches,  places  of  burial,  &c.,  is  admit- 
.ted  in  the  refoi-med  religion.    The  consecration  of  bishops  was  ordained  in 
the  latter  church  in  1549. — Stowe. 
CONSISTORY  COURT  m  England.    Anciently  the  Consistory  was  joined  with 
the  Hundred  court,  and  its  original,  as  divided  therefrom,  is  found  in  a  law 
of  William  I.  quoted  by  lord  Coke,  1079.    The  chief  and  most  ancient  Con- 
sistory court  of  the  kingdom  belongs  to  the  see  of  Canterbury,  tod  is  called 
the  Court  of  Arches. 
CONSPIRACIES  AND  INSURRECTIONS  in  GREAT  BRITAIN.    Among  the 
recorded  conspiracies,  real  or  supposed,  the  following  are  the  most  remark- 
able.   They  are  extracted  from  Camdeii,  Temple,  Hume,  and  other  authori- 
ties of  note : — 

Of  Anthony    Babington   and    others,  the  Duke  of  Ormond,  woiincled  him, 

against  Elizabeth       -  -     a.  d.  1.58G        and  would  liave  hanged  him;  and 

The  Gunpowder  Plot  (lehich  see)        -  160.3         who  afterwards  stole  the  crown        -  167i 

Insurrection  of  the  fifth  monarchy  men  The  pretended  conspiracy  ot  tlie  French, 

against  Charles  II.       -  -  -1660        Spanish,  and  English  .Testdts  to  assas- 

Of  Blood  and  his  associates,  who  seized  sinate  Ch.  II.  revealed  by  the  infa- 


con] 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES. 


271 


mous  Titus  Dates,  Dr.  Tongue,  and 

others 1678 

The  Meal-tub  plot 1679 

The  Eye-house  plot  to  assassinate  the 
king  on  his  way  to  Newmarket.  (See 
Rye-house  plot)        ....  1683 
Of  Simon  Fraser,  lord  Lovat,  against 
Q,ueen  Anne.       -  „        -  .  1703 


Of  Colonel  Despard  and  others,  to  over- 
turn the  government  -  -  - 1802 

Of  Robert  Emmett  in  Dublin,  when 
lord  Kilwarden  was  killed  -  July  23, 1803 

Of  Moreau,  Pichegra,  and  Georges, 
against  Bonaparte  -        Feb.  15,  1804 

Of  Thistlewood,  to  assassinate  the 
king's  ministers.    (See  Cato-street)  -  1820 


CONSPIRACIES,  in  or  relating-  to  the  United  States. 


Burr's  trial  for  conspiracy  to  divide  the  i 

United  States   ....  1807 


John  Henry's  secret  mission  from  the 
British  government,  to  undermine 
the  American  union,  exposed,  Feb.  25, 1812 

CONSTANCE,  Council  op.  The  celebrated  council  of  ^iri/tes  (!)  which  con- 
demned the  pious  martyrs  John  Huss  and  Jerome  of  Prague,  to  he  burnt 
alive,  a  sentence  executed  upon  the  first  on  July  6,  1415,  and  on  the  other, 
on  May  30,  following.  Huss  had  complied  with  a  summons  from  the  coun- 
cil of  Constance  to  defend  his  opinions  before  the  clergy  of  aU  nations  in 
that  city,  and  though  the  emperor  Sigismund  had  given  him  a  safe-conduct, 
he  was  cast  into  prison.  Jerome  of  Prague  hastened  to  Constance  to  defend 
him,  but  was  himself  loaded  with  chains,  and  in  the  end  shared  the  fate  of 
his  friend.  This  scandalous  violation  of  public  faith,  and  the  cruelty  and 
treachery  which  attended  the  punishment  of  these  unhappy  disciples  of 
Wickliffe,  our  great  reformer,  prove  the  melancholy  truth,  that  toleration 
iS  not  the  virtue  of  priests  in  any  form  of  ecclesiastical  government. — Hume. 

CONSTANTINA.  The  former  capital  of  Numidia.  It  has  become  known  to 
Europeans  but  very  recently,  they  being  strangers  to  it  until  the  French 
occupation  of  Algiers,  fi^ere  was  fought  a  great  battle  between  the  Fi-ench 
and  the  Arabs,  Oct.  13,  1837,  when  the  former  carried  the  town  by  assault, 
but  the  French  general,  Daremont,  was  killed.  Achmet  Bey  retired  with 
12,000  men  as  the  victors  entered  Constantina. 

CONSTANTINOPLE.  So  called  from  Constantino  the  Great,  who  removed  the 
seat  of  the  Eastern  Empire  here,  a.  d.  828.  Taken  by  the  western  crusaders 
who  put  the  emperor  Mourzoufle  to  death,  first  tearing  out  his  eyes,  1204. 
Retaken  by  Michael  Palseologus,  thus  restoring  the  old  Greek  line,  1261. 
Conquered  by  Mahomet  II.,  who  slew  Constantino  Palteologus,  the  last 
Christian  emperor,  and  60,000  of  his  people,  1453.  The  city,  taken  by  as- 
sault, had  held  out  for  fifty-eight  days.  The  unfortunate  emperor,  on  seeing 
the  Turks  enter  by  the  breaches,  threw  himself  into  the  midst  of  the  enemy, 
and  was  cut  to  pieces ;  the  children  of  the  imperial  house  were  massacred 
by  the  soldiers,  and  the  women  reserved  to  gratify  the  lust  of  the  conquer- 
or. This  put  an  end  to  the  Eastern  Empire,  which  had  subsisted  for  1125 
years,  and  was  the  foundation  of  the  present  empire  of  Turkey  in  Europe 
See  Eastern  Empire  and  Turkey. 

CONSTANTINOPLE,  Era  of.  This  era  has  the  creation  placed  5508  years  b.  c. 
It  was  used  by  the  Russians  until  the  time  of  Peter  the  Great,  and  is  still  used 
in  the  Greek  church.  The  civil  year  begins  September  1,  and  the  ecclesias- 
tical year  towards  the  end  of  March;  the  day  is  not  exactly  determined. 
To  reduce  it  to  our  era,  subtract  5508  years  from  January  to  August,  and 
5509  from  September  to  the  end. 

CONSTELLATIONS.  Those  of  Arcturus,  Orion,  the  Pleiades,  and  Mazzaroth, 
are  mentioned  by  Job,  about  1520  b.  c.  Homer  and  Hesiod  notice  constel- 
lations; but  though  some  mode  of  grouping  the  visible  stars  had  obtained 
in  very  early  ages,  our  first  direct  knowledge  was  derived  from  Claud, 
PtolemfBus,  about  a.  d.  140. 

CONSTITUTION  of  ENGLAND.  See  Magna  Ckarla.  It  comprehends  the 
whole  body  of  laws  by  which  the  British  people  are  governed,  and  to  which 


5://i  THE    world's    progress.  I  CON 

it  is  presumptively  held  that  every  individual  has  assented. — Lord  Somers. 
This  assemblage  of  laws  is  distinguished  from  the  term  government,  in 
this  respect — that  the  constitution  is  the  rule  by  which  the  sovereign  ought 
to  govern  at  all  times :  and  government  is  that  by  which  he  does  govern  at 
any  particular  time. — Lord  Bolingbroke  The  king  of  England  is  not  seated 
on  a  solitary  eminence  of  power ;  on  the  contrary,  he  sees  his  equals  in  the 
co-existing  branches  of  the  legislature,  and  he  recognizes  his  superior  in 
the  LAW. — Sherida?i. 
CONSTITUTION  of  the  U.  S.  Adopted  by  the  general  convention  of  dele- 
gates  from  all  the  (then)  states,  May,  1787.  Ratified  by  the  several  states 
at  different  times.     See  the  respective  states.  / 

The  50th  anniversary  of  Washington's  inauguration,  was  celebrated  in  New 
York  as  a  jubilee  of  the  constitution,  and  John  Quincy  Adams  pronounced 
an  oration  before  the  Hist.  Soc'y,  April  30,  1840. 

CONSTITUTION  and  GUERRIERE.  The  American  frigate  Constitution, 
capt.  Hull,  after  an  action  of  30  minutes,  captured  the  British  frigate  Guer- 
riere,  capt.  Dacres,  Aug.  20,  1812.  American  loss  7  killed,  and  7  wounded, 
British  loss  100  killed  and  wounded.  The  English  attribiite  the  victory  to 
the- superior  force  of  the  American  frigate.  As  this  was  the  first  important 
naval  victory  of  the  U.  S.,  it  caused  a  strong  sensation.  For  others  see 
Naval  Battles. 

CONSULS.  These  oflScers  were  appointed  at  Rome,  509  b.  c.  They  possessed 
regal  authority  for  the  space  of  a  year :  Lucius  Junius  Brutus,  and  Lucius 
Tarquinius  Collatinus,  the  latter  the  injured  husband  of  Lucretia,  were  the 
first  consuls.  A  consular  government  was  established  in  France,  November 
9, 1799,  when  Bonaparte,  Cambacerfe,  and  Lebrun,  were  made  consuls;  and 
subsequently  Bonaparte  was  made  first  consul  for  life,  May  6,  1802.  Com- 
mercial agents  were  first  distinguished  by  the  name  of  consuls  in  Italy,  in 
1485. 

CONTRIBUTIONS,  Voluntary.  In  the  two  last  wars  voluntary  contributions 
to  a  vast  amount  were  several  times  made  by  the  British  people  in  aid  of 
the  government.  The  most  remarkable  of  these  acts  of  patriotism  was  that 
in  1798,  when,  to  support  the  war  against  France,  the  contributions  amount- 
ed to  two  millions  and  a  half  sterling.  Several  men  of  wealth,  among  others, 
sir  Robert  Peel,  of  Bury,  Lancashire,  subscribed  each  10,OOOZ. ;  and200,000i 
were  transmitted  from  India  in  1799. 

CONVENTICLES.  These  were  private  assemblies  for  religious  worship,  and 
were  particularly  applied  to  those  who  differed  in  form  and  doctrine  from 
the  established  church.  But  the  term  was  first  applied  in  England  to  the 
schools  of  Wickliffe.  Conventicles,  which  were  very  numerous  at  the  time, 
were  prohibited  12  Charles  II.,  1661. 

CONVENTIONS.  See  Alliances,  TVeaties,  &c.  in  their  respective  places  through- 
out the  volume. 

CONVENTS.  They  were  first  founded,  according  to  some  authorities,  in  a.  d, 
270.  The  first  in  England  was  erected  at  Folkstone,  by  Eadbald,  in  630. — 
Camden.  The  first  in  Scotland  was  at  Coldingham,  when  Ethelreda  took 
the  veil,  in  670.  They  were  founded  earlier  than  this  last  date  in  Ireland. 
Convents  were  suppressed  in  England  in  various  reigns,  particularly  in  that 
of  Heniy  VIII.,  and  comparatively  few  now  exist  in  Great  Britain.  More 
than  3000  have  been  suppressed  in  Europe  within  the  last  few  years.  The 
emperor  of  Russia  abolished  187  convents  of  monks,  by  a  ukase  dated  July 
31,  1832.  The  king  of  Prussia  followed  his  example,  and  secularized  all 
the  convents  in  the  duchy  of  Posen.  Don  Pedro  put  down  300  convents  in 
Portugal,  in  1834,  and  Spain  has  lately  abolished  1800  convents. 


COP  ]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  273 

CON'VICTS.  The  first  arrival  of  transported  convicts  from  England,  at  Botany 
Bay,  was  in  1788.  Convicts  are  now  sent  to  Van  Diemen's  Land,  Norfolk 
Island,  Sydney,  in  New  South  Wales,  &c.  See  New  South  Wales  and  Trans- 
poTtatio7i. 

COOK'S  VOYAGES.  The  illustrious  captain  Cook  sailed  from  England  in  the 
Endeavor,  on  his  first  voyage,  July  30,  1768  ;*  and  returned  home  after  hav- 
ing circumnavigated  the  globe,  arriving  at  Spithead,  July  13,  1771.  _  Sir 
Joseph  Banks,  afterwards  the  illustrious  president  of  the  Royal  Society, 
accompanied  captain  Cook  on  this  voyage.  Captain  Cook  again  sailed  to 
explore  the  southern  hemisphere,  July  1772,  and  returned  in  July  1775.  In 
his  third  expedition  this  great  navigator  was  killed  by  the  savages  of  O-why- 
hee,  at  8  o'clock  on  the  morning  of  February  14,  1779.  His  ships,  the  Eeso- 
lution  and  Discovery,  arrived  home  at  Sheerness,  Sept.  22,  1780. 

COOPERAGE.  This  art  must  be  coeval  with  the  dawn  of  history,  and  seems 
to  have  been  early  known  in  every  country.  The  coopers  of  London  were 
incorporated  in  1501. 

COPENHAGEN.  Distinguished  as  a  royal  residence,  a.  d.  1443.  In  1728  more 
than  seventy  of  its  streets  and  3785  houses  were  burnt.  Its  famous  palace, 
valued  at  four  millions  sterling,  was  wholly  burnt,  Feb.  1794,  when  100  per- 
sons lost  their  lives.  In  a  fire  which  lasted  forty-eight  hours,  the  arstiial, 
admiralty,  and  fifty  streets  were  destroyed,  1795.  Copenhagen  was  bom- 
barded by  the  English  under  lord  Nelson  and  admiral  Parker :  and  in  their 
engagement  with  a  Danish  fleet,  of  twenty-three  ships  of  the  line,  eighteen 
were  taken  or  destroyed  by  the  British,  April  2,  1801.  Again,  after  a  bom- 
bardment of  three  days,  the  citj"  and  the  Danish  fleet  surrendered  to  admi- 
ral Gambler  and  lord  Cathcart,  Sept.  7,  1807.  The  capture  consisted  of 
eighteen  sail  of  the  line,  fifteen  frigates,  six  brigs,  and  twenty-five  gun- 
boats, and  immense  naval  stores. — See  Denmark. 

COPERNICAN  SYSTEM.  The  system  of  the  world  wherein  the  sun  is  sup- 
posed to  be  in  the  centre,  and  immovable,  and  the  earth  and  the  rest  of  the 
planets  to  move  round  it  in  elliptical  oi'bits.  The  heavens  and  stars  are 
here  imagined  to  be  at  rest,  and  the  diurnal  motion,  which  they  seem  to 
have  from  east  to  west,  is  imputed  to  the  earth's  motion  from  west  to  east. 
This  system  was  published  at  Thorn,  a.  d.  1530 ;  and  may  in  many  points  be 
regarded  as  that  of  Pythagoras  revived. — Gassendus. 

COPPER.  It  is  one  of  the  six  primitive  metals  ;  its  discovery  is  said  to  have 
preceded  that  of  iron.  We  read  in  the  Scriptures  of  two  ves,sels  of  fine 
copper,  precious  as  gold. — Ezra  viii.  27.  The  great  divisibility  of  this 
metal  almost  exceeds  belief;  a  grain  of  it  dissolved  in  alkali,  as  pearl  ashes, 
soda,  &c.,  Avill  give  a  sensible  color  to  more  than  500,000  times  its  weight  in 
water ;  and  when  copper  is  in  a  state  of  fusion,  if  the  least  drop  of  water 
touch  the  melted  ore,  it  will  fly  about  like  shot  from  a  gun. — Boyle.  Tlie 
mine  of  Fahlun,  in  Sweden,  is  the  most  surprising  artificial  excavation  in  the 
world.  In  England,  copper-mines  were  discovered  in  1561,  and  copper  now 
forms  an  immense  branch  in  the  British  trade  :  there  are  upwards  of  fifty 


'  A  memorial  was  presented  to  the  king  by  the  Royal  Society  in  176S,  setting  forth  the  advan- 
ages  which  would  be  derived  to  science  if  an  accurate  observation  of  the  then  approaching  transit 
:il  Venus  over  the  sun  were  taken  in  the  South  Sea.  The  ship  Endeavor  was,  in  consequence, 
prepared  for  that  purpose,  and  the  command  of  her  given  to  Lieutenant  James  Cook.  He  sailed 
in  .July  1768,  touched  at  iMadeira  and  Rio  de  .Janeiro,  doubled  Cape  Horn,  and  after  a  prosperous 
voyage  reached  Otaheite,  the  place  of  destination,  in  April  1769.  By  a  comparison  of  the  observa- 
tions made  on  this  transit  (.June  3. 17G9)  from  the  various  parts  of  the  globe,  on  which  it  was  viewed 
by  men  of  science,  the  sysiem  of  the  universe  has  in  some  particulars,  been  better  understood ;  the 
distance  of  the  sun  from  ihe  earth,  as  calculated  by  this  and  the  transit  in  1701,  is  now  settled  at 
10S,0;X),000  miles,  instead  of  ;'';e  commonly  received  computation,  of  95,000,000.— J3(£«cr. 

12* 


274  THE    world's    progress.  [  CO? 

mines  in  Cornwall,  where  mining  has  been  increasing  since  the  reign  of  Wil- 
liam HI. 
COPPER-MONEY.  The  Romans,  prior  to  the  reign  of  Servius  TuUius,  used 
rude  pieces  of  copper  for  money. — See  Coin.  In  England,  copper-money  is 
of  extensive  coinage.  That  proposed  by  sir  Robert  Cotton  was  brought  into 
use  in  1609.  Copper  was  extensively  coined  in  1665.  It  was  again  coined 
by  the  crown,  23  Charles  11.,  1672.  Private  traders  had  made  them  previ- 
ously to  this  act.  In  Ireland  copper  was  coined  as  early  as  1339 ;  in  Scot- 
land in  1406 ;  in  France  in  1580.  Wood's  coinage  in  Ireland  {which  see)  com- 
menced in  1723.     Penny  and  two-penny  pieces  were  extensively  used,  1797. 

COPPER-PLATE  PRINTING.  This  species  of  printing  was  first  attempted  in 
Germany,  about  a.  d.  1450.  Rolling-presses  for  working  the  plates  were  in- 
vented about  1545.  Messrs.  Perkins  of  Philadelphia,  invented,  in  1819,  a 
mode  of  engraving  on  soft  steel  which,  when  hardened,  will  multiply  cop- 
per-plates and  fine  impressions  indefinitely. — See  Engraving. 

COPPERAS.  First  produced  in  England  by  Cornelius  de  Vos,  a  merchant,  in  1587. 

COPYRIGHT  ON  BOOKS,  &c.  in  ENGLAND.  The  decree  of  the  Star-chamber 
regarding  it,  a.  d.  1556.  Every  book  and  publication  ordered  to  be  licensed, 
1585.  An  ordinance  forbidding  the  printing  of  any  work  without  the 
consent  of  the  owner,  1649.  Copyright  furtlier  secured  by  a  statute  en- 
acted in  1709.  Protection  of  copyright  in  prints  and  engraving,  17  George 
III.,  1777.  Copyright  protection  act,  54  George  III.,  1814.  Dramatic  au- 
thors' protection  act,  3  William  IV.,  1833.  The  act  for  preventing  the  pub- 
lication of  lectures  without  consent,  6  William  IV.,  1835.  The  act  of  the 
17th  George  III.,  extended  to  Ireland,  7  William  IV.,  1836.  International 
copyright  bill,  1  Victoria,  1838.  Copyright  of  designs  for  articles  of  mami- 
facture  protected,  2  Victoria,  1839.  For  important  act  of  1842,  see  Literary 
Proj)e  rty . — Ha  ydn. 

COPYRIGHT  IN  UNITED  STATES.  The  first  act  for  the  protection  of  literary 
property  in  the  United  States  passed  chiefly  through  the  influence  of  Noah 
Webster,  the  lexicographer,  May  31,  1790.  Another  act  in  relation  to  it, 
April  29,  1802 — granting  copyright  for  14  years,  subject  to  renewal  for  14 
years  if  the  author  is  Uving.  Memorial  of  56  British  authors  asking  for 
International  Copyright,  presented  in  the  Senate  by  Mr.  Clay,  Feb.  1,  1837. 
Act  to  establish  the  Smithsonian  Institute,  requiring  that  copies  of  books 
to  secure  the  copyright  must  be  deposited  in  there  as  well  as  in  the  library 
of  Congress  and  oflice  of  Sec.  State,  Aug.  10,  1846. 

COPYRIGHT,  Produce  of.  The  following  sums  are  stated  to  have  been  paid 
to  the  authors  for  the  copyright  of  the  works  mentioned. 

HISTORY. 


Fragments  of    English  History,  by 

CM.  Fox  -           -           -           .      £5,000 
History  of  England  by  Sir  J.  Mackin- 
tosh      5,000 

Ditto,  by  Linsard  -  -  -      -  4,633 

Life  of  Napofeon,  by  Sir  W.  Scott     - 18,000 
History  of  England,  by  Macaulay,  vol. 
1  and  remainder,  £600  per  annum 
for  ten  years,  say        -  -  -  3,000 

Prescott's  Historical  Works  are  said  to 
have  produced  to  the  author  (who  yet 
owns  the  copyright)  before  1850  -  ®  100,000 

BIOGSAPHY. 

Life  of  Wilberforce     -  -  -  £4,000 

LifcofByron,  by  Moore  -  -    4,000 

Lockhart's  Scott  (two  years'  use)      -  12,500 


POETRY. 

Byron's  Works  (in  all)  -        -  £20,000 

Moore's  Lalla  Rookh  -  -  -    3,000 

Rejected  Addresses  -  -      •    1,000 

Campbell's  Pleasures  of  Hope  (after 

ten  years'  publication)         -  -    1,000 

Campbell's  Gertrude,  after  ditto       -    1,500 

FICTION. 

It  was  estimated  that  Scott's  novels 
produced  for  copyright  at  least    -  250,000 

Bulwer  received  for  his  novels,  each 

1,200  to  1.500 

Mari-yatt,        do.  do.      1,000  to  1,200 

Goldsmith's  "  Vicar"  was  sold  by  Dr. 
Johnson  for         -  -  -      -        63 

Goldsmith  received  for  "  Animated 

Nature"  -  -  -  -      800 

Noah  Webster  is  said  to  have  derived 


lrving"s  Columbu-  (paid  by  Murray)  -  4,000  '      Book 


$1000  per  annum  from  his  Spelling 


COR  ]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES,  275 

CORDAGE.  The  naval  cordage  in  early  ages  was,  probably,  merely  thongs  of 
leather ;  and  these  primitive  ropes  were  retained  by  the  Caledonians  in  the 
third  century,  and  by  some  northern  nations  in  the  ninth.  Cordage  of  weed 
and  of  horse-hair  was  also  used  anciently  before  that  made  of  hemp.  See 
Hemp. 

CORFU.  So  celebrated  in  mythology  and  poetry,  and  capital  of  the  island  of 
the  same  name,  was  placed  under  British  administration,  by  the  treaty  of 
Paris  in  Nov.  1815.    It  is  the  chief  of  the  Ionian  Isles,  which  see. 

CORINTH.  This  city  was  built  in  1520  and  the  kingdom  founded  by  Sisyphus 
in  1376  B.  c.  In  146  b.  c.  the  capital  was  destroj'ed  by  the  Romans,  but  was 
rebuilt  by  Julius  Caesar ;  and  was  among  the  first  cities  of  Greece  that  em- 
braced the  Christian  religion.  It  Avas  defended  by  a  fortress  called  Acro- 
corinth,  on  a  summit  of  a  high  mountain,  surrounded  with  strong  walls, 
The  situation  of  this  citadel  Avas  so  advantageous,  that  Cicero  named  it  the 
Eye  of  Greece,  and  declared,  that  of  all  the  cities  known  to  the  Romans, 
Corinth  alone  was  worthy  of  being  the  seat  of  a  great  empire. 


Corintli  built  on  the  ruins  of  Epliyra, 
iAbbe  LengleV)  .  -      b.  c.  1520 

Rebuilt  by  the  king  of  Sicyon,  and  first 
called  by  its  name        -  -  -  1410 

Sisyphus,  a  public  robber,  seizes  upon 
the  city  (.idem)      -  -  -      -  1375 

The  Pythian  games  instituted,  it  is  said 
by  Sisyphus     -  -  -  -  1375 

The  reign  of  Bacchus,  whose  successors 
are  called  Bacchids,  in  remembrance 
of  the  equity  of  his  reign       -  -    935 

The   Corinthians  invent  ships    called 


A  colony  goes  to  Sicily,  and  they  build 

Syracuse  -  -  -       B.  c.  732 

Sea  fight  between  the  Corinthians  and 

Corcyreans  -  -  -        .  664 

Periander  rules  and  encourages  genius  ■ 

and  learning     ....  629 
Death  of  Periander    -  -  .      .  585 

The  Corinthians  form  a  republic  -  582 

War  with  the  Corcyreans  .  .  439 

The  Corinthian  war  (which  see)  -  •  395 
Acrocorinth  (citadel)  taken  by  Aratus  -  242 
The  Roman  ambassadors  first  appear 


triremes ;  vessels  consisting  of  three  :  at  Corinth          ....  228 

benches  of  oars            .           -           .  786,  Corinth  destroyed  by  Lucius  Mummius 

Thelestes  deposed,  and  the  government  j  Avho  sends  to  Italy  the  first  fine  paint- 

of  the    Prytanes    instituted:    Auto-  ings  there  seen,  they  being  part  of  the 

menes  is  the  first  on  whom  this  dig-  spoil  (Livy)      ....  146 

nity  is  conferred          -           .           -  757 1 

CORINTHIAN  ORDER.  The  finest  of  all  the  orders  of  ancient  architecture, 
aptly  called  by  Scamozzi,  the  virginal  order,  as  being  expressive  of  the  deli- 
cacy, tenderness,  and  beauty  of  the  Avhole  composition.  The  invention  of  it 
is  attributed  to  Callimachus,  540  b.  c. 

CORINTHIAN  WAR.  The  war  which  received  this  name,  because  the  battles 
were  mostly  fought  in  the  neighborhood  of  Corinth,  was  begun  b.  c.  895,  by  a 
confederacy  of  the  Athenians,  Thebans,  Corinthians,  and  Argives,  against 
the  Lacedsemouians.  The  most  famous  battles  were  at  Corouea  and  Leuc- 
tra,  tvhich  see. 

CORN  OR  GRAIN.  The  origin  of  its  cultivation  is  attributed  to  Ceres,  who 
having  taught  the  art  to  the  Egyptians,  was  deified  by  them,  2409  b.  c. — 
Arundelicm  Marbles.  The  art  of  husbandry,  and  the  method  of  making 
bread  from  wheat,  and  Avine  from  rice,  is  attributed  by  the  Chinese  to  Ching 
Noung,  the  successor  of  Fohi,  and  second  monarch  of  China,  1998  b.  c— 
Univ.  Hist.  But  corn  provided  a  common  article  of  food  from  the  earliest 
ages  of  the  Avorld,  and  baking  bread  Avas  knoAAOi  in  the  patriarchal  ages. — 
See  Exodus  xii.  15.  Wheat  was  introduced  into  Britain  in  the  sixth  century, 
by  Coll  ap  Coll  Fviiv<\.~Roberts'  Hist.  Anc.  Britons.  The  first  importation 
of  corn  of  AA'hich  Ave  have  note.  Avas  in  1347.  Bounties  Avere  granted  on  its 
importation  into  England,  in  1686. 

CORN  LAWS  IN  England.  Various  enactments  relative  to  the  duty  on  "  corn'- 
or  grain  passed  1814.  Riots,  caused  by  the  passing  of  the  act  permitting  its 
importation  Avhen  corn  should  bo  8O5.  "per  quarter,"  1815.  The  "sliding- 
scale"  of  duties  passed  July  15.  1828.     Another   April  29.  1842;  act  fixing 


276  THE    WORLD'S    PROGRESS.  [  COB 

the  duty  on  wheat  at  4s.  until  Feb.  1849,  and  after  that  at  Is.  per  quarter, 
passed  June  26,  1846.  This  was  the  virtual  abolition  of  the  Corn  Laws — 
and  the  Anti-Corn  Law  League — which  had  been  formed  in  1841  was  there- 
fore formally  dissolved,  July  2,  1846. 

CORONATION.  The  first  coronation  by  a  bishop,  was  that  of  Majocianus,  at 
Constantinople,  in  a.  d.  457.  The  ceremony  of  anointing  at  coronations  was 
introduced  into  England  in  872,  and  into  Scotland  in  1097.  The  coronation 
of  Henry  III.  took  place,  in  the  first  instance,  without  a  cro\\Ti,  at  Gloucester, 
October  28,  1216.  A  plain  circle  was  used  on  this  occasion  in  lieu  of  the 
crown,  which  had  been  lost  with  the  other  jewels  and  baggage  of  king  John, 
in  passing  the  marshes  of  Lynn,  or  the  Wash,  near  Wishe&ch.—Mattheiu 
Paris.    Rymer. 

CORONATION  FEASTS,  and  OATH.  The  oath  was  first  administered  to  the 
kings  of  England  by  Dunstan  (the  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  afterwards 
canonized),  to  Ethelred  II.  in  979.  An  oath,  nearly  corresponding  with  that 
now  in  use,  was  administered  in  1377 ;  it  was  altered  in  1689.  The  f(^tes 
given  at  coronations  commenced  with  Edward  I.  in  1273.  That  at  the  cor- 
onation of  George  IV.  rivalled  the  extravagances  and  sumptuousness  of 
former  times. 

CORONERS.  They  were  officers  of  the  realm  in  a.  d.  925.  Coroners  for  every 
county  in  England  were  first  appointed  by  statute  of  Westminster,  4  Edward 
I.  1276. — Stowe.  Coroners  were  instituted  in  Scotland  in  the  reign  of  Mal- 
colm II.,  about  1004.  By  an  act  passed  in  the  6th  and  7th  of  queen  Victoria, 
coroners  are  enabled  to  appoint  deputies  to  act  for  them,  but  only  in  case  of 
illness.     Aug.  22,  1843. 

CORONETS.  The  caps  or  inferior  crowns,  of  various  forms,  that  distinguish 
the  rank  of  the  nobility.  The  coronets  for  earls  were  first  allowed  by  Henry 
III. ;  for  viscounts  by  Henry  VIII. ;  and  for  barons  by  Charles  II. — Baker. 
But  authorities  conflict.  Sir  Robert  Cecil,  earl  of  Salisbmy,  was  the  first  of 
the  degree  of  earl  who  wore  a  coronet,  1604. — Bcatson.  It  is  uncertain  when 
the  coronets  of  dukes  and  marquesses  were  settled. — Idem. 

CORPORATIONS.  They  are  stated  by  Livy  to  have  been  of  very  high  anti- 
quity among  the  Romans.  They  were  introduced  into  other  countries  from 
Italy.  These  political  bodies  were  first  planned  by  Numa,  in  order  to  break 
the  force  of  the  two  rival  factions  of  Sabines  and  Romans,  by  instituting  sep- 
arate societies  of  every  manual  trade  and  profession. — Plutarch. 

CORPORATIONS.  MUNICIPAL,  in  ENGLAND.  Bodies  politic,  authorized 
by  the  king's  charter  to  have  a  common  seal,  one  head  officer,  or  more,  and 
members,  who  are  able,  by  their  common  consent,  to  grant  or  receive,  in 
law.  any  matter  within  the  compass  of  their  charter. — Covxl.  Corporations 
were  formed  by  charters  of  rights  granted  by  the  kings  of  England  to  vari- 
ous towns,  first  by  Edward  the  Confessor.  Hemy  I.  granted  charters,  a.  d. 
1100 ;  and  succeeding  monarchs  gave  corporate  powers,  and  extended  them 
to  numerous  large  communities  throughout  the  realm,  subject  to  tests,  oaths, 
and  conditions. — -Blackstone. 

CORSICA.  Called  by  the  Greeks  Cyrnos.  The  ancient  inhabitants  of  this 
island  were  savage,  and  bore  the  character  of  robbers,  liars,  and  atheists, 
according  to  Seneca,  when  he  existed  among  them.  It  was  held  by  the  Car- 
thaginians ;  and  was  conquered  by  the  Romans,  231  b.  c.  In  modern  times, 
Corsica  was  dependent  upon  the  republic  of  Genoa,  until  1730 ;  and  was  sold 
to  France  in  1733.  It  was  erected  into  a  kingdom  under  Theodore,  its  first 
and  only  king,  in  1736.  He  came  to  England,  where  he  was  imprisoned  in 
the  King's  Bench  prison  for  debt,  and  for  many  years  subsisted  on  the  be- 
nevolence of  private  friends.     Having  been  released  by  an  act  of  insolvency 


COS  ]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  277 

in  1756,  he  g&ve  in  his  schedule  the  kingdom  of  Corsica  as  an  estate  to  his 
creditors,  and  died  the  same  year,  at  his  lodgings  in  Chapel-street,  Soho. 
The  earl  of  Oxford  wrote  the  following  epitaph,  on  a  tablet  erected  near  his 
grave,  in  St.  Anne's  church.  Dean-street : — 

"  The  grave,  great  teacher !  to  a  level  brings 
Heroes  and  beggars,  galley-slaves  and  kings. 
But  Theodore  this  moral  learn'd  ere  dead ; 
Fate  pour'd  its  lesson  on  his  living  head, 
Bestow'd  a  kingdom  and  denied  him  bread." 

The  celebrated  Pascal  Paoli  was  chosen  for  their  general  by  the  Corsicans, 
in  1753.  He  was  defeated  by  the  count  de  Vans,  and  fled  to  England,  1769, 
The  people  acknowledged  George  III.  of  England  for  their  king,  June  17, 
1794,  when  sir  Gilbert  Elliott  was  made  viceroy,  and  he  opened  a  parliament 
in  1795.  A  revolt  was  suppressed  in  June  1796 ;  and  the  island  was  -elin- 
quished  by  the  British,  Oct.  22,  same  year,  when  the  people  declared  for  the 
French. 

CORTES  OF  SPAIN.  A  deliberative  assembly  under  the  old  constitution  oi 
Spain ;  several  times  set  aside.  The  cortes  were  newly  assembled  after  a 
long  interval  of  years,  Sept.  24,  1810;  and  they  settled  the  new  constitution, 
March  16,  1812.  This  constitution  was  set  aside  by  Ferdinand  VII.,  who 
banished  many  members  of  the  assembly  in  May,  1814.  The  cortes  or  states- 
general  were  opened  by  Ferdinand  VII.  1820,  and  they  have  since  been  reg- 
ularly convened. 

CORUNNA,  Battle  of,  between  the  British  army  under  sir  John  Moore  (who 
was  killed)  and  the  French,  Jan.  16,  1809. 

COSMETICS.  Preparations  for  improving  beauty  were  known  to  the  ancients, 
and  some  authorities  refer  them  even  to  mythology,  and  others  to  the  Gre- 
cian stage.  The  Roman  ladies  painted ;  and  those  of  Italjj^  excelled  in  height- 
ening their  charms  artificially,  by  juices  and  colors,  and  by  perfumes, 
Rouge  has  always  been  in  disrepute  among  the  virtuous  and  well-ordered 
women  of  England,  though  some  simple  cosmetics  are  regarded  as  innocent, 
and  are  in  general  use. — Ashe.  '  The  females  of  France  and  Germany  paint 
more  highly  than  most  other  nations. — Richwrdson.  A  stamp  was  laid  on 
cosmetics,  perfumery,  and  such  medicines  as  reallj''  or  suppositiously  beau- 
tify the  skin,  or  perfume  the  person,  and  the  venders  were  obliged  to  take 
out  licenses,  26th  Geo.  III.  1786. 

COSMOGRAPHY.  The  science  which  teaches  the  structure,  form,  disposition, 
and  relation  of  the  parts  of  the  world,  or  the  manner  of  representing  it  on  a 
plane. — Sclden.  It  consists  of  two  parts,  astronomy  and  geography :  the 
earliest  accounts  of  the  former  occur  2234  b.  c. — Blair.  The  first  record 
of  the  latter  is  from  Homer,  who  describes  the  shield  of  Achilles  as  rep- 
resenting the  earth. — Iliad.  See  the  articles  on  Astronomy  and  Geography 
respectively. 

COSSACKS.  The  warlike  people  inhabiting  the  confines  of  Poland,  Russia, 
Tartary,  and  Turkey.  They  at  first  lived  by  plundering  the  Turkish  galleys 
and  the  people  of  Natolia  :  they  were  formed  into  a  regular  army  by  Ste 
phen  Batori,  in  1576,  to  defend  the  frontiers  of  Russia  from  the  incursions 
of  the  Tartars.  In  the  late  great  war  of  Europe  against  France,  a  vast  body 
of  Cossacks  formed  a  portion  of  the  Russian  armies,  and  fought  almost  in- 
vincibly. 

COSTUME.  See  Dress.  Accounts  of  magnificent  attire  refer  to  verj'  remote 
antiquity.  The  costume  of  the  Grecian  and  Roman  ladies  was  comely  and 
graceful.  The  women  of  Cos,  whose  country  was  famous  for  the  silkworm, 
wore  a  manufacture  of  cotton  and  silk  of  so  beautiful  and  delicate  a  texture, 
and  their  garments,  which  were  always  white,  were  so  clear  and  thin,  thai 


278 


THE    WORLD  S    PROGRESS. 


I  COT 


their  bodies  could  be  seen  through  them. — Ovid.  As  relates  to  costume 
worn  on  the  stage,  ^schylus  the  Athenian  was,  it  is  said,  the  first  who 
erected  a  regular  stage  for  his  actors,  and  ordered  their  dresses  to  be  suited 
to  their  characters,  about  436  b.  c. — Parian  Marbles. 

COTTON.  The  method  of  spinning  cotton  formerly  was  by  the  hand ;  but 
about  1767,  Mr.  Hargreaves,  of  Lancashire,  invented  the  spinning-jenny 
with  eight  spindles ;  he  also  erected  the  first  carding-machine  with  cylin- 
ders. Sir  Richard  Arkwright  obtained  a  patent  for  a  new  invention  of 
machinery  in  1769 ;  and  another  patent  for  an  engine  in  1775.  Crompton 
invented  the  mule,  a  further  and  wonderful  improvement  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  cotton,  in  1779,  and  various  other  improvements  have  been  since 
made.  The  names  of  Peel  and  Arkwright  are  eminently  conspicuous  in  con- 
nection with  this  vast  source  of  British  industry ;  and  it  is  calculated  that 
more  than  one  thousand  millions  sterling  have  be- .^n  yielded  by  it  to  Great 
Britain.  Cotton  manufacturers'  utensils  were  prohibited  from  being  export- 
ed in  177i. — Haydn. 

HISTORY   OF   COTTON,   FOR   OVER   ONE   HUNDRED   YEARS. 

The  following  brief  items  of  the  hislonj  of  cotton,  from  1730  to  1836,  are  taken  from  a  South 

Carolina  paper : — 


1730.  Mr.  Wyatt  spins  the  first  cotton  yarn 
in  England  by  machinery. 

1735.  The  Dutch  first  export  cotton  from 
Surinam. 

1742.  First  mill  for  spinning  cotton  erected 
at  Bu-minghara,  moved  by  mules  or  liorses ; 
but  not  successful  in  its  operations. 

1749.  Tlie  fiy  shuttle  generally  used  in 
England. 

1^56.  Cotton  velvets  and  quiltings  made 
in  England  for  the  first  time. 

1761.  Arkwright  obtained  the  first  patent 
for  tlie  spinning  frame,  which  he  further 
improved. 

1768.  The  stocking  frame  applied  by 
Hammond  to  makins  of  lace. 

1773.  A  bill  passeil  to  prevent  the  export 
of  macliinery  used  in  cotton  factories. 

1779.  Mule  spinning  invented  by  Hargra\'e. 

17S2.  First  import  of  raw  cotton  from 
Brazil  into  England. 

1782.  Watt  look  out  his  patent  for  the 
steam-engine. 

1783.  A  bounty  granted  m  England  on  the 
export  of  certain  cotton  goods. 

1785.  Power-looms  invented  by  Dr.  Cart- 
wright — steam  engines  used  in  cotton  fac- 
tories. 

1785.  Cotton  imported  into  England  from 
the  United  States. 

1786.  Bleaching  first  performed  by  the 
agency  of  the  oxyniuriaiic  acid. 

1787.  First  machinery  to  spin  cotton  put 
in  operation  in  France. 

1789.  bea  Island  cotton  first  planted  in  the 
United  States ;  and  upland  cotton  first  cul- 
tivated for  use  and  export  about  this  time. 

1790  Slator,  an  Englishman,  builds  the 
first  American  cotton  factor)^,  at  Pawtucket, 
Rhode  Island. 

1792.  Eli  Whitney,  an  American,  invents 
the  cotton  gin,  which  he  patents. 

1798.  First  mill  and  machinery  for  cotton 
erected  in  Switzerland. 

1799.  Spinning  by  machinery  introduced 
into  Saxony  this  year. 


IS03.  First  cotton  factory  built  in  New 
Hampshire. 

1805.  Power-looms  successfully  and  widely 
introduced  into  England. 

1807.  The  revolution  in  Spanish  America 
begins  to  furnish  new  markets  for  cotton 
manufactures. 

1810.  Digest  of  cotton  manufactures  in  the 
United  States  by  Mr.  Gallatin,  and  another 
by  Mr.  Tench  Coxe,  of  Philadelphia. 

1811.  Machinery  to  make  bobbin  lace  pa- 
tented by  John  Burn. 

1813.  The  India  trade  more  free,  and  more 
British  manufactures  sent  thither. 

1S14.  The  power-loom  introduced  into  the 
United  States  ;  first  at  Waltham. 

1818.  Average  price  of  cotton  34  cents — 
higher  than  since  1810.  New  method  ol 
preparing  sewing  cotton  by  Mr.  Holt. 

1819.  Extraordinary  prices  for  Alabama 
cotton  lands. 

1820.  Steam  power  first  applied  with  suc- 
cess extensively  to  lace  manufactures. 

1822  First  cotton  factory  in  Lowell  erected. 
1823.  First  export  of  raw  cotton  from  Egypt 
into  Great  Britain. 

1825.  In  New  Orleans  cotton  at  from  23  to 
25  cents  per  pound. 

1826.  Selfacting  mule  spinner  patented 
in  England  by  Roberts. 

1827.  American  cotton  manufactures  first 
exported  to  any  considerable  extent. 

1829.  Highest  duty  in  the  United  States  on 
foreign  cotton  manufactures. 

1830.  About  this  time  Mr.  Dyer  introduced 
a  machine  from  the  United  States  into  Eng- 
land for  the  purpose  of  making  cards. 

1832.  Duty  on  cotton  goods  imported  int.T 
the  United  States  reduced ;  and  in  England 
it  is  forbid  to  employ  minors  in  cotton  mills, 
to  work  them  more  than  ten  hours  per  day, 
or  more  than  nine  hours  on  a  Saturday ;  m 
consequence  they  work  at  something  else. 

1834.  Cotton  a't  17  cents. 

1835.  Extensive  purchases  made  of  cottos 
lands  by  speculators  and  others. 

1836.  Cotton  at  from  18  to  20  cents. 


cou  ] 


DICTIOISAKY    OF    DATES. 


279 


COTTONIAN  LIBRARY.  Formed  by  great  labor  and  with  great  judgment 
by  sir  Robert  Cotton,  a.  d.  1600  et  seq.  This  vast  trea.sury  of  knowledge, 
after  having  been  with  difficulty  rescued  from  the  fury  of  the  republicans 
during  the  protectorate,  was  secured  to  the  public  by  a  statute,  13  William 
III.  1701.  It  was  removed  to  Essex-house  in  1712 ;  and  in  1730  to  Dean's- 
yard,  Westminster,  where,  on  Oct.  23,  1731,  a  part  of  the  books  sustained 
damage  by  fire.    The  library  was  removed  to  the  British  Museum  in  1753. 

COUNCILS.  An  English  council  is  of  very  early  origin.  The  wise  Alfred,  to 
whom  we  are  indebted  for  many  excellent  institutions,  so  arranged  the  busi- 
ness of  the  nation,  that  all  resolutions  passed  through  thi'ee  councils.  The  first 
was  a  select  council,  to  which  those  only  high  in  the  king's  confidence  were 
admitted ;  here  were  debated  all  aftairs  that  were  to  be  laid  before  the 
second  council,  which  consisted  of  bishops  and  nobles,  and  resembled  the 
present  priry  council,  and  none  belonged  to  it  but  those  whom  the  king  was 
pleased  to  appoint.  The  third  was  a  general-  council  or  assembly  of  the  na- 
tion, called  in  Saxon,  Wittenagemot,  to  which  quality  and  offices  gave  a  right 
to  sit  independent  of  the  king.  In  these  three  councils  we  behold  the  origin 
of  the  cabinet  and  privy  councils,  and  the  antiquity  of  pai'liaments ;  but  the 
term  cabinet  coimcil  is  of  a  much  more  modern  date,  according  to  lord  Clar- 
endon.— See  Cabinet  Comicil,  Common  Coimcil,  Privy  Council,  &c. 

COUNCILS  OF  THE  CHURCH,  The  following  are  among  the  most  memorable 
Christian  councils,  or  councils  of  the  Church  of  Rome.  Most  other  councils 
(the  list  of  which  would  make  a  volume)  either  respected  national  churches 
or  ecclesiastical  government.     Sir  Harris  Nicolas  enumerates  1604  councils. 

The  second  Lateran,  tenth  General,  In- 
nocent II.  presided ;  the  preservation 
of  the  temporal  ties  of  ecclesiastics, 
the  principal  subject,  which  occa- 
sioned the  attendance  of  1000  la- 
thers of  the  church      -  -    A.  D.  113'J 

The  third  Lateran,  eleventh  General ; 
held  against  schismatics         -  -1179 

Fourth  Lateran,  twelfth  General ;  400 
bishops  and  1000  abbots  attended; 
Innocent  III.  presided       -  -      -  1213 

Of  Lyons,  the  thirteenth  General,  under 
pope  Innocent  IV.        -  -  -  1245 

Ot  Lyons,  the  fourteenth  General,  under 
Gregory  X.      -  -  -  -  1274 

Of  Vienne  in  Dauphine,  the  fifteenth 
General;  Clement  V.  presided,  and 
the  kings  of  France  and  Arragon  at- 
tended. The  order  of  the  Knight 
Templars  suppressed  -  -  -1311 

Of  Pisa,  the  sixteenth  General ;  Gre- 
gory XII.  and  Benedict XIII.  deposed, 
and  Alexander  elected 

Of  Constance,  the  seventeenth  General ; 
Martin  V.  is  elected  pope  ;  and  John 
Huss  and  Jerome  of  Prague  con- 
demned to  be  burnt 

Of  Basil,  the  eighteenth  General 

The  fi  llh  Lateran,  the  nineteenth  Gene- 
ral, begun  by  Julius  II.  -  -  151ii 

Continued  under  Leo  X.  for  the  sup- 
pression of  the  Pragmatic  sanction  of 
France,  against  the  council  of  Pisa, 
&c.  till  -  -  -  -  -  15'  I 

Of  Trent,  the  twentieth  and  last  Gene- 
ral council,  styled  OEcumenical,  as  re- 
garding the  affairs  of  all  the  Chris- 
tian world ;  it  was  held  to  condemn 
the  doctrines  of  the  reformers,  Luther, 
Zuinglius,  and  Calvin. — Abbe  Lenglet  154r 


Of  the  Apostles  at  Jerusalem    -    a.  d 

Of  the  western  bishops  at  Aries,  in 
France,  to  suppress  the  Donatists ; 
tliree  fathers  of  the  English  church 
went  over  to  attend  it  - 

The  first  (Ecumenical  or  General  Ni- 
cene,  held  at  Nice,  Constantine  the 
Great  presided;  Arius  and  Eusebius 
condemned  for  heresy.  This  council 
composed  the  Nicene  Creed  - 

At  Tyre,  when  the  doctrine  of  Athana- 
sius  was  canvassed 

The  first  held  at  Constantinople,  when 
the  Arian  heresy  gained  ground 

At  Rome,  concerning  Athanasius,  which 
lasted  eighteen  months 

At  Sardis ;  370  bishops  attended 

Of  Rimini ;  400  bishops  attended,  and 
Constantine  obliged  them  to  sign  a 
new  confession  of  faith 

The  second  General  at  Constantinople ; 
350  bishops  attended,  and  pope  Da- 
masius  presided 

The  third  at  Ephesus,  when  pope  Ce- 
lestine  presided 

Fourth  at  Chalcedon ;  the  emperor  Jlar- 
cian  and  his  empress  attended 

The  fifth  at  Constantinople,  when  pope 
Vigilius  presided 

The  sixth  at  Constantinople,  when  pope 
Agatho  presided 

Authority  of  the  six  general  councils  re- 
established by  Theodosius 

The  second  Nicene  council,  seventh  Ge- 
neral ;  350  bishops  attended  - 

Of  Constantinople,  eighth  General ;  the 
emperor  Basil  attended 

The  first  Lateran,  the  ninth  General ; 
the  right  of  investitures  settled  by 
treaty  betv/een  pope  Calixtus  IL  and 
the  emperor  Henry  V.  •   ,        - 


335 


1409 


1414 
1431 


280  THE  world's  progress.  [  cov 

COUNCILS,  French  Republican.  The  council  of  Ancients  was  an  assembly 
of  revolutionary  France,  consisting  of  250  members,  instituted  at  Paris,  Nov. 
1,  1795,  together  with  the  council  of  Five  Hundred  ;  the  executive  was  a 
Directory  of  Five.  Bonaparte  dispersed  the  council  of  Five  Hundred  at  St. 
Cloud,  Nov  9,  1799,  declaring  himself,  Roger  Ducos,  and  Sieyes,  consuls  pro- 
visoires. — See  France. 

COUNSEL.  See  Barristers.  Counsel  who  were  guilty  of  deceit  or  collusion 
were  punishable  by  the  statute  of  Westminster,  13  Edward  I.,  1284.  Coun- 
sel were  allowed  to  persons  charged  with  treason,  by  act  8  William  HI.  1696. 
Act  to  enable  persons  indicted  of  felony  to  make  their  defence  by  counsel, 
6  &  7  William  IV.,  Aug.  1836. 

COUNTIES.  The  division  of  England  into  counties  began,  it  is  said,  with  king 
Alfred  ;  but  some  counties  bore  their  present  names  a  century  before.  The 
division  of  Ireland  into  counties  took  place  in  1562.  County  courts  were 
instituted  in  the  reign  of  Alfred,  896.  Counties  first  sent  members  to  par- 
liament, before  which  period  knights  met  in  their  own  counties,  1259. — See 
CoTmnons,  and  Parliament. 

COURIERS  OR  POSTS.  Xenophon  attributes  the  first  couriers  to  Cyrus ;  and 
Herodotus  says  tliat  thej^  were  common  among  the  Persians.  But  it  does 
not  appear  that  the  Greeks  or  Romans  had  regular  couriers  till  the  time  of 
Augustus,  when  they  travelled  in  cars,  about  24  b.  c.  Couriers  or  posts  are 
said  to  have  been  instituted  in  France  by  Charlemagne,  about  a.  d.  800. 
The  couriers  or  posts  for  letters  were  established  in  the  early  part  of  the 
reign  of  Louis  XI.  of  France,  owing  to  this  monarch's  extraordinary  eager- 
ness for  news.  They  were  the  first  institution  of  the  kind  in  Europe,  a.  d. 
14iSZ.—Hena%at. 

COURTS.  Courts  of  justice  were  instituted  at  Athens,  1507  b.  c. — See  Areopor- 
gitce.  There  were  courts  for  the  distribution  of  Justice  in  Athens,  in  1272 
E.  c. — Blair.  They  existed  under  various  denominations  in  Rome,  and  other 
countries. 

COURT  OF  HONOR.  In  England,  the  court  of  chivalry,  of  which  the  lord  high 
constable  was  a  judge,  was  called  Curia  M'ditaris  in  the  time  of  Henry  IV., 
and  subsequently  the  Court  of  Honor.  In  the  Stat^es  of  Bavaria,  in  order  to 
prevent  duelling,  a  court  of  honor  was  instituted  in  April,  1819.  In  these 
countries,  Mr.  Josepli  Hamilton  has  ardently  labored  to  establish  similar  in- 
stitutions. 

COVENANTERS.  The  name  which  was  particularly  applied  to  those  persons 
who  in  the  reign  of  Charles  I.  took  the  solemn  league  and  covenant,  thereby 
mutually  engaging  to  stand  by  each  other  in  opposition  to  the  projects  of 
the  king ;  it  was  entered  into  in  1638.  The  covenant  or  league  between 
England  and  Scotland,  was  formed  in  1643 ;  it  was  declared  to  be  illegal  by 
parliament,  14  Charles  II.,  1662. 

COVENTRY.  PEEPING  TOM  of.  The  great  show  fair  of  Coventry  owes  its 
origin  to  the  following  tradition: — Leofric,  earl  of  Mercia,  had  imposed  such 
heavy  taxes  on  the  citizens,  his  ladj^,  Godiva,  moved  by  their  entreaties, 
importuned  her  lord  to  remit  them,  and  he  consented  on  the  condition  of  her 
riding  naked  through  the  city  at  mid-day.  Her  humanity  induced  her  to 
consent,  and  she  so  disposed  her  flowing  tresses  as  to  hide  her  person ;  and 
ordering  all  the  inhabitants,  on  pain  of  death,  to  close  their  doors  and  win- 
dows, she  rode  quite  naked  through  the  town.  One  person,  yielding  to 
curiosity,  stole  a  glance  at  the  countess,  and  was  struck  dead ;  and  has  been 
famed  ever  since  under  the  name  of  Peeping  Tom,  and  his  effigy  is  shown 
to  this  day.  To  commemorate  this  event,  a.  d.  1057,  at  the  great  show  fair 
the  mayor  and  corporation  walk  in  procession  through  the  town,  accom- 


CRE  ]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  28 1 

panied  by  a  female  on  horseback,  clad  in  a  linen  dress  closely  fitted  to  her 
limbs. 

COW-POCK  INOCULATION.  This  species  of  inoculation,  as  a  security 
against  the  small-pox,  was  introduced  by  Dr.  Jenner,  and  it  became  general 
in  1799.  The  genuine  cow-pox  appears  in  the  form  of  vesicles  on  the 
teats  of  the  cow,  and  was  first  noticed  by  Dr.  Jenner,  in  1796.  He  was  re- 
warded by  parliament  with  the  munificent  grant  of  ^10,000,  June  2, 1802. — 
See  Inoculation,  Small-Pox,  Vaccination. 

CRACOW.  The  Poles  elect  Cracus  for  their  duke,  and  he  builds  Cracow  with 
the  spoils  taken  from  the  Franks,  a.  d.  700,  et  seq.  Taken  by  Charles  XII. 
in  1702 ;  taken  and  retaken  by  the  Russians  and  confederates  on  the  one 
side  and  the  patriotic  people  on  the  other  several  times.  Kosciusko  expel- 
led the  Russian  garrison  from  the  city,  March  24,  1794.  It  surrendered  ito 
the  Prussians,  June  15,  same  year.  Formed  into  a  republic  in  1815.  Occu- 
pied by  10,000  Russians  who  followed  there  the  defeated  Poles,  Sept.  1831. 
Its  independence  extinguished ;  seized  by  the  emperor  of  Austria,  and  in- 
corporated with  the  Austrian  empire,  November,  1846. — See  Poland. 

CRANES.  They  are  of  very  early  date,  for  the  engines  of  Archimedes  may 
be  so  called.  The  theory  of  the  inclined  plain,  the  pulley,  &c.  are  also  his, 
220  B.  c. — Livy. 

CRANIOLOGY.  The  science  of  animal  propensities.  Dr.  Gall,  a  German, 
started  this  new  doctrine  respecting  the  brain,  in  1803.  Dr.  Spurzheim  fol- 
lowed, and  by  his  expositions  gave  a  consistency  to  the  science,  and  it  seems 
to  be  rapidly  gaining  groimd ;  it  has  now  many  professors,  and  in  almost  all 
countries  craniology  is  countenanced  by  learned  and  enlightened  men.  The 
science  assigns  the  particular  locations  of  certain  organs,  or  as  many  differ- 
ent seats  of  the  most  prominent  operations  of  the  mind. 

CRANMER,  LATIMER,  and  RIDLEY.  Illustrious  names  in  the  list  of  Eng- 
lish martyrs  of  the  reformed  religion.  Ridley,  bishop  of  London,  and  Lati- 
mer, bishop  of  Worcester,  were  burnt  at  Oxford,  Oct.  16,  1555>;  and  Cran- 
mer,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  March  21,  1556.  His  love  of  life  had  in- 
duced Cranmer,  some  time  previously,  in  an  unguarded  moment,  to  sign  a 
paper  wherein  he  condemned  the  Reformation ;  and  when  he  was  led  to  the 
stake,  and  the  fire  was  kindled  round  him,  lie  stretched  forth  his  right  hand, 
with  which  he  had  signed  his  recantation,  that  it  might  be  consumed  before 
the  rest  of  his  body,  exclaiming  from  time  to  time,  '■  This  unworthy  hand !" 
Raising  his  eyes  to  heaven,  he  expired  with  the  dying  prayer  of  the  first 
martyr  of  the  Christian  church,  "Lord  Jesus,  receive  my  spirit!" 

CRAPE.  A  light  kind  of  stuflf  like  gauze,  made  of  raw  silk  gummed  and 
twisted  on  the  mill.  Its  manufacture  is  of  very  early  date,  and  it  is  said 
some  crape  was  made  by  St.  Badour,  when  queen  of  France,  about  a.  d.  680. 
It  was  first  made  at  Bologna,  and  in  modern  times  has  been  principally  used 
for  mourning. 

CRAYONS.  They  were  known  in  France  before  a.  d.  1422 — improved  by 
L'Oriot,  1748. 

CREATION  or  the  WORLD.  It  was  placed  by  Usher,  Blair,  and  Dufresnoy, 
4004  E.  c.  Josephus  makes  it  4658  years. —  Whiston.  The  first  date  agrees 
with  the  common  Hebrew  text,  and  the  vulgate  Latin  translation  of  the  Old 
Testament.  There  are  about  140  different  dates  assigned  to  the  creation : 
some  place  it  3616  years  before  the  birth  of  our  Saviour.  Plato,  in  his  dia- 
logue entitled  Critias,  asserts  his  celebrated  Atalahtis  to  have  been  buried 
in  the  ocean  about  9000  years  before  the  age  in  which  he  wrote.  The  Chi- 
nese represent  the  world  as  having  existed  some  hundreds  of  thousands  of 
years  ;  and  we  are  told  that  the  astronomical  records  of  the  ancient  Chal- 


282  THE    world's   PROGKESS,  [  CRl 

deans  carried  back  the  origin  of  society  to  a  period  of  no  less  than  473,000 
years. 

CREATION,  Era  or  the.  In  use  by  many  nations.  This  era  would  be  found 
convenient,  by  doing  away  with  the  difficulty  and  ambiguity  of  counting 
before  and  after  any  particular  date,  as  is  necessary  when  the  era  begins  at 
a  later  period ;  but,  unfortunately,  writers  are  not  agreed  as  to  the  right 
time  of  commencing.  This  epoch  is  fixed  by  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch  at 
4700  B.  c.  The  Septuagint  makes  it  5872.  The  authors  of  the  Talmud 
make  it  5344 ;  and  difierent  chronologers,  to  the  number  of  120,  make  it 
vary  from  the  Septuagint  date  to  3268.  Dr.  Hales  fixed  it  at  5411 ;  but  the 
Catholic  church  adopted  the  even  number  of  4000,  and  subsequently,  a  cor- 
rection as  to  the  birth  of  Christ  adds  four  years :  tlierefore,  it  is  now  gener- 
ally considered  as  4004  years,  which  agrees  with  the  modern  Hebrew  text. 

CREED.  The  Apostles'  Creed  is  supposed  to  have  been  written  a  great  while 
after  their  time. — Pardon.  It  was  introduced  formally  into  public  worship 
in  the  Greek  church  at  Antioch,  and  subsequently  into  the  Roman  church. 
This  creed  was  translated  into  the  Saxon  tongue,  about  a.  d.  746.  The 
Nicene  Creed  talies  its  name  from  the  council  by  whom  it  was  composed,  iu 

A,  D.  325.  The  Athanasian  Creed  is  supijosed  to  have  been  Aviitten  about 
340. — See  Apostles',  Nicene,  and  other  creeds. 

CRESSY,  OR  CRECY,  Battle  of.  Edward  III.  and  his  son,  the  renowned  Ed- 
ward the  Black  Prince,  obtained  a  great  and  memorable  victory  over  Philip, 
king  of  France,  Aug.  26,  1346.  This  was  one  of  the  most  glorious  triumphs 
ever  achieved  by  English  arms.  John,  duke  of  Bohemia ;  James,  king  of 
Majorca ;  Ralph,  duke  of  Lorraine  (sovereign  princes)  ;  a  number  of  French 
nobles,  together  with  30,000  private  men,  were  slain,  while  the  loss  of  the 
English  was  very  small.  The  crest  of  the  king  of  Bohemia  was  three  ostrich 
feathers,  with  the  motto  '•  Ich  Dien,"  in  English,  "  I  serve  ;"  and  in  memory 
of  this  victory  it  has  since  been  adopted  by  the  heirs  to  the  crown  of  Eng- 
land.— Froissart,  Carte,  Hume. 

CRESTS.  The  ancient  warriors  wore  crests  to  strike  terror  into  their  enemies 
by  the  sight  of  the  spoils  of  the  animals  they  had  killed.  The  origin  of 
crests  is  ascribed  to  the  Carians.  In  English  heraldry,  are  several  represen- 
tations of  Richard  I.,  1189,  with  a  crest  on  the  helmet  resembling  a  plume 
of  feathers ;  and  after  his  reign  most  of  the  English  kings  have  crowns 
above  their  helmets;  that  of  Richard  II.,  1377,  was  surmounted  by  a  lion 
on  a  cap  of  dignit.y.  In  later  reigns,  the  crest  was  regularly  borne  as  Avell 
on  the  helmet  of  the  kings,  as  on  the  head-trappings  of  their  horses. 

CRETE.  Now  Candia,  wliich  see.  This  island  was  once  famous  for  its  hundred 
cities,  and  for  the  laws  which  the  wisdom  of  Minos  established  about  1015 

B.  c.  Some  authors  reckon  the  Labyrinth  of  Crete  as  one  of  the  seven  won- 
ders of  the  woi-ld.  Crete  became  subject  to  the  Roman  empire,  68  b.  c.  It 
was  conquered  by  the  Saracens,  a.  d.  808 ;  taken  by  the  Greeks,  961 ;  passed 
into  the  hands  of  the  Venetians,  1194 :  and  was  taken  from  them  by  the 
Turks,  in  im'd.—PrieslUy. 

CRIME.  "  At  the  present  moment,"  observes  a  popular  English  writer,  "a 
one-fifteenth  part  of  the  whole  i^opulation  of  the  United  Kingdom  is  sub- 
sisting b}''  the  lowest  and  most  degrading  prostitution ;  another  fifteenth 
have  no  means  of  support  but  by  robbery,  swindling,  pickpocketing,  and 
every  species  of  crime ;  and  five-fifteenths  of  the  people  are  what  are  denorni- 
-  nated  poor,  living  from  hand  to  mouth,  and  daily  sinking  into  beggary,  and, 
as  an  almost  necessary  consequence,  into  crime."'  A  comparative  \iew  of 
foreign  countries  with  Great  Britain  demonstrates  the  effects  of  poverty  and 
ignorance  on  tlie  great  mass  of  the  population.  In  North  America  pauper- 
ism is  almost  unlcnown,  and  one  fourth  of  the  people  are  educated ;   pre- 


CRO  J  DICTIONAE.Y    OF    DATES.  283 

meditated  murder  is  alone  capital ;  imprisonment  for  debt  has,  in  several 
states,  been  abolished,  and  crimes,  particiilarly  of  enormity,  are  exceedingly 
rare.  The  Dutch,  who  possess  a  competency,  and  are  generally  educated, 
are  comparative!}^  free  from  grave  ofiences ;  and  France  affords  a  remark- 
able illustration  in  the  same  waj^  But  in  the  United  Kingdom,  the  differ- 
ence is  painfully  exemplified : — 

Scotland.      England.        Ireland. 
Instruction  to  the  people  -  -  -    1  in     11    -    1  in   20     -     1  in   35 

Criminals  among  the  people  -         1  in  5093    -    1  in  920     -     1  in  468 

There  was  recently  a  revision  of  the  English  criminal  code,  and  several 
acts  have  been  passed  calculated  to  reduce  the  amount  of  crime,  and  miti- 
gate the  severity  of  its  punishment.  An  act  for  improving  the  criminal  law 
of  England,  passed  8  George  IV.,  1827.  An  act  for  consolidating  and 
revising  the  laws  relating  to  crime,  conformably  with  Mr.  Peel's  digest, 
passed  9  George  IV.,  1828.  Hanging  criminals  in  chains  was  abolished  by 
statute  4  William  IV.,  1834.     See  E.vecutions,  Hanging,  Triak,SLC. — Haydri. 

CRIMEA.  The  ancient  Taurica  Chersonesus.  Settled  by  the  Genoese,  in  1193. 
The  Genoese  were  expelled  bj'  the  Crim  Tartars,  in  1474.  The  khans  were 
tributary  to  the  Turks  until  1774.  The  Russians,  with  a  large  army,  took 
possession  of  this  country,  in  1783 ;  and  it  was  ceded  to  them  the  following 
year;  and  secured  to  them  in  1791. 

CRISPIN.  The  name  sometimes  given  to  shoemakers.  Ci-ispin  and  Crispianus 
were  two  legendary  saints,  born  at  Rome,  from  whence,  it  is  said,  they  tra- 
velled to  Soissons,  in  France,  about  a.  d.  303,  to  propagate  the  Christian 
religion ;  and  because  they  would  not  be  chargeable  to  others  for  their  main- 
tenance, they  exercised  the  trade  of  shoemakers ;  but  the  governor  of  the 
town  discovering  them  to  be  Christians  ordered  them  to  be  decollated.  On 
this  account,  the  shoemakers,  since  that  period,  have  made  choice  of  them 
as  their  tutelar  saints. 

CRITICS.  The  first  society  of  them  was  formed  276  b.  c— Blair.  Of  this  class 
were  Varro,  Cicero,  Appolonius,  and  many  distinguished  men.  In  modern 
times,  the  Journal  de  Scavans  was  the  earliest  work  of  the  system  of  period- 
ical criticism,  as  it  is  now  known.  It  was  originated  by  Dennis  de  Sallo, 
ecclesiastical  counsellor  in  the  parliament  of  France,  and  was  first  published 
at  Paris,  May  30,  1665,  and  continued  for  neai'ly  a  century.  The  first  work 
of  this  kind  in  England,  was  called  the  Review  of  Daniel  Defoe  (the  term 
being  invented  by  himself )  published  in  Feb.  1703.  The  Wales  of  Litera- 
ture was  commenced  in  1714,  and  was  discontinued  in  1722.  The  Monthly 
Revicxo,  which  may  be  said  to  have  been  the  third  work  of  this  nature  in 
England,  was  published  1749.  The  Critical  Review  appeared  in  1756 ;  the 
Edinburgh  Review,  in  1802 ;  and  London  Qioarterly  in  1809.  The  American 
Review,  established  in  N.  Y.  1799,  was  the  first  Review  in  the  U.  S.  The 
North  American  Review  was  established  by  Wm.  Tudor  in  1818;  the  Ameri- 
can Quarterly,  by  Robert  Walsh,  at  Phila.,  1827;  the  New  York  Review,  by 
Prof  C.  S.  Henry,  1835;  the  SoiMiern  Quarterly,  at  Charleston,  1842.  See 
Periodicals.  The  legality  of  fair  criticism  was  established  in  the  English 
courts,  in  Feb  1794,  when  an  action  that  excited  great  attention,  brought 
by  an  author  against  a  reviewer  for  a  severe  critique  i\pon  his  work,  was  de- 
termined in  favor  of  the  defendant,  on  the  principle  that  criticism,  however 
sharp,  if  just  and  not  malicious,  is  allowable.    See  Reviews,  &c. 

CROCKERY.  In  use,  and  made  mention  of  as  produced  by  the  Egyptians  and 
Greeks,  so  early  as  1390  b.  c.  The  Romans  excelled  in  this  kind  of  Avare, 
many  of  their  domestic  articles  being  of  earthen  manufacture.  Crockery, 
of  a  fine  kind,  in  various'  household  utensils,  was  made  at  Faenza,  in  Italy, 
about  A.  D.  1310;  and  it  is  still  caWcdL  fayence  in  French.     See  Earthenware. 


284  THE    world's   -progress.  [  GUI. 

CROWN.     "The  ancientest  mention  of  a  royal  crown  is  in  the  holy  story 
of  the  Amalekites  bringing  Saul's  crown  to  David." — Selden.    The  first  Ro- 
man who  wore  a  crown  was  Tarquin,  616  b.  c.    The  crown  was  first  a  fillet 
tied  round  the  head ;  afterwards  it  was  formed  of  leaves  and  flowers,  and 
also  of  stuffs  adorned  with  jewels.     The  royal  crown  was  first  worn  in  En- 
gland by  Alfred,  in  a.  d.  872.    The  first  crown  or  papal  cap  was  used  by 
pope  Damasius  II.,  in  1053;  John  XIX.  first  encompassed  it  with  a  crown, 
1276 ;  Boniface  VIII.  added  a  second  crown  in  1295  ;  and  Benedict  XII,  form- 
ed tlie  tiara,  or  triple  crown,  about  1334.   The  pope  previously  wore  a  crown 
with  two  circles. — Rainaldi. 
CRUCIFIXION.    A  mode  of  execution  common  among  the  Syrians,  Egyptians, 
Persians,  Greeks,  Romans,  and  Jews,  and  esteemed  the  most  dreadful  on 
account  of  the  shame  attached  to  it :  it  was  usuallj^  accompanied  by  other 
tortures.  Among  early  accounts  may  be  mentioned,  that  Ariarathes  of  Cap- 
padocia.  when  vanquished  by  Perdiccas,  M'as  discovered  among  the  prison- 
ers ;  and  by  the  conqueror's  orders  the  unhappy  monarch   was  flayed  alive, 
and  then  nailed  to  a  cross,  with  his  principal  officers,  in  the  eighty-first  year 
of  his  age,  322  e.  c.    Crucifixion  was  ordered  to  be  discontinued  by  Constan- 
tine,  A.  D.  330. — Leiiglet.     See  Death,  Punishment  of. 
(URUSADES,  OR  Holy  Wars.  (In  French,  Croisades.)  Undertaken  by  the  Chris- 
tian powers  to  drive  the  infidels  from  Jerusalem,  and  the  adjacent  countries, 
called  the  Holy  Land.     They  were  projected  by  Peter  Gautier,  called  Peter 
the  Hermit,  an  enthusiast,  and  French  officer  of  Amiens,  who  had  quitted 
the  military  profession  and  turned  pilgrim.     Having  travelled  to  the  Holy 
Land,  he  deplored,  on  his  return,  to  pope  Urban  II.  that  infidels  should  be  in 
possession  of  the  famous  city  where  the  author  of  Christianity  first  promul- 
gated his  sacred  doctrines.    Ui'ban  convened  a  Council  of  310  bishops  at 
Clermont  in  France,  at  which  the  ambassadors  of  the  chief  Christian  poten- 
tates assisted,  and  gave  Peter  the  fatal  commission  to  excite  all  Europe  to  a 
general  war,  a.  d.  1094.     The  first  crusade  was  published ;  an  army  of  300,- 
000  men  was  raised,  and  Peter  had  the  direction  of  it,  1095. —  Voltaire.    The 
holy  warriors  wore  a  red  cross  upon  the  right  shoulders,  with  the  name  of 
Crois6s,   Crossed,  or  Crusaders;  their  motto  was   Volonte  de  Dieu,  "God's 
will."    The  epidemical  rage  for  crusading  now  agitated  Europe,  and  in  the 
end,  these  unchristian  and  iniquitous  wars  against  the  rights  of  mankind, 
cost  the  lives  of  2,000,000  of  men. —  Voltaire. 
CUBA.    Discovered  by  Columbus  on  his  first  voj^age,  in  1492.   It  was  conquered 
by  Valasquez,  in  1511,  and  settled  by  the  Spaniards.     The  Buccaneer  Mor- 
gan took  Havana  in  1669.     See  Buccaneers.    The  fort  here  was  erected  by 
admiral  Vernon,  in  1741.    Havana  was  taken  by  admiral  Pococke  and  lord 
Albermarle  in  1762,  but  was  restored  at  the  peace,  in  1763.    Attempt  of 
Lopez  and  his  400  followers,  landing  at  Cardenas,  to  stir  up  a  revolution, 
defeated  May,  1850. 
CLTBIT.    This  was  a  measure  of  the  ancients,  and  is  the  first  measure  we  read 
of;  the  ark  of  Noah  was  made  and  measured  by  cubits. — Holden.     The  Fe- 
brew  sacred  cubit  was  two  English  feet,  and  the  great  cubit  eleven  Eng'  ish 
feet.    Originally  it  was  the  distance  from  the  elbow,  bending  inwards  to  ihe 
extremity  of  the  middle  finger. — Cahnet. 
CUCUMBERS.     They  grew  formerly  in  great  abundance  in  Palestine  and 
Egypt,  where,  it  is^said,  they  constituted  the  greater  part  of  the  food  of  the 
poor  and  slaves.     This  plant  is  noticed  by  Virgil,  and  other  ancient  poets. 
It  was  brought  to  England  from  the  Netherlands,  about  1538. 
CULLODEN,  Battle  of.    In  which  the  English,  imder  William  duke  of  Cum- 
berland, defeated  the  Scottish  rebels  headed  by  the  yoimg  Pretender,  the 
last  of  the  Stuarts,  near  Inverness,  April  16,  1746.    The  Scots  lost  2500  men 


CYC]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  285 

m  killed  upon  the  field,  or  in  the  slaughter  which  occurred  in  the  pursuit, 
while  the  loss  of  the  English  did  not  far  exceed  200.  The  duke's  army  prac- 
tised great  cruelties  upon  the  vanquished,  as  well  as  upon  the  defenceless 
inhabitants  of  the  adjacent  districts  after  the  battle. — Smollett.  Immediately 
after  the  engagement.  Prince  Charles  sought  safety  by  flight,  and  continued 
wandering  among  the  frightful  wilds  of  Scotland  for  six  months,  while  30,- 
000^.  were  offered  for  taking  him,  and  the  troops  of  the  conqueror  were 
constantly  in  search.  He  at  length  escaped  from  the  Isle  of  Uist  to  Morlaix, 
and  died  at  Rome,  in  1788. 
CURACOA.  In  the  Caribbean  Sea,  seized  by  Holland,  in  1634.  In  1800,  the 
French  having  settled  on  part  of  this  island,  and  becoming  at  variance  with 
'  the  Dutch,  the  latter  surrendered  the  island  to  %  single  British  frigate.  It 
was  restored  to  the  Dutch  by  the  peace  of  1802,  and  taken  from  them  by  a 
British  squadron,  in  1807,  and  again  restored  by  the  peace  of  1814. 

CURFEW  BELL.  From  the  French  couvre  feu.  This  w^s  a  Norman  institii- 
tion,  introduced  into  England  in  the  reign"  of  William  I ,  a.  d.  1068.  On  the 
ringing  of  the  cui'few  at  eight  o'clock  in  the  evening,  all  fires  and  candles 
were  to  be  extinguished,  under  a  severe  penalt3^ — Ra-pvn.  The  curfew  was 
abolished  1  Hen.  I.,  a.  d.  1100. 

CURRANTS.  They  were  brought  from  Zante,  and  the  tree  planted  in  England 
1533.  The  hawthorn  currant-tree  (Ribes  oxyacanthoides)  came  from  Canada 
in  1705. 

CUSTOM.  This  is  a  law,  not  written,  but  established  by  long  usage  and  con- 
sent. By  lawyers  and  civilians  it  is  defined  lex  non  scripta,  and  it  stands 
opposed  to  Lex  scripta,  or  the  written  law.  It  is  the  rule  of  law  when  it  is 
derived  from  a.  d.  1189,  downwards.  Sixty  years  is  binding  in  civil  law, 
and  forty  years  in  ecclesiastical  cases. 

CUSTOMS.  They  were  collected  upon  merchandise  in  England,  under  Ethel- 
red  II.,  in  979.  The  king's  claim  to  them  by  grant  of  parliament  was  estab- 
lished 3  Edward  I.,  1274.  The  customs  were  farmed  to  Mr.  Thomas  Smith, 
for  20,000^.  for  several  years,  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth. — Stowe.  They  were 
farmed  by  Charles  II.  for  39O,O0OZ.  in  the"  year  l&m.—Davenant. 

In  1748  they  amounted  to  -  ;e2,000,000 

In  1808       ditto  -  -    9,973,240 

111  1823       ditto  -  .     -  11,498,762 

In  1830  United  Kingdom  -  -  17,540,323 

In  ia35       ditto  -  -     -  18,612,906 

In  1840       ditto  -  -  19,915,296 

The  customs  in  Ireland  were,  in  the  year  1224,  viz.,  on  every  sack  of  wool, 
M. ;  on  every  last  of  hides,  &d. ;  and  2d.  on  every  barrel  of  wine. — Annals 
of  Dublin.  Custom-house  officers,  and  officers  of  excise,  were  disquahfied 
from  voting  for  the  election  of  members  of  parliament,  by  statute  22  George 
III.,  1782.     See  Revenue. 

CUSTOMS  (DUTIES)   in   the  UNITED  STATES.    The  amounts    collected 

$15,005,612 

■    20,098,714 

21,922,391 

19  391  311 

13^499^940  See  Tariff. 

CYCLE.  That  of  the  sun  is  the  twenty-eight  years  before  the  days  of  llie 
week  return  to  the  same  days  of  the  month.  That  of  the  moon  is  nineteen 
lunar  years  and  seven  intercalary  months,  or  nineteen  solar  years.  The 
cycle  of  Jupiter  is  sixty  years  or  sexagenary.  The  Paschal  cycle,  or  the 
time  of  keeping  Easter,  was  first  calculated  for  the  period  of  532  years,  by 
V'ictorins.  .\.r).463. — Blair. 


In  1530  they  amounted  to  -           -    jB14,000 

In  1592        ditto            -  -      -       50,000 

In  1614       ditto  -           -     148,000 

In  1622       duto            -  -      -     168,000 

In  1642       ditto  -           -     500,000 

In  1720       ditto            -  -      -  1,555,600 


were,  in 

1789-91 
1800   . 
1805 
1810  - 
1815 

-  84,399,473 

-  9,080,9.38 
12,936,487 

•   8,583,309 

-  7,282,942 

1820 
1825 
1830 
1835 
1840 

1845   - 

■  $27,528,113 

1846  - 

-  26,712.668 

1847   - 

-   23,747.864 

1848  - 

-  31,757,070 

286  THE    world's    progress.  ^       [  DAG 

CYCLOPEDIA— See  Encyclopedia. 

CYMBAL.  The  oldest  musical  instrument  of  which  we  have  certain  record. 
It  was  made  of  brass,  like  a  kettle  drum,  and  some  think  in  the  same  form, 
but  smaller.  Xenophon  makes  mention  of  the  cymbal  as  a  musical  instru- 
ment, whose  invention  is  attributed  to  Cybele,  by  whom,  we  are  told,  it  was 
used  in  her  feasts,  called  the  mysteries  of  Cybele,  about  1580  b.  c.  The 
ffistivals  of  Cybele  were  introduced  by  Scamander,  with  the  dances  of  Cory- 
bantes,  at  Mount  Ida,  1546  b.  c. 

CYNICS.  The  sect  of  philosophers  founded  by  Antisthenes,  396  b.  c. — Diog. 
Laert.  He  lived  in  the  ninety-fourth  Olympiad. — Pardon.  These  philoso- 
phers valued  themselves  for  contemning  all  worldly  things,  and  even  all 
sciences,  except  morality;  they  were  very  free  in  reprehending  vice,  and  did 
all  their  actions  publicly,  and  practised  the  greatest  obscenities  without 
blushing. — Idem.  Diogenes  was  one  of  this  sect.  They  generally  slept  on 
the  ground. — Diog.  Laert. 

CYPRUS.  An  island,  whose  inhabitants  anciently  were  much  given  to  love 
and  pleasure. — Pliny.  It  was  divided  among  several  petty  kings  till  the 
time  of  Cyrus,  who  subdued  them ;  it  ranked  among  the  proconsular  pro- 
vinces in  the  reign  of  Augustus.  Conquered  by  the  Saracens,  a.  d.  648;  but 
recovered  by  the  Romans,  in  957.  Cyprus  was  reduced  bj''  Richard  I.  of 
England,  in  1191.  Taken  by  the  Turks  from  the  Venetians,  in  1570. — 
Priestley. 

CYRENAIC  SECT.  Aristippus  the  Elder,  of  Cyrene,  was  the  founder  of 
the  CjTenaici,  392  b.  c.  Thej'  maintained  the  doctrine  that  the  supreme 
good  of  man  in  this  life  is  pleasure,  and  particularly  pleasure  of  a  sensual 
kind ;  and  said  that  virtue  ought  to  be  commended  because  it  gave  pleasure, 
and  onlj'  so  far  as  it  conduced  thereto.  The  sect  flourished  for  several  ages. 
— Laer.  Ar.  Cicero. 

CYRENE.  Founded  by  Battus,  030  b.  c.  Aristseus,  who  was  the  chief  of  the 
colonists  here,  gave  the  city  his  mother's  name.  It  was  also  called  Pentap- 
olis,  on  account  of  its  five  towns,  namely,  Cyrene,  Ptolemais,  Berenice,  Apol- 
lonia,  and  Arsinoe.  Cyrene  was  left  by  Ptolemy  Apion  to  the  Romans,  97 
B.  c.     It  is  now  a  desert. — Priestley. 

CZAR,  From  Cffisar,  a  title  of  honor  assumed  by  the  sovereigns  of  Russia. 
Ivan  Basilowitz,  after  having  achieved  great  triumphs  over  the  Tartars,  and 
made  many  conquests,  pursued  them  to  the  centre  of  their  own  country,  and 
returning  in  triumph,  took  the  title  of  Tzar,  or  Czar  (signifying  Great  King). 
— Aspin's  Chron.  The  courts  of  Europe  consented  to  address  the  Russian 
Czar  by  the  title  of  Emperor  in  1722. — Idem. 

D. 

DAGUERREOTYPE.  The  name  given  to  a  process  invented  by  M.  Daguerre  of 
Paris,  in  1839,  by  which  perfect  fac-similes  of  objects  are  transferred  upon 
thin  copper  plates,  plated  with  silver.  The  images  are  produced  by  the  ac- 
tion of  light  upon  the  iodine,  through  the  focus  of  the  camera  obscura.  An 
apparatus  somewhat  kindred  in  design,  was  in  contemplation  about  the  same 
time  by  M.  Niepc^.  and  about  5  years  previously  by  Henry  Fox  Talbot  of  Lon- 
don: the  original  idea,  however,  is  traceable  as  far  back  as  the  days  of  Roger 
Bacon.  By  means  of  the  Talbotype,  a  recent  improvement  upon  the  above 
process,  pictures  in  colors  are  produced  both  on  paper  and  plates.  So  im- 
portant a  discovt'ry  in  the  fine  arts,  was  the  Daguerreotype  deemed  by  the 
French  government  that  it  awarded  to  its  inventor  a  life  pension  of  6000 
francs. 


UAK  ]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  287 

DAMASCUS.  This  city  was  in  being  in  the  time  of  Abraham. —  Gen.  xiv.  It 
is,  consequently,  one  of  the  most  ancient  in  the  world.  From  the  Assyrians, 
Damascus  passed  to  the  Persians,  and  from  them  to  the  Greeks  under  Alex- 
ander ;  and  afterwards  to  the  Romans,  about  70  b.  c.  It  was  taken  by  the 
Saracens,  a.  d.  633 ;  by  the  Turks  in  1006 ;  and  was  destroyed  by  Tamerlane 
in  1400.  It  was  in  a  journey  to  this  place  that  the  apostle  Paul  was  miracu- 
lously converted  to  the  Christian  faith,  and  here  he  began  to  preach  the 
gospel,  about  a.  d.  50.    Damascus  is  now  the  capital  of  a  Turkish  pachalic. 

DAMASK  LINENS  and  SILKS.  They  were  first  manufactured  at  Damascus, 
and  hence  the  name,  their  large  fine  figures  representing  flowers,  and  being 
raised  above  the  groundwork.  They  were  beautifully  imitated  by  the 
Dutch  and  Flemish  weavers ;  and  the  manufacture  was  brought  to  England 
by  artisans  who  fled  from  the  persecution  of  the  cruel  duke  of  Alva,  between 
the  years  1571  and  1573. — Anderson. 

DAMON  AND  PYTHIAS.  Pythagorean  philosophers.  When  Damon  was  con- 
demned to  death  by  the  tyrant  Dionysius  of  Syracuse,  he  obtained  leave  to 
go  and  settle  some  domestic  affaii's,  on  a  j^romise  of  returning  at  the  appoint- 
•  ed  time  of  execution,  and  Pythias  being  surety  for  the  performance  of  his 
engagement.  When  the  fatal  hour  approached,  Damon  had  not  appeared, 
and  Pythias  surrendered  himself,  and  was  led  away  to  execution ;  but  at 
this  critical  moment  Damon  returned  to  redeem  his  pledge.  Dionysius  was 
so  struck  with  the  fidelity  of  these  friends,  that  he  remitted  the  sentence, 
and  entreated  them  to  permit  him  to  share  their  friendship,  387  b.  c. 

DANCING.  The  dance  to  the  measure  of  time  Avas  invented  by  the  Curetes, 
1534  B.  c. — Ensebhis.  The  Greeks  were  the  first  who  united  the  dance  to 
their  tragedies  and  comedies.  Pantomimic  dances  were  first  introduced  on 
the  Roman  stage,  22  b.  c. —  Usher.  Dancing  by  cinque  paces  was  introduced 
into  England  from  Italy  a.  d.  1541.  In  modern  times,  the  French  were  the 
first  who  introduced  ballets  analogues  in  their  musical  dramas.  The  country 
dance  {contrc-daiise^  is  of  French  origin,  but  its  date  is  not  precisely  known. 
— Spelman. 

DANES,  Invasions  op  the.  The  invasions  of  this  people  were  a  scourge  to 
England  for  upwards  of  two  hundred  years.  During  their  attacks  upon 
Britain  and  Ireland,  they  made  a  descent  on  France,  where,  in  895,  under 
Rollo,  they  received  presents  under  the  walls  of  Paris.  They  returned  and 
ravaged  the  French  territories  as  far  as  Ostend  in  896.  They  attacked  Italy 
in  903.  Neustria  was  granted  by  the  king  of  France  to  Rollo  and  his  Nor- 
mans (Northmen),  hence  Normandy,  in  912. 

DANTZIC.  A  commercial  city  in  a.  d.  997. — Busching.  It  was  built,  accord- 
ing to  other  authorities,  by  Waldemar  I.  in  1169.  Seized  by  the  king 
of  Prussia,  and  annexed  to  his  dominions  in  1793.  It  surrendered  to  the 
French  after  a  siege  of  four  months.  May  5,  1807?  and  by  the  treaty  of  Til- 
sit, it  was  restored  to  its  former  independence,  under  the  protection  of 
Prussia  and  Saxony.  Dantzic  was  besieged  by  the  allies  in  1812 ;  and  after 
a  gallant  resistance,  surrendered  to  them  Jan.  1. 1814.  By  the  treaty  of  Parif- 
it  again  reverted  to  the  king  of  Prussia.  Awful  inundation  here,  owing  to 
the  Vistula  breaking  through  its  dykes,  by  which  10  000  head  of  cattle 
and  4,000  houses  were  destroyed,  and  a  vast  number  of  lives  lost,  April  9. 
1829. 

DARDANELLES,  Passage  of  the.  The  Dardanelles  are  two  castles,  one  called 
Sestos,  seated  in  Romania,  the  other  called  Abydos,  in  Natolia,  commanding 
the  entrance  of  the  strait  of  Gallipoli.  They  were  built  by  the  emperor 
Mahomet  IV.,  in  1659,  and  Avere  nnmed  Dardanelles  from  the  contiguous 
toTn  of  Dardanns.     The  gallnnt  cxpli.tit  oi'  forcing  the  passage;  of  the  Dan 


288  THE    world's    progress.  [  DEA 

danelles  was  achieved  by  the  British  squadron  under  admiral  sir  John 
Duckworth,  Feb.  19,  ISOY ;  but  the  admiral  was  obliged  to  repass  them, 
which  he  did  with  great  loss  and  immense  damage  to  the  fleet,  March  2, 
following,  the  castles  of  Sestos  and  Abydos  hurling  down  rocks  of  stone, 
each  of  many  tons  weight,  upon  the  decks  of  the  British  ships. 

DAUPHIN.  The  title  given  to  the  eldest  sons  of  the  kings  of  France,  from 
the  province  of  Dauphine,  which  was  ceded  by  its  last  prince,  Humbert  II. 
to  Philip  of  Valois,  on  the  condition  that  the  heirs  of  the  French  throne 
should  bear  the  arms  and  name  of  the  province,  a.  d.  1343. — Priestley. 

DAVIS'S  STRAIT.  Discovered  by  the  English  navigator,  John  Davis,  whose 
name  it  bears,  on  his  voyage  to  find  a  North-west  passage,  in  1585. 

DAY.  Day  began  at  sunrise  among  most  of  the  northern  nations,  and  at  sun- 
set among  the  Athenians  and  Jews.  Among  the  Romans  day  commenced 
at  midnight,  as  it  now  does  among  us.  The  Italians  in  most  places,  at  the 
present  time,  reckon  the  day  from  sunset  to  sunset,  making  their  clocks 
strike  twenty-four  hours  round,  instead  of  dividing  the  day,  as  is  done  in  all 
other  countries,  into  equal  portions  of  twelve  hours.  This  mode  is  but  par- 
tially used  in  the  larger  towns  of  Italy,  most  public  clocks  in  Florence,  Rome, 
and  Milan,  being  set  to  the  hour  designated  on  French  or  English  clocks. 
The  Chinese  divide  the  day  into  twelve  parts  of  two  hours  each.  Our  civil 
day  is  distinguished  from  the  astronomical  day,  which  begins  at  noon,  and  is 
the  mode  of  reckoning  used  in  the  Nautical  Almanac.  At  Rome,  day  and 
night  were  first  divided  in  time  by  means  of  water-clocks,  the  invention  of 
Scipio  Nasica,  158  b.  c. —  Vossius  de  Scien.  Math. 

DEACON.  An  order  of  the  Christian  priesthood,  which  took  its  rise  from  the 
institution  of  seven  deacons  by  the  Apostles,  which  number  was  retained  a 
long  period  in  many  churches,  about  a.  d.  51.  See  Acts,  chap.  vi.  The 
original  deacons  were  Philip,  Stephen,  Prochorus,  Nicanor,  Timon,  Parme- 
nos,  and  Nicolas.  The  qiialifications  of  a  deacon  are  mentioned  by  St. 
Paul,  1st  Timothy  iii.  8-13. 

DEAF  AND  DUMB.  The  first  systematic  attempt  to  instruct  the  deaf  and  dumb 
was  made  bj'  Pedro  de  Ponce,  a  Benedictine  monk  of  Spain,  about  a.  d.  1570. 
Bonet,  who  was  also  a  monk,  published  a  system  at  Madrid,  in  1620.  Dr. 
Wallis  published  a  work  in  England  on  the  subject,  in  1650.  The  first 
regular  academy  for  the  deaf  and  dumb  in  Great  Britain  was  opened  in 
Edinburgh  in  1773. 

DEAF  AND  DUMB,  BLIND,  and  INSANE  PERSONS,  in  the  United  States. 
In  1810  there  were  6  916  blind  persons,  or  1  in  2  467  of  the  population; 
7,659  deaf  and  dumb  or  1  in  2  228;  17,434  insane  and  idiotic,  or  1  in  979. 
There  were  in  the  United  States  28  asylums  for  the  insane,  with  about 
2,840  patients. 
Among  the  most  prominent  and  successful  of  the  philanthropists  who  have 
promoted  the  education  and  good  treatment  of  the  above  persons  in  the 
United  States,  are  Dr.  Amariah  Brigham,  of  Hartford;  Dr.  S.  G.  Howe,  of 
Boston ;  Rev.  T.  H.  Gallaudet,  Hartford. 

DEATH,  Punishment  op.  Death  by  drowning  in  a  quagmire  was  a  punish- 
ment among  the  Britons  before  450  b.  c. — Stoive.  The  most  eulogized 
heroes  of  antiquity  inflicted  death  by  crucifixion,  and  even  women  suffered 
on  the  cross,  the  victims  sometimes  living  in  the  most  excruciating  torture 
many  days.  A  most  horrifying  instance'of  death  by  torture  occurs  in  the 
fate  of  Mithridates.  an  assassin  of  Xerxes.  See  a  note  to  the  article  Persia; 
see  also  Ravillac;  BoUin.g  to  Death;  Burning  to  Death.  Sic.  Maurice,  the 
son  of  a  nobleman,  was  hanged,  drav.-n,  and  quartered  for  piracy,  the  first 
execution  in  that  manner  in  England.  25  Henry  III..  1241.     The  punishment 


DEL  ]  DICTIONARY    OP    DATES.  289 

of  death  was  abolished  in  a  great  number  of  cases  by  Mr.  Peel's  acts,  1824-9, 
in-other  cases  1832,  for  forgery  1837.  Capital  punishment,  except  in  cases 
of  martial  law,  abolished  by  Prussia,  and  by  German  parliament,  at  Frank- 
fort, same  day,  August  4,  1848. 

DECEMBER.  In  the  year  of  Romulus  this  was  the  tenth  month  of  the 
year,  called  so  from  decern,  ten,  the  Romans  commencing  their  year  in 
March.  Numa  introduced  January  and  February  before  the  latter  month, 
in  713  B.  c,  and  from  thenceforward  December  became  the  twelfth  of  the 
year. 

DECEMVIRI.  Ten  magistrates,  who  were  chosen  annually  at  Rome  to  go- 
vern the  commonwealth  instead  of  consuls ;  first  instituted  450  b.  c. — Livy. 
The  decemviral  power  became  odious  on  account  of  their  tyranny,  and  the 
attempt  of  Appius  Claudius  to  defile  Virginia,  and  the  office  was  abolished, 
the  people  demanding  from  the  senate  to  burn  the  decemviri  alive.  Con- 
suls were  again  appointed,  and  tranquillity  restored. — See  Virginia. 

DEEDS.  They  were  formerly  written  in  the  Latin  and  French  languages :  the 
earliest  known  instance  of  the  English  tongue  having  been  used  in  deeds,  is 
that  of  the  indenture  between  the  abbot  and  convent  of  Whitby,  and  Robert, 
the  son  of  John  Bustard,  dated  at  York,  in  the  year  1343.  The  English 
tongue  was  ordered  to  be  used  in  all  law  pleadings  in  1364.  Ordei'ed  to  be 
used  in  all  law-suits  in  May,  1731. 

DEFENDER  of  the  FAITH.  Mdei  Defensor.  A  title  conferred  by  Leo  X. 
on  Henry  VIII.  of  England.  The  king'  wrote  a  tract  in  behalf  of  the  Church 
of  Rome,  then  accounted  Domicilium  fidei  CatholiccB,  and  against  Luther, 
who  had  just  begun  the  Reformation  in  Germany,  upon  which  the  pope  gave 
him  the  title  of  Defender  of  the  Faith,  a  title  still  retained  by  the  monarchs 
of  Great  Britain:  the  bull  conferring  it  bears  date  Oct.  9,  1521. 

DEGREES.  The  first  attempt  to  determine  the  length  of  a  degree  is  recorded 
as  having  been  made,  by  Eratosthenes,  about  250  b.  c. — Snellius.  The  first 
degree  of  longitude  was  fixed  by  Hipparchus  of  Nice  (by  whom  the  latitude 
was  determined  also),  at  Ferro,  one  of  the  Canary  islands,  whose  most  west- 
ern point  was  made  the  first  general  meridian,  162  b.  c.  Several  nations 
have  fixed  their  meridian  from  places  connected  with  their  own  territories ; 
and  thus  the  English  compute  their  longitude  from  the  meridian  of  Green- 
wich.    See  Latitude,  Longitude,  and  the  various  Collegiate  degrees. 

DEISM.  This  denomination  was  first  assumed  about  the  middle  of  the  six- 
teenth century  by  some  gentlemen  of  France  and  Italy,  in  order  thus  to 
disguise  their  opposition  to  Christianity  by  a  more  honorable  appellation 
than  that  of  Atheism. —  Virot's  Instruction  Ciiretvcnne,  1563.  Deism  is  a 
rejection  of  all  manner  of  revelation :  its  followers  go  merely  by  the  light 
of  nature,  believing  that  there  is  a  God,  a  providence,  vice  and  virtue,  and 
an  after  state  of  punishments  and  rewards :  it  is  sometimes  called  free-think- 
ing. The  first  deistical  writer  of  any  note  in  England,  was  Herbert,  baron 
of  Cherbury,  in  1624.  The  most  distinguished  deists  were  Hobbes,  Tindal, 
Morgan,  lord  Bolingbroke,  Hume,  Holcroft,  and  Godwin. 

DELAWARE.  The  smallest  of  the  TJ.  States  except  R.  Island.  First  settlcl 
in  1630,  by  the  Swedes  and  Fins  under  the  patronage  of  Gustavus  Adolphu 
and  received  the  name  of  New  Sweden.  They  were  subdued  in  1655  by  11  c 
Dutch,  who  in  turn  surrendered  it,  with  New  Netherlands,  to  the  English  in 
1664.  and  then  named  Delaware.  The  duke  of  York  granted  it  to  Wni. 
Penn,  in  1682,  and  it  remained  nominally  united  to  Pennsylvania  until  177'"). 
This  state  bore  an  honorable  part  in  the  revolution,  and  suffered  much  in 
the  struggle.     She  adopted  the  Constitution  of  the  TJ.  S.  by  a  unanimous 

13 


290  THE    world's    progress.  [  DEN 

vote  iu  convention,  Dec.  3,  1787.     Population --  1790,  59,094;  1840,  78,085  ; 
including  2,605  slaves. 

DELHI.  The  once  great  capital  of  the  Mogul  empire :  it  is  now  in  decay,  but 
contained  a  million  of  inhabitants,  in  1700.  In  1738,  when  Nadir  Shah 
invaded  Hindoostan,  he  entered  Delhi,  and  dreadful  massacres  and  famine 
followed:  100  000  of  the  inhabitants  perished  by  the  sword;  and  plunder  to 
the  amount  of  62,000,000Z.  sterling  was  said  to  be  collected. 

DELPHI.  Celebrated  for  its  oracles  delivered  by  Pythia,  in  the  temple  of 
Apollo,  which  was  built,  some  say,  by  the  council  of  the  Amphictyons, 
1263  B.  c.  The  priestess  delivered  the  answer  of  the  god  to  such  as  came 
to  consult  the  oracle,  and  was  supposed  to  be  suddenly  inspired.  The  tem- 
])le  was  burnt  by  the  Pisistratidae,  548  b.  c.  A  new  temple  was  raised  by  the 
Alcmseonidse,  and  was  so  rich  in  donations  that  at  one  time  it  was  plundered 
by  the  people  of  Phocis  of  20,000  talents  of  gold  and  silver;  and  Nero  car- 
ried from  it  500  costly  statues.  The  first  Delphic,  or  sacred  war,  concerning 
the  temple  was  449  b.  c.  The  second  sacred  war  was  commenced  c  a  Delphi 
being  attacked  by  the  Phocians,  356  b.  c. — Du  Fresnoy. 

DELUGE,  THE  GENERAL.  The  deluge  was  threatened  in  the  year  of  the 
world  1536 ;  and  it  began  Dec.  7,  1656,  and  continued  377  days.  The  ark- 
rested  on  Mount  Ararat,  May  6,  1657 ;  and  Noah  left  the  ark,  Dec.  18,  follow- 
ing. The  year  corresponds  with  that  of  2348  b.  c. — Blair.  The  following 
are  the  epochs  of  the  deluge,  according  to  the  table  of  Dr.  Hales. 


Septuagint  B.C.  3216  I  Persian    -    B.C.  3103 
Jackson       -        3170    Hindoo    -  -  3102 

Hales      -        -    3155  |  Samaritan   -     -  2998 
Josephus     -        3146  |  Howard     -        -  2698 


Playfair  -  b.  c.  2352 
Usher  -  -  2348 
Englisli  Bible  -2348 
Marsham  -        -2344 


Petavius  -  b.  c.  2329 
Strauchuis  -  2293 
Hebrew  -  -2288 
Vulgar  Jewish  2104 


Some  of  the  states  of  Europe  were  alarmed,  we  are  told,  bj^  the  prediction 
(!)  that  another  general  deluge  would  occur,  and  arks  were  every  where  built 
to  guard  against  the  calamity;  but  the  season  happened  to  be  a  very  fine 
diy  one,  a.  d.  1524. 

DELUGE  OF  DEUCALION.  The  fabulous  one,  is  placed  1503  b.  c.  according 
to  Eusebiiis.  This  flood  has  been  often  confounded  by  the  ancients  with  the 
general  flood :  but  it  was  845  years  posterior  to  that  event,  and  was  merely 
a  local  inundation,  occasioned  by  the  overflowing  of  the  river  Pineus,  whose 
course  was  stopped  by  an  earthquake  between  the  Mounts  Olympus  and 
Ossa.  Deucalion,  who  then  reigned  in  Thessaly,  with  his  wife  Pyrrha,  and 
aome  of  their  subjects,  saved  themselves  by  climbing  up  Mount  Parnassus. 

DELUGE  OF  OGYGES.  In  the  reign  of  Ogyges  was  a  deluge  which  so  inun- 
dated the  territories  of  Attica  that  they  lay  waste  for  near  200  years ;  it 
occurred  before  the  deluge  of  Deucalion,  about  1764  b.  c. — Blair.  BufFon 
thinks  that  the  Hebrew  and  Grecian  deluges  were  the  same,  and  arose  from 
the  Atlantic  and  Bosphorus  bursting  into  the  valley  of  the  Mediterranean. 

DEMERARA  and  ESSEQUIBO.  These  colonies,  founded  by  the  Dutch,  were 
taken  by  the  British,  1796,  but  were  restored  at  the  peace  of  1802.  Demarara 
and  Essequibo  again  surrendered  to  the  British  under  general  Grinfield  and 
commodore  Hood,  Sept.  20,  1803.    They  are  now  fixed  English  colonies. 

DENMARK.  The  most  ancient  inhabitants  of  this  kingdom  were  the  Cimbri 
and  the  Teutones,  who  were  driven  out  by  the  Jutes  or  Goths.  The  Teutones 
settled  in  Germany  and  Gaul ;  the  Cimbrians  invaded  Italy,  where  they  were 
defeated  by  Marius.  The  peninsula  of  Jutland  obtains  its  name  from  the 
Jutes ;  and  the  general  name  of  Denmark  is  supposed  to  be  derived  from 
Dan,  the  founder  of  the  Danish  monarchy,  and  marJ,\  a  German  word  signi- 
fying country,  i.  e.  Dan-mnrk.  the  country  of  Dan# 


DEN  1 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES. 


291 


60 
750 


1014 
1157 


DENMARK,  continued. 

Reign  of  Sciold,  first  king  -    B.C. 

The  Danish  chronicles  mention  18  kings 
to  the  time  of  Ragnor  Lodbrog  -  a.  d. 

[Ragnor  is  killed  m  an  attempt  to  in- 
vade England,  and  for  more  tnan  200 
years  from  this  time  the  Danes  were 
a  terror  to  the  northern  nations  of  Eu- 
,  rope,  and  at  length  conquering  all 
England.    See  Danes.] 

Reign  of  Canute  the  Great 

Reign  of  Waldemar  the  Great 

Waldemar  II.,  with  a  fleet  of  1000  sail, 
makes  immense  conquests     -  -  1223 

Gothland  conquered  -  -      -  1347 

Denmark,  Norway,  and  Sweden  are 
united  into  one  kingdom        -  -  1397 

Revolt  of  the  Swedes  -  -      -1414 

The  nations  reunited      -  -  -  1439 

Copenhagen  made  the  capital        -      -  1440 

Accession  of  Christian  I.,  from  whom 
the  present  royal  family  springs        -  1448 

Christian  II.  is  deposed,  and  the  inde- 
pendence of  Sweden  acknowledged  - 1523 

Lutheranisni  established  by  Christian 
m. 1536 

Danish  East  India  Company  established 
by  Christian  IV.    -  -  -      -  1612 

Christian  IV.  chosen  head  of  the  Pro- 
testant league  -  -  -  -  1629 

Charles  Gustavus  of  Sweden  invades 
Denmark,  besieges  Copenhagen,  and 
makes  large  conquests  ■  -  1658 

The  crown  made  hereditary  and  abso- 
lute   1660 

Frederick  IV.  takes  Ilolstein,  Sleswick, 
Tonningen,  and  Stralsund ;  reduces 
Weismar,  and  drives  the  Swedes  out 
of  Norway    -  -  -      1716  et  seq. 

Copenhagen  destroyed  by  a  fire  which 
consumes  16-50  houses,  5  churches,  the 
university,  and  4  colleges       -  -  1728 

The  peaceful  reign  of  Christian  VI., 
who  promotes  the  happiness  of  his 
subjects  ...  -  1730 

Christian  VII.  in  a  fit  of  jealousy  sud- 
denly confines  his  queen,  Caroline 
Matilda,  sister  of  Georse  HI.  who  is 
afterwards  banished.  See  Zell  Jan.  18, 1772 


The  counts  Struensee  and  Brandt  are 
seized  at  the  same  time,  on  the  charge  , 

of  a  criminal  intercourse  with  the 
queen;  and  the  former  confessing  to 
avoid  the  torture,  both  are  beheaded 
for  high  treason  -        April  28, 1772 

The  queen  Caroline  Matilda  dies  at 
Zell  -  -  -       May  10,  1775 

Christian  VII.  becomes  deranged,  and 
prince  Frederick  is  appointed  regent  17&i 

One- fourth  of  Copenhagen  is  destroyed 
by  fire    -  -  -  June  9,  1795 

Admirals  Nelson  and  Parker  bombard 
Copenhagen,  and  engage  the  Danish 
fleet,  taking  or  destroying  18  ships  of 
the  line,  of  whose  crews  1800  are  kill- 
ed. The  Confederacy  of  the  North 
(see  Armed  Neutrality)  is  thus  dis- 
solved -  -  -    April  2,  ISOl 

Admiral  Gambier  and  Lord  Cathcart 
bombard  Copenhagen,  and  seize  the 
Danish  fleet  of  12  shins  of  the  line,  15 
fr  eates,  and  37  brigs,  &c.  -   Sept.  7,  1807 

Pomerania  and  Rugen  are  annexed  to 
Denmark,  in  exchange  for  Norway  -  1814 

Commercial  treaty  with  England        -  1824 

Frederick  bestows  a  new  constitution 
on  his  kingdom  -  -  -  1831 

A  new  constitution  oflered  by  Christian 
VIII.  -  -  -      Jan.  20, 1848 

Duchies  of  Schleswig  and  Hplstein  de- 
mand separation  from  Denmark 

March,  1848 

The  king  grants  freedom  of  the  press 
and  of  public  meetings        -    March,  1848 

Duchies  of  Schleswig  and  Holstein  re- 
volt and  join  the  great  German  na- 
tion -  -  -    March  26,  1848 

Prussia  artds  the  duchies,  and  re-organ- 
izes the  Grand  Duchy  of  Posen 

March  26, 1848 

Danes  victorious  over  the  Germans, 
April  10 ;  but  driven  out  of  Schleswig 

April  23, 1848 

Truce  agreed  upon  (provisional  govern- 
ment of  5  to  rule  the  duchies  mean- 
while) -  -  -  July  10,  1848 

Armistice  till  March  1 ,  1849,  signed  Aug.  1848 
(See  Copenhagen.) 


KINGS   OP  DENMARK. 


.  D.  714 

750 

770 
801 
809 
811 
812 
814 


849 
&56 
858 
873 
915 
920 
9Z5 
928 
930 
935 


Gormo  I. 

Ragnor  I.odbrog. 

Sigefrid. 

Godefrid. 

Glaus  I. 

Hemming. 

Siward  and  Ringon,  killed  in  a  sea-fight. 

Harold  and  Regner;  the   latter  made 

prisoner  in  Ireland,  and  died  in  a 

dungeon  there. 
Siward  II. deposed. 
Eric  ;  killed  in  battle. 
Eric  II. 
Canute  I. 
Frothon. 
Gormo  II. 
Harold. 
Hardicanute. 
Gormo  III. 
Harold  III. 
Suenon. 


1014  Canute  11.  the  Great. 

1036  Hardicanute  II. 

1041  Magnus  I. 

1048  Suenon  II. 

1079  Harold  IV. 

lOSO  Canute  III.  assassinated. 

1086  Olaus  II. 

1097  Eric  III. 

1106  Nicholas,  killed  in  Sleswick. 

1135  Eric  IV.,  killed  at  Ripen. 

11.38  Eric  V. 

1147  Suenon  III.,  beheaded  by  Waldemar 

for  assassinating  prince  Canute. 
1157  Waldemar  the  Great. 
1182  Canute  V. 
1202  Waldemar  II 
1240  Eric  VI. 
1250  Abel  I.,  killed  in  an  expedition  against 

the  Prisons. 
1252  Christopher  I.,  jioisoned  by  the  bishop 

of  Arhus. 


292 


THE    WORLD'S    PROGRESS. 


[dia 


1523  Frederick. 

1534  Christian  III. 

1559  Frederick  II. 

1588  Christian  IV. 

1648  Frederick  III. 

1670  Christian  V. 

1699  Fredsrick  IV. 

1730  Christian  ^^. 

1746  Frederick  V. 

1766  Christian  vn. 

1808  Frederic  VI. 

1839  Christian  VIII.  ilied  Jan.  20, 1&43. 


DENMARK,  continued. 

1259  Eric  VII.  assassinated. 

1286  Eric  Vni. 

1319  Christopher  II;    (An  interregnum  of 

seven  years.) 
1340  Waldemar  III. 
1375  Glaus  III. 
1375  Margaret  I.,  queen  of  Denmark  and 

Norway. 
1411  Eric  IX.,  abdicated. 
1439  Christopher  III. 

1448  Christian  I.  of  the  house  of  Oldenburgh. 
1481  John. 
1513  Christian  II.,  confined  27  years  in  a 

dungeon,  where  he  died. 

DENIS,  St.     An  ancient  town  of  Franco,  six  miles  Ironi  Paris  to  the  nortli- 
ward,  the  last  stage  on  the  road  from  England  to  that  capital, — fanions  for  • 
its  abbey  and  church,  the  former  abolished  at  the  Revolution;  the  latter 
desecrated  at  the  same  epoch,  after  having  been  the  appointed  place  of 
sepulture  to  the  French  kings,  from  its  foundation  by  Dagobert,  in  613. 

"  DEVIL  AND  DR.  FAUSTUS."  Faustus,  one  of  the  earliest  printers,  had  the 
policy  to  conceal  his  art,  and  to  this  policy  M-e  are  indebted  for  the  tradition 
of  "  The  Devil  and  Dr.  Faustus."  Faustus  associated  with  John  of  Gut- 
temberg;  their  types  were  cut  in  wood,  and  fixed,  not  movable,  as  at 
present.  Having  printed  off  numbers  of  copies  of  the  Bible,  to  imitate 
those  which  were  commonly  sold  in  MS.,  he  undertook  the  sale  of  them  at 
Paris,  where  printing  was  then  unknown.  As  he  sold  his  copies  for  sixty 
ci'owns,  while  the  scribes  demanded  five  hundred,  he  created  universal  as- 
tonishment ;  but  when  he  produced  copies  as  fast  as  they  were  wanted,  and 
lowered  the  price  to  thirty  crowns,  all  Paris  was  agitated.  The  uniformity 
of  the  copies  increased  the  wonder ;  informations  were  given  to  the  police 
against  him  as  a  magician,  and  his  lodgings  being  searched,  and  a  great 
number  of  copies  being  found,  they  Avere  seized.  The  red  ink  with  which 
they  were  embellished  was  supposed  to  be  his  blood,  and  it  was  seriously 
adjudged  that  he  was  in  league  with  the  devil ;  and  if  he  had  not  fled,  he 
would  have  shared  the  fate  of  those  whom  superstitious  judges  condemned 
in  those  days  for  witchcraft,  a.  d.  1460.     Nouv.  Diet.     See  Printing. 

DIADEM.  The  band  or  fillet  worn  by  the  ancients  instead  of  the  crown,  and 
which  wai3  consecrated  to  the  gods.  At  first,  this  fillet  was  made  of  silk  or 
wool,  and  set  with  precious  stones,  and  was  tied  round  the  temples  and 
forehead,  the  two  ends  being  knotted  behind,  and  let  fall  on  the  neck. 
Aurelian  was  the  first  Roman  em^icror  who  wore  a  diadem,  a.  d.  272. — 
T'dlemo7it. 

DIALS.  Invented  by  Anaximander,  550  b.  c. — Pliny.  The  first  dial  of  the 
sun  seen  at  Rome,  was  placed  on  the  temple  of  Qulrinus  by  L.  Papirius 
Cursor,  when  time  was  divided  into  hours,  293  b.  c. — Blair.  In  the  times 
of  the  emperors  almost  every  palace  and  public  building  had  a  sun-dial. 
They  were  first  set  up  in  churches  in  a.  d.  613. — Lenglet. 

DIAMONDS.  They  were  first  brought  to  Europe  from  the  East,  where  the 
mine  of  Sumbulpour  was  the  first  known ;  and  where  the  mines  of  Golconda 
were  discoverd  in  1584.  This  district  may  be  termed  the  realm  of  diamonds. 
The  mines  of  Brazil  were  discovered  in  1728.  From  these  last  a  diamond, 
weighing  1680  carats,  or  fourteen  ounces,  was  sent  to  the  court  of  Portugal, 
and  was  valued  by  M.  Romeo  de  I'lsle  at  the  extravagant  sum  of  224  mil- 
lions ;  by  others  it  was  valued  at  fifty-six  millions :  its  value  was  next  stated 
to  be  three  millions  and  a  half;  but  its  true  value  is  4O0,000Z.  The  diamond 
called  the  "mountain  of  light,"  which  belonged  to  the  king  of  Cabul,  was 
the  most  superb  gem  ever  seen ;  it  was  of  the  finest  water,  and  the  size  of 


die] 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  293 


an  egg,  and  was  also  valued  at  three  millions  and  a  half.  The  great  dia- 
mond of  the  emperor  of  Russia  weighs  193  carats,  or  1  oz.  12  dwt.  4  gr., 
troy.  The  empress  Catharine  II.  offered  for  it  1(M,166Z.  besides  an  annuity 
for  life,  to  the  owner,  of  1041Z.  which  was  refused ;  but  it  was  afterwards 
sold  to  Catharine's  favorite,  count  OrlofF,  for  the  first  mentioned  sum,  with- 
out the  annuity,  and  was  by  him  presented  to  the  empress  on  her  birth- 
day, 1772 ;  it  is  now  in  the  sceptre  of  Russia.  The  Pitt  diamond  weighed 
136  carats,  and  after  cutting  106  carats  ;  it  was  sold  to  the  king  of  France 
for  125,000Z.  in  1720. 

DIANA,  TEMPLE  of,  at  EPHESUS.  One  of  the  seven  wonders  of  the  world, 
built  at  the  common  charge  of  all  the  Asiatic  States.  The  chief  architect 
was  Ctesiphon ;  and  Pliny  says  that  220  years  M'cre  employed  in  completing 
this  temple,  whose  riches  were  immense.  It  was  425  feet  long,  225  broad, 
and  was  supported  by  127  columns,  (60  feet  high,  each  weighing  150  tons 
of  Parian  marble.)  furnished  by  so  many  kings.  It  was  set  on  fire  on  the 
night  of  Alexander's  nativity,  by  an  obscure  individual  named  Eratostratus, 
who  confessed  on  the  rack,  that  the  sole  motive  which  had  prompted  him 
to  destroy  so  magnificent  an  edifice,  was  the  desire  of  transmitting  his  name 
to  future  ages,  356  b.  c.  The  temple  was  rebuilt,  and  again  burned  by  the 
Goths,  in  their  naval  invasion,  a.  d.  256,     Uuiv.  Hist. 

DICTATORS.  These  were  supreme  and  absolute  magistrates  of  Rome,  in- 
stituted 498  B.  c,  when  Titus  Larcius  Flavus,  the  first  dictator,  Avas  ap- 
pointed. This  oflice,  respectable  and  illustrious  in  the  first  ages  of  the 
Republic,  became  odious  by  the  perpetual  usurpations  of  Sylla  and  J. 
'Csesar ;  and  after  the  death  of  the  latter,  the  Roman  senate,  on  the  motion 
of  the  consul  Antony,  passed  a  decree,  which  for  ever  forbade  a  dictator  to 
exist  in  Rome,  44  b,  c. 

DICTIONARY.  A  standard  dictionary  of  the  Chinese  language,  containing 
about  40,000  characters,  most  of  them  hieroglyphic,  or  rude  reprtisentations 
somewhat  like  our  signs  of  the  zodiac,  was  perfected  by  Pa-out-she,  who 
lived  about  1100  b.  c. — Morrison.  Cyclopaedias  were  compiled  in  the  fif- 
teenth and  sixteenth  centuries.  The  first  dictionary  of  celebrity,  perhaps 
the  first,  is  by  Ambrose  Calepini,  a  Venetian  friar,  in  Latin ;  he  wrote  one 
in  eight  languages,  about  a.  d.  WOO.— Niceron.  The  Lexicon  Heptaglotton 
was  published  by  Edmund  Castell,  in  1659.  Bayle's  dictionary  was  pub- 
lished in  1696,  "  the  first  work  of  the  kind  in  which  a  man  may  learn  to 
think." — Voltaire.  Chambers'  Cyclopedia,  the  first  dictionary  of  the  circle 
of  the  arts,  sciences,  &c.,  was  published  in  1728.  The  great  dictionary  of 
the  English  language,  by  Samuel  Johnson,  appeared  in  1755.  Francis 
Grose's  Dictionary  of  the  Vulgar  Tongue,  was  compiled  in  1768 ;  and  from 
this  period  numerous  dictionaries  have  been  added  to  our  store  of  literature. 
Noah  Webster's  great  American  Dictionary  of  the  English  language,  in  two 
quarto  volumes,  was  first  published  at  New  Haven  in  1828.  It  was  re- 
printed in  London,  under  the  supervision  of  E.  H.  Barker,  1832.  Numerous 
abridgments  and  a  new  edition  of  the  whole  work  have  since  been  published. 
See  Encyclopedia. 

DIET  OF  THE  GERMAN  EMPIRE.  The  supreme  authority  of  fMs  empire 
may  be  said  to  have  existed  in  the  assemblage  of  princes  undc:  this  name. . 
The  diet,  as  composed  of  three  colleges,  viz. :— the  college  of  electors,  the 
college  of  princes,  and  the  college  of  imperial  towns,  commenced  with 
the  famous  edict  of  Charles  IV.  1356.— See  Golden  Btdl.  Diets  otherwise 
constituted  had  long  previously  been  held  on  important  occasions.  The 
diet  of  Wurtzburg,  which  proscribed  Henry  the  Lion,  was  held  in  1179. 
The  celebrated  diet  of  Worms,  at  which  Luther  assisted  in  person,  was 
held  in  1521.    That  of  Spires,  to  condemn  the  Reformers,  was  held  in  1529 ; 


294  THE    WOULD's    PROGIi-ESS.  [  DIP 

and  the  famous  diet  of  Augsburg-,  in  1530.  In  the  league  of  the  German 
princes,  called  the  confederation  of  the  Rhine,  they  fixed  the  diet  at  Frank- 
fort, July  12,  1806.  A  new  diet  at  Frankfort,  for  the  purpose  of  con- 
solidating the  government  of  the  German  States,  1848.     See  Germany. 

DIEU  ET  MON  DROIT,  "God  and  my  right."  This  was  the  parole  of 
the  day,  given  by  Richard  I.  of  England,  to  his  army  at  the  battle  of  Gisors, 
in  France.  In  this  battle  {ivhich  see)  the  French  army  was  signally  defeated ; 
and  in  remembrance  of  this  victory,  Richard  made  "  Dieii  et  mon  droit^' 
the  motto  of  the  royal  arms  of  England,  and  it  has  ever  since  been  retained, 
A.  D.  1198. — Rijmcr's  Eadera. 

DIGEST.  The  first  collection  of  Roman  laws  under  this  title  was  prepared 
by  Alfrenus  Varus,  the  civilian  of  Cremona,  66  b.  c. —  Quintil.  Inst.  Oral. 
Other  digests  of  Roman  laws  followed.  The  Digest,  so  called  by  way  of 
eminence,  was  the  collection  of  laws  made  by  order  of  the  emperor  Justi- 
nian :  it  made  the  first  part  of  the  Roman  law,  and  the  first  volume  of  the 
civil  law.     Quotations  from  it  are  marked  with  a  ff. — Pardon. 

DIOCESE.  The  first  division  of  the  Roman  empire  into  dioceses,  which  were 
at  that  period  civil  governments,  is  ascribed  to  Constantine,  a.  d.  323  ;  but 
Strabo  remarks  that  the  Romans  had  the  departments  called  dioceses  long 
before. — Strabo,  lib.  xiii.  In  England  these  circuits  of  the  bishops'  juris- 
diction are  coeval  with  Christianity ;  there  are  twenty-four  dioceses,  of 
which  twenty-one  ai-e  suffragan  to  Canterbury,  and  three  to  York. 

DIOCLETIAN  ERA.  Called  also  the  era  of  Martyrs,  was  used  by  Christian 
writers  until  the  introduction  of  the  Christian  era  in  the  sixth  century,  and 
is  still  employed  by  the  Abyssinians  and  Copts.  It  dates  from  the  day  on 
which  Diocletian  was  proclaimed  emperor  at  Chalcedon,  29th  August,  284. 
It  is  called  the  era  of  martyrs,  on  account  of  the  persecution  of  the  Chris- 
tians in  the  reign  of  Diocletian. 

DIORAMA.  This  species  of  exhibition,  which  had  long  previously  been  an 
object  of  wonder  and  delight  at  Paris,  was  first  opened  in  London,  Sept.  29, 
1823.  The  diorama  differs  from  the  panorama  in  this  respect,  that,  instead 
of  a  circular  view  of  the  objects  represented,  it  exhibits  the  whole  picture 
at  once  in  perspective,  and  it  is  decidedly  superior  both  to  the  panorama 
and  the  cosmorama  in  the  fidelity  with  which  the  objects  are  depicted,  and 
in  the  completeness  of  the  illusion. 

DIPLOMACY  OP  THE  UNITED  STATES.  List  of  ministers  plenipotentiaiy  to 
Great  Britain  and  France. 


GREAT   BRITAIN. 

1783  John  Adams. 
1739  Gouv.  Morris,  commissioner. 
1792  Thomas  Pinckney,  oi'  S.  C,  min.  plen. 
1794  John  Jay,   of  N.  Y.  do. 

1796  Rulus  King,       do.  do. 

1803  James  Monroe,  Va.     }  Jointly, 
1806  Wm.  Pinckney,  Mass.  \  in  1806. 
1808  Wnl  Pinckney,  do.  alone         do. 
1815  John  Q,uincy  Adams,  Mass.       do. 
1817  Richard  Rush,  Pa.  do. 

1826  Albert  Gallatin,  N.  Y.  do. 

1828  .lames  Barbour,  Va.  do. 

1830  Lou\s  McLane,  Del.  do. 

1831  M.  \'m.  Buren,  N.  Y.  do. 

1832  AarO'L  Vail,  charge  d'affaires.  j  1823  James  Brown,  La.  "lo. 
tese  And.  Stevenson,  Va.,  minister  plen.  !  1830  Wm.  C.  Rives,  Va.  do. 
1841  Edward  Everett,  Mass.           do.             '    1833  Edward  Livinsslnn,  La.          do. 

1845  Louis  McLane,  Md.  do.  ■    1836  Lewis  Cass,  Mich.  .to. 

1846  Georse  Bancroft,  Mass.  do.  ;  1S44  Wm.  R.  King,  Ala.  do. 
1849  Abbott  Lawrence,  do.             do.            ■   1849  W.  C.  Rives,  Va.  do. 


FRANCE. 

1776  B.  Franklin,  S.  Deane,  &  A.  Lee,  com'rs. 
1790  Wm.  Short,  of  Va.,  charge  d'affaires. 
1792  Gouv.  Morris,  N.  J.,  minister  plen. 
1799  James  Munroe,  Va.  do. 

1796  C.  C.  Pinckney,  S.  C.  ;  ■,„ 

1797  E.  Gerry  &  John  Marshall,  \  ^°- 
1799  Ol.  Ellsworth,  Patrick  Henry, 

and  W.  Vans  Murray,  do. 

1801  .Tames  A.  Bayard,  Del.  tb. 

1801  R.  R.  Livingston,  N.  Y.  c  o. 

1804  John  Armstrong,      do.  ao. 

1811  Joel   Barlow,  Conn.  do. 

1813  Wm.  H.  Crawford,  Geo.  do. 

1815  Albert  Gallatin,   Pa.  do. 


DIV  J  DIOTIOiVARY    OF    DATES.  295 

DIRECTORY,  the  CHURCH.  The  book  so  called  was  published  in  England 
at  the  period  of  the  civil  war.  It  was  drawn  up  at  the  instance  of  the  par- 
liament, by  an  assembly  of  divines  at  Westminster,  with  the  object  that  the 
ministers  might  not  be  wholly  at  a  loss  in  their  devotions  after  the  suppres- 
sion of  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer.  There  Avere  some  general  hints  given, 
which  were  to  be  managed  at  discretion,  for  the  Directory  prescribed  no 
form  of  prayer,  nor  manner  of  external  worship,  nor  enjoined  the  people  to 
make  any  responses,  except  Amen.  The  Directory  was  established  by  an 
ordinance  of  the  parliament  in  1644. — Bishop  Taylor. 

DIRECTORY,  French.  The  French  Directory  was  installed  at  the  little  Lux- 
embourg, at  Paris,  under  a  ncAV  constitution  of  the  government,  November 
1,  1795,  and  held  the  executive  power  four  years.  It  was  comi^osed  of  five 
members,  and  ruled  in  connection  with  two  chambers,  the  Council  of  An- 
cients and  Council  of  Five  Hundred,  which  see.  Deposed  by  Bonaparte,  whc;, 
with  Cambac6rfes  and  Sieyfes,  became  the  ruling  power  of  France,  the  three 
governing  as  consuls,  the  first  as  chief,  Nov.  9,  1799. 

DISSENTERS.  The  "  Dissenters  "  from  the  Church  of  England  arose  early  in 
the  Reformation,  contending  for  a  more  complete  departure  from  the  Romish 
models  of  church  government  and  discipline.  They  were  reproached  with 
the  name  of  Puritans,  on  account  of  the  purity  they  proposed  in  religious 
worship  and  conduct ;  and  the  rigorous  treatment  they  endured  under  Eliza- 
beth and  James  I.  led  multitudes  of  them  to  emigrate  to  this  country  in 
those  reigns.  The  first  place  of  worship  for  Dissenters  in  England  was 
established  at  Wandsworth,  near  London,  Nov.  20,  1572 ;  and  now,  in  Lon- 
don alone,  the  number  of  chapels,  meeting-houses,  &c.,  for  all  classes  of  Dis- 
senters, amounts  to  near  200.  The  great  act  for  the  relief  of  Dissenters 
from  civil  and  religious  disabilities,  was  the  statute  passed  9  George  IV. 
c.  17.  By  this  act,  called  the  Corporation  and  Test  Repeal  Act,  so  much  of 
the  several  acts  of  parliament  of  the  preceding  reigns  as  imposed  the  neces- 
sity of  receiving  the  sacrament  of  the  Lord's  Supper  as  a  qualification  for 
certain  offices,  &c.  was  repealed.  May  9,  1828.  Several  other  acts  of  ameli- 
orating effect  have  been  since  passed. 

DIVINATION.  In  the  Scriptures  wo  find  mention  made  of  different  kinds  of 
divination ;  and  it  is  mentioned  by  most  of  the  ancient  authors.  It  was  re- 
tained in  the  hands  of  the  priests  and  priestesses,  the  magi,  soothsayers, 
augurs,  and  other  like  professors,  till  the  coming  of  Christ,  when  the  doc- 
trines of  Christianity  and  the  spirit  of  philosophy  banished  such  visionary 
opinions.  The  oracles  of  Delphi  began  1263  b.  c.  Augurs  were  instituted 
by  Numa  at  Rome,  710  b.  c.     See  Augury,  Witchcraft,  t^c. 

DIVING-BELL.  First  mentioned,  though  obscurely,  by  Aristotle,  325,  b.c. 
The  diving-bell  was  first  used  in  Europe,  a.  d.  1509.  It  is  said  to  have  been 
used  on  the  coast  of  Mull,  in  searching  for  the  wreck  of  part  of  the  Spanish 
Armada,  before  a.  d.  1669.  Halley  greatly  improved  this  machine,  and  was, 
it  is  said,  the  fii'st  who,  by  means  of  a  diving-bell,  set  his  foot  on  dry  ground 
at  the  bottom  of  the  sea.  Smeaton  applied  the  condensing-ptimp  to  force 
down  air.  ]Mr.  Spalding  and  his  assistants  going  down  in  a  diving-bell  in 
Ireland,  were  drowned,  June  1,  1783.  The  Royal  George  man-of-war,  which 
was  sunk  off  Portsmouth  in  1782,  was  first  surveyed  by  means  of  a  diving- 
bell,  in  May  1817.  Lately,  and  particularly  in  1840,  it  has  been  employed 
in  sub-marine  surveys.  The  first  divmg-belle  was  the  Avife  of  Captain  Mor- 
ris, at  Plymouth,  who  descended  in  one  a  few  years  ago. 

DIVORCES  FOR  ADULTERY.  Of  the  earliest  institution,  both  in  ecclesiasti- 
cal and  civil  law,  among  the  ancients.  First  put  in  practice  by  Spurius  Car- 
vilius  at  Rome,  281  b.  g. — Blair.  At  this  time  morals  were  so  debased, 
that  3000  prosecutions  for  adultery  were  enrolled.     Divorces  were  attempted 


296  TiiE    world's    niOGRESS.  [  DOG 

to  be  made  of  more  easy  obtainment  in  England,  in  a.d.  1539.  The  bill  to 
prevent  women  marrying  their  seducers  was  brought  into  parliament  in 
1801. 

DOCKS  OF  LONDON.  They  are  said  to  be  the  most  extensive  and  finest  con- 
structions of  the  kind,  for  the  purposes  of  commerce,  in  the  world.  In  Lon- 
don there  are  a  number  of  these  docks,  of  which  the  following  are  the 
principal: — The  West  India  docks,  the  act  for  whose  formation  passed  in 
July  1799;  they  were  commenced  February  3,  1800,  and  were  opened  Aug. 
27,  1802,  when  the  Henry  Addington  West  Indiaman  first  entered  them, 
decorated  with  the  colors  of  the  difierent  nations  of  Europe.  The  London 
docks  were  commenced  June  26,  1802,  and  were  opened  January  31,  1805. 
The  East  India  docks  were  commenced  under  an  act  passed  July  27,  1803, 
and  were  opened  August  4,  1806.  The  first  stone  of  the  St.  Katherine  docks 
was  laid  May  3,  1827  ;  and  2,500  men  were  daily  employed  upon  them  until 
they  were  opened,  Oct.  25,  1828. 

DOCTOR.  This  rank  was  known  in  the  earliest  times.  Doctor  of  the  church 
was  a  title  given  to  SS.  Athanasius,  Basil,  Gregory  Nazianzen,  and  Chrysois- 
tom,  in  the  Greek  church  ;  and  to  SS.  Jerome,  Augustin,  and  Gregory  the 
Great,  in  the  Romish  church,  a.  d.  373,  et  seq.  Doctor  of  the  law  was  a  title 
of  honor  among  the  Jews.  The  degree  of  doctor  was  conferred  in  England, 
8  John,  1207. — Spelman.  Some  give  it  an  earlier  date,  referring  it  to  the 
time  of  the  Venerable  Bede  and  John  de  Beverley,  the  former  of  whom,  it 
is  said,  was  the  first  that  obtained  the  degree  at  Cambridge,  about  a.  d.  725. 
See  Collegiate  Degrees. 

DOCTORS'  COMMONS.  The  college  for  the  professors  of  civil  and  canon  law 
residing  in  the  city  of  London  ;  the  name  of  Commons  is  given  to  this  col- 
lege from  the  civilians  commonii:ig  together  as  in  other  colleges.  Doctors' 
Commons  was  founded  by  Dr.  Henry  Harvey,  whose  original  college  was  de- 
stroyed in  the  great  fire  of  1666,  but  after  some  years  it  was  rebuilt  on  the 
old  site.  The  causes  taken  cognizance  of  here  are,  blasphemy,  divorces, 
bastardy,  adultery,  penance,  tithes,  mortuaries,  probate  of  wills,  &c.  See 
article  Civil  Law. 

DOG.  The  chie7i  de  berger,  or  the  shepherd's  dog,  is  the  origin  of  the  whole 
race. — Buffon.  Buffon  describes  this  dog  as  being  "  the  root  of  the  tree," 
assigning  as  his  reason  that  it  possesses  from  nature  the  greatest  share  of 
instinct.  The  Irish  wolf-dog  is  supposed  to  be  the  earliest  dog  known  in 
Europe,  if  Irish  writers  be  correct.  Dr.  Gall  mentions  that  a  dog  was  taken 
from  Vienna  to  England ;  that  it  escaped  to  Dover,  got  on  board  a  vessel, 
landed  at  Calais,  and  after  accompanying  a  gentleman  to  Mentz,  returned 
to  Vienna. 

DOG-DAYS.  The  canicular  or  dog-days,  commence  on  the  3d  of  July,  and  end 
on  the  11th  of  August.  Common  opinion  has  been  accustomed  to  regard 
the  rising  and  setting  of  Sirius,  or  the  dog-star,*  with  the  sun,  as  the  cause 
of  excessive  heat,  and  of  consequent  calamities,  instead  of  its  being  viewed 
as  the  sign  when  such  effects  might  be  expected.  The  star  not  only  varies 
in  its  rising,  in  every  one  year  as  the  latitude  varies,  but  is  always  later  and 
later  every  year  in  all  latitudes,  so  that  in  time  the  star  may,  by  the  same 
rule,  come  to  be  charged  with  bringing  frost  and  snow. — Dr.  Hutton. 

DOGE.    The  title  of  the  duke  of  Venice,  which  state  was  first  governed  by  a 

*  Mathematicians  assert  that  Sirius,  or  the  Dog  Star,  is  the  nearest  to  us  of  all  the  fixed  stars ; 
and  they  compute  its  distance  from  our  earth  at  2,200,000  millions  of  miles.  They  maintain  that 
a  sound  would  not  reach  our  earth  from  Sirius  in  50,000  years,  and  that  a  cannon-ball,  flying  with 
its  usual  velocity  of  480  miles  an  hour,  would  consume  523,211  years  in  its  passage  tlierjce  to  our 
globe. 


DOR  ]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATEs^.  297 

prince  so  named,  Anafesto  Paululio,  a.  d.  697.  The  Genoese  revolted  against 
their  count,  and  chose  a  doge  from  among  their  nobility,  and  became  an 
aristocratic  republic,  1030-4.  The  ceremony  of  the  doge  of  Venice  marrying 
the  sea,  "the  Adriatic  wedded  to  our  duke,"  was  instituted  in  1173,  and  was 
observed  annually  on  Ascension-day,  until  1797,  when  the  custom  was  dis- 
pensed with.  See  Adriatic. 
DOMINGO,  ST.  Discovered  by  Columbus  in  his  second  voyage,  in  1493.  The 
city  was  founded  in  1494.  The  town  of  Port-au-Prince  was  burnt  down,  and 
nearly  destroyed  by  the  revolted  negroes,  in  Oct.,  Nov.,  and  Dec,  1791. 
Toussaint  L'Ouverture  governed  the  island,  on  the  expulsion  of  the  French 
colonists,  after  this  till  1802,  when  he  was  entrapped  by  Bonaparte,  and  died 
in  prison.  His  successor,  Dessalines,  recommended  the  blacks,'  by  proclama- 
tion, to  make  a  general  massacre  of  the  whites,  which  was  accordingly  ex- 
ecuted with  horrid  cruelty,  and  2-500  were  butchered  in  one  day,  March  29, 
1804.  Dessalines  proclaimed  himself  emperor,  Oct.  8,  1804.  See  Hayti,  in 
which  article  particulars  will  be  found  up  to  the  independence  of  St.  Do- 
mingo, acknowledged  by  France,  in  April,  1825. 
DOMINICA.  Discovered  by  Columbus  in  his  second  voyage,  in  1493.  This 
island  was  taken  by  the  British  in  1761,  and  was  confirmed  to  them  by  the 
peace  of  1763.  The  French  took  Dominica  in  1778,  but  restored  it  at  the 
subsequent  peace  in  1783.  It  suffered  great  damage  by  a  tremendous  hur- 
ricane in  1806 ;  and  several  devastating  hurricanes  have  more  recently 
occurred. 
DOMINICAL  LETTER.  Noting  the  Lord's  day,  or  Sunday.  The  seven  days 
of  the  week,  reckoned  as  beginning  on  the  1st  of  January,  are  designated  as 
by  the  first  seven  letters  of  the  alphabet,  A,  B,  C,  D,  E,  F,  G;  and  the  one 
of  these  which  denotes  Sunday  is  the  Dominical  letter.  If  the  year  begin 
on  Sunday,  A  is  the  dominical  letter  ;  if  it  begin  on  Monday,  that  letter  is 
G ;  if  on  Tuesday,  it  is  F,  and  so  on.  Generally  to  find  the  dominical  letter 
call  New  Year's  day  A,  the  next  day  B,  and  go  on  thus  till  you  come  to  the 
first  Sunday,  and  the  letter  that  answers  to  it  is  the  dominical  letter ;  in  leap 
years  count  two  letters. 
DOMINICANS.  A  religious  order  whose  power  and  influence  were  almost  uni- 
versal. They  were  called  in  France  Jacobins,  and  in  England  Blackfriars, 
and  were  founded  by  St.  Dominick,  approved  by  Innocent  III.  in  1215  ;  and 
the  order  was  confirmed  by  a  bull  of  Honorius  III.  in  1216,  under  St.  Austin's 
rules,  and  the  founder's  particular  constitutions.  In  1276  the  corporation 
of  London  gave  them  two  whole  streets  by  the  river  Thames,  where  they 
erected  a  large  and  elegant  convent,  and  whence  that  part  is  still  called 
Blackfriars. 
DOOM'S-DAY  OR  DOME'S-DAY  BOOK.  Liber  Judiciarius  vel  Censualis 
Anslus--  A  book  of  the  general  survey  of  England,  commenced  in  the  reign 
of  William  I.  a.  d.  1080.  The  intent  of  this  book  was,  to  be  a  register 
whereby  to  determine  the  right  in  the  tenure  of  estates  ;  and  from  this  book 
the  question  whether  lands  be  ancient  demesne  or  not,  is  sometimes  still 
decided.  '  The  book  is  still  preserved  in  the  Exchequer,  fair  and  legible, 
consisting  of  two  volumes,  a  greater  and  lesser,  wherein  all  the  counties  of 
England,  except  Northumberland  and  Durham,  are  surveyed.  It  was  fin- 
ished in  A.  D.  1086,  having  been  completed  by  five  justices.  "This  dome's- 
day  book  was  the  tax-book  of  kinge  William." — Caviden.  The  taxes  were 
levied  according  to  this  survey  till  13  Henry  VIII.  1522,  when  a  more. accu- 
rate survey  was  taken,  and  was  called  by  the  people  the  new  Doom's-day 
book. 

DORIC  Ordkr  of  Architecture.     The  most  ancient  of  the  five,  the  invention 
of  the  Dorians,  a  people  of  Greece.     The  Dorians  also  gave  the  name  to 

13* 


298  THK  world's  progress,  |_dra 

the  Doric  muse.  The  migration  of  this  people  to  the  Peloponnesus  took 
place  1104  b.  c.  They  sent,  in  their  vast  spirit  of  enterprise,  many  colonies 
into  diiferent  places,  which  afterwards  bore  the  same  name  as  their  native 
country. 
DORl .  Here  happened  an  awful  inundation  of  the  sea,  a.  d.  1446.  It  arose  in 
the  breaking  doip\Ti  of  the  dykes ;  and  in  the  territory  of  Dordrecht  10,000 
persons  were  overwhelmed  and  perished ;  and  more  than  100,000  round  Dul- 
lart,  in  Friesland  and  in  Zealand.  In  the  last  fwo  provinces  upwards  of  300 
villages  were  overflowed,  and  the  tops  of  their  towers  and  steeples  were  for 
ages  after  to  be  seen  rising  out  of  the  water.  Dort  is  famous  for  the  Prot- 
estant synod  held  in  1618 ;  a  general  assembly,  to  which  deputies  were  sent 
from  England,  and  from  all  the  Reformed  churches  in  Europe,  to  settle  the 
differences  between  the  doctrines  of  Luther,  Calvin,  and  Arminius,  princi- 
pally upon  points  of  justification  and  grace.  The  synod  condemned  the 
tenets  of  Arminius. — Aitzema. 

DOUAY,  IN  Fr.4nce.  Erected  into  a  imiversity  by  Philip  II.  of  Spa,in,  who 
founded  here  the  celebrated  college  of  Roman  Catholics,  a.  d.  1569.  Douay 
was  taken  from  the  Spaniards  by  Louis  XIV.  in  person,  in  1667.  It  was 
taken  by  the  duke  of  Marlborough,  in  1710;  and  retaken  by  the  "'^'rench 
next  year.  This  town  gives  its  name  to  the  Catholic  edition  of  th^  Bible, 
which  continues  in  almost  universal  use  by  the  consent  of  the  suc^.essive 
popes  among  the  members  of  that  communion,  as  the  only  English  version 
authorized  by  Catholics  ;  its  text  being  copiously  explained  by  the  notes 
of  Catholic  divines. 

DRACO,  Laws  of.  Draco,  when  he  exercised  the  office  of  archon,  made  a 
code  of  laws,  which,  on  account  of  their  severitj^,  were  said  to  be  written 
in  letters  of  blood  :  l3y  them  idleness  was  punished  v/ith  as  much  severity  as 
murder ;  the  smallest  transgression,  he  said,  deserved  death,  and  he  could 
not  find  any  punishment  more  rigorous  for  more  atrocious  crimes,  623  b.  c. — 
Sigonius  de  Repub.  Athen. 

DRAKE'S  CIRCUMNAVIGATION.  Sir  Francis  Drake  sailed  from  Plymouth, 
No.  13,  1577,  and  sailing  round  the  globe,  returned  to  England,  after  many 
perilous  adventures,  Nov.  3,  1580.  This  illustrious  seaman  was  vioe-admiral 
under  lord  Howard,  high-admiral  of  England,  in  the  memorable  conflict 
with  the  Spanish  Armada,  July  19,  1588.  His  expeditions  and  victories  over 
the  Spaniards  have  been  equalled  by  modern  admirals,  but  not  his  gene- 
rosity ;  for  he  divided  the  booty  he  took  in  proportional  shares  with  the 
common  sailors,  even  to  wedges  of  gold  given  him  in  return  for  his  presents 
to  Indian  chiefs. — Stowe.    Rafvn. 

DRAMA.  We  owe  both  forms  of  composition,  tragedy  and  comedy,  to  the 
Greeks.  The  first  comedy  was  performed  at  Athens,  by  Susarion  and  Dolon, 
on  a  movable  scaffold,  562  b.  e.  See  Comedy.  The  chorus  was  introduced 
556  B.  c.  See  Chorus.  Tragedy  was  first  represented  at  Athens,  by  Thespis, 
on  a  wagon,  536  b.  c.  Arund.  Marb.  Thespis  of  Icai-ia,  the  inventor  of  tra- 
gedy, performed  at  Athens  Alcestis,  this  year,  and  was  rewarded  with  a 
goat,  536  B.  G. — Pliny.  Anaxandrides  was  the  first  dramatic  poet  who  in- 
troduced intrigues  and  rapes  upon  the  stage.  He  composed  about  a  hun- 
dred plays,  of  which  ten  obtained  the  prize ;  he  died  340  b.  c. 

DRAMA  IN  ROME.  The  drama  was  first  introduced  into  Rome  on  occasion 
of  a  plague  which  raged  during  the  consulate  of  C.  Sulpicius  Peticus  and 
C.  Lucinius  Stolo.  The  magistrates  to  appease  the  incensed  deities  insti- 
tuted the  games  called  Scenici,  which  were  amusements  entirely  new. 
Actors  from  Etruria  danced,  after  the  Tuscan  manner,  to  the  flute  364  b.  c. 
Subsequently  came  satires  accompanied  with  music  set  to  the  flute ;  and 


DKO  J  DICTIONARY    OF   DATES.  299 

afterwards  plays  were  represented  by  Livius  Andronicus,  who,  abandoning 
satires,  wrote  inlays  with  a  regular  and  conneeted  plot,  240  b.  c. — lAvy. 
Andronicus  was  the  first  person  who  gave  singing  and  dancing  to  two  differ- 
ent performers ;  he  danced  himself,  and  gave  the  sipging  to  a  younger 
exhibitor. — Livy. 

DRAMA,  Modern.  The  modern  drama  arose  early  in  the  rude  attempts  of 
minstrels  and  buffoons  at  fairs  in  France,  Italy,  and  England. —  Warton. 
Stories  from  the  Bible  were  represented  by  the  priests,  and  were  the  origin 
of  sacred  comedy. — Idem.  Gregory  Nazianzen,  an  early  father  of  the 
church,  is  said  to  have  constructed  a  drama  about  a.  d.  364,  on  the  Passion 
of  Christ,  to  counteract  the  profanities  of  the  heathen  stage,  and  thus  to 
have  laid  the  foundation  of  the  modern  romantic  drama ;  but  this  is  not 
clearly  proved.  Fitzstephen,  in  his  Life  of  Thomas  a  Becket,  asserts  that 
"  London  had  for  its  theatrical  exhibitions  holy  plays,  and  the  representa- 
tion of  miracles  wrought  by  holy  confessors."  The  Chester  Mysteries 
were  performed  about  1270.  Plays  were  performed  at  Clerkenwell  by  the 
parish  clerks  in  1397,  and  miracles  were  represented  in  the  fields.  Allego- 
rical characters  were  introduced  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VI.  Individual 
characters  were  introduced  in  Henry  VII. 's  reign.  The  first  regular  drama 
acted  in  Europe  was  the  "  Sophonisba"  of  Trissino,  at  Rome,  in  the  pre- 
sence of  i5ope  Leo  X.,  1515. —  Voltaire.  The  English  drama  became  perfect 
in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth.  The  first  royal  license  for  the  drama  in  England 
was  to  master  Burbage,  and  four  others,  servants  to  the  earl  of  Leicester, 
to  act  plays  at  the  Globe,  Bankside,  1574.  A  license  was  granted  to  Shak- 
speare,  and  his  associates,  in  1603.  Play's  were  opposed  by  the  Puritans  in 
1633,  and  were  afterwards  suspended  until  the  Restoration  in  1660.  Two 
companies  of  regular  performers  were  licensed  by  Charles  II.,  Killegrew's 
and  Davenant's,  in  1662.  Till  this  time  boys  performed  women's  parts. 
DRESDEN,  Battle  of,  between  the  allied  army  under  the  prince  of  Schwar- 
zenberg,  and  the  French  army  commanded  by  Napoleon,  Aug.  26  and  27, 
1813.  The  allies,  who  were  200,000  strong,  attacked  Napoleon  in  his  posi- 
tion at  Dresden,  and»the  event  had  nearly  proved  fatal  to  them,  but  for  an 
error  in  the  conduct  of  general  Vandamme.  They  were  defeated  with 
dreadful  loss,  and  were  obliged  to  retreat  into  Bohemia ;  but  Vandamme 
pursuing  them  too  far,  his  division  ivas  cut  to  pieces,  and  himself  and  all 
his  staff"  made  prisoners.  In  this  battle  general  Moreau  received  his  mortal 
wound  while  in  conversation  with  the  emperor  of  Russia. 

DRESS.  Excess  in  dress  was  restrained  by  a  law  in  England,  in  the  reign  of 
Edward  IV.,  1465.  And  again  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  1574. — Stowe. 
Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  we  are  told,  Avore  a  white  satin-pinked  vest,  close 
sleeved  to  the  wrist,  and  over  the  body  a  brown  doublet  finely  flowered, 
and  embroidered  with  peans.  In  the  feather  of  his  hat,  a  lai'ge  ruby  and 
pearl  drop  at  the  bottom  of  the  sprig,  in  place  of  a  button.  His  breeches, 
with  his  stockings  and  ribbon  garters,  fringed  at  the  end,  all  white  ;  and 
buff  shoes,  which  on  great  court  days,  were  so  gorgeously  covered  with 
precious  stones,  as  to  have  exceeded  the  value  of  66OOI, ;  and  he  had  a  suit 
of  armor  of  solid  silver,  with  sword  and  belt  blazing  with  diamonds, 
rubies,  and  pearls.  King  James's  favorite,  the  duke  of  Buckingham,  could 
afford  to  have  his  diamonds  tacked  so  loosely  on,  that  when  he  chose  to 
shake  a  few  off  on  the  ground,  he  obtained  all  the  fame  he  desired  from  the 
pickers-up,  Avho  were  generally  Ics  Dames  de  la  Cow. 

DROWNING  PERSONS.  Societies  for  the  recovery  of  drowning  persons 
were  first  instituted  in  Holland,  a.  d.  1767.  The  second  society  is  said  to 
have  been  formed  at  Milan,  in  1768  ;  the  third  in  Hamburg,  in  1771 ;  the 
foiarth  at  Paris,  in  1772;  and  the  fifth  in  London,  in  1774.     Similar  societies 


300  THE    world's    progress.  [  DUR 

have  been  instituted  in  other  countries.  The  motto  of  the  Royal  Humane 
Society  in  England  is  very  appropriate  : — Laieat  scintiLlula  forsan — a  small 
spark  may  lurk  unseen. 

DRUIDS.  A  celebrated  order  among  the  ancient  Germans,  Gauls,  and  Britons, 
vrho  from  their  veneration  for  the  oak  (Drys)  were  so  called.  They  acted 
as  priests  and  magistrates ;  one  of  them  was  invested  occasionally  with 
supreme  authority.  In  England  they  were  chosen  out  of  the  best  families, 
that  the  dignity  of  their  station,  added  to  that  of  their  birth,  might  pro- 
cure them  the  greater  respect.  They  were  versed  in  sciences ;  had  the 
administration  of  all  sacred  things ;  were  the  interpreters  of  the  gods  ;  and 
supreme  judges  in  all  causes.  The  Druids  headed  the  Britons  who  opposed 
Cassar's  tirst  landing,  55  b.  c.  They  were  cruelly  put  to  death,  defending 
the  freedom  of  their  country  against  the  Roman  governor,  Suetonius  Pau- 
linuB,  who  totally  destroyed  every  mark  of  Druidism,  a.  d.  59. — Rowland's 
Mona  Antiqua. 

DRUNKARDS.  The  phrase  "  Drunk  as  a  lord,"  arose  oiit  of  an  older  proverb. 
"  Drunk  as  a  beggar;"  and  we  are  told  that  it  was  altered  owing  to  the  vice 
of  drunkenness  prevailing  more  among  the  great  of  late  years.  Drunken- 
ness was  punished  in  many  of  the  early  nations  with  exemplary  severity. 
In  England,  a  canon  law  restrained  it  in  the  clergy  so  early  as  a.  d.  747. 
Constantine,  king  of  Scots,  punished  this  offence  against  society  with  death. 
He  used  to  say,  that  a  drunkard  was  but  the  mimic  of  a  man,  and  differed 
from  the  beast  only  in  shape,  a.  d.  870.  Drunkenness  was  restrained  in  the 
commonalty  in  England  in  975 ;  and  by  several  later  laws. 

DUBLIN.    This  city,  anciently  called  Aschcled,  built  a.  d,  140. 

DUCAT.  First  coined  by  Longinus,  governor  of  Italy. — Procopius.  First 
struck  in  the  duchy  of  Apulia. — Dit,  Cange.  Coined  by  Robert,  king  of 
Sicily,  in  a.  d.  1240.  The  ducat  is  so  called  because  struck  by  dukes. — John- 
son. It  is  of  silver  and  gold,  the  value  of  the  first  being  4s.  %d.,  and  that  of 
the  gold  9s.  Qd. — Pardon. 

DUELLING  AND  KNIGHT-ERRANTRY,  took  their  riSfe  from  the  judicial  com- 
bats of  the  Celtic  nations.  The  first  duel  in  England,  not  of  this  character, 
took  place  a.  d.  1096.  Duelling  in  civil  matters  was  forbidden  in  France, 
1305.  The  present  practice  of  duelling  arose  in  the  challenge  of  Francis  I. 
to  the  emperor  Charles  V.,  1527.  The  fight  with  small  swords  was  intro- 
duced into  England,  29  Elizabeth  1587.  Proclamation  that  no  person  should 
be  pardoned  who  killed  another  in  a  duel,  30  Charles  II.,  1679.  Duelling " 
was  checked  in  the  army,  1792. — See  Battle,  Wager  of;  Combat,  (^c.  As 
many  as  227  official  and  memorable  duels  were  fought  dm'ing  my  grand  cli- 
macteric.— Si?-  J.  Barrington.  A  single  writer  enumerates  172  duels,  in 
which  63  individuals  were  killed  and  96  wounded  :  in  three  of  these  cases 
both  the  combatants  were  killed,  and  18  of  the  survivors  suffered  the  sen- 
tence of  the  law. — Ha'tnilton. 

DUKE,  originally  a  Roman  dignity,  first  given  to  the  generals  of  armies.  In 
England,  during  Saxon  times,  the  commanders  of  armies  were  called  dukes, 
duces. — Camden.  The  title  lay  dormant  from  the  Conquest  till  the  reign  of 
Edward  III.,  who  conferred  the  title  on  his  eldest  son,  Edward  the  Black 
Prince,  by  the  style  of  duke  of  Cornwall,  a.  d.  1336.  Robert  de  Vere  was 
created  marqxiis  of  Dublin  and  duke  of  Ireland,  9  Richard  II.,  1385.  The 
first  duke  created  in  Scotland  was  by  king  Robert  IH.,  who  created  David, 
prince  of  Scotland,  duke  of  Rothsay,  a  title  which  afterwards  belonged  to 
the  king's  eldest  son,  a.  d.  1398. 

DUKE,  Grand.  The  Medici  familj^  was  one  of  extraordinary  greatness  and 
immense  wealth.    Of  this  family,  Alexander  de  Medicis  was  acknowledged 


EAR  j  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  301 

the  chief  of  the  republic  of  Tuscany  in  1531 ;  he  was  stabbed  in  the  night : 
and  his  son,  Cosmo,  was  created  grand  duke,  the  fii'st  of  that  rank,  by  pope 
Pius  V.  in  1569. 
DUNBAR,  Battle  OF,  between  the  Scottish  and  English  armies,  in  which  John 
Baliol  was  defeated  by  the  earl  of  Warrenne,  and  Scotland  subdued,  by  Ed- 
ward I.,  fought  April  27,  1296.  Battle  between  the  Scots  and  English  under 
Cromwell,  who  obtained  a  signal  victory,  September  3,  1650. 

DUNKIRK.  This  town  was  taken  from  the  Spaniards  by  the  English  and 
French,  and  put  into  the  hands  of  the  English,  June  24, 1658,  the  last  year 
of  Cromwell's  administration.  It  was  sold  by  Charles  II.  for  500,000^.  to 
Louis  XIV.,  in  1662.  The  French  king  made  Dunkirk  one  of  the  best  for- 
tified ports  in  the  kingdom ;  but  all  the  works  were  demolished,  and  the 
basins  filled  up,  in  consequence  of  the  treaty  of  Utrecht-  in  1713. 

DUNSINANE,  Battle  op.  Celebrated  in  dramatic  story  by  the  immortal 
Shakspeare.  On  the  hill  of  Dunsinane  was  fought  the  renowned  battle 
between  Macbeth,  the  thane  of  Glammis,  and  Seward,  earl  of  Northumber- 
land. Edward  the  Confessor  had  sent  Seward  on  behalf  of  Malcolm  III., 
whose  father,  Duncan,  the  thane  and  usurper  had  murdered.  Macbeth,  who 
was  signally  defeated,  fled,  and  was  pursued,  it  is  said,  to  Lumphanan,  in 
Aberdeenshire,  and  there  slain,  1057.  The  history  of  Macbeth  is  the  sub- 
ject of  Shakspeare's  incomparable  drama. 

DURHAM,  Battle  of,  between  the  English  and  Scottish  armies,  fought  at 
Nevill's-cross,  near  Durham.  The  former  armj^  was  commanded  by  queen 
Philippa  and  lord  Piercey,  and  the  latter  by  David  Bruce,  king  of  Scotland, 
who  was  vanquished.  Fifteen  thousand  of  Bruce's  soldiers  were  cut  to 
pieces,  and  himself,  with  many  of  his  nobles  and  knights,  and  many  thou- 
sand men,  were  taken  prisoners,  Oct.  17,  1346. 

DYEING,  Art  op.  The  discovery  of  it  attributed  to  the  Tyrians.  In  dyeing 
and  dipping  their  own  cloths,  the  English  were  so  little  skilled,  that  their 
manufactures  were  usually  sent  white  to  Holland,  and  returned  to  England 
for  sale.  The  art  of  dyeing  woollens  was  brought  from  the  Low  Countries 
in  1608.  "Two  dyers  of  Exeter  were  flogged  for  teaching  their  art  in  the 
north"  (of  England)  1628. 

E. 

EAGLE.  The  standard  of  the  eagle  was  first  borne  by  the  Persians ;  and  the 
Romans  carried  figures  of  the  eagle,  as  ensigns,  in  silver  and  gold,  and 
sometimes  represented  with  a  thunderbolt  in  its  talons,  on  the  point  of  a 
spear ;  they  adopted  the  eagle  in  the  consulate  of  Marius,  102  b.  c.  When 
Charlemagne  became  master  of  the  whole  of  the  German  empire,  he  added 
the  second  head  to  the  eagle  for  his  arms,  to  denote  that  the  empires  of 
Rome  and  Germany  were  united  in  him,  a.  d.  802.  The  eagle  was  the  im- 
perial standard  of  Napoleon ;  and  is  that  of  Austria,  Russia,  and  Prussia. 
It  is  also  the  national  emblem  of  the  United  States  of  America. 

EARL.  An  honor  which  came  from  the  Saxons,  and  continued  for  many  ages 
the  highest  rank  in  England,  until  Edward  III.  created  dukes,  and  Richard 
II.  created  marquesses,  both  having  precedency  assigned  above  earls.  They 
had,  anciently,  for  the  support  of  their  state,  the  third  penny  oiit  of  the 
sheriff" 's  court,  issuing  out  of  the  pleas  of  the  shire  whereof  they  had  their 
title,  as  in  ancient  times  there  were  no  counts  or  earls  but  had  a  county  or 
shire  for  his  earldom.  Upon  the  increase  of  earls  their  revenue  ceased,  and 
their  powers  were  abridged.  Alfred  used  the  title  of  earl  as  a  substitute  foi 
king. 


H)2 


THE    WORLD  S    PROGRESS. 


EARTH.  The  globular  form  of  the  earth  was  first  suggested  by  Thales  of 
Miletus  about  640  b.  c.  Its  magnitude  was  calculated  from  measuring  an 
arc  of  the  meridian  by  Eratosthenes,  240  b.  c.  The  Greeks  taught  the 
sphericity  of  the  earth,  and  the  popes  believed  it  to  be  a  plane,  and  gave  all 
towards  the  west  to  the  kings  of  Spain.  The  first  ship  that  sailed  round 
the  earth,  and  thence  demonstrated  that  its  form  was  globular,  was  Magel- 
lan's, in  1519.  The  notion  of  its  magnetism  was  started  by  Gilbert  in  1576. 
The  experiments  of  M.  Richer,  in  1672,  led  Newton  to  prove  the  earth  to 
be  in  the  shape  of  an  oblate  spheroid.  The  variation  of  its  axis  was  dis- 
covered by  Dr.  Bradley  in  1737.     See  Globe. 

EAUTHENWARE.  Vessels  of  this  ware  were  in  use  among  the  most  ancient 
nations.  Various  domestic  articles  were  made  by  the  Romans,  715  b.  c. 
The  art  was  revived  and  improved  in  Italy,  a.  d.  1310.  Wedgewood's  patent 
ware  was  first  made  in  1762.  His  pottery  in  Stafibrdshire  was  extended  to 
a  variety  of  curious  compositions,  subservient  not  only  to  the  ordinary  pur- 
poses of  life,  but  to  the  arts,  antiquity,  history,  &c.,  and  thereby  rendered  a 
very  important  braucli  of  commerce,  both  foreign  and  domestic.  See 
China. — Porcelain. 

EARTHQUAKES.  The  theory  of  earthquakes  has  not  yet  been  formed  Avith 
any  degree  of  certainty.  Anaxagoras  sup^josed  that  earthquakes  were  pro- 
duced by  subterraneous  clouds  bursting  out  into  lightning,  which  shook  the 
vaults  that  confined  them,  b.  c.  435. — Diog.  Laert.  Kircher,  Des  Cartes, 
and  others,  supposed  that  there  were  many  vast  cavities  under  ground  which 
have  a  communication  with  each  other,  some  of  which  abound  with  waters, 
others  with  exhalations,  arising  from  inflammable  substances,  as  nitre,  bitu- 
men, sulphur,  &c.  These  opinions  continued  to  be  suj^ported  till  1749-50, 
when  an  earthquake  was  felt  at  London,  and  several  parts  of  Britain.  Dr. 
Stukeley,  who  had  been  engaged  in  electrical  experiments,  then  began  to 
suspect  that  a  phenomenon  of  this  kind  ought  to  be  attributed  not  to  vapors 
or  fermentations  generated  in  the  bowels  of  the  earth,  but  to  electricity. 
These  pi'inciples  at  the  same  time  were  advanced  by  Signer  Beccaria,  with- 
out knowing  any  thing  of  Dr.  Stukelej^'s  discoveries,  and  the  hypothesis  has 
been  confirmed  by  the  experiments  of  Dr.  Priestley.  In  many  cases,  how- 
ever, it  appears  probable  that  the  immense  power  of  water  converted  into 
steam  by  subterraneous  fires  must  contribute  to  augment  the  force  which 
occasions  earthquakes.  Among  those  which  are  recorded  as  having  been  the 
most  destructive  and  memorable,  are  the  following,  which  are  quoted  from 
the  best  sources :  it  would  be  impossible  to  enumerate  in  this  volume  all 
that  have  occurred : — 


One  which  made  the  peninsula  of 
Eubopa  an  island        -  -     b.  c.    425 

EUice  and  Bula  in  the  Peloponnesus, 
swallowed  up  ...    372 

One  at  Rome,  when,  in  obedience  to 
an  oracle,  M.  Curlius,  armed  and 
mounted  on  a  stately  horse,  leaped 
into  the  dreadful  chasm  it  occasion- 
ed CLivy')        ■  -  -  -    358 

Duras,  in  Greece,  buried  with  all  its 
inhabitants ;  and  twelve  cities  in 
Campania  also  buried  -  -    345 

Lysimachia  totally  buried,  with  all  its 
inhabitants      -  -  -  -    283 

Awful  one  in  Asia,  wliich  overturned 
twelve  cities    -  -  -     A.  D.      17 

One  accompanied  by  the  eruption  of 
Vesuvius ;  the  cities  of  Pompeii  and 
Herculaneum  buried  -  79 

Four  cities  in  Asia,  two  in  Greece,  a. id 
two  in  Galatia,  overturned    -  -    107 


Antioch  destroyed  -  '-    a.  d.    114 

Nicomedia,  Csesarea,  and  Nicea   in 

Bithynia,  overturned  -  -    126 

In  Asia,  Pontus,  and  Macedonia,  150 

cities  and  towns  damaged.    - 
Nicomedia  again  demolished,  and  its 

inhabitants  buried  in  its  ruins 
One  felt  by  nearly  the  whole  world     - 
At  Constantinople :  its  edifices  destroy- 
ed, and  thousancis  perished  - 
In  Africa ;  many  cities  overturned 
Awful  one  in   Syria,  Palestine,  and 
Asia ;  more  than  500  cities  were  de- 
stroyed, and  the  loss  of  life  surpass- 
ed all  calculation 
In  France,  Germany,  and  Italy 
Constantinople    overturned,    and   all 

Greece  shaken  -  -  -    936 

One  felt  throughout  England    -  -  1089 

One  at  Antioch ;  many  towns  destroy- 


357 


358 
543 


558 
560 


742 


EAS] 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES. 


303 


EARTHQUAKES,  continued. 

ed :  among  them,  Mariseum  and  Ma- 
mistria  -  -  -     a.  d.  Ul-1 

Catania  in  Sicily  overturned,  and 
15,000  persons  buried  in  the  ruins    -  1137 

One  severely  felt  at  Lincoln     -  -  1142 

At  Calabria,  v^hen  one  of  its  cities  and 
all  its  inhabitants  were  overwhelm- 
ed in  the  Adriatic  Sea 

One  again  felt  throughout  England     - 

At  Naples,  when  40,UD0  of  its  inhabit- 
ants perished  -  -  .  . 

One  felt  in  London  :  part  of  St.  Paul's 
and  the  Temple  churches  fell 

In  Japan,  several  cities  made  ruins, 
and  thousands  perished 

Awfu!  one  at  Calabria  - 

One  in  China,  when  300,000  persons 
were  buried  in  Pekin  alone  - 

One  severely  felt  in  Ireland      - 

One  at  Jamaica,  which  totally  destroy- 
ed Port  Royal,  whose  houses  were 
ingulfed  forty  fathoms  deep,  and  300 
persons  perished 

One  hi  Sicily,  which  overturned  54 
cities  and  towns,  and  300  villages. 
Of  Catania  and  its  18,000  inhabit- 
ants, not  a  trace  remained;  more 
than  100,000  lives  were  lost  - 

Palermo  nearly  destroyed,  and  6000 
persons  perished 

Again  in  China;  and  100,000  people 
swallowed  up  at  Pekin 

One    in   Hungary,    which    turned 
mountain  round 

Lima  and  Callao  demolished  ;  18,000 
persons  buried  in  the  ruins   Oct.  28,  1746 

One  at  Palermo,  which  swallowed  up 
a  convent :  but  the  monks  escaped  1740 

In  London,  the  inhabitants  terrified  by 
a  slight  shock  -  Feb.  8,  1750 

Another,  but  severer  sliock,    March  8,  1750 

Adrianople  nearly  overwhelmed         -  1752 

At  Grand  Cairo,  half  of  the  houses,  and 
40,000  persons  swallowed  up  -  1754 

Quito  destroyed  -  -  April,  1755 

Great  earthquake  at  Lisbon.  In  about 
eight  minutes  most  of  the  houses, 
and  upwards  of  50,000  inhabitants, 
were  swallowed  up, and  whole  streets 
buried,  The  cities  of  Coimbra, 
Oporto,  and  Braga,  suffered  dread- 
fully, and  St.  Ubes  was  wholly  over- 
turned. In  Spain,  a  large  part  of 
Malaga  became  ruins.  One  half  of 
Fez,  in  Morocco,  was  destroyed,  and 
more  than  12,000  Arabs  perished 
there.  Above  half  of  the  island  of 
Rladeira  became  waste :  and  2,000 
houses  in  the  island  of  Meteline,  in 
»  the  Archipelago,  were  overthrown : 

this  awful  earthquake  extended  5000 
miles,  even  to  Scotland  Nov.  1,  1755 

One  in  Syria  extended  over  10,000 
square  miles  :  Balbec  destroyed      -  1759 

One  at  Martinico,  when  1600  persons 
lost  their  lives  -  .    au".  1767 

At  Guatemala,  which,  with  80,000  in 


1186 
1274 


1456 

1.5S0 


159G 
1638 


1662 
1690 


1692 


1693 
1726 


1731 
1736 


A  destructive  one  at  Smyrna    -    a.  d    1778 

At  Tauris :  15,000  houses  thrown  down, 
and  multitudes  buried  -  -  1780 

One  which  overthrew  Messina  and  a 
number  of  towns  in  Italy  and  Sicily : 
40,000  persons  perished         -  -  1783 

Arciiindschan  wholly  destroyed,  and 
12,000  persons  buried  in  its  ruins    -  1784 

At  Borgo  di  San  Sepolcro,  an  opening 
of  the  earth  swallowed  up  many 
houses  and  1000  persons       -    Sept.  1789 

Another  fatal  one  in  Sicily       -  -  1791 

One  in  Naples,  when  Vesuvius  issuing 
forth  its  flames  overwhelmed  the  city 
of  Torre  del  Greco      -  -  -1794 

In  Turkey,  where,  in  three  towns, 
10,000  persons  lost  their  lives  -  1794 

The  whole  country  between  Santa  Fe 
and  Panama  destroyed,  including  the 
cities  of  Cusco  and  Quito,  40,000  of 
whose  people  were,  in  one  second, 
hurled  into  eternity    -  -  -  179J 

One  at  Constantinople,  which  destroy- 
ed the  royal  palace  and  an  mimen- 
sity  of  buildings,  and  extended  into 
Romania  and  Wallachia.      -  -  18U0 

A  violent  one  felt  in  Holland    -     Jan.  1804 

In  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  where  20,000 
persons  lost  their  lives  -  -  1805 

At  the  Azores:  a  village  of  St.  Mi- 
chael's sunk,  and  a  lake  of  boiling 
water  appeared  in  its  place  -    Aug.  1810 

Awful  one  at  Caraccas  {which  see)     -  1812 

Several  felt  throughout  India.  The 
district  of  Kutch  sunk ;  2000  persons 
were  buried  with  it    -  -    June  1819 

In  Genoa,  Palermo,  Rome,  and  many 
other  towns ;  great  damage  sustain- 
ed, and  thousands  perished   -  -  1819 

One  fatal,  at  Messina     -  -     Oct.  1326 

One  in  Spain,  which  devastated  Mur- 
cia,  and  numerous  villages;  6000 
persons  perished        -        March  21,  1829 

In  the  duchy  of  Parma  ;  no  less  than 
40  shocks  were  experienced  at  Bor- 
gotaro ;  and  at  Pontremoli  many 
houses  were  thrown  down,  and  not  a 
chimney  was  left  standing    Feb.  14,  1834 

In  many  cities  of  Southern  Syria,  by 
whichi  hundreds  of  houses  were 
thrown  down,  and  thousands  of  the 
inhabitants  perished  Jan.  22,  1837 

At  Martinique,  by  which  nearly  half 
of  Port  Royal  is  destroyed,  nearly 
700  persons  killed,  and  the  whole 
island  damaged  -  Jan.  11.  1839 

At  Ternate :  the  island  made  a  wasted 
almost  every  house  destroyed,  and 
thousands  of  the  inhabitants  lose 
their  lives       -  -  Feb.  14,  l^lrt 

Awful  and  destructive  earthquake  at 
Mount  Ararat ;  in  one  of  the  districts 
of  Armenia  3137  houses  were  over- 
thrown, and  several  hundred  persons 
perished  -  -  July  2,  1840 

Great   earthquake    at    Zante,    where 

■    many  persons  perished  Oct.  30,  1840 


habitants,  was  swallowed  up'    Dec.  1773 

EASTER      So  called  in  England  from  the  Saxon  goddess  Eos{re.    The  festival 

of  Easter  was  instituted  about  a.  d.  68  ;  the  day  for  the  observance  of  it 

was  fixed  in  England  by  St.  Austin,  in  597.    It  was  ordained  by  the  council 


304  THE  world's  progress.  I  ECl, 

of  Nice  to  be  observed  on  the  same  day  throughout  the  whole  Christian 
world.  Easter  is  the  first  Sunday  after  the  first  full  moon  that  occurs  after 
the  21st  of  March. 

EASTERN  EMPIRE.  Commenced  under  Valens,  a.  d.  364,  and  ended  in  the 
defeat  and  death  of  Constantino  XIII.,  the  last  Christian  emperor,  in  1453. 
Mahomet  II.  resolved  to  dethrone  him,  and  possess  himself  of  Constan- 
tinople ;  he  laid  seige  to  that  city  both  by  sea  and  land,  and  took  it  by 
assault  after  it  had  held  out  fifty-eight  days.  The  unfortunate  emperor, 
seeing  the  Turks  enter  by  the  breaches,  threw  himself  into  the  midst  of  the 
enemy,  and  was  cut  to  pieces ;  the  children  of  the  Imperial  house  were 
massacred  by  the  soldiers,  and  the  women  reserved  to  gratify  the  lust  of  the 
conqueror ;  and  thus  terminated  the  dynasty  of  the  Constantines,  and  com- 
menced the  present  empire  of  Turkey,  May  29,  1453.  See  Tabular  Views, 
in  this  vol.  from  page  61.     See  also  Turkey. 

ECCLESIASTICAL  COURTS.  There  existed  no  distinction  between  lay  and 
ecclesiastical  courts  in  England  until  after  the  Norman  conquest,  a.  d.  1066. 
The  following  are  the  causes  cognizable  in  ecclesiastical  courts :  blasphemy, 
apostasy  from  Christianity,  heresy,  schism,  ordinations,  institutions  to  be- 
nefices, matrimony,  divorces,  bastardy,  tithes,  incests,  fornication,  adultery, 
probate  of  wills,  administrations,  &c. — Blackstone. 

ECCLESIASTICAL  STATE  or  STATES  op  the  CHURCH.  See  Rome.  In 
A.  D.  1798,  this  state  was  taken  possession  of  by  the  French,  who  erected  it 
into  the  "  Roman  Republic."  They  obliged  the  pope,  Pius  VI.,  to  remove 
into  Tuscany,  and  afterwards  into  France,  where  he  died  in  1799.  In  the 
same  year  a  conclave  was  permitted  to  be  held  at  Venice ;  and,  in  1800, 
cardinal  Chiaramonti,  who  was  elected  to  the  papal  chair,  took  the  title  of 
Pius  VII.,  and  resumed  the  dominion  of  the  Ecclesiastical  State.  This 
power  was  held  until  1809,  when  he  was  deprived  by  Bonaparte  of  his 
temporal  sovereignty,  and  reduced  to  the  condition  of  bishop  of  Rome ; 
but  in  1814  the  pope  was  restored.   For  succession  of  popes,  see  p.  50  et  seq. 

ECLECTICS.  Ancient  philosophers,  also  called  Analogetici,  and  Philalethes, 
or  the  lovers  of  truth.  Without  attaching  themselves  to  any  sect,  they 
chose  what  they  judged  good  from  each:  founded  by  Polemon  of  Alex- 
andria, about  A.  D.  1. — Dryden.  Also  a  sect,  so  called  in  the  Christian 
church,  who  considered  the  doctrine  of  Plato  conformable  to  the  spirit  of 
the  doctrine  of  the  Christian. 

ECLIPSES.  The  theory  of  eclipses  was  knoAvn  to  the  Chinese  at  least  120 
B.C. —  Gaubil.  An  eclipse  was  supposed  by  most  of  the  eastern  nations  to 
be  the  effect  of  magic ;  hence  the  custom  among  them  of  drumming  during 
its  continuance.  The  first  eclipse  recorded,  happened  March  19,  721  b.  c. 
at  8'  40"  p.  M.  according  to  Ptolemy  ;  it  was  lunar,  and  was  observed  with 
accuracy  at  Babylon. — See  Astronomy.  The  following  were  extraordinary 
eclipses  of,  the  sun  and  moon : — 

In  England,  where  it  occasioned  a  total 
darkness  (T^m.  iWatesft.)         -        -1140 

Again ;  the  stars  visible  at  ten  in  the 
morning  ( Camden)    ■  June  23, 1191 

The  true  sun,  and  the  appearance  of 
another,  so  that  astronomers  alone 
could  distinguish  the  difference  by 
their  glasses  (,Co7np.  Hist.  Eng.)    ■  1191 

Again ;  total  darkness  ensued  (idem)  -  1331 

A  total  one ;  the  darkness  so  great  that 
the  stars  shone,  and  the  birds  went  to 
roost  at  noon  ( Oldmixon's  Annals  of 
Geo.  I.)  ■  ■  April  25,  1715 


OF  THE   StJN. 

That  predicted  by  Thales ;  observed  at 
Sardis  (Pliny, lib.  a.)         -  B.C.    585 

One  at  Athens  (Thucydides,  lib.  iv.)  -    424 

Total  one ;  three  days'  supplication  de- 
creed at  Rome  (Liiiy)  ■  -    188 

One  general  at  the  death  of  Jesus  Christ 
(Josephus)        -  -  -    A.  D.      33 

One  at  Rome,  causing  a  total  darkness 
at  noon-day  (Livy)  ■  -      -    291 

One  observed  at  Constantinople  -    968 

In  France,  when  it  was  dark  at  noon- 
day (Du  Fresnoy)         ■       June  29,  1033 


EDU  J  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES  305 

ECLIPSES,  continued. 

Remarkable  one,  central  and  annular  I   Asain,  in  Asia  Minor  (Polybius)  •   219 

in  the  interior  of  Europe    -    Sept.  7,  1820     One  at  Rome,  predicted  by" (i.  Sulpitius 

OP  THE  MOON.  Gallus  {Livy,  lib.  xliv.)  -         -    168 

The  first,  observed  by  the  Chaldeans  at  \   One  terrified  the  Roman  troops  and 

Babylon  (PioZfi'TO?/,  Zi6.  iv.)     -    e.g.    7211       quelled  their  revolt  (Taczhis)    a.d.      14 
A  total  one,  observed  at  Sardis  (,Thu- 
cydides,  lib.  vii.)  -  -         -   413  | 

The  revolution  of  eclipses  was  first  calculated  by  Calippus,  the  Athenian, 
336  B.  c.  The  Egyptians  say  they  had  accurately  observed  373  eclipses  of 
the  sun,  and  832  of  the  moon,  up  to  the  period  from  Vulcan  to  Alexander, 
who  died  323  b.  c. 

EDEN,  GARDEN  of.  The  question  about  the  site  of  Eden  has  greatly  agi- 
tated theologians  ;  some  place  it  near  Damascus^others  in  Armenia,  some 
in  Caucasus,  others  at  Hillah,  near  Babylon,  others  in  Arabia,  and  some  in 
Abyssinia.  The  Hindoos  refer  it  to  Ceylon  :  and  a  learned  Swede  asserts 
that  it  was  in  Sudermania !  Several  authorities  concur  in  placing  it  in  a 
peninsula  formed  by  the  main  river  of  Eden,  on  the  east  side  of  it,  below 
the  confluence  of  the  lesser  rivers,  which  emptied  themselves  into  it,  about 
27°  N.  lat.,  now  swallowed  up  by  the  Persian  Gulf,  an  event  which  may 
have  happened  at  the  Universal  Deluge,  2348  b.  c.  The  country  of  Eden 
extended  into  Armenia. — Cahnct.  The  Almighty  constructed  Eden  with  a 
view  to  beauty,  as  well  as  usefulness  ;  not  only  every  plant  there  was  good 
for  food,  but  such  also  as  were  pleasant  to  the  eye,  were  jDlanted  there. — 
Genesis  ii.  8,  9. 

EDGEHILL,  Battle  of,  also  called  Edgehill  Fight,  between  the  Royalists  and 
the  Parliament  army,  the  first  engagement  of  importance  in  the"  civil  war ; 
Charles  I.  was  personally  present  in  this  battle.  Prince  Rupert  commanded 
the  royalists,  and  the  earl  of  Essex  the  parliamentarians.     Oct.  23,  1642. 

EDICT  OF  NANTES.  This  was  the  celebrated  edict  by  which  Henry  IV.  of 
France  granted  toleration  to  his  Protestant  subjects,  in  1598.  It  was  re- 
voked by  Louis  XIV.,  Oct.  24,  1685.  This  bad  and  unjust  policy  lost  to 
France  800  000  Protestants,  and  gave  to  England  (part  of  these)  50,000 
industrious  artisans.  Some  tliousands,  who  brought  with  them  the  art  of 
manufacturing  silks,  settled  in  Spitalfields,  where  their  descendants  yet 
remain :  others  planted  themselves  in  Soho  and  St.  Giles's,  and  pursued 
the  art  of  making  crystal  glasses,  and  various  fine  works  in  which  they 
excelled ;  among  these,  jewelry,  then  little  understood  in  England. — An- 
derson's Orig.  of  English  Commerce. 

EDILES.  These  were  Roman  magistrates,  like  our  mayors,  and  there  were 
two  ediles  at  a  time.  They  had  the  superintendence  and  care  of  public 
and  private  works  and  buildings,  baths,  aqueducts,  bridges,  roads,  &c. ; 
they  also  took  cognizance  of  weights  and  measures,  and  regulated  the  mar- 
kets for  provisions  ;  they  examined  comedies  before  they  were  acted,  and 
treated  the  people  with  games  and  shows  at  their  own  expense.  The  duties 
of  ediles  have  suggested  similar  offices  in  our  own  polity,  and  served  in 
many  instances  as  models  for  our  magistracy. — Pardon. 

EDINBURGH.  The  metropolis  of  Scotland,  and  one  of  the  first  and  finest 
cities  of  the  empire.  It  derives  its  name— in  ancient  records.  Dun  Edin, 
signifying  the  ''  hill  of  Edin"— from  its  castle,  founded  or  rebuilt  by  Edwin, 
king  of  Northumbria,  who,  having  greatly  extended  his  dominions,  erected 
it  for  the  protection  of  his  newly-acquired  territories  from  the  incursions  of 
the  Scots  and  Picts,  a.  d.  626.  But  it  is  said  the  castle  was  first  built  by 
Camelon,  king  of  the  Picts,  330  b.  c.  It  makes  a  conspicuous  appearance, 
standing  at  the  Avest  end  of  the  town,  on  a  rock  300  feet  high,  and  before 
the  use  of  great  guns,  was  a  fortification  of  considerable  strength. 


306 


THE    WORLD  S    PROGRESS. 


[  EGY 


EDUCATION  IN  U.  S.  See  Colleges  and  Schools.  American  Institute  of  In- 
struction organized  at  Boston.  Aug.  19,  1830.  Literaiy  Convention  at  New 
York,  Oct.  20,  1830. 

EDUCATION  IN  ENGLAND.  A  grant  of  30,000^.  for  national  education,  pro- 
posed in  parliament  by  Lord  John  Russell  and  passed,  275  to  273,  July  9, 
and  the  House  of  Lords  went  in  a  body  to  ask  the  Queen  to  rescind  the 
grant,  July  11,  1839. 

EGALITE.  Equality.  The  surname  assumed  by  Philip  Bourbon  Capet,  the 
infamous  duke  of  Orleans,  to  ingratiate  himself  with  the  republicans,  on  the 
abolition  of  monarchy  in  France,  Sept.  11,  1792.  He  voted  for  the  death  ol 
Louis  XVI.  his  relative;  but  this  did  not  save  him  from  a  like  doom.  He 
was  guillotined  Nov.  6,  1793. 

EGYPT.  The  dynasty  of  its  Pharaohs  or  kings  commenced  with  Mizraira,  the 
son  of  Ham,  second  son  of  Noah,  2188  b.  c.  The  kingdom  lasted  1663  years ; 
it  was  conquered  by  Cambyses,  525  b.  c.  In  a.  d.  639,  this  country  was  wrest- 
ed from  the  eastern  emperor  Heraclius,  by  Omar,  calif  of  the  Saracens.  The 
famous  Saladin  established  the  dominion  of  the  Mamelukes,  in  1171.  Selim 
I.,  emperor  of  the  Turks,  took  Egj'pt  in  1517,  and  it  was  governed  by  Beys 
till  1799,  when  a  great  part  of  the  country  was  conquered  by  the  French, 
under  Bonaparte.  In  1801,  the  invaders  were  dispossessed  by  the  British, 
and  the  government  was  restored  to  the  Turks. — See  Turkey,  for  modern 
events.     See  Tabular  Views,  in  this  vol.  page  5  ct  scq. 


Mizraim  builds  Memphis  iBlalr)  b.  c.  2188 
Egypt  made  four  kingdoms,  viz. :  Up- 
per Egypt,  Lower  Egypt,  This,  and 
Memphis  (Abbe  Lenglet,  Blair)      -  2126 
Athotes  invents  hieroglyphics  -  -  2122 

Busiris  builds  Thebes  (Usher)  -  2111 

Osymandyas,  the  first  warlike  king, 
passes  mto  Asia,  conquers  Bactria, 
and  causes  his  exploits  to  be  repre- 
sented in  sculpture  and  painting 
( Usher,  Lenglet)       -  -  -  2100 

The  Phoenicians  invade  Lower  Egypt 

and  hold  it  260  years  ( Usher)  ■  2080 

The  lake  of  Moeris  constructed  -  1938 

The  patriarch  Abraham  visits  Egypt 

to  avoid  the  famine  in  Canaan  "     -  1921 
Syphoas  introduces  the  use  of  the  com- 
mon letters  ( Usher)  -  ■  -  1891 
Memnon  invents  the  Egyptian  letters 

(Blair,  Lenglet)         -  -  -  1822 

Amenophis    I.  is    acknowledged    the 

kingof  all  Egypt  (ie«g-to)  -  -  1821 

.Joseph  the  Israelite  is  sold  into  Egypt 

as  a  slave  (Lenglet)  -  -  -  1728 

He  interprets  the  king's  dreams  -  1715 

His  father  and  brethren  settle  here      -  1706 
Sesostris  reigns ;    he  extends  his  do- 
minion  by   conquest   over    Arabia, 
Persia,  Lidia,  and  Asia  Jlinor  (I^eng- 

lety 1618 

Settlement  of  the  Ethiopians  (Blair)  1615 
Rampses,  who   imposed  on  his  sub- 
jects the  building  of  walls  and  pyra- 
mids, and  other  labors,  dies  (Lenglet)  1492 
Amenophis  I.  is  overwhelmed  in  the 
Red  Sea,  with  all  his  army  (Lenglet, 

Blair) 1492 

Reign  of  Egyptus,   from  whom  the 


country,  hitherto  called  Mizraim,  is 
now  called  Egypt  (Blair)     -     B.  c.  ' 

Reign  of  Thuo^-is  (the  Proteus  of  the 
Greeks)  who  had  the  faculty  of  as- 
suming whatever  form  he  pleased, 
as  of  a  lion,  a  dragon,  a  tree,  water, 
fire        -  -  -  -  -  ■ 

[These  fictions  were  probably  intend- 
ed to  mark  the  profound  policy  of 
this  king,  who  was  eminent  for  his 
wisdom,  by  which  his  dominion 
flourished.  — Blair.  ] 

Pseusennes  enters  Palestine,  ravages 
Judea,  and  carries  off  the  sacred  ves- 
sels of  the  Temple 

The  dynasty  of  kings  called  Taniies 
begins  with  Petubastes  (Blair) 

The  dynasty  of  Saites  (Blair) 

Sebacbn  invades  Egypt,  subdues  the 
king,  Bocchoris,  whom  he  orders  to 
be  roasted  aWve  (Usher) 

Psarametichus  the  Powerful  reigns     - 

He  invests  Azoth,  which  holds  out  for 
19  years,  the  longest  siege  in  the  an- 
nals of  antiquity  (CTsAe?-) 

Necho  begins  the  famous  canal  be- 
tween the  Arabic  gulf  and  the  Medi- 
terranean sea  (Blair) 

This  canal  abandoned,  after  costmg 
the  lives  of  120,000  men  (Herodotus) 

Nebuchadnezzar  of  Babylon  deposes 

Apries  (  Usher) 
Apnes  taken  prisoner  and  strangled  in 

nis  palace  (Diod.  Siculus)  - 
The   philosopher   Pythagoras   comes 
from  Samos  into  Egypt,  and  is  in- 
structed in  the  mysteries  of  Egyp- 
tian theology  ( Usher) 


825 
781 


737 
660 


581 
571 


535 


*  The  epoch  of  the  reign  of  Sesostris  is  very  uncertain  ;  Blair  makes  it  to  fall  133  years  later. 
As  to  the  achievements  of  "this  monarch,  they  are  supposed  to  Jiave  been  the  labors  of  several  kings, 
«ttril3uted  by  th  ;  Egyptian  priests  to  Sesostris  alone,  whose  very  existence,  indeed,  is  doubted. 


ELE  ] 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES. 


307 


EGYPT,  continued. 

The  line  of  the  Pharaohs  ends  in  the 

murder  of  Psaranienitus  by  Camby- 

ses  (Blair)       ■  -      B.  c.    526 

Dreadful  excesses  of  Cambyses;    he 

puts  the  children  of  the  grandees, 

male  and  I'emale,  to  death,  and  makes 

the  country  a  waste  (Herodotus)     -    524 
He  sends  an  army  of  50,000  men  across 

the  desert  to  destroy  the  temple  of 

Jupiter  Ammon,  but  they  all  perish 

in  the  burning  sands  (Justin)  -    524 

Egypt  revolts  from  the  Persians ;  again 

subdued  by  Xerws  (Blair)  -  -    487 

A  revolt  under  Inarus  (Btair)  ■  •    463 

Successful    revolt    under   Amyrt»us, 

who  is  proclaimed  king  (Lenglet)   ■    414 
Egypt  again  reduced  by  Persia,  and  its 

temples  pillaged  (C7sA 67-)      -  -    350 

Alexander    the   Great    enters   Egypt, 

wrests  it  from    the    Persians,   and 

builds  Alexandria  (Bte/r)     -  -    332 

Philadelphus  completes  the  Pharos  of 

Alexandria  (Blair)    -  -  -    283 

The  Septuagint  version  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament made  about  this  time        -    283 
The  famous  library  of  Alexandria  also 

dates  about  this  period  (Blair)       ■    283 
Ambassadors  first  sent  to  Rome  -    269         reign"   -  -    '       -  -   '       -      46 

Ptolemy  Euergetes    overruns    Syria, 

and  returns  laden  with  rich  spoils, 

and  2500  statues  and  vessels  of  gold 

and    silver,   which    Cambyses   had 

taken  from   the  Egyptian  temples 

(Blair)  ■        '  ■  -  -    246         Egypt  -         '-  -  -  -      40 

Reign  of  Philometer  and  Physcon      -    151 
At  the  death  of  Philometer,  his  brother 

Physcon  marries  his  queen,  and  on 

the  day  of  his  nuptials  murders  the 

infant  son  of  Philometer  in  its  moth- 
er's arms         -  -  -  -    145         ince      •  -  -  -   "       -      30 
He  repudiates  his  wife,  and  marries 

her  daughter  by  his  brother  (Blair)    130 

ELECTORS.  Those  for  members  of  parliament  for  counties  were  obliged  to 
have  forty  shillings  a  year  in  land,  39  Henry  VL,  1460. — Ruffhead's  Statutes. 
Among  the  recent  acts  relating  to  elections  are  the  following :  act  depriving 
excise  and  custom-house  officers,  and  contractors  with  government,  of  their 
votes.  1782.     In  the  U.  S.,  the  qualifications  vary  in  the  different  states. 

ELECTORS  OF  GERMANY.  Originally,  all  the  members  of  the  Germanic 
body  made  choice  of  their  head ;  but  amidst  the  violence  and  anarchy  which 
prevailed  for  several  centuries  in  the  empire,  seven  princes  who  possessed 
the  greatest  power  assumed  the  exclusive  privilege  of  nominating  the  em- 
peror.— Dr.  Robcrtso'ii.  _^  An  eighth  elector  was  made,  in  1648;  and  a  ninth 
in  favor  of  the  duke  "of  Hanover,  in  1692.  The  number  was  reduced  to 
eight,  in  1777;  and  was  increased  to  ten  at  the  peace  of  Luneville,  in  1801. 
The  electorship  ceased  on  the  dissolution  of  the  German  empire,  and  when 
the  crown  of  Austria  was  made  hereditary,  1804,  1806. — See  Germany. 

ELECTRICITY.  That  of  amber  was  known  to  Thales,  600  b.  c.  Electricity 
was  imperfectly  discovered  a.  d.  1467.  It  was  found  in  various  substances 
by  Dr.  Gilbert,  of  Colchester,  in  1600 ;  he  first  obtained  the  knowledge  of  its 
power,  of  conductors  and  non-conductors,  in  1606.  Ottoguerick  found  that 
two  globes  of  brimstone  contained  electric  matter,  1647.  The  electric  shock 
was  discovered  at  Leyden,  1745,  and  hence  the  operation  is  termed  the 
"Leyden  phial."  Electric  matter  was  first  found  to  contain  caloric,  or  fire, 
and  that  it  would  fire  spirits,  1756.   The  identity  of  electricity  and  lightning 


His  subjects,  wearied  with  his  cruel- 
ties and  crimes,  demolish  his  stat- 
ues, set  fire  to  his  palace,  and  he 
flies  from  their  fury  (Blair)      b.  c. 

He  murders  his  son  by  his  new  queen ; 
also  his  son  by  her  mother,  sending 
the  head  and  limbs  of  the  latter  as  a 
present  to  the  parent  on  a  feast  day 

Yet,  defeating  the  Egyptian  army,  he 
recovers  his  throne ;  and  dies 

Pestilence  from  the  putrefaction  of 
vast  swarms  of  locusts ;  800,000  per- 
sons perish  in  Egypt  - 

Revolt  in  Upper  Egypt ;  the  famous 
city  of  Thebes  destroyed  after  a  siege 
of  three  years  (Diod.  Sictdus) 

Aiiletes  dying,  leaves  his  kingdom  to 
his  eldest  son,  Ptolemy,  and  the  fa- 
mous Cleopatra  (Blair) 

During  a  civil  war  between  Ptolemy 
and  Cleojiatra,  Alexandria  is  be- 
sieged by  Ceesar,  and  the  famous 
library  nearly  destroyed  by  fire 
(Blair) 

Ceesar  defeats  the  king,  who,  in  cross- 
ing the  Nile,  is  drowned ;  and  the 
younger  Ptolemy  and  Cleopatra 
reign     .  -  -  .  - 

Cleopatra  poisons  her  brother  (only  14 
years  of  age)  and  reigns  alone 

She  appears  before  Mark  Antony,  to 
answer  for  this  crime.  Fascinated 
by  her  beauty,  he  follows  her  into 
Egypt 

Antony  defeated  by  Octavius  Caesar 
at  the  battle  of  Actium  (Blair) 

Octavius  enters  Egypt;  Antony  and 
Cleopatra  kill  themselves  ;  and  the 
kingdom  becomes  a  Roman  prov- 
ince     ..... 


308  THE    WOULd's    progress.  [  EM« 

was  proved  by  Dr.  Franklin,  about  this  period.    The  electricity  of  the  Au« 
rora  Borealis  was  discovered  by  means  of  the  electric  kite,  in  1769. 

ELECTRO-GALVANISM.  It  owes  its  origin  to  the  discoveries  of  Dr.  L.  Gal- 
vani,  an  eminent  Italian  philosopher,  in  1789.  Volta  pursued  the  inquiries 
of  this  good  man  (for  he  was  alike  distinguished  by  his  virtues  and  genius), 
and  discovered  the  mode  of  combining  the  metals;  constructed  what  is 
very  properly  called  the  Voltaic  pile;  and  extended  the  whole  science  into  a 
system  which  should  rather  be  called  Voltaism  than  Galvanism. 

ELECTRO-MAGNETISM.  Analogies  between  electricity  and  magnetism  were 
discovered  by  Oersted  of  Copenhagen,  in  1807.  This  analogy  was  established 
in  1819,  and  was  contirmed  by  subsequent  experiments  in  England,  France, 
Germany,  the  United  States  and  other  countries 

EI.ECTRIC  TELEGRAPH.  Experiments  in  electricity,  having  more  or  less 
bearing  upon  its  ])ractical  use  in  telegraphic  communication,  were  made  by 
Wincklcr,  at  L('ipsie,17-1();  La  Monnier,  in  Paris ;  Watson,  in  London,  1747; 
Loraiiu!  ill  1784:  Bt'taucour,  at  Madrid,  1798.  Galvani's  discovery  of 
•■Galvanism,'' at  Bo.miga  17'--ll.  Prof.  Volta's  "  Voltaic  Battery,"  at  Pavia, 
1801;  S.)eniiuerriiig,  at  Hiuiich,  1807.  The  practical  use  of  Galvanism  in 
telegraphs,  as  propliL'.sied  by  John  Redman  Coxe,  of  Phila.,  in  1816.  Great 
advance  made  by  Prof.  Ocr.'sted  at  Copenliagen,  in  1819.  The  electro-mag- 
netic agency  lirst  fully  develojjed  and  applied  by  Prof  Morse,  1832,  patented 
1840.  The  first  t'jlcg-i-apli  by  this  agencj'  in  the  United  SLutes,  was  between 
Washington  and  Baliimure,  in  1844.  Cooke  &  Wheatsone's  patent  in  En- 
gland, 1840.  Bains  patent  in  England,  first,  1842;  applied  in  United  States 
in  1849.  Houses  in  1848.  The  telegraphic  lines  in  the  United  States,  in 
Jan.  1850  extended  6,079  miles. — See  Supplement. 

ELEPHANT.  This  animal,  in  the  earliest  times,  was  trained  to  war.  The  his- 
tory of  the  Maccabees  informs  us,  that  "  to  every  elephant  they  appointed 
1000  men,  armed  with  coats  of  mail,  and  500  horse ;  and  rrpon  the  elephants 
were  strong  towers  of  wood,"  &c.  The  elephants  in  the  army  of  Antiochus 
were  provoked  to  fight  by  showing  them  the  "  blood  of  grapes  and  mulber- 
ries." The  first  elephant  said  to  have  been  seen  in  England,  was  one  of 
enormous  size,  presented  by  the  king  of  France  to  our  Henry  lU.,  in  1238. — 
Baker  s  Chron. 

ELEUSINIAN  MYSTERIES.  A  great  festival  under  this  name  was  observed 
by  the  Athenians  and  other  nations :  these  mysteries  were  the  most  celebra- 
ted of  all  the  religious  ceremonies  of  Greece,  and  were  instituted  by  Eumol- 
pus,  1356  B.  c.  They  were  so  superstitiously  observed,  that  if  any  one 
revealed  them,  it  was  sujjposed  that  he  had  called  divine  vengeance  upon 
him,  and  he  was  put  to  death.  The  mysteries  were  introduced  from  Eleusis 
into  Rome,  and  lasted  about  1800  years,  and  were  at  last  abolished  by  Theo- 
dosius  the  Great,  a.  d.  389. 

ELGIN  MARBLES.  These  admirable  works  of  ancient  art  were  derived 
chiefly  from  the  Parthenon,  a  temple  of  Minerva  in  the  Acropolis  at  Athens, 
of  which  temple  they  formed  part  of  the  frieze  and  pediment,  built  by  Phi- 
dias about  500  B.  c.  Lord  Elgin  began  the  collection  of  these  marbles  during 
his  mission  to  the  Ottoman  Porte,  in  1802 ;  they  were  purchased  of  him  by 
the  British  government  for  36,O0OZ.,  and  placed  in  the  British  Museum,  in 
1816. 
EMBALMING.  The  ancient  Egyptians  believed  that  their  souls;  after  many 
thousand  years,  would  come  to  reinhabit  their  bodies,  in  case  these  latter 
were  preseiwed  entire.  Hence  arose  their  practice  of  embalming  the  dead. 
The  Egyptian  manner  of  preserving  the  dead  has  been  the  admiration  and 
wonder  of  modern  times.     They  rendered  the  body  not  only  incorruptible, 


EMP  ]  DICTIONARY -OF    DATES.  309 

but  it  retained  its  full  proportion  of  size,  symmetry  of  features,  and  personal 
likeness.  They  called  the  embalmed  bodies  mmmnies,  some  of  which,  buried 
3000  years  ago,  are  perfect  to  this  day.  The  art  of  such  embalming  is  now 
lost.  When  Nicodemus  came  with  Joseph  of  Arimathea,  to  pay  the  last 
duties  to  our  Saviour  after  his  crucifixion,  he  brought  a  mixture  of  myrrh 
and  aloes  to  embalm  his  body. — John  xix.  38. 

EMBARGO  IN  ENGLAND.  This  power  is  invested  in  the  crown,  but  it  is 
rarely  exercised  except  in  extreme  cases,  and  sometimes  as  a  prelude  to 
war.  The  most  memorable  instances  of  embargo  were  those  for  the  preven- 
tion of  corn  going  out  of  the  kingdom  in  1766 ;  and  for  the  detention  of  all 
Russian.  Danish,  and  Swedish  ships  in  the  several  ports  of  the  kingdom, 
owing  to  the  armed  neutrality,  Jan.  14,  1801.     See  Armed  Neutrality. 

EMBARGO  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES.  Embargo  on  all  essels  in  the  ports 
of  the  United  States,  passed  by  Congress  with  reference  lo  the  quarrel  with 
Great  Britain  after  the  attack  on  the  U.  S.  frigate  Chesapeake,  1807.  Re- 
pealed and  non-intercourse  act  passed,  1809.  Embargo  again  laid  for  90 
days,  April,  1812.    War  declared  June  19,  1812. 

EMBER  WEEKS.  Observed  in  the  Christian  church  in  the  third  century,  to 
implore  the  blessing  of  God  on  the  produce  of  the  earth  by  prayer  and 
fasting.  Ember  Days,  three  of  which  fall  in  these  weeks,  and  in  which 
penitents  sprinkle  the  ashes  (embers)  of  humiliation  on  their  heads.  Four 
times  in  each  year  were  appointed  for  these  acts  of  devotion,  so  as  to  answer 
to  the  four  seasons,  spring,  summer,  autumn,  and  winter. 

EMBROIDERY.  Its  invention  is  usually  ascribed  to  the  Phrygians ;  but  we 
learn  from  Homer,  and  other  ancient  authors,  that  the  Sidonians  particu- 
larly excelled  in  this  decorative  species  of  needle-work.  Of  this  art  very 
early  mention  is  made  in  the  Scriptures. — Exodus  xxxv.  35,  and  xxxviii.  23. 
An  ancient  existing  specimen  of  beautiful  embroidery  is  the  Bayeux  tapes- 
try, worked  by  Matilda,  the  queen  of  William  I.  of  England.  See  Bayeux 
Tapestry. 

EMERALD.  The  precious  stone  of  a  green  color  is  found  in  the  East  and  in 
Peru;  inferior  ones  in  other  places.  It  has  been  alleged  that  there  were  no 
true  emeralds  in  Europe  before  the  conquest  of  Peru ;  but  there  is  a  gen- 
uine emerald  in  the  Paris  Museum,  taken  from  the  mitre  of  pope  Julius  II., 
who  died  in  1513,  and  Peru  was  not  conquered  till  1545 ;  hence  it  is  inferred 
that  this  emerald  was  brought  from  Africa,  or  the  East. 

EMIGRATION.  Of  late  years  emigrations  from  Britain  have  been  considera- 
ble. In  the  ten  years  ending  1830,  the  emigrations  to  the  North  American 
colonies,  West  Indies,  Capo  of  Good  Hope,  New  South  Wales,  Swan  River, 
Van  Dieraen's  Land,  &c.  were,  according  to  official  returns,  154,291.  In  the 
decennial  period  to  1840,  the  emigrations  advanced  to  277,696,  exclusively 
of  the  vast  numbers  settling  in  the  United  States  of  America.  The  num- 
ber of  emigrants  to  the  United  States  in  one  year  ending  Se^jt.  30,  1848,  were 
registered  as  born  in 


Great  Britain  and  Ireland 

-  148,212 

Denmark 

-    210 

Germany 

-    58,018 

Switzerland  - 

-      -    3i<5 

France 

-      -      7,748 

Other  countries  or  unknown    - 

-  3,043 

Sweden  and  Norway 

903 

EMIR.  A  title  of  dignity  among  the  Turks  and  Persians,  first  given  to  caliplis. 
This  rank  was  first  awarded  to  the  descendants  of  Mahomet  by  hisrlaugliter 
Fatima.  about  i.d.  650. — Ricaut.  To  the  emirs  only  was  originally  giv<;n 
the  privilege  of  wearing  the  green  turban.  It  is  also  given  to  high  officers 
(another  title  being  joined). 

EMPALEMENT.    This  barbarous  and  dreadful  mode  of  putting  criiiiiutils  Lo 


310  THE    WORLD'S    PROGRESS.  [  ENG 

death  is  mentioned  by  Juvenal,  and  was  often  inflicted  in  Rome,  particularly 
by  the  monster  Nero.  The  victim  doomed  to  empalement  is  spitted  through 
the  body  on  a  stake  fixed  upright ;  and  this  punishment  is  still  used  in 
Turkey  and  Arabia.  The  dead  bodies  of  murderers  were  sometimes  staked 
in  this  manner,  previously  to  being  buried,  in  England. — Southern.  Wil- 
liams (who  committed  suicide)  the  murderer  of  the  Marr  family,  in  Rat- 
clitfe  Highway,  London,  Dec.  8,  1811,  was  staked  in  his  ignominious  grave. 
This  practice  has  since  been  abolished  there.     See  Burying  Alive. 

EMPEROR.  Originally  a  title  of  honor  at  Rome,  conferred  on  victorious  ge- 
nerals, who  were  first  saluted  by  the  soldiers  by  that  name.  Augustus 
C83sar  was  the  first  Roman  emperor,  27  b.  c.  Valens  was  the  first  emperor 
of  the  Eastern  empire,  a.  d.  364.  Charlemagne  was  the  first  emperor  of 
Germany,  crowned  by  Leo  III.  a.  d.  800.  Ottoman  I.,  founder  of  the  Turk- 
ish empire,  was  the  first  emperor  of  Turkey,  1296.  The  Czar  of  Russia 
was  the  first  emperor  of  that  country,  1722.  Don  Pedro  IV.  of  Portugal 
was  the  first  emperor  of  Brazil,  in  1825. 

EMPIRICS.  They  were  a  set  of  early  physicians  who  contended  that  all  hy- 
pothetical reasoning  respecting  the  operations  of  the  animal  economy  was 
useless,  and  that  experience  and  observation  alone  were  the  foundation  of 
the  art  of  medicine.  The  sect  of  Empirics  was  instituted  by  Acron  of 
Agrigentum,  about  473  b.  c. 

ENAMELLING.  The  origin  of  the  art  of  enamelling  is  doubtful.  It  was 
practised  by  the  Egyptians  and  other  early  nations ;  and  was  known  in 
England  in  the  times  of  the  Saxons.  At  Oxford  is  an  enamelled  jewel 
which  belonged  to  Alfred,  and  which,  as  appears  by  the  inscription,  was 
made  by  his  order,  in  his  reign,  about  a.  d.  887. 

ENCAUSTIC  PAINTING,  known  to  the  ancients.  This  very  beautiful  art, 
after  having  been  lost,  was  restored  by  Count  Caylus  and  M.  Bachelier, 
a.  d.  1749. 

ENCYCLOPAEDIA.  The  first  work  to  which  this  designation  was  expressly 
given,  was  that  of  Abulfarius,  an  Arabian  writer,  in  the  thirteenth  century. 
Many  were  published  as  early  as  the  fifteenth  century,  but  none  alphabet- 
ically. Chambers'  Dictionary  was  the  first  of  the  circle  of  arts  and  sciences, 
in  England,  first  published  in  1728.  The  gi-eat  French  work,  Encyclopedie 
Methodique,  to  which  Voltaire,  Diderot,  D'Alembert,  and  other  savans  contri- 
buted, Avas  published  in  l~9!2ctseq.,  in  200  quarto  volumes.  The  British  En- 
cyclopedia, printed  in  Philadelphia  in  1798,  by  Thomas  Dobson,  was  the 
fii'st  in  the  United  States.  The  Edinburgh  Encyclopedia,  edited  by  Sir  David 
Brewster,  was  published,  1810  et  seq.,  and  republished  in  the  United  States. 
Rees'  Cyclopedia  republished  in  the  United  States  in  1822.  The  cost  of 
the  7th  edition  of  Encychipcdia  Brilannica.  edited  by  Professor  Napier,  and 
published  by  A.  &C.  Black  Edinburgh  in  1840  etc.,  was  stated  to  have  been 
£126,000.  of  which  i;23  000  were  paid  to  the  contributors.  This  was  jDro- 
bably  the  most  costly  inidevtaking  of  the  kind  ever  achieved  by  private  enter- 
prise. The  Encyclopedia  Mctropolitcona  was  commenced  in  1815  and  finished 
in  1845.  Both  of  these  works  comprised  articles  by  the  most  distinguished 
writers  in  Great  Britain.  The  German  Conversations  Lexicon,  published 
1796-1830,  and  upon  the  basis  of  this  the  Encyclopedia  Americana  was  com- 
menced in  Philadeli^hia  in  1829-30,     Penny  Cycl.  (Knight's)  finished  1844. 

ENGINEERS.  This  name  is  of  modern  date,  as  engineers  were  formerly  called 
Trench-masters.  Sir  William  Pelham  officiated  as  trench-master  in  1622. 
The  chief  engineer  was  called  camp- master-general  in  1634.  Captain 
Thomas  Ruddliad  the  rank  of  chief  engineer  to  the  king,  about  1650.  The 
corps  of  engineers  was  formerly  a  civil  corps,  but  was  made  a  military 
force,  and  directed  to  rank  with  the  artillery,  April  25,  1787.     It  has  a 


ENG  J  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  31 1 

colonel-in-cliief,  and  a  second,  and  five  colonel-commandants,  and  twenty 
colonels.  The  Association  of  civil  engineers  was  established  in  1828.  The 
Bureau  of  Topographical  Engineers  of  th&  U.  S.  Army,  established  at 
Washington. 

ENGLAND.  See  Britain..  So  named  by  order  of  Egbert,  first  king  of  Eng- 
land, in  a  general  council  held  at  Winchester,  a.  d.  829.  This  appellative 
had  been  used  as  far  back  as  a.  d.  688,  biit  had  never  been,  until  then,  rati- 
fied by  any  assembly  of  the  nation.  It  came  from  Angles,  a  tribe  of  Saxons, 
and  land,  the  Saxon  for  country.  For  English  history  and  succession  of 
Sovereigns,  see  Tabular  Views,  beginning  on  p.  75  in  this  volume.  England 
and  Wales  were  united  a.  d.  1283,  and  Scotland  was  united  to  both  in  1707, 
and  the  three  were  then  styled  Great  Britain.  Ireland  was  incorporated 
with  these  countries  by  the  Act  of  Legislative  Union,  January  1,  1801,  and 
the  whole  called  the  United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 

ENGLAND,  NEW.     See  New  England'. 

RNGLISH  LANGUAGE.  See  article  Languages.  From  the  High  Dutch  or 
Teutonic  sprung  (among  others)  the  English  language,  now  one  of  the 
most  copious  and  beautiful  of  Europe.  Law  pleadings  were  made  in  En- 
glish by  order  of  Edward  III.  instead  of  the  French  language,  which  had 
been  continued  from  the  time  of  the  Conqueror,  a.  d.  1362.  The  English 
tongue  and  English  apparel  were  oi'dered  to  be  used  in  Ireland,  28  Henrj' 
VIII.  1536.  The  English  was  ordered  to  beused  in  all  lawsuits,  and  the 
Latin  disused.  May  1731. 

ENGRAVING.  The  engraving  of  gems  is  a  branch  of  art  of  the  highest  an- 
tiquity. The  earliest  writers  make  mention  of  engraved  seals  and  seal 
rings,  and  there  still  exist  many  antiqiie  engravings  equal  to  later  produc- 
tions of  similar  artists.  Engraving  from  plates  and  wood  is  chiefly  of  mo- 
dern invention,  having  its  origin  about  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century. 
Engraving  on  glass  was  perfected  to  an  art  by  Boudier  of  Paris,  1799.  The 
art  of  engraving,  in  various  styles,  has  made  great  progress  in  the  United 
States  during  the  last  ten  years. 

ENGRAVING  on  COPPER.  Prints  from  engraved  copper-plates  made  their 
appearance  about  a.  d.  1450.  and  were  first  produced  in  Germany.  Masso, 
surnamed  Fiuiguerra,  was  the  first  Italian  artist  in  this  way,  1450.  The 
earliest  date  known  of  a  cojiper- plate  engraving  is  1461.  Rolling  presses 
for  working  the  plates  were  invented  in  1545,  and  many  improvements  of  it 
followed.  Of  the  art  of  etching  on  copper  by  means  of  aquafortis,  Fj-ancis 
Mazzouli,  or  Parmagiano,  is  the  reputed  inventor,  about  a.  d.  1532. — 
De  Piles. 

ENGRAVING,  LrrHOORAPHic.  This  is  a  new  branch  of  the  art,  and  Alois 
Sennefelder  may  be  regarded  as  the  inventor  of  it.  It  was  first  announced 
on  the  Continent  in  1798.  and  became  more  known  as  polj'autography  in 
1808.  It  was  introduced  into  general  use  in  England  by  Mr.  Ackermann  of 
London  in  1817. 

ENGRAVING,  Mezzotinto.  The  art  was  discovered  by  Siegen,  and  was  im- 
proved by  prince  Rupert  in  1648;  Sir  Christopher  Wren  further  Improved 
it  in  1662.  Aquatinta,  by  which  a  soft  and  beautiful  efi:ect  is  produced 
was  invented  by  the  celebrated  French  artist,  St.  Non.  about  1662  ;  he  com- 
municated his  invention  to  Le  Prince.  Barrabe  of  Paris  was  distinguished 
for  his  improvements  in  this  kind  of  engraving,  1763.  Chiaro-oscnro  en- 
graving originated  with  the  Germans,  and  was  first  practised  by  Mair.  one 
of  whose  prints  bears  date  1491.     See  Zincography,  if-c. 

ENGRAVING  on  STEEL.  The  mode  of  engraving  on  soft  steel,  Avhich,  aftei 
it  has  been  hardened   will  multiply  copper  plates  and  fine  impressions,  in- 


312  THE    world's    progress,  [  EPl 

definitely,  was  introduced  into  England  by  Messrs.  Perkins  and  Heath,  of 
Philadelphia,  in  1819. 
ENGRAVING  on  WOOD,  took  its  rise  from  the  brief  mahlers,  or  manufacturers 
of  playing-cards,  about  a.  d.  1400 ;  and  from  this  sprung  the  invention  of 
printing,  first  attempted  by  means  of  wooden  types  not  movable.  See 
Printing.  The  art  is  referred  by  some  to  a  Florentine,  and  by  others  to 
Reuss,  a  German ;  it  was  greatly  improved  by  Durer  and  Lucas  Van  Leyden 
in  1497 ;  and  was  brought  to  perfection  in  England  by  Bewick,  his  brother, 
and  pupils,  Nesbett,  Anderson,  &c.,  1789.  et.  seq.  The  earliest  wood  en- 
graving which  has  reached  our  times  is  one  representing  St.  Christophei/ 
carrying  the  infant  Jesus  over  the  sea  ;  it  bears  date  a.  d.  1423. 

ENTOMOLOGY.  This  branch  of  natural  history  cannot  be  regarded  as  rank- 
ing as  a  science  until  the  ai-rangement  of  Linnaeus,  a.  d.  1739.  The  London 
Entomological  Society  was  instituted  in  1806  ;  it  is  directed  chiefly  to  the 
study  of  insects  found  in  Great  Britain ;  and  inquires  into  the  best  methods 
of  destroying  noxious  insects,  and  making  known  such  as  are  useful. 

ENVOYS.  They  enjoy  the  protection,  but  not  the  ceremonies  of  ambassadors. 
Envoys  Extraordinary  are  of  modern  date. —  Wicquefoi-t.  The  court  of 
France  denied  to  them  the  ceremony  of  being  conducted  to  court  in  the 
royal  carriages,  a.  d.  1639. 

EPHESTJS.  Famous  for  the  temple  of  Diana,  which  magnificent  structure  wa? 
one  of  the  seven  wonders  Of  the  world ;  it  was  425  feet  long  and  200  broad, 
and  cost  220  years  of  labor.  Ctesiphon  was  the  chief  architect,  and  127  kings 
contributed  to  its  grandeur.  The  temple  was  burnt  by  Erostratus,  solely  to 
perpetuate  his  memory.  356  b.  c. — Pliny.  It  rose  from  its  ruins,  and  was 
richer  and  more  splendid  than  before ;  but  it  was  again  burnt  a.  d.  260. — 
Univ.  Hist. 

EPHORI.  Powerful  magistrates  of  Sparta,  first  created  by  Theopompus  to  con- 
trol the  roj'al  power,  760  b.  c.  They  were  five  in  number,  and  acting  as 
censors  in  the  state,  they  could  check  and  restrain  the  authority  of  the 
kings,  and  even  imprison  them.  If  they  were  guilty  of  irregularities. 

EPIC  POETRY.  Homer's  Iliad  and  Odyssey  the  first  epic  poems.  See 
Homer. 

EPICUREAN  PHILOSOPHY.  Epicurus  of  Gargettus,  near  Athens,  was  the. 
founder  of  it,  about  300  b.  c.  and  taught  that  the  greatest  good  consists  in  a 
happiness,  springing  not  from  sensual  gratifications  or  vicious  pleasures,  but 
from  virtue,  and  consisting  in  the  peace  and  harmony  of  the  soul  with 
itself  His  disciples  had  all  things  in  common ;  and  the  pleasantness  of  his 
system,  and  its  ease  and  luxury,  made  him  many  followers. 

EPIGRAMS.  They  derive  their  origin  from  the  inscriptions  placed  by  the 
ancients  on  their  tombs.  Marcus  Valerius  Martialis,  the  celebrated  Latin 
epigrammatist,  who  flourished  about  a.  d.  83,  is  allowed  to  have  excelled  all 
others,  ancient  or  modern,  in  the  tasteful  and  pointed  epigram.  The  follow- 
ing Latin  epigram  on  the  miracle  of  our  Saviour  in  turning  water  into  wine 
at  Cana  (John  iii.)  is  a  beautiful  example: — 

"  Videt  et  erubuit  lympha  pudica  Deum." 
And  Dr.  Johnson  has  declared  that  the  subjoined  English  epigram,  by  Di*. 
Doddridge,  on  the  words  Dum  vtvimus  vivamus,  is  the  finest  specimen  in 
our  language : — 

"  Live  while  we  live !"  the  epicure  will  say, 

"  And  tasle  the  pleasures  of  the  prejent  day." 

"  Live  while  we  live  !"  the  hoary  preacher  cries, 

"  And  give  to  God  each  moment  as  it  flies." 
Lord  !  in  my  view  let  both  united  be, 
We  live  in  pleasure  when  we  live  to  thee. — Dndihidse. 


era]  dictionary  of  dates.  313 

EPIRUS.  Known  by  the  great  warlike  achievements  of  Pyrrhus.  Its  early 
history  is  very  obscure,  and  it  is  only  during  the  reign  of  this  sovereign, 
who  was  the  last,  that  it  becomes  interesting.  The  first  Pyrrhus  (Neopto- 
lemus)  settled  in  Epirus  after  the  Trojan  war,  1170  b.  c.  He  was  killed  in 
the  temple  of  Delphi,  about  1165  e.  c.  ■ 

Reign  of  the  great  Pyrrhus        -    u.  c.    306 
He  enters  into  a  league  against  Deme- 
trius :  the  battle  of  Berasa      -  -    294 


Expedition  into  Italy ;  he  gains  his  first 

battle  against  the  Romans         -      -  280 

He  gains  another  great  battle    -  -  279 

His  conquest  of  Sicily         -  -      -  278 

His  last  battle  with  the  Romans  -  274 

He  takes  Macedon  from  Antigonus      -  274 


Expedition  against  Sparta           -  b.  c.  272 
He  enters  Argos,  and  is  killed  by  a  tile, 
thrown  at  him  from  a  house-top  by  a 

woman             ....  272 

Philip  unites  Epirus  to  Macedon         -  220 

Its  conquest  by  the  Romans      -           -  167 

Annexed  to  the  Ottoman  empire    a.  d.  1466 


EPISCOPACY.  The  government,  by  its  bishops,  of  the  Christian  church.  It 
may  be  said  to  have  been  instituted  a.  d.  33,  when  Peter  sat  in  the  bishop's 
chair  at  Rome. — Butler.  Episcopacy  commenced  in  England  in  the  second 
century ;  in  Ireland  about  the  same  time ;  and  in  Scotland  in  the  fourth  cen- 
tury ;  but  historians  dispute  with  theologians  upon  this  point.  See  Bishops. 
In  Scotland,  episcopacy  was  finally  abolished  at  the  period  of  the  revolution, 
1688-9.  The  sect  called  Episcopalians  first  appeared  about  the  year  500. — 
Burnet. 
EPISCOPAL  CHURCH,  in  the  United  States.  Episcopacy  established  in  New- 
York  by  law,  1693 ;  introduced  into  Connecticut,  1706.  The  first  bishops  of 
the  Protestant  Episcoi5al  Church  in  America  were  bishop  White  of  Penn- 
sylvania and  Provost  of  New- York,  consecrated  in  London,  1787.  First 
Episcopal  convention,  1789.  Bishops  of  Vermont,  New  Jersey,  Kentucky,  and 
Ohio  consecrated  at  New- York,  Nov.  2, 1832. 
EPITAPHS.  They  were  used  by  the  ancient  Jews,  by  the  Athenians,  the  Ro- 
mans, and  most  of  the  nations  of  antiquity ;  their  date  is  referred  in  Eng- 
land to  the  earliest  times.  In  the  epitaphs  of  the  ancients  arose  the 
epigram. — Boileau. 
EPITHALAMIUM.  Tisias,  the  lyric  poet,  was  the  first  writer  of  a  nuptial 
complimentary  song,  or  epithalamium.  He  received  the  name  of  Stesicho- 
rus  from  the  alterations  made  by  him  in  music  and  dancing,  536  b.  c. — 
_Bossuet. 
EPOCHAS.  These  are  periods  in  history  which  are  agreed  upon  and  acknow- 
ledged by  the  respective  historians  and  chronologers,  and  which  serve  to 
regulate  the  date  of  events.  The  following  are  the  epochas  thus  particu- 
larly adopted. — See  Eras. 

Creation     -  -  -  •  b.  c.  4004 

Deluge 2348 

Calling  of  Abraham  -  .      -  1921 

Argonautic  ejcpedition   -  •  -  1225 

Destruction  of  Troy  -  -      -1184 

Isl  Olympiad       -  -  -  -   776 

EQUINOX.  The  precession  of  the  equinoxes  was  confirmed,  and  the  places 
and  distances  of  the  planets  were  discovered  by  Ptolemy,  a.  d.  130.  When 
the  sun  in  his  progress  through  the  ecliptic  comes  to  the  equinoctial  circle, 
the  daj'^  and  night  are  equal  all  over  the  globe :  this  occurs  twice  in  the  year ; 
once  in  the  first  point  of  Aries,  which  is  called  the  vernal  equinox ;  next  in 
the  first  point  of  Libra,  which  is  the  autumnal  equinox. — Blair. 

EQUITY,  COURTS  of.  To  determine  causes  according  to  the  rule  of  equity 
and  conscience,  rather  than  according  to  strict  law,  a.  d.  1067.— See  ChaTi- 
cerij. 

ERAS.  Notices  of  the  principal  eras  will  be  found  in  their  alphabetical  order; 
a  few  only  need  be  mentioned  here.    The  era  of  Nabonasser,  after  which 

14 


Building  of  Rome  - 

-  B.  c.    753 

Nabonassar 

-    747 

The  Seleucidae 

-      -    312 

The  battle  of  Actium 

-     38 

The  Christian  era    - 

A.D.          1 

Diocletian 

-   284 

314  THE  wokld's  progress.  [  emb 

the  astronomical  obsen-ations  made  at  Babylon  were  reckoned,  began  Feb. 
26,  747.  The  era  of  the  Seleucidse  (used  by  the  Maccabees)  commenced 
312  B.  c.  The  Olympiads  belong  to  the  Grecians,  and  date  from  the  year 
776  B.  c. ;  but  they  subsequently  reckoned  by  Indictions,  the  first  beginning 
A.  D.  313 :  these,  among  chronologers,  are  still  used. — See  Indictions.  The  Ro- 
mans reckoned  from  the  building  of  their  city,  753  b.  c.  ;  and  afterwards 
from  the  16th  year  of  the  emperor  Augustus,  which  reckoning  was  adopted 
among  the  Spaniards  until  the  reign  of  Ferdinand  the  Catholic.  The  disci- 
ples of  Mahomet  began  their  Hegira  from  the  flight  of  their  prophet  from 
Mecca,  which  occurred  a.  d.  622. 

KRAS  OP  THE  CREATION  and  REDEMPTION.  The  Jews  and  Christians 
have  had  divers  epochas ;  but  in  historical  computation  of  time  are  chiefly 
used  the  most  extraordinary  epochs,  which  are  two,  the  Creation  of  the 
World,  and  the  appearance  of  our  Redeemer,  which  last  the  Christians  have 
made  their  era.  They  did  not  adopt  it,  however,  until  the  sixth  century, 
when  it  was  introduced  by  Denys  the  Little,  a  Scythian,  who  became  abbot 
of  a  monastery  near  Rome :  he  was  the  first  who  computed  time  from  the 
birth  of  Christ,  and  fixed  that  great  event  according  to  the  vulgar  era. — 
Cassiodorus  Chron.  This  computation  began  in  Italy,  a.  d.  525,  and  in  Eng- 
land in  816.  It  is  the  only  one  now  in  general  iise,  and  is  that  observed  in 
this  work. — See  Creation,  and  Christian  Era. 

ES(;!URIAL.  The  palace  of  the  kings  of  Spain,  one.  of  the  largest  and  most 
magnificent  in  the  world.  It  was  commenced  by  Philip  II.  in  the  year  1562 ; 
and  the  fii-st  expenditure  of  its  erection  was  6,000,000  of  ducats.  It  forms 
a  vast  square  of  polished  stone,  and  paved  with  marble.  It  may  give  some 
notion  of  the  surprising  grandeur  of  this  palace  to  observe,  that,  according 
to  the  computation  of  Francisco  de  los  Santos,  it  would  take  up  more  than 
four  days  to  go  through  all  its  rooms  and  apartments,  the  length  of  the  way 
being  reckoned  thirty-three  Spanish  leagues,  which  is  above  120  English 
miles.  Alvarez  de  Colmenar  also  asserts,  that  there  are  14,000  doors,  and 
11,000  windows  belonging  to  this  edifice. 

ESQUIRES.  Among  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  esquires  were  armor-bearers  to, 
or  attendants  on,  a  knight. — Bloiuiit.  In  England  the  king  created  esquires 
by  putting  about  their  necks  the  collar  of  S  S,  and  bestowing  upon  them  a 
pair  of  silver  spurs.  A  British  queen  is  recorded  as  having  married  the 
armigcruvi,  or  esquire,  of  her  deceased  husband.  The  distinction  of  esquire 
was  first  given  to  persons  of  fortune  not  attendant  upon  knights,  a.d.  1345. 
— Stowe.     MeyricWs  Ancknt  Armor. 

ETHER.  It  was  known  to  the  earliest  chemists.  Nitric  ether  was  first  dis- 
covered by  Kunkel,  in  1681 ;  and  muriatic  ether  was  first  made  from  the 
chloride  of  tin,  by  Courtanvaux,  in  1759.  Acetic  ether  was  discovered  by 
count  Lauraguais,  same  year ;  and  hydriodic  ether  was  first  prepared  by 
Gay-Lussac.  The  phosphoric  was  obtained  by  M.  Boullay.  Ether  is  said 
to  have  been  first  applied  to  the  purpose  of  causing  insensibility  to  pain  by 
Br.  Horace  Wells,  of  Connecticut,  in  1846.  This,  however,  is  disputed,  for 
about  the  same  time  Dr.  C.  T.  Jackson,  of  Boston,  well  known  as  a  geologist 
and  chemist,  suggested  the  use  of  ether  in  surgery ;  but  to  Dr.  Morton,  of 
Boston,  probably  belongs  the  credit  of  first  demonstrating,  by  actual  experi- 
ment, the  use  of  etlier  in  dentistry  and  surgery,  as  an  annihilator  of  pain. 
It  was  used  in  siirgical  cases,  in  that  year,  by  Drs.  J.  C.  Warren,  Channing. 
and  Morton,  of  Boston,  who  afterwards  published  the  results  of  their  experi- 
ments. The  practice  was  first  copied  in  Europe  by  Dr.  Robertson,  of  Edin- 
burgh, and  Dr.  Booth,  of  London,  the  same  year.  The  sulphuric  ether  is 
inhaled  from  an  apparatus  with  flexible  tube,  &c.  Etherization  was  first 
used  in  operative  midwifery,  in  the  United  States,  May,  1847.   The  substance 


eve] 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  3 IS 


called  chloroform,  originally  discovered  by  Soubeiran,  in  1831,  was  also  first 
employed  for  similar  purposes  in  1847,  by  professor  Simpson,  of  Edinburgh. 

ETHICS.  The  doctrine  and  system  of  morality ;  a  science  which  is  scarcely 
more  inculcated  by  religion  and  virtue,  than  it  is  influenced  by  manners  and 
government:  the  Chinese,  who  are  said  to  have  been  acquainted  with 
astronomy  at  least  3000  years  before  the  birth  of  Christ,  were  so  refined  in 
the  earliest  ages,  that  they  studied  ethics,  we  are  told,  a  thousand  years 
before  that  event ;  and  hence  they  must  have  lived  at  that  time  under  not 
only  civilized  and  enlightened,  but  refined  and  moral  governments. 

K  I'NA,  MOUNT.  Here  were  the  fabled  forges  of  the  Cyclops  ;  and  it  is  called 
by  Pindar  the  pillar  of  heaven.  Eruptions  are  mentioned  by  Diodorus 
Siculus  as  happening  1693  b.  c,  and  Thucydides  speaks  of  three  eruptions 
as  occurring,  734,  477,  and  425  b.  c.  There  were  e-uptions,  125,  121,  and  43 
B.  0. — Livy.  Eruptions  a.  d.  40,  253,  and  420. —  Carrera.  One  in  1012. — 
Geoffrey  de  Viterbo.  Awful  one  which  overwhelmed  Catania,  when  15,00C 
■  inhabitants  perished  in  the  burning  ruins,  1169.  Eruptions  eaually  awful 
and  destructive,  1329,  1408,  1444,  1586,  1587,  1564,  and  in  1669;  when  tens 
of  thousands  of  persons  perished  in  the  streams  oif  lava  which  rolled  over 
the  whole  country  for  forty  days.  Eruptions  in  1766,  1787,  1809,  1811,  and 
in  May  1830,  when  several  villages  were  destroyed,  and  showers  of  lava 
reached  even  to  Rome.  Another  violent  eruption,  and  the  town  of  Bronte 
destroyed,  Nov.  18, 1832. 

EUCLID,  Elements  of.  Euclid  was  a  native  of  Alexandria,  and  flourished 
there  about  300  b.  c.  The  Elements  are  not  wholly  his,  for  many  of  the  invalu- 
able truths  and  demonstrations  they  contain  were  discovered  and  invented 
by  Thales,  Pythagoras,  Eudoxus,  and  others ;  but  Euclid  was  the  first  who 
reduced  them  to  regular  order,  and  who  probably  interwove  many  theo- 
rems of  his  own.  to  render  the  whole  a  complete  and  connected  system  of 
geometry.  The  Elements  were  first  printed  at  Basil,  by  Simon  Grynseus, 
in  A.  D.  1533. 

EUNUCHS.  This  species  of  mutilation  is  first  mentioned  among  the  Egyptian 
and  Assyrian  nations;  and  eunuchs  in  the  earliest  times  were  attendants  in 
courts.  The  first  princess  who  was  waited  upon  by  eimuchs  in  her  cham- 
ber, was  Semiramis,  queen  of  Assyria  and  Babjdon,  about  2007  b.  c. — Leng- 
let.  Numbers  of  this  class  of  persons  are  in  the  quality  of  attendants  on 
the  ladies  of  the  Seraglio  in  Turkey. 

EUSTATIA,  ST.  This  island  was  settled  by  the  Dutch  in  1632  :  it  was  taken 
by  the  French  in  1689  ;  by  the  English  in  1690 ;  and  again  by  the  British 
forces,  under  admiral  Rodney  and  general  Vaughan,  February  3,  1781.  It 
was  recovered  by  ths  French  under  the  marquis  de  Bouill^,  Nov.  26,  same 
year;  and  was  again  captured  by  the  British  in  1801,  and  1810;  but  re- 
stored in  1814. 

EVANGELISTS.  Mark  and  Matthew  wrote  their  Gospels  in  a.  d.  44 ;  Luke  in 
55 ;  and  John  in  97.  In  95,  John  was  thrown  into  a  caldron  of  boiling  oil 
at  Rome,  whence,  being  taken  out  imhurt,  he  was  banished  to  the  Isle  of 
Patmos,  and  there,  in  the  year  96,  he  wrote  the  Apocalypse,  and  died  in  100. 
— Butler.  At  the  council  of  Nice  in  325,  there  were  200  varied  versions  of 
the  adopted  Evangelists. 

EVESHAM,  Battle  of,  between  prince  Edward,  afterwards  Edward  I.,  and 
Simon  de  Montfort,  earl  of  Leicester,  in  \vhich  the  barons  were  defeated, 
and  the  earl,  his  son,  and  most  of  his  adherents  slain.  Henry  III.  at  one 
period  of  the  battle  was  on  the  point  of  being  cleft  down  by  a  soldier  who 
did  not  know  his  rank,  but  was  saved  by  his  timely  exclamation,  '•  Do  not 


316  THE  world's  progress.  [exe 

kill  me,  soldier,  I  am  Henry  of  Winchester,  thy  king  !"  This  victory  broke 
up  the  treasonable  conspiracy  of  the  barons ;  fought  August  4,  1265. 

EXCHANGE.  One  called  Collegium  Mercatorum,  existed  at  Rome,  493  b.  c. 
The  Exchange  at  Amsterdam  was  reckoned  the  finest  structure  of  the  kind 
in  the  world.  Many  edifices  of  this  name  in  the  United  Kingdom  are  mag- 
nificent. The  exchange  of  London  was  founded  by  sir  Thomas  Gresham, 
June  7,  1566,  and  was  called  Royal,  by  Elizabeth,  on  her  paying  it  a  visit  in 
Jan.  1571.  Destroyed  by  fire  in  1666  and  in  1838 :  rebuilt  and  v  pened  in  1844. 

EXCHANGE  (Merchants')  in  NEW  YORK.  The  present  building,  on  the  site 
of  the  one  destroyed  in  the  great  fire  of  1836,  was  commenced  in  1836,  and 
finished  in  1840.  It  is  of  blue  granite,  and  cost  Sl,800,000.  That  of  Boston, 
also  of  Quincy  granite,  finished  in  1846. 

EXCHEQUER.  An  institution  of  great  antiquity,  consisting  i.(f  officers  whose 
functions  are  financial  or  judicial :  the  chancellor  of  the  exchequer  is  the 
first  of  these,  and  he  formerly  sat  in  the  court  of  exchequer  above  the 
barons.  The  first  chancellor  was  Eustace  de  Fauconbridge,  bishop  of  Lon- 
don, in  the  reign  of  Hemy  III.,  about  1221.  The  exchequer  stopped  pay- 
ment from  Jan.  to  May  the  24th,  Charles  II.  IQIS.—Stowe.  The  English 
and  Irish  exchequers  were  consolidated  in  1816. 

EXCISE.  The  excise  system  was  established  in  England  by  the  Long  Parlia- 
ment ;  was  continued  under  Cromwell  and  Charles  II. ;  and  was  organized 
as  at  present  in  the  Walpole  administration.  It  was  first  collected  and  an 
office  opened  in  1643,  and  was  arbitrarily  levied  upon  liquors  and  provisions 
to  support  the  parliament  forces  against  Charles  I.  The  excise  office  was 
built  on  the  site  of  Gresham  College,  in  1774.  The  officers  of  excise  and 
customs  were  deprived  of  their  votes  for  members  of  parliament  in  1782. 
See  jReveniie. 

AMOUNT   OF   THE  EXCISE   REVENUE    OF   GREAT   BRITAIN  IN  THE   FOLLOWING  YEARS. 

1744  Great  Britain    -  -        £3,754,072  I  1830  United  Kingdom  .  -         £18,644,385 

1786       Ditto         -  -           -    5,.540.114  1834         Ditto              -  -      16,877,292 

1808       Ditto              -  -      -  19,867,914  1837         Ditto       -  -           -  14,518,142 

1820       Ditto         -  -           -  26,364,702  1840         Ditto            -  -      -  12,607,766 

1827  United  Kingdom  -      -  20,995,324  |  1845         Ditto       -  -           -  13,585,583 

EXCOMMUNICATION.  An  ecclesiastical  anathema,  or  interdict  from  Chris- 
tian communion.  It  was  originally  instituted  for  preserving  the  jjurity  of 
the  church ;  but  ambitious  ecclesiastics  converted  it  by  degrees  into  an  en- 
gine for  promoting  their  own  power.  Some  suppose  excommunication  to 
be  of  Hindoo  origin  in  the  Pariah  caste,  and  that  it  was  adopted  by  the 
Jews  (who  had  three  degrees  of  it),  and  from  these  latter  by  the  Christian 
churches.  The  Greek  and  Roman  priests  and  even  the  Druids  had  similar 
punishments  in  aid  of  their  respective  religions. — Phillips. 

EXCOMMUNICATION  by  the  POPES.  The  Catholic  church  excommuni- 
cates by  bell,  book,  and  candle. — See  Bell,  Book,  and  Candle.  The  popes 
have  carried  their  authority  to  such  excess  as  to  excommunicate  and  depose 
sovereigns.  Gregory  VII.  was  the  first  pope  who  assumed  this  extravagant 
power.  He  excommunicated  Henry  IV.  emperor  of  Germanj',  in  1077,  ab- 
solving his  subjects  from  their  allegiance ;  and  on  the  emperor's  death, 
"his  excommunicated  body"  was  five  years  above  ground,  no  one  daring  to 
bury  it.  In  England  were  many  excommunications  in  Henry  II. 's  reign ; 
and  king  John  was  excommunicated  by  Pope  Innocent  III.  in  1208,  when  all 
England  lay  under  an  interdict  for  six  years.  The  citizens  of  Dublin  were 
excommunicated  by  Clement  IV.  in  1206.  Bulls  denouncing  hell-fire  to 
queen  Elizabeth  accompanied  the  Spanish  Armada,  and  plenary  indul- 
gences were  offered  to  all  who  should  assist  in  deposing  her. 

EXECUTIONS.     See  Crime.    In  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  (thirty-eight  years) 


EXP  J 


DICTIONARY    OF   DATES. 


317 


In  tlie  year  1841  -  1 
In  the  year  1842  •  2 
In  the  year  1843  -    1 


it  is  shown  that  no  less  a  number  than  72,000  criminals  were  executed.-— 
Stowe.  In  the  ten  j^ears  between  1820  and  1830,  there  were  executed  in  Eng- 
land alone  797  criminals  ;  but  as  our  laws  became  less  bloody,  the  number 
of  executions  proportionally  decreased.  In  the  three  years  ending  1820, 
the  executions  in  England  and  Wales  amounted  to  312  ;  in  the  three  years 
ending  1830,  they  were  reduced  to  178 ;  and  in  the  three  years  ending  1840, 
they  had  decreased  to  62. — Pari.  Returns. 

EXECUTIONS   IN   LOKDON  IN   THE   FOLLOWING  YEARS. 

In  the  year  1820  -  43  I  In  the  year  18.35  -  nil  I  In  the  year  1838  -  nil  I 
In  the  year  1825  -  17    In  the  year  ia36  -  nil    In  the  year  1839  -    2 
In  the^ear  1830  -    6  |  In  the  year  1837  -     2  |  In  the  year  1840  -    1  | 

EXPLORING  EXPEDITION  (U.  S.),  consisting  of  the  Vincennes,  sloop  of 
war ;  Peacock,  ditto ;  Porpoise,  brig ;  Relief^  Flying  Fish,  and  Sea  Gull, 
smaller,  vessels,  under  Lieut.  Wilkes,  U.  S.  N.,  sailed  from  Hampton  Roads, 
Va.,  Aug.  19th,  1838.  Antarctic  continent  discovered,  July  19,  1839.  At- 
tack on  the  Fejees  for  murdering  two  of  the  officers,  July  25,  1846.  The 
Peacock  lost  on  the  bar  of  Columbia  river,  July  1841.  The  Vincennes 
(flag-ship)  returned  to  New  York,  after  an  absence  of  nearly  four  years, 
June  11, 1842.  Captain  Wilkes's  Narrative  of  the  Expedition,  in  6  vols.  Imp. 
8vo.  and  quarto,  was  published  in  1845.  The  scientific  reports  of  the  ex- 
pedition form  about  20  quarto  and  folio  volumes. 

EXPORTS,  AND  IMPORTS  op  the  United  States  from  1791. 

Exports. 
69,691.669 
64,974;382 
72,160,281 
74,699,030 
75,986,657 
99,535,388 
77,595,322 
82,324,827 
72,264,686 
72,358,671 
73,849,508 
81,310,583 
87,176,943 
90,140,433 
104,336,973 
121,693,577 
128,663,040 
117,419,376 
113,717,404 
162,092,132 
104,805,891 
121,851,803 
104,691,534 
84,346,480' 
lll,200,046t 
114,646,606t 
113,488,516t 
158,648,622t 
154,032,131t 

fc  of  trade, 
turned  the  scale  so  much  in  favor  of  English  merchandise,  that  by  a  balance 
of  trade  taken  in  his  time,  the  exported  commodities  amounted  to  294,000^., 
and  the  imported  to  only  38,000Z. 

VALUE   OP  EXPOETS   PROM   GREAT   BRITAIN   TO   ALL  PARTS   OP   THE   WORLD,   VIZ  : — 

.    . —  _    ._.-  _    ....  .£102,180,517 

-  100,260,101 

-  117,877,278 

-  131,564,503 

-  134,509,116 


Years. 

Imports. 

Exports. 

Years. 

Imports. 

1791 

■     S-52,200,000 

$19,012,041 

1820 

74,450.000 

1792 

31,500,000    - 

20,753,098 

1821 

-    62,585,724 

1793 

-    31,100,000 

-    26,109,572 

1822- 

83,241,541 

1794 

34,600,000    . 

33,026.233 

1823 

-    77,579,267 

1795. 

-    69.756,268 

-    47,989,472 

1824 

80,549,007 

1796 

81,436,164    - 

67,064,097 

1825 

-    96,340,075 

1797 

-    75,379,406 

-    56,850,206 

1826 

84,974,477 

1798 

68,551,700    - 

61,527,097 

1827 

-    79,484,068 

1799 

-    79,')68,148 

-    78,665,522 

1828 

88,509,824 

1800 

91,252,768    - 

70,971,780 

1829 

-    74,492,527 

1801 

-  111,363,511 

-    94,115,925 

1830 

70,876,920 

1802 

76,333,333    - 

72,483,160 

1831 

-  103,191,134 

1803 

-    64,666»666 

.    55,800,033 

1832 

•  101,025,266 

1804 

85,000,000    . 

77,699,074 

1833 

-  108.118,311 

1805- 

-  120,000,000 

-    95,566,021 

1834 

12&;521,332 

1806 

129,000,000    - 

101,536,963 

1835 

-  149,895,742 

1807 

-  138,500,000 

-  108,343,150 

1836 

189,980,035 

1808 

56,990,000    - 

22,439,960 

1837 

-  140,989,217 

1809 

-    59,400,000 

-    52,203,231 

1838 

108,486,616 

1810 

85,400,000    - 

66,757,974 

1839 

-  121,028,416 

1811 

-    53,400,000 

-    61,316,831 

1840 

131,571,950 

1812 

77,030,000    - 

38,527,236 

1841 

-  127,946,177 

1813 

-    22,005,000 

-    27,855,997 

1842 

100,162,087 

1814 

12,965,000    - 

6,927,441 

1843 

-    64,753,799* 

1815 

-  113,041,274 

-    52,557,753 

1844 

108,435,0351 

1816 

147,103,000    ■ 

81,920,452 

1845 

-  117,254,564t 

1817 

-    99,250,000 

-    87,671,569 

1846 

121,691,797t 

1818 

121,750,000    - 

93,281,133 

1847 

-  146.545,638t 

1819 

-    87,125,000 

-    70,142,521 

1848 

154,977,876t 

EXPORTS, 

Great  Britain. 

Edward  III 

,  by  b 

is  encouragen. 

enf 

In  1700    - 

-  £6,097,120 

In  1820    - 

-£51,733,113 

In  1842 

In  1750 

-    10,130,991 

In  1830 

-      -    66,735,445 

In  1843 

In  1775    - 

-    16,326,363 

In  1835    - 

-    78,376,732 

In  l&M 

In  1800 

-    38,120,120 

In  1840 

-      -    97,402.726 

In  1845 

In  1810    - 

-    45,869.839 

In  1841    - 

-  102,705,372 

In  1846 

Only  nine  months  of  1843. 


t  For  the  year  ending  June  30. 


318  THE  world's  progress.  [fal 

The  amounts  above  given  relate  to  the  exports  of  the  United  Kingdom 
of  British  and  Irish  produce  onlj'.  The  total  exports,  including  foreign  and 
colonial  produce,  were,  according  to  official  returns,  as  follows  : 

In  1841    -         -i;  116,479,678  I  In  1843       -       -£113,844,259  I  In  1845       -    -£145,961,749 
In  1842       -     -    116,903,668  |  In  1844    -  -    131,833,391  |  In  1846    -       -     150,879,986 

In  the  year  ending  5th  January  1846,  the  amount  of  imports  into  the 
United  Kingdom  was  85,281,958^;  and  the  balance  of  trade  in  favor  of  Eng- 
land, deducting  this  sum  from  her  exports,  was  65,598,028Z.  But  even  this 
great  balance  has  been  exceeded  in  recent  years,  as,  for  instance,  the  year 
immediately  preceding,  when  it  mounted  to  upwards  of  seventy  millions. — 
Brit.  Revenue  Returns. 
EYLAU,  Battle  of,  between  the  French  and  Russians,  one  of  the  most 
bloody  of  Napoleon's  wars  :  it  terminated  in  favor  of  Napoleon,  who  com- 
manded in  person  ;  but  both  armies  by  this  and  other  recent  battles  were 
so  much  reduced,  that  the  French  retired  to  the  Vistula,  and  the  Russians 
on  the  Pregel :  the  loss  to  the  victor  was  15,000  men,  and  the  Russian  loss 
in  slain  alone  was  20,000.     Feb.  8,  1807. 


FABII.  A  noble  and  powerful  family  at  Rome,  who  derived  their  name  from 
faba,  a  bean,  because  some  of  their  ancestors  cultivated  this  pulse :  the}' 
were  said  to  be  descended  from  Fabius,  a  supposed  son  of  Hercules,  and 
were  once  so  numerous  that  they  took  upon  themselves  to  wage  war  against 
the  Veientes.  They  came  to  a  general  engagement  near  the  Cremera,  in 
which  all  the  family,  consisting  of  306  men,  were  slain,  b.  c.  477.  There 
only  remained  one,  whose  tender  age  had  detained  him  at  Rome,  and  from 
him  arose  the  noble  Fabii  in  the  following  ages. 

FABLES.  "  Jotham's  fable  of  the  trees  is  the  oldest  extant,  and  as  beautiful 
as  any  made  since." — Addison.  Nathan's  fable  of  the  poor  man  (2  Sam. 
xii.)  is  next  in  antiquity.  The  earliest  collectionof  fables  extant  is  of  east- 
ern origin,  and  preserved  in  the  Sanscrit.  The  fables  of  Vishnoo  Sarma, 
called  Pilpay,  are  the  most  beautiful,  if  not  the  most  ancient,  in  the  world. 
— Sir  WiUiam  Jones.  The  well-known  ^Esop's  fables  (which  see),  were 
AVi'itten  about  540  years  b.  c. — Plutarch. 

FACTIONS.  Among  the  Romans,  factions  were  parties  that  fought  on  cha- 
riots in  the  cirque,  and  who  were  distinguished  by  their  different  colors, 
a  green,  blue,  red,  and  white,  to  which  Domitian  added  two  others,  one  in 
coats  embroidered  with  gold,  a  second  wearing  scarlet,  about  a.  d.  90,  Both 
the  emperors  and  people  had  generally  greater  inclination  for  some  parti- 
cular color  than  the  rest ;  but  upon  a  quarrel  happening  in  Justinian's  reign, 
between  the  blue  and  green,  when  40,000  were  killed  on  both  sides,  the 
name  of  faction  was  abolished.  With  us,  faction  means  a  party  or  sect  in 
religious  or  civil  matters,  and  is  always  taken  in  an  ill  sense. 

FAIRS  AND  WAKES.  They  are  of  Saxon  origin,  and  were  first  instituted  in 
England  by  Alfred,  a.  d.  886. — Spelman.  They  were  established  by  order  of 
Gregory  VII.  in  1708,  and  termed  Fericc,  at  which  the  monks  celebrated  the 
festival  of  their  patron  saint ;  the  vast  resort  of  people  occasioned  a  great  de- 
mand for  goods,  wares,  &c.  They  were  called  wakes  from  the  people  making 
merry  during  the  vigil,  or  eve.  Fairs  were  established  in  France  and  Eng- 
land by  Charlemagne  and  William  the  Conqueror,  about  a.  d.  800  in  the 
first,  and  1071  in  the  latter  kingdom.  The  fairs  of  Beaucaire,  Falaise.  and 
Leipsic,  are  the  most  famous  iu  Europe. 
FALKIRK,  Battle  op,  between  the  English  under  Edward  I.  a.nd  the  Scuts, 
commanded  by  the  heroic  Wallace,  in  which  40,000  of  the  latter  were  slain ; 


PEU'j  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  319 

the  whole  Scotch  army  was  broken  up,  and  was  chased  off  the  field  with 
dreadful  slaughter,  July  22,  1298. 
FAMINES,  AND  SEASONS  of  REMARKABLE  SCARCITY.  The  famine  of 
the  seven  years  in  Egypt  began  1708  b.  c. —  Uslier ;  Blair.  In  a  famine  that 
raged  at  Rome  thousands  of  the  people  threw  themselves  into  the  Tiber, 
436  B.  c.  Livy. 

Awful  famine  in  Egypt  -        a.  D.     42 

At  Rome,  attended  by  plague    -  -   262 

In  Britain,  so  grievous  that  people  ate 
the  bark  of  trees  -  -  -   272 

In  Scotland,  and  thousands  die       -      -   306 

In  England,  where  40,000  perish  -   310 

Awful  one  in  Phrygia    -  -  -   370 

So  dreadful  in  Italy,  that  parents  ate 
their  children  {Dufresnoy)         •      •   450 

In  England,  Wales,  and  Scotland        -    739 

Again,  when  thousands  starve       •      -   823 

4gain,  which  lasts  four  year's   -  -    954 


Youred  the  flesh  of  horses,  dogs,  cats, 
and  vermin        -  -  -  a.d.  13)5 

One  in  England  and  France  (Rapm)  ■  1353 
Agam,   one  so  great,  that  bread  was 

made  from  fern  roots  (Stowe)  -  1438 

Awful  one  in  France  ( Voltaire)  -  16'.i:! 

One  general  in  Great  Britain         -      -  1743 
One  which  devastates  Bcagal  -  -  1771 

At  the  Cape  de  Verds,  where  16,000  per- 
sons perish       ....  1775 
One  grievously  felt  in  France        -      -  17S9 
One  severely  felt  in  England     •  -  1795 


Awful  one  throughout  Europe       -      -  1016  ;  Again,  throughout  the  kingdom     -      -  1801 

In  England  and  France ;  this  famine  At  Drontheim,  owing  to  Sweden   jiler- 

leads  to  a  pestilential  fever,  which  cepting  the  supplies    -           -           -  1813 

lasts  from  1193  to         -           -           -  1195  Scarcity  of  food,  severely  felt  by  the 

Another  famine  in  England           -      -  1251  Irish  poor,  1814, 1816,  1822,  and    -  1845-6 

Again,  so  dreadful,  that  the  people  de-  I 

FAN,  The  use  of  the  fan  was  known  to  the  ancients:  Cape  hoc flabellum  d 
ventulum  hide  sicfacito. — Terence.  The  modern  custom  among  the  ladies 
was  borrowed  from  the  East.  Fans,  together  with  muffs,  masks,  and  false 
hair,  ^vere  first  devised  by  the  harlots  in  Italy,  and  were  brought  to  England 
from  France. — Stowe.  The  fan  was  used  by  females  to  hide  their  faces  in 
church. — Pardon. 

FARCE.  This  species  of  dramatic  entertainment  originated  in  the  droll  shows 
which  were  exhibited  bj^  charlatans  and  their  buffoons  in  the  open  street. 
These  were  introduced  into  our  theatres  in  a  ludicrous  and  more  refined 
form ;  and  they  are  now  only  shorter,  but  often  superior  to  the  pieces  called 
comedies.     See  article  Drama. 

FASTING,  AND  FASTS.  They  were  practised  and  observed  by  most  nations 
from  the  remotest  antiquity.  Annual  fasts,  as  that  of  Lent,  and  at  other 
stated  times,  and  on  particular  occasions,  begun  in  the  Christian  church, 
to  appease  the  anger  of  God,  in  the  second  century,  a.  d.  138.  Retained  as 
a  pious  practice  by  the  reformed  churches. — Eusebius. 

FEASTS  AND  FESTIVALS.  The  feast  of  the  Tabernacles  was  instituted  by 
Moses  in  the  wilderness,  1490  b.  c,  but  was  celebrated  with  the  greatest 
magnificence  for  fourteen  days,  upon  the  dedication  of  the  temple  of  Solo- 
mon, 1005  B.  c — Josephus.  In  the  Christian  church,  those  of  Christmas, 
Easter,  Ascension,  and  Pentecost  or  Whitsuntide,  were  first  ordered  to  be 
observed  by  all  Christians,  a.  d.  68.  Rogation  days  were  appointed  in  469. 
Jubilees  in  the  Romish  church  were  instituted  by  Boniface  VIII.  in  1300. 
See  Jubilees.  For  fixed  festivals  observed  in  the  church  of  England,  as  set- 
tled at  the  Reformation,  el  seq.,  see  Book  of  Common  Prayer. 

FEBRUARY.  The  second  month  of  the  year,  so  called  from  Februa.  a  feasi; 
which  was  held  therein  in  behalf  of  the  manes  of  diseased  persons,  when 
sacrifices  were  performed,  and  the  last  offices  were  paid  to  the  shades  of  the 
dead.  This  month,  with  January,  was  added  to  the  year,  which  had  pre- 
viously but  ten  months,  by  Numa,  713  b.  c.     See  Calendar,  and  Year. 

FERRARA.  A  citv  in  the  papal  dominions,  evacuated  by  the  Austrians,  ex- 
cept the  citadel,  Dec.  23, 1847. 

FEUDAL  LAWS.  The  tenure  of  land,  by  suit  or  service  to  the  lord  or  owner 
of  it,  was  introduced  into  England  by  the  Saxons,  about  a.  d.  600,    The 


320  Tits    M^OKLd'S    PKOGRESb.  [  FIR 

slavery  of  this  tenure  was  increased  under  William  I.  in  1068.  This  was 
done  by  dividing  the  kingdom  into  baronies,  and  giving  them  to  certain 
persons,  requiring  them  to  furnish  the  king  with  money,  and  a  stated  num- 
ber of  soldiers.  These  laws  were  discountenanced  in  France  by  Louis  XI. 
in  1470.  The  vassalage  was  restored,  but  limited  by  Henry  VII.  1495.  Abol- 
ished by  statute  12  Charles  II.  1663.  The  feudal  system  was  introduced  into 
Scotland  by  Malcolm  II.  in  1008 ;  and  was  finally  abolished  in  that  kingdom 
20  George  II.  1746. — LUtleton ;  Ruffkead ;  Bloxkstone. 

FEUILLANS.  Members  of  a  society  formed  in  Paris  to  counteract  the  intrigues 
and  operations  of  the  Jacobins,  named  from  the  Feuillan  convent,  where 
their  meetings  were  held,  early  in  the  revolution.  A  body  of  Jacobins 
invested  the  building,  burst  into  theu-  hall,  and  obliged  them  to  separate, 
Dec.  25,  1791. 

FEZ.  The  ancient  Mauritania,  founded  by  Edrus,  a  Barbary  farmer,  about 
A.  D.  696.  It  soon  afterwards  became  the  capital  of  all  the  western  IMv  rocco 
States.  Leo  Africanus  describes  the  Mauritani  as  containing  more  than 
seven  hundred  temples,  mosques,  and  other  public  edifices,  in  the  twelfth 
century. 

FICTION  LAW.  Invented  by  the  lawyers  in  the  reign  of  Edward  I.  as  a  means 
of  carrying  cases  from  one  court  to  another,  whereby  the  courts  became 
checks  to  each  other. — Hume.  Memorable  declaration  of  Lord  Mansfield, 
in  the  court  of  King's  Bench,  emphatically  Tittered,  that  "  no  fiction  op  law 

SHALL  EVER  SO  FAR  PREVAIL  AGAINST  THE  REAL  TRUTH  OP  THE  FACT,  AS  TO 

PREVENT  THE  EXECUTION  OF  JUSTICE,"  May  21,  1784.     This  constitutional 
maxim  is  now  a  rule  of  law. 

FIEF.  In  France  we  find  fiefs-men  mentioned  as  early  as  the  age  of  Cbildebert 
I.,  A.  D.  511.  They  were  introduced  into  Italy  by  the  Lombards.  Into  Spain, 
before  the  invasion  of  the  Moors,  a.  d.  710.  Into  England  by  the  Saxons 
(see  PeiodalLaios).  Into  Scotland,  directly  from  England,  by  Malcolm  II.,  1008. 

FIELD  OP  THE  CLOTH  op  GOLD.  Henry  VIII.  embarked  at  Dover  to  meet 
Francis  I.  of  France,  at  Ardres,  a  small  to^vn  near  Calais  in  France,  May  31, 
1520.  The  nobility  of  both  kingdoms  here  displayed  their  magnificence  with 
such  emulation  and  profuse  expense,  as  procured  to  the  place  of  interview 
(an  open  plain)  the  name  of  The  Field  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold.  Many  of  the 
king's  attendants  involved  themselves  in  great  debts  on  this  occasion,  and 
were  not  able,  by  the  penury  of  the  rest  of  their  lives,  to  repair  the  vain 
splendor  of  a  few  days.  A  painting  of  the  embarkation,  and  another  of  the 
interview,  are  at  Windsor  Castle. — Butler. 

FIFTH  MONARCHY-MEN.  Fanatical  levellers  who  arose  in  the  time  of 
""  Cromwell,  and  who  supposed  the  period  of  the  Millennium  to  be  just  at 
hand,  when  Jesus  should  descend  from  heaven  and  erect  the  fifth  universal 
monarchy.  They  actually  proceeded  to  elect  Jesus  Christ  king  at  London ! 
Cromwell  dispersed  them,  1653. 
FIGURES.  Arithmetical  figures  (nine  digits  and  zero),  and  the  method  of 
computing  by  them,  were  brought  into  Europe  from  Arabia,  about  a.  d.  900. 
They  were  first  known  in  England  about  the  year  1253,  previously  to  which 
time  the  numbering  by  letters  was  in  use  there.     See  Arithmetic. 

FIRE.  It  is  said  to  haye  been  first  produced  by  striking  flints  together.  The 
poets  suppose  that  fire  was  stolen  from  heaven  by  Prometheus.  Zoroaster, 
king  of  Bactria,  was  the  founder  of  the  sect  of  the  Magi,  or  worshippers  of 
Fire,  since  known  by  the  appellation  of  Guebres,  still  numerous  in  the  coun- 
tries of  the  East,  2115  e.  c— Justin ;  Pli7iy.  Heraclitus  maintained  that  the 
world  was  created  from  fire,  and  he  deemed  it  to  be  a  god  omnipotent,  and 


FIR  ]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  3^1 

taught  this  theory  about  506  b.  c. — No^w.  Diet.  In  the  Scriptures  God  is 
said  often  to  have  appeared  in,  or  encompassed  with  fire — as  to  Moses  in  the 
burning  bush,  on  mount  Sinai ;  and  to  the  prophets  Isaiah,  Ezekiel,  and  St. 
John.  The  wrath  of  God  is  described  by  a  consuming  fire,  and  the  angels, 
as  his  ministers,  are  compared  to  it.    See  the  Bible. 

FIRE-ARMS.  Small  arms  were  contrived  by  Schwartz,  a.  d.  1378;  they  were 
brought  to  England  about  1388.  Fire-arms  were  a  prodigious  rarity  in  Ire- 
land in  1489,  when  six  muskets  were  sent  from  Germany  as  a  present  to  the 
earl  of  Kildare,  who  was  then  chief-governor.  Muskets  were  first  used  at 
the  siege  of  Rhegen,  in  1525.  The  Spaniards  were  the  first  nation  who 
armed  the  foot  soldier  with  these  weapons. —  Ulloa.  Voltaire  states,  that  the 
Venetians  were  the  first  to  use  guns,  in  an  engagement  at  sea  against  the 
Genoese,  in  1377 ;  but  our  historians  affirm,  that  the  English  had  guns  at  the 
battle  of  Cressy,  in  1346 ;  and  the  year  following  at  the  siege  of  Calais.  See 
Artillery. 

FIRE-ENGINES.  The  fire-engine  is  of  modern  invention,  although  ftae  forcing 
pump,  of  which  it  is  an  application,  is  more  than  two  centuries  old.  The 
fire-engine,  to  force  water,  was  constructed  by  John  Vander  Heyden,  about 
the  year  1663;  it  was  improved  materially  in  1752,  and  from  that  time  to  the 
present.  The  fire-watch,  or  fire-guard  of  London,  was  instituted  November 
1791.    The  fire  brigade  was  established  in  London  in  1833. 

FIRE-SHIPS.  They  wei-e  first  used  in  the  sixteenth  century.  Among  the  most 
formidable  contrivances  of  this  kind  ever  used,  was  an  explosion  vessel  to 
destroy  a  bridge  of  boats  at  the  siege  of  Antwerp,  in  1585..  The  first  use  of 
them  in  the  English  navy  was  by  Charles,  lord  Howard  of  Effingham,  after- 
wards earl  of  Nottingham,  lord  high  admiral  of  England,  in  the  engagement 
with  the  Spanish  Armada,  July,  1588. — Rapin. 

FIRE-WORKS.  Are  said  to  have  been  familiar  to  the  Chinese  in  remote  ages : 
they  Avere  invented  in  Europe  at  Florence,  about  a.  d.  1360 ;  and  were  first 
exhibited  as  a  spectacle  in  1588.  At  an  exhibition  of  fire-works  in  Paris, 
'  in  honor  of  the  marriage  of  the  dauphin,  afterwards  Loiiis  XVI.,  the  pas- 
sages being  stopped  up  occasioned  such  a  crowd,  that  the  people,  seized  with 
.a  panic,  trampled  upon  one  another  till  they  lay  in  heaps ;  a  scaffold  erected 
over  the  river  also  broke  down,  and  hundreds  were  drowned ;  more  than 
1000  persons  perished  on  this  occasion,  June  21,  1770.  Madame  Blanchard 
ascending  from  Tivoli  Gardens,  Paris,  at  night,  in  a  balloon  surrounded  by 
fire- works,  the  balloon  took  fire,  and  she  was  precipitated  to  the  ground,  and 
dashed  to  pieces,  July  6,  1819.     See  Balloon. 

FIRES.     Some  of  the  most  noted  and  destructive  in  North  America. 

In  New  York,  destroying  600  wareliou-        i    New  York,  destroying  302  stores  and 


ses  and  f  roperty  to  amount  of  S20, 
000,000  ■  -  -  Dec.  Iti,  1835 

At  Washington,  destroying  the  General 
Post  OOice  and  Parent  OfBce,  with 
10,000  valuable  models,  drawings, 
&c.  -  -  -       Dec.  15,  1836 

At  Charleston,  S.  C. ;  145  acres  and 
1,158  buildings  destroyed  -   April  27,  1S38 

New  York ;  46  buildings ;  loss.  $10,- 
(J00,000       -  -  -     •  Sept,  6,  1839 

Philadelphia ;  52  buildings ;  loss, 
!8i5O0,OO0      -  -  -        Oct.  4,  1839 

Pittsburgh,  Pa.  1,000  buildings,  and 
property  valued  about  .$6,000,000 

■  April  10,  1845 

Quebec,  Canada;  1,500  houses  burnt, 
immen.se  loss  of  property,  and  se- 
veral lives.  May  2S,  1845.  Another, 
burning  1,300  dwellings ;  in  all,  two 


dwelling-liouses,  and  property  worth 
$6,000,000—4  lives  lost       -  .July  19,  1845 

St.  .John's,  Newfoundland  ;  nearly  the 
whole  town  destroyed — 6,000  people 
made  houseless        -  -  .June  12,  1846 

Quebec  Theatre  Royal ;  47  persons 
burned  to  death       -       -      June  14,  1846 

Nantucket ;  300  buildings,  valued 
$800,000       -  -  -   July  13,  1846 

Dupont's  powder  mills,  Md.,  exploded, 
18  persons  killed  -        April  14,  1847 

At  Albany ;  600  buildings,  besides 
steamboats  &c.,  24  acres  burned  over, 
loss,  $3,000,000  -  Aug.  17, 1849 

At  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  200  houses,  value, 
$750,000    -  -  -        Sept.  9,  1848 

At  St.  Louis;  23  steamboats  and  15 
blocks  of  houses  destroyed,  loss  about 
$3,000,000  -  -         May  17,  1849 

thirds  of  the  city  -         June  28,  1845 '    At  Philadelphia,  300  houses       July  9,  1850 

14* 


322  THE  world's  progress.  [  FLa 

FIRE  OF  LONDON,  the  GREAT.  Destroyed  in  the  space  of  four  clays  eighty- 
nine  churches,  including  St.  Paul's ;  the  city  gates,  the  Royal  Exchange,  the 
Custom  House,  Guildhall,  Sion  College,  and  many  other  public  buildings, 
besides  13,200  houses,  laying  waste  400  streets.  This  conflagration  happened 
(not  without  strong  suspicion  of  treason),  Sept.  2,  1666,  and  continued  three 
days  and  nights,  and  was  at  last  only  extinguished  by  the  blowing  up  of 
houses. — Hume;  Rapin;  Carte. 

FIRST  FRUITS.  Primitia  among  the  Hebrews.  They  were  offerings  wliich 
made  a  large  part  of  the  revenues  of  the  Hebrew  priesthood.  First  fruits 
were  instituted  by  pope  Clement  V.,  in  a.  d.  1306;  and  were  collected  in 
England  in  1316.  The  first  year's  income  of  every  church  benefice  in  Eng- 
land was  given  to  the  popes  till  the  27th  of  Henry  VIII.,  1535,  when  the 
first  fruits  were  assigned,  by  act  of  parliament,  to  the  king  and  his  succes- 
sors.— Carte.  Granted,  together  with  the  tenths,  to  increase  the  incomes  of 
the  poor  clergy,  by  queen  Anne,  Feb.  1704.  Consolidation  of  the  offices  of 
First  Fruits,  Tenths,  and  queen  Anne's  Bounty,  by  Statute  1  Vict.,  April 
1838. 

FLAGELLANTS,  Sect  op.  They  established  themselves  at  Peroxise,  a.  d. 
1260.  They  maintained  that  there  was  no  remission  of  sins  without  flagel- 
lation, and  publicty  lashed  themselves,  while  in  procession,  preceded  by  the 
cross,  until  tlie  blood  flowed  from  their  naked  backs.  Their  leader,  Conrad 
Schmidt,  was  burnt,  1414. 

FLANDERS.  The  country  of  the  ancient  Belgse ;  conquered  by  Julius  Cjesar, 
47  B.  c.  It  passed  into  the  hands  of  France,  a.  d.  412.  It  was  governed  by 
its  carls  subject  to  that  crown,  from  864  to  1369.  It  then  came  into  the 
house  of  Austria  by  marriage ;  but  was  yielded  to  Spain  in  1556.  Flanders 
shook  off  the  Spanish  yoke  in  1572;  and  in  1725,  by  the  treaty  of  Vienna,  it 
was  annexed  to  the  German  empire. — Priestley.  Flanders  was  overrim  by 
the  French  in  1792  and  1794,  and  was  declared  part  of  their  Republic.  It 
was  made  part  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands  in  1814,  and  was  erected 
into  the  kingdom  of  Belgium  in  1831. — See  Belgium. 

FLAX.  The  flax  seed  was  first  planted  in  England  in  a.  d.  1533.  For  many 
ages  the  core  was  separated  from  the  flax,  the  bark  of  the  plant,  by  the  hand. 
A  mallet  was  next  used ;  but  the  old  methods  of  breaking  and  scutching  the 
flax  yielded  to  a  water-mill  which  was  invented  in  Scotland  about  1750. 
See  article  Hemp. 

FLODDEN  FIELD,  Battle  of,  between  the  English  and  Scots.  James  IV.  of 
Scotland,  having  taken  part  with  Louis  XII.  of  France,  against  Henry  VIII. 
of  England,  this  battle  was  one  of  the  consequences  of  his  unfortunate  policy ; 
and  James,  and  most  of  his  chief  nobles,  and  upwards  of  10,000  of  his  army 
were  slain,  while  the  English,  who  were  commanded  by  the  earl  of  Surry, 
lost  only  persons  of  small  note.  Henry  VIII.  was  at  the  time  besieging 
Terouenne,  near  St.  Omer ;  fought  Sept,  9,  1513. 

FLORENCE.  It  is  said  to  have  been  founded  by  the  soldiers  of  Sylla,  and  en- 
larged by  the  Roman  Triumviri.  It  was  destroyed  by  Totila,  and  was  re- 
built by  Charlemagne.  This  citj^  is  truly  the  seat  of  the  arts.  In  its  pal- 
aces, university,  academies,  churches,  and  libraries,  are  to  be  found  the 
rarest  works  of  sculpture  and  painting  in  the  Avorld.  The  Florentine  acad- 
emy, and  the  Accademia  delta  Crusca,  were  instituted  to  enrich  the  literature 
and  improve  the  language  of  Tuscany ;  the  latter  is  so  named  because  it 
rejects  like  bran  all  words  not  purely  Tuscan.  Florence  was  taken  by  the 
French  in  July  1796,  and  again  in  March,  1799 ;  and  was  restored  in  1814. 

FLORIDA,  now  one  of  the  United  States,  was  discovered  by  Sebastian  Cabot 
sailing  under  the  English  flag,  in  1497.     Ponce  de  Leon,  a  Spanish  adven- 


FI^O  ] 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES. 


523 


tiirer  from  Hispaniola,  explored  the  country  in  1512  and  1516.  In  1539, 
Hernando  de  Soto,  who  had  been  an  officer  under  Pizarro,  overran  the  penin- 
sula with  an  armed  force,  but  most  of  his  followers  were  cut  off  a  few  years 
after.  In  1763  Florida  was  ceded  to  Great  Britain  by  Spain  in  exchange  for 
Havana.  The  Spanish  reconquered  it  in  1781,  and  ceded  it  to  the  United 
States  in  1819.  It  was  admitted  into  the  Union  in  1845.  First  war  with  the 
Seminoles  in  Florida  in  1818,  when  general  Jackson  subdued  them.  Another 
protracted  and  expensive  warfare  there  commenced  and  continued  until 
1842.  General  Jessup,  general  Taylor,  and  others,  were  engaged  in  it.  The 
Seminole  chief,  Osceola,  was  captured,  1837.  Population  in  1880,  34,723 ; 
in  1840,  54,477  including  25,717  slaves. 

FLORIN.  A  coin  first  made  bj''  the  Florentines.  A  floren  was  issued  by  Ed- 
ward III,  which  was  current  in  England  at  the  value  of  6s.,  in  1337. — Cam- 
den. This  English  coin  Avas  called  floren  after  the  Florentine  coin,  because 
the  latter  was  of  the  best  gold. — Ashe.  The  florin  cf  Gemaany  is  in  value 
2s.  4:d. ;  that  of  Spain  4s.  4J^. ;  that  of  Palermo  and  Sicily  2s.  6^. ;  that  of 
Holland  2s.—Ayliffe. 

FLOWERS.  The  most  delightful  and  fragrant  among  the  ornaments  of  our 
gardens  are  of  foreign  production.  The  modern  taste  for  flowers  canle,  it  is 
said,  from  Persia  to  Constantinople,  and  was  imported  thence  to  Europe  for 
the  first  time  in  the  sixteenth  century ;  at  least  many  of  the  productions  of 
our  gardens  were  conveyed  by  that  channel. — Beckmann.  With  what  good- 
ness does  God  provide  for  our  happiness  and  enjoyments,  by  making  even 
the  most  remote  countries  contribute  towards  them  ! — Sturm.  From  the 
reign  of  Henry  VII.  to  that  of  Elizabeth,  our  present  common  flowers  were, 
for  the  most  part,  introduced  into  England.  The  art  of  preserving  flowers 
in  sand  was  discovered  in  1633.  A  mode  of  preserving  them  from  the  effects 
of  frost  in  winter,  and  hastening  their  vegetation  in  summer,  was  invented 
in  America,  by  George  Morris,  in  1792.  Among  the  flowers,  the  periods  of 
whose  introduction  to  English  garden.^  have  been  traced,  Haydn  gives  the 
following : — 


FLOWERS,   PLANTS,  <S:C. 

Acacia,  N.  America,  before      -     a.  d 
Allspice  shrub,  Carolina     - 
Anniseed  tree,  Florida,  about 
Arbor  Vits,  Canada,  before 
Arctopus,  Cape  of  Good  Hope 
Auricula,  Switzerland 
Azarole,  S.  Europe,  before 
Bay,  royal,  Madeira 
Bay,  sweet.  Italy,  before 
Camellia,  Cliina 
Chaste  tree,  Sicily,  before 
Christ's  thorn,  Africa,  before 
Canary  bell-flower,  Canaries 
Carnation,  Flanders 
Ceanothus,  blue.  New  Spain 
Canary  convolvulus.  Canaries 
Convolvulus,  many-flowered 
Coral  tree,  Cape 
Coral  tree,  bell-flowered.  Cape 
Coral  tree,  tremulous,  Cape 
Creeper,  Virginian,  N.  America 
Dahlia,  China 
Dryandra,  New  Holland 
Evergreen  thorn,  Ilaly 
Everlasting,  great- flowered,  Cape 
Everlasting,  giant.  Cape     - 
Fembush,  sweet,  N.  America  - 
Fox-glove,  Canaries 
Geranium,  Flanders 
Gillyflower,  Flanders 


1040 
172G 
1766 
1.596 
1774 
1567 
1640 
1665 
1548 
1811 
1570 
1596 
1696 
1567 
1818 
1690 
1779 
1816 
1791 
1789 
1603 
1803 
1S03 
1629 
1781 
1793 
1714 
1698 
15.34 
1567 


Gold-plant,  Japan 

Golden  bell-flower,  Madeira 

Hawthorn,  American,  from  N.  Amer 

ica,  before 
Heath,  ardent,  Cape 
Heath,  beautiful.  Cape 
Heath,  fragrant.  Cape  - 
Heath,  garland.  Cape 
Heath,  perfumed,  Cape 
Honeyflower,  great.  Cape  - 
Honeysuckle,  Chinese,  China  - 
Honeysuckle,  fly,  Cape 
Honeysuckle,  trumpet,  N.  America 
Hyssop,  south  of  Europe,  before   - 
Jasmine,  Circassia,  belore 
Jasmine,  Catalonian'  East  Indies  - 
Judas-tree,  south  of  Europe,  before 
Laburnum,  Hungary 
Laurel.  Alexandi-ian,  Portugal,  befor 
Laurestine,  south  of  Europe,  before 
Lavender,  south  of  Europe,  before 
Lily,  Italy,  before     - 
Lily,  gigantic,  N.  South  Wales 
Lily,  red-colored,  South  America  - 
Loblolly-bay,  N.  America,  before 
Lupine  tree.  Cape,  about    - 
Magnolia  (see  Magnolia),'^.  America 
Magnolia,  dwarf,  China 
Magnolia,  laurel-leaved,  N.  America 
Maidenhair,  Japan  - 
Mignionette,  Italy 


1783 
1777 

16S3 
1800 
1795 
1803 
1774 
1803 
1688 
1806 
1752 
1656 
1548 
1548 
1629 
1596 
1576 
1713 
1596 
1568 
1460 
1800 
1623 
1739 
1793 
1688 
1786 
1734 
1714 
1528 


324 


THE    WORLD  S   PROGIIESS. 


[JTON 


Rose,  tube,  from  Java  and  Ceylon  -  1629 
Rose  without  thorns,  N.  America,  be- 
fore              1726 

Rosemary,  south  of  Europe     -  -  1548 

St.  Peter's  wort.  North  America  -  ■  1730 

Sage,  African,  Cape      -           -  •  1731 

Sage,  Mexican,  Mexico       -           -  •  1724 

Sassafras  tree,  N.  America,  before  -  1663 

Savin,  south  of  Europe,  before      -  -  15S4 

Snowdrop,  Carolina      -           -       .  -  1756 

Sorrel  tree,  N.  America,  before     -  -  1752 

Sweet  bay,  south  of  Europe,  before  -  1548 

Tamarisk  plant,  Germany  -           -  -  1560 

Tea  tree,  China,  about  -           -  -  1768 

Tooth-ache  tree,  Carolina,  before  -  -  1739 

Trumpet-flower,  N.  America  -  -  1640 

Trumpet-flower,  Cape        -           -  -  1823 

Tulip,  Vienna     ...  -  1578 

Virginia  creeper,  N.  America,  before  1629 

Virgin's-bower,  Japan  -           -  -  1776 

Weeping  willow,  Levant,  before  -  -  1692 

Wax  tree,  China           -           -  -  1794 

Winter  berry,  Virginia       -           -  -  1736 

Youlan,  China    -           -           .  -  1789 


FLOWERS,  contimied. 

Milk-wort,  great-flowered.  Cape    -  -  1713 

Milk-wort,  showy,  Cape  -  -  1814 

Mountain  tea,  N.  America,  before  -  -  1758 
Mock  orange,  south  of  Europe,  before  1596 

Mynle,  candleberry,  N.  America  -  -  1699 

Myrtle,  woolly-leaved,  China  -  -  1776 

Nettle-tree,  south  of  Europe,  before  -  1596 

Olive,  Cape,  Cape         -  -  -  1730 

Olive,  sweet-scented,  China  -  -  1771 

Oleander,  red,  south  of  Europe  -  1596 

Paraguay  tea,  Carolina,  before      -  -  1724 

Passion-flower,  Brazil  -  -  -  1692 

Passion-flower,  orange,  Carolina   -  -  1792 

Pigeon-berry,  N.  America       -  -  1736 

Pmk,  from  Italy       -  -  -  -  1567 

Ranunculus,  Alps  -  -  -  1528 

Roses,  Netherlands  -  -  •  -  1522 

Rose,  the  China,  China  ■  -  -  1789 
Rose,    the    damask,    Marseilles,    and 

south  of  Europe,  about         -  -  1543 

Rose,  the  Japan,  China       -  -  -  1793 

Rose,  the  moss,  before  -  -  -  1724 

Rose,  the  musk,  Italy  -  -  -  1522 

Rose,  the  Provence,  Flanders  -  -  1567 
Rose,    sweet-scented    guelder,    from 

China 1821 

FLUTE.  Invented  by  Hyagnis,  a  Phrygian,  the  father  of  Marsyas. — Phdarch. 
The  flute,  harp,  lyre,  and  other  instruments  were  known  to  the  Romans ; 
and  the  flute  was  so  prized  in  antiquity,  that  several  female  deities  lay 
claim  to  its  invention.  It  was  in  far  more  general  use  as  a  concert  instru- 
ment than  the  violin,  until  early  in  the  last  century,  when  the  works  of  Co- 
relli  came  over. — See  Music. 

FLUXIONS.  Invented  by  Newton,  1669.  The  differential  calculus  by  Leib- 
nitz, 1684.  The  finest  applications  of  the  calculus  are  by  Newton,  Euler, 
La  Grange,  and  La  Place. 

FLYING,  Artipicial.  It  has  been  attempted  in  all  ages.  Friar  Bacon  main- 
tained the  possibility  of  the  art,  and  predicted  it  would  be  of  general  prac- 
tice, A.  D.  1273.  Bishop  Wilkins  says,  it  will  yet  be  as  usual  to  hear  a  man 
call  for  his  wings  when  he  is  going  on  a  journey,  as  it  is  now  to  hear  him 
call  for  his  boots,  1651.  We  apprehend  that  many  ages  will  pass  away  jjre- 
viously  to  the  accomplishment  of  these  predictions. 

FONTAINEBLEAU,  Peace  op,  concluded  between  France  and  Denmark  in 
1679.  Treaty  of  Fontainebleau  between  the  emperor  of  Germany  and 
Holland,  signed  November  8,  1785.  Treaty  of  Fontainebleau  between  Na- 
poleon and  the  royal  family  of  Spain,  Oct.  27,  1807.  Concordat  of  Fon- 
tainebleau between  Napoleon  and  pope  Pius  VII.  January  25,  1813.  Fon- 
tainebleau was  entered  by  the  Austrians,  Feb.  17,  1814.  And  here 
Napoleon  resigned  his  imperial  dignity,  and  bade  a  farewell  to  his  army, 
April  5,  1814. 

FONTENOr,  Battle  of,  near  Tournay,  between  the  French  under  count'Saxe, 
and  the  English,  Hanoverians,  Dutch,  and  Austrians,  commanded  by  the 
duke  of  Cumberland.  The  battle  was  fought  with  great  obstinacy,  and  the 
carnage  on  both  sides  was  considerable*  the  allies  losing  12,000  men,  and 
the  French  nearly  an  equal  number  of  lives  ;  but  the  allies  were  in  the  end 
defeated.  Count  Saxe,  who  was  at  the  time  ill  of  the  disorder  of  which 
he  afterwards  died,  was  carried  about  to  all  the  posts  in  a  litter,  assuring 
his  troops  that  the  day  would  be  their  own;  April  30,  1745. 

FONTS,  Formerly  the  baptistry  was  a  small  room,  or  place  partitioned  off  in 
a  church,  where  the  persons  to  be  baptized  (many  of  whom  in  the  early 


FOO  J  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  32fl 

ages  were  adults),  were  submerged.  Previously  to  these  artificial  reser- 
voirs, lakes  and  rivers  were  resorted  to  for  immersion.  Fonts  for  the  initia- 
tion into  Christianity  were  instituted  in  a.  d.  167. 
FOOLS,  Festivals  of,  at  Paris.  They  were  held  on  the  first  of  January,  and 
were  continued  for  240  years.  In  their  celebration,  we  are  told,  all  sorts  of 
absurdities  and  indecencies  were  committed,  a.  d.  1198.  Fools  or  licensed 
jesters  were  kept  at  court  in  England  (as  they  were  at  other  courts  of  Eu- 
rope), and  were  tolerated  up  to  the  time  of  Charles  1. 1625. 

FORESTS.  There  were  in  England,  even  in  the  last  century,  as  many  as  65 
forests,  18  chases,  and  upwards  of  780  parks.  The  New  Forest  in  Hamp- 
shire was  made  by  William  I.,  who  for  that  purpose  destroyed  36  parishes, 
pulled  down,  36  churches,  and  dispeopled  the  country  for  30  miles  round, 
A.  D.  1079-85.— (Siow. 

FORGERY  IN  England.  The  forging  of,  or  giving  in  evidence  forged  deeds,  &c., 
made  punishable  by  fine,  by  standing  in  the  pillory,  having  both  ears  cut 
off,  the  nostrils  slit  up  and  seared,  the  forfeiture  of  land,  and  perpetual 
imprisonment,  5  Elizabeth,  1562.  Forgery  was  first  punished  by  death  in 
1684. 

FORGERY",  Remarkable  Executions  for.  The  unfortunate  Daniel  and  Ro- 
bert Perreau,  brothers  and  wine-merchants,  were  hanged  at  Tyburn,  Jan- 
uary 17,  1776.  The  rev.  Dr.  Dodd  was  found  guilty  of  forging  a  bond,  in 
the  name  of  Lord  Chesterfield,  for  4,200Z. :  the  greatest  interest  was  made, 
and  the  highest  influence  was  exerted  to  save  him,  but  when  the  case  came 
before  the  council,  the  minister  of  the  day  said  to  George  III.,  "if  your 
majesty  pardon  Dr.  Dodd,  you  will  have  murdered  the  Perreaus  ;"  and  he 
was  hanged  accordingly,  June  27,  1777.  Mr.  Henry  Fauntleroy,  a  London 
banker,  was  hanged,  November  30,  1824.  Joseph  Hunton,  a  quaker  mer- 
chant, suffered  death,  December  8,  1828.  The  last  criminal  hanged  for 
forgery  at  the  Old  Bailey,  was  Thomas  Maynard,  December  31,  1829. 

FORKS.  They  were  in  use  on  the  Continent  in  the  13th  and  14th  centuries — 
Voltaire.  This  is  reasonably  disputed,  as  being  too  early.  In  Fynes  Mory- 
son's  Itinerary,  reign  of  Elizabeth,  he  says,  "  At  Venice  each  person  was 
served  (besides  his  knife  and  spoon)  with  a  fork  to  hold  the  meat  while  he 
cuts  it,  for  there  they  deem  it  ill  manners  that  one  should  touch  it  with  his 
hand."  Thomas  Coryate  describes,  with  much  solemnity,  the  manner  of 
using  forks  in  Italy,  and  adds,  "I  myself  have  thought  it  good  to  imitate 
the  Italian  fashion  since  I  came  home  to  England,"  a.  d.  1608. 

FORTIFICATION.  The  Phoenicians  were  the  first  people  who  had  fortified 
cities.  Apollodorus  says  that  Perseus  fortified  Mycense,  where  statues 
were  afterwards  erected  to  him.  The  modern  system  was  introduced  about 
A.  D.  1500.  Albert  Durer  first  wrote  on  the  science  in  1527  ;  and  improve- 
ments were  made  by  Vauban,  towards  1700. 

FOTHERINGAY  CASTLE,  Northamptonshire.  Built  a.  d.  1408.  Here  Richard 
III.  of  England  was  born  in  1443  ;  and  Mary  queen  of  Scots,  whose  death 
is  an  indelible  stain  upon  the  reign  of  our  great  Elizabeth,  was  beheaded 
in  this  castle,  in  which  she  had  been  long  previously  confined,  February  8, 
1587,  after  an  unjust  and  cruel  captivity  of  almost  nineteen  years  in  Eng- 
land.   It  was  ordered  to  be  demolished  by  her  son  James  I.  of  England. 

FOUNDLING  HOSPITAL.  "  A  charity  practised  by  most  nations  about  us 
for  those  children  exposed  by  unnatural  parents." — Addison.  Foundling 
hospitals  are,  comparatively,  of  recent  institution  in  England,  where  it 
would  appear  none  existed  when  Addison  wrote.  The  foundling  hospital 
at  Moscow,  built  by  Catherine  II.,  was  an  immense  and  costly  edifice,  in 
which  8000  infant  children  were  succored. 


H2Q 


THE    world's    progress. 


[fra 


FRANCE.  This  country  was  known  to  the  Romans  by  the  name  of  Gaul.  In 
the  dechne  of  their  power  it  was  conquered  by  the  Franks,  a  people  of  Ger- 
many, then  inhabiting  what  is  still  called  Franconia.  These  invaders  gave 
the  name  to  the  kingdom ;  but  the  Gauls,  being  by  far  the  most  numerous, 
are  the  real  ancestors  of  the  modern  French.  Previous  to  the  revolution, 
France  was  divided  into  32  provinces ;  and  after  that  era  it  was  divided, 
first  into  84,  and  subsequently  into  103,  departments,  including  Corsica 
Geneva,  Savoy,  and  other  places,  chiefly  conquests.    Tab.  Vieics,  65  et  seq. 


The  Franks,  under  their  leader  Phara- 
mond,  settle  in  that  part  of  Gaul  till 
late  called  Flanders     -  -    A.  D.    420 

Reign  of  Clovis  the  Great         -  -   481 

[The  Events  in  French  History  and  the 
succession  of  sovereigns  will  be  found 
in  the  Tabular  Views  in  this  volume, 
commencing  p.  65.] 
72n.  Cbilderic  II. 
737.  Charles  Martel  ruled  wiih    despotic 

sway  during  an  interregnum. 
742.  Childeric    111.,    the    Stupid  ;    turned 
monk. 

THE  CARLOVINGIANS. 

752.  Pepin  the  Short,  son  of  Charles  Mar- 
tel ;  this  race  called  Carlovingians. 

768.  Charlemagne,  or  Charles  the  Great; 
also  emperor  of  Germany. 

914.  Louis  I.,  the  Gentle,  surnamed,  also, 
the  Debonnaire  ;  dethroned,  and  im- 
prisoned in  a  monastery. 

840.  Charles  II.,  surnamed  the  Bald;  poi- 
soned by  his  physician  HenauU. 

877.  Louis  the  Stammerer. 

879.  Carloman  and  Louis  IIL  The  latter 
died,  88'2.     Carloman  reigned  alone. 

884.  Charles  the  Fat ;  an  usurper. 

887.  Eudesor  Ungh. 

398.  Charfes  IIL,  the  Simple;  deposed  and 
died  in  prison. 

923.  Rudolph. 

93G  Louis  IV.,  d'Outremer;  died  by  a  fall 
from  his  horse. 

954.  Lothaire  III.  poisoned ;  it  is  said  by 
his  wife  Emma, 

986.  Louis  V.  the  Indolent ;   poisoned  by 

his  wife  Blanche,  and  in  him  ended 
the  I'lce  of  Charlemagne. 

THE   CAPETS. 

987.  Hugh  Capet,  from  whom  this  race  of 

kings  are  called  Capevingians. 
996.  Robert  the  Sage. 
1031.  Henry  I. 
1060.  Philip  I.,  the  Fair. 
1108.  Louis  VI.,  the  Lusty. 
1137.  Louis  VII.,  the  Young. 
1180.  Philip  II.,  Augustus. 
1223.  Louis  VIIL,  the  Lion. 
1226.  Louis  IX.,  called  St.  Louis ;  died  in 

liis  cairip  before  Ttmis ;  canonized. 
1270.  Philip  Ilf,  tlie  Hardy. 
1285.  Philip  IV.,  the  Handsome. 
1314.  Louis  X.,  Hutin. 
1316.  John,  who  reigned  only  eiglit  days. 
1316.  Philip  v.,  the  Long. 
1323.  Charles  IV.,  the  Handsome;  king  of 

Navarre. 

HOUSE    OP   VALOIS. 

1328.  Philip  de  Valois. 


1350.  John  II. ;  died  suddenly  in  the  Savoy 
in  London. 

1364.  Charles  V.,  surnamed  the  Wise  ;  the 
first  prince  who  had  the  title  of  dau- 
phin.    (See  article  Dauphin.) 

1380.  Charles  VI.,  the  Beloved. 

1422.  Charles  VII.,  the  Victciious. 

1461.  Louis  XI.,  detested  for  his  atrocious 
cruelties. 

14a3.  Charles  VIII.,  the  Affable. 

1498.  Louis  XII.,  duke  of  Orleans,  surnamed 
the  Father  of  his  People. 

1515.  Francis  I. 

1547.  Henry  II. :  died  of  a  wound  received 
at  a  tournament. 

1559.  Francis  II.  ;    married   Mary   Stuart, 

afterwards  queen  of  Scots ;  died 
the  year  after  his  accession. 

1560.  Charles  IX.    Catherine  of  Medicis,  his 

motlier,  obtained  the  regency,  which 
trust  she  abused. 

1574.  Henry  III.,  elected  king  of  Poland; 
nmrdered  Aug.  1,  15S9,  by  Jacques 
Clement,  a  Dominican  friar.  In  this 
prince  was  extinguished  the  houso 
of  Valois. 

1589.  Henry  IV.,  the  Great,  of  Bourbon, 
king  of  Navarre  ;  murdered  by  Fran- 
cis Ravillac.     (See  Ravillac.) 

1610.  Louis  XIII.,  the  Just. 

1643.  Louis  XIV.,  the  Great,  also  styled 
Dieu-Donne. 

1715.  Louis  XV.,  the  Well-Beloved;  but 
which  surname  he  lost. 

1774.  Louis  XVI.,  his  grandson  ;  guillo- 
tined, Jan.  21,  1793;  and  his  queen 
Maria-Antoinette,  Oct.  16,  following. 

1789.  The  Revolution  commences  with  tlie 
destruction  of  the  Bastile,  July  14. 

1795.  Louis  XVII.,  dies  in  prison. 

FRENCH  EMPIRE. 

1804.  Napoleon  Bonaparte  declared  Empe- 
ror, May  18,  1804 ;  crowned  by  the 
pope,  Dec.  2,  following  ;  assumes 
the  iron  crown.  May  26, 1805.  Re-- 
nounces  the  thrones  of  France  anJ 
Italy,  Apr.  5, 1814. 

BOUKBONS  RESTORED. 

1814.  Louis  XVIII. ;  ascends  the  throna, 
May  3,  1814  ;  dies,  Sept.  16,  1824. 

1824.  Cliaries  X.  ;  deposed,  July  30,  1830; 
retires  to  Eambouillet  same  daj, 
and  subsequently  seeks  protection 
in  England. 

HOUSE  OF  ORLEAHP. 

1830,  Louis- Philippe  ;  declared  "  king  o» 
the  French,"  August  9. 


FRE  ]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  327 

FRANCHISE.  A  privilege,  or  exemption  from  ordinary  jurisdiction ;  and  an- 
ciently an  asj-lum  or  sanctuary  where  the  person  was  secure.  In  Spain, 
churclies  and  monasteries  were,  until  lately,  franchises  for  criminals,  as  they 
were  formerly  in  England.  The  elective  franchise  was  conferred  for  coun- 
ties on  persons  having  40s.  a  year  in  land,  39  Henry  VI.,  1460. — Ruff  head's 
Statutes.     See  Electors. 

FRANCISCANS.  An  order  of  friars,  called  also  Gray  Friars,  in  the  Church 
of  Rome,  founded  by  Francis  de  Assise  in  a.  d.  1209,  or,  according  to  some 
authorities,  about  1220.  Their  rules  were  chastity,  poverty,  obedience,  and 
very  austere  regimen  of  life.  In  1224  they  are  said  to  have  appeared  in 
England,  where,  at  the  time  of  the  dissolution  of  Monasteries  by  Henry  VIII., 
thej'  had  liftj^-five  abbeys  or  other  houses,  a.  d.  1536-38. 

FRANKFORT  on  the  Main.  Many  ages  a  free  city ;  it  was  taken  and  retaken 
several  times  during  the  wars  of  the  late  and  present  centuries,  and  felt  the 
iron  rule  of  Bonaparte  from  1803  to  1813,  when  its  independence  was  guar- 
anteed by  the  allied  sovereigns.  The  diet  of  the  princes  of  Germany  was 
established  here  hj  the  Rhenish  confederation  in  1806. 

FREDERICKSHALL,  Siege  of.  Rendered  memorable  by  the  death  of 
Charles  XII.,  of  Sweden,  who  was  killed  by  a  cannon-shot  before  its  walls, 
and  while  in  the  trenches,  leaning  against  the  parapet,  examining  the  works. 
He  was  found  in  that  position,  with  his  hand  upon  his  sword,  and  a  prayer- 
book  in  his  pocket,  Dec.  11,  1718.  It  is  now  generally  supposed  that  a  i)is- 
tol  fired  by  some  near  and  traitorous  hand  closed  the  career  of  this  cele- 
brated monarch,  who  was  too  aptly  styled  the  "  Madman  of  the  North." 

FREEMASONRY.  It  is  of  great  antiquity.  Writers  on  masonry,  themselves 
masons,  affirm  that  it  has  had  a  being  "  ever  since  symmetry  began,  and 
harmony  displayed  her  charms'."  Masonry  is  traced  by  some  to  the  build- 
ing of  Solomon's  temple  ;  and  it  is  said  the  architects  from  the  African  coast, 
Mahometans,  brought  it  into  Spain,  about  the  sixth  century,  as  a  protec- 
tion against  Christian  fanatics.  Its  introduction  into  Great  Britain  has  been 
fixed  at  the  year  a.  d.  674;  although  by  other  authorities  it  is  assigned  a 
much  earlier  date.  The  grand  lodge  at  York  was  founded  a.  d.  926.  Free- 
masonry was  interdicted  in  England,  a.  d.  1424 ;  but  it  afterwards  rose  into 
great  repute.  In  1717,  the  grand  lodge  of  England  was  established ;  that 
of  Ireland  Was  established  in  1730 ;  and  that  of  Scotland  in  1736.  Freema- 
sons were  excommunicated  by  the  pope,  in  1738. 

FRENCH  LANGUAGE.  The  language  of  France  and  many  of  the  French 
laws  and  customs  were  first  introduced  into  England  by  William  I.  1066. 
The  language,  and  fashions  in  dress  and  diet  were  then  very  general  in  Eng- 
land. Law  pleadings  were  changed  from  French  to  English,  in  the  reign  of 
Edward  III.,  1362.— Stowe. 

FRENCHTOWN,  Canada.  This  town  was  taken  from  the  British  by  the 
American  general,  Winchester,  January  22,  1813.  It  was  retaken  by  the 
British  forces  under  general  Proctor,  immediately  afterwards,  and  the  Ameri- 
can commander  and  his  troops  were  made  prisoners.     ■ 

FRENCH  WAR,  in  North  America.  The  first  war  between  France  and  Eng- 
land, which  was  carried  on  also  by  the  American  colonies,  1689.  Thv) 
French  destroyed  Schenectady,  N.  Y.,  Casco,  Me.,  &c.,  1690 ;  but  were  defeated 
by  Schuyler  at  La  Prairie,  1691.  Peace  of  Ryswyck,  1697.  "  Queen  Anne's 
war,"  1702.  French  and  Indians  ravaged  Maine,  1703.  French  and  Spanish 
invade  Carolina,  1706.  Expedition  from  New  England  against  the  French 
in  Port  Royal,  1707 ;  and  against  Canada,  1710 ;  both  failed.  Peace  of 
Utrecht,  1713.  Another  war  declared  by  England,  1744;  Louisbourg"  and 
Cape  Breton  taken  by  English  colonists,  1745.      Peace,  1749.     French  en- 


328  THE    world's    progress.  [  FRO 

croachinent  on  English  colonies,  1750,  leads  to  the  noted  .French  war,  1752-3, 
Washington's  mission,  1754.  Braddock's  defeat,  1755.  Oswego,  &c.  taken 
by  French,  1756,  and  fort  William  Henry,  1757.  Louisbourg  taken  by  the  Eng- 
lish general  Amherst,  and  fort  Du  Quesne  by  general  Forbes,  1758.  Ticon- 
deroga,  Crown  Point,  Niagara,  and  Quebec  taken  by  the  English  (sir  W. 
Johnson  and  General  Wolfe),  1759.  Canada  surrendered  \o  Great  Britain, 
Sept.  8,  1760,  and  secured  to  her  by  the  peace  of  Paris,  1763. 
French  alliance  with  the  United  States  in  the  war  of  the  revolution,  Feb.  6, 
1778.  French  revolution  and  politics  caused  serious  dissensions  in  the 
United  States,  1793-6.    French  spoliations  on  American  commerce,  1797. 

FRIDAY.  The  sixth  day  of  the  week ;  so  called  from  Friga,  a  goddess  wor- 
shipped by  our  forefathers  on  this  day,  commonly  supposed  to  be  the  same 
with  Venus.  Friga  was  the  wife  of  Thor,  and  goddess  of  peace,  fertility, 
and  riches.  Good-Friday  is  a  fast  in  the  church  of  England  in  memory  of 
our  Saviour's  crucifixion,  April  3,  33.     See  Good  Friday. 

FRIEDLAND,  Battle  of,  between  the  allied  Russian  and  Prussian  armies  on 
the  one  side,  and  the  French,  commanded  by  Napoleon  in  person,  who  com- 
pletely vanquished  the  allies,  with  the  loss  of  eighty  pieces  of  cannon,  and 
50,000  men,  June  14,  1807.  This  victory  led  to  the  peace  of  Tilsit,  by  which 
Russia  lost  no  territory,  but  Prussia  was  obliged  to  surrender  nearly  half  her 
dominions. 

FRIENDLY  ISLES.  These  islands  Avere  discovered  by  Tasman,  a.  d.  1642. 
Visited  by  Wallis,  who  called  them  Keppel  Isles,  1767;  and  by  capt.  Cook, 
who  called  them  by  tlieir  present  name  on  account  of  the  friendly  disposi- 
tion of  the  natives,  1773. 

FRIENDLY  SOCIETIES,  England.  These  useful  institutions  originated  in 
the  clubs  of  tlie  industrious  classes ;  and  since  they  began  to  spring  into 
importance  they  have  been  regulated  and  protected  by  various  legislative 
enactments.  They  have  now,  with  other  similar  institutions,  more  than 
twenty  millions  sterling  in  the  public  funds.  Laws  regarding  Friendly 
Societies  consolidated  by  statute,  June,  1829.     See  Charities. 

FRIESLAND.  Formerly  governed  by  its  own  counts.  On  the  death  of  prince 
Charles  Edward,  in  1744,  it  became  subject  to  the  king  of  Prussia ;  Han- 
over disputed  its  possession,  but  Prussia  prevailed.  It  was  annexed  to  Hol- 
land by  Bonaparte,  in  1806,  and  afterwards  to  the  French  empire ;  but 
Prussia  regained  the  country  in  1814.  The  term  Chevaux  de  Frise  (some- 
times, though  rarely,  written  Clieval  de  Frise,  a  Friesland  Horse')  is  derived 
from  Friesland,  where  it  was  invented. 

FROBISHER'S  STRAITS.  Discovered  by  sir  Martin  Frobisher.  the  first  Eng- 
lishman who  attempted  to  find  a  northwest  passage  to  China,  in  1576. 
After  ex|)loring  the  coast  of  New  Greenland,  he  entered  this  strait,  which 
has  ever  since  been  called  by  his  name.  Frobisher  returned  to  England, 
bringing  with  him  a  quantity  of  black  ore,  which  was  supposed  to  contain 
gold,  and  which  induced  queen  Elizabeth  to  patronize  a  second  voyage,  and 
lend  a  sloop  of  war  for  the  purpose.  The  delusion  was  even  kept  up  to  a 
third  expedition ;  but  all  of  them  proved  fruitless. 

FROSTS  The  Euxinc  Sea  frozen  oyer  for  twenty  daj's,  a.  d.  401. —  Univ.  Hist. 
A  frost  at  Constantinople  which  commenced  in  October,  763,  and  continued 
until  February  of  the  next  year ;  the  two  seas  there  were  frozen  a  hundred 
miles  from  the  shore. —  Univ.  Hist.  A  frost  in  England  on  Midsummer-day 
was  so  violent  that  it  destroyed  the  fruits  of  the  earth,  1035. — Speed.  The 
frost  in  Russia  in  1812  surpassed  in  intenseness  that  of  any  winter  in  that 
country  for  many  preceding  years,  and  caused  the  total  destruction  of  the 
French  army  in  its  retreat  from  Moscow,  at  the  close  of  that  memorable 


fun] 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  329 


year.  Napoleon  commenced  his  retreat  on  the  9th  November,  when  the 
frost  covered  the  ground,  and  the  men  perished  in  battalions,  and  the  horses 
fell  by  hundreds  on  the  roads.  What  with  her  loss  in  battle,  and  the  effects 
of  this  awful  and  calamitous  frost,  France  lost  in  the  campaign  of  this  year 
more  than  400,000  men. 
FRUITS  OF  FOREIGN  COUNTRIES.  Several  varieties  of  fruit  are  hientioned 
as  having  been  introduced  into  Italy,  70  b.  c.  et  seq.  Exotic  fruits  and 
flowers  of  various  kinds,  previously  unknown  in  England,  were  brought 
thither  in  the  reigns  of  Henry  VII.  and  VIII.,  and  of  Mary  and  Elizabeth, 
between  the  years  1500  and  1578.  See  Gardening,  and  Flowers.  Among 
others  of  less  note,  were  musk-melons,  plum-trees,  and  currant-plants  of  sun- 
dry sorts,  the  musk  and  damask  roses,  tulips,  &c. ;  also  saffron,  woad,  and 
other  drugs  for  dyeing,  but  these  last  were  attempted  to  be  cultivated  Avith- 
out  success.— Hackluyt;  Lord  Kaimes.  The  following  are  among  the  fruits 
whose  introduction  into  England  has  been  traced  : — 

FRUITS,  ETC.  Mulberry,  the  red,  from  North  Ame- 

Almond-tree,  Barbary    -  •    a.  d.  1548         rica,  before       -  -  -     a.  d.  1629 

-   -  •  ,.   ,  _   ■  -   1754 

1562 
1730 
1771 
1595 
1562 


Apples,  Syria  -  -  -      -1522     Mulberry,thepaper,  from  .'(.pan,  befo: 


Apple,  the  custard,  North  AmericB  -  1736  Nectarine,  Persia 

Apple,  the  Osage,  ditto             ■  -  1818  Olive,  the  Cape,  Cape   - 

Apricots,  Epirus      -           •           -  -  1540  Olive,  the  sweet-scented,  China 

Cherry-trees,  Pontus      -           -  -    100  Oranges 

Cornelian  cherry,  Austria  -           -  -  1596  Peaches,  Persia  - 

Currants,  Zante  -           -           -  -  1533  Pears,  from  various  climes 

Currant,  the  hawthorn,  Canada  -  1705  Pine-apple,  Brazils         -           -           -  1568 

Fig-tree,  south  of  Europe,  before  -  1548  Pippins,  Netherlands           -           -     - 1525 

Fig,  the  Botany-bay.  New  South  Wales  1789  Plums,  Italy        ....  1522 

Gooseberries,  Flanders,  before  -  154t)  Plum,  the  date,  Barbary      -           -     -  1596 

Grapes,  Portugal            -           -  -  1528  Pomegranate,  Spain,  before      -.          -  1548 

Lemons.  Spain         -           -           -  -  1554  Quince,  Austria       -           -           -      -  1573 

Limes,  Portugal  ...  -  1554  Quince,  the  .Tapan          -           -           -  1796 

Lime,  the  American,  before           -  -  1752  Raspberiy,  the  flowering,  N.  America  -  1700 

Melons,  before     .           -           -  -  1.540  ,  Raspberry,  the  Virginian,  ditto,  before  -  1696 

Mock  ora.nge.  south  of  Europe,  before- 1596  !  Strawberry,  Flanders  -           -      -1530 

Mulberry,  Italy         -           -           •  -  1520  !  Strawberry,  the  Oriental  Levant          -  1724 

M  ilberry,  white,  China,  about  -  -  IS96  Walnut,  the  black,  N.  America,  before  1629 

FUNDS  To  the  Venetians  is  ascribed  the  origin  of  the  funding  system,  in 
A.  D.  1171.  Public  funds  were  raised  by  the  Medici  family  at  Florence,  in 
1340.  The  English  funding  system,  or  the  method  of  raising  the  supplies 
for  the  public  service  in  England,  lay  anticipations  of  the  public  revenues 
(the  origin  of  the  national  debt),  introduced  at  the  Revolution,  1689. — Mor- 
timer's  Broker.  The  funding  system  is  coeval  with  the  commencement  of 
the  Bank  of  England. — Anderson.  The  Three  per  cent,  annuities  were  crea- 
ted in  1726.  The  Three  per  cent,  consols  were  created  in  1731,  The  Three 
per  cent,  reduced,  1746.  Three  per  cent,  annuities,  payable  at  the  South  Sea- 
house,  1751.  Three  and  a-half  per  cent,  annuities  created,  1758.  Long  annui- 
ties, 1761.  Four  per  cent,  consols,  1762.  Five  per  cent,  annuities,  1797,  and 
1802.     Five  per  cents,  reduced  to  four,  1822.     See  National  Debt. 

FUNERAL  GAMES  are  mentioned  by  most  early  writers.  Among  the  Greeks 
they  were  chiefly  hoi'se  races;  and  among  the  Romans,  pi-ocessions  and  tne 
mortal  combats  of  gladiators  around  the  funeral  pile.  These  games  were 
abolished  by  the  emperor  Claudius,  a.  d.  47.  Funeral  orations  have  a  hea- 
then origin.  Solon  was  the  first  who  spoke  one,  580  b.  c.  They  were  in- 
dispensable among  the  Romans ;  the  custom  of  led  horses  took  place  a.  d 
1268.     A  tax  laid  on  funerals  in  England,  1793. 

FUNERAL  ORATIONS.  The  Romans  pronounced  harangues  over  their  dead, 
when  people  of  quality,  and  great  deeds,  and  virtues.  Theopompus  obtain- 
ed a  prize  for  the  best  funeral  oration  in  praise  of  Mausolus,  353  b.  c.  Po- 
pilia  was  the  first  Roman  lady  who  had  an  oration  pronounced  at  her  funeral 


330  THE    world's    progress.  [  GAR 

which  was  done  by  her  son  Crassus;  and  it  is  observed  by  Cicero  that  Jnhus 
Caesar  did  tlie  like  for  his  aunt  Julia,  and  his  wife  Cornelia.  In  Greece, 
Solon  was  the  first  who  pronounced  a  funeral  oration,  according  to  Herodo- 
tus, 580  B.  c. 
FUR.  The  refined  nations  of  antiquity  never  used  furs :  in  later  times,  as  lux- 
ury advanced,  they  were  used  by  princes  as  linings  for  their  tents.  They 
were  worn  by  our  first  Henry,  about  a.  d.  1125.  Edward  III.  enacted  that 
all  such  persons  as  could  not  spend  lOOZ.  a  year,  should  be  prohibited  this 
species  of  finery,  1337. 

G. 

GALLEYS.  The  ancient  galleys  with  three  rows  of  rowers,  tri-remes,  were 
invented  by  the  Corinthians,  786  b.  c. — Blair.  They  were  built  at  Athens, 
786  B.  c.  For  an  account  of  their  construction  and  the  method  of  fighting 
in  them,  see  Polybius. 

GALVANISM.  The  discovery  of  it  is  recent ;  it  was  first  noticed  in  1767,  by 
Saltzer;  but  it  was  not  till  about  1789  that  Mrs.  Galvani,  wife  of  Dr.  Galvani 
of  Bologna,  accidentally  discovered  Its  extraordinary  efiects  on  animals ;  and 
from  the  name  of  the  discoverer  it  was  called  galvanism.  Mrs.  Galvani 
having  observed  the  convulsions  produced  in  the  muscles  of  frogs  by  the 
contact  of  metals,  directed  her  husband's  attention  to  the  phenomenon ;  and 
in  1791,  Galvani  announced  the  result  of  his  observations  on  this  subject. 
Since  that  period  a  great  many  experiments  have  been  made,  and  many  cu- 
rious facts  observed,  which  have  excited  much  attention  among  i^hilosophers. 
See  Electro- Galva)dsm.  Bonaparte,  after  the  discovery  of  the  true  principles 
of  galvanic  electricity  by  Volta,  presented  him  with  a  gold  medal,  and  3000 
livres,  in  1808. — Phillips.    See  Mesmerism. 

GAME  LAWS.  The  laws  restricting  the  killing  of  game  are  peculiar  to  the 
north  of  Europe,  and  partake  of  the  nature  of  the  forest  laws  imposed  by 
William  the  Conqueror,  who,  to  preserve  his  game,  made  it  forfeiture  of 
property  to  disable  a  wild  beast,  and  loss  of  eyes  for  a  stag,  buck,  or  boar. 
Of  these  laws  the  clergy  were  zealous  promoters:  and  they  jirotested  against 
ameliorations  under  Henry  III.  The  first  game  act  in  England  passed  in 
1496.  Game  certificates  were  first  granted  with  a  duty  in  1784-5.  Nume- 
rous statutes  have  been  passed  on  this  subject  from  time  to  time. 

GAMING,  ExcE.ssivE.  Introduced  into  England  by  the  Saxons;  the  loser  was 
often  made  slave  to  the  winner,  and  sold  in  tratfic  like  other  merchandise. — 
Camden ;  Starve.  Act,  prohibiting  gaming  to  all  gentlemen  (and  interdicting 
tennis,  cards,  dice,  bowls,  &c.,  to  inferior  people,  except  at  Christmas  time). 
83  Henry  VIII.  1541.  Gaming-houses  were  licensed  in  London  in  1620.  Act 
to  prevent  excessive  and  fraudulent  gaming,  when  all  private  lotteries,  and 
the  games  of  Faro,  Basset,  and  Hazard  were  suppressed,  13  George  II.  1739. 
— Ru  f head's  Statutes.  The  profits  of  a  well-known  gaminghouse  in  London 
for  one  season  have  been  estimated  at  150,000^.  In  one  night  a  million  of 
money  is  said  to  have  changed  hands  at  this  place. — Leigh. 

GAMES.  Those  of  Greece  and  Rome  will  be  found  under  their  respective 
heads.  The  candidates  for  athletic  games  in  Greece  used  to  be  dieted  on 
new  cheese,  dried  figs,  and  boiled  grain,  with  warm  water,  and  no  meat.  The 
games  were  leaping,  foot-races,  darting,  quoits,  wrestling,  and  boxing.  See 
the   CapitoUne,  Isthmian,  Olympic,  Pythian,  Secular,  and  other  Games. 

GARDENING.  Gardening  was  one  of  the  first  arts  that  succeeded  the  art  of 
building  houses. —  Watjuilc.  Noah  planted  a  vineyard,  and  drank  of  the  wine. 
Of  fruit,  flower,  and  kitchen  gardens,  the  garden  of  Eden  was,  no  doubt, 


war] 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES. 


331 


the  prototype. — Idem.  There  wants  nothing  but  the  embroiderj^  of  a  par- 
terre to  make  a  garden  in  the  reign  of  Trajan  serve  for  a  description  of  one 
in  that  of  our  Wilham  III.— Idem.  The  art  of  gardening  became  better 
understood  in  England  about  a.  d  1500,  before  which  time  many  of  our 
vegetables  were  imported  from  Brabant.  The  era  of  the  art  was  the  reign 
of  Elizabeth ;  but  the  modern  mode  of  gardening  was  introduced  about 
1700.    The  following  came  from  the  countries  respectively  named : — 


ROOTS  AND  VEGETABLES. 

Rice,  from 

Buckwheat 

Borage     - 

Cresses 

Cauliflower 

Asparagus 

L§ttuce     - 

Artichol.'os 

Garlic 

Shallota 

Horse-radish 


-  Ethiopia 

-  Asia 

-  Syria 

-  Crete 

-  Cyprus 

-  Asia 

-  Brabant 

-  Holland 
■  The  East 

-  Siberia 

-  Chma 


Kidney-brans  -  East  Indies 
Gourds     ■        -  Astracan 


Carrots 
Brocoli 
Beans  - 
Peas- 


-  Flanders 

-  Cyprus 

-  Greece 

-  Spain 


FRUITS  AND  FLOWERS. 


Plums  -       -   -  Damascus 
Oranges   -        -  Spain 
Lemons        -    -  Spain 
Pink         -        -  Italy 
Provence-rose  -  Marseilles 
Convolvulus    -  Canaries 


Cape 

Canaries 

Pontus 

Italy 

Barbary 

Italy 

Persia 

Brazil 


Weep.  Willow  Levant 
Fennel  -        -    -  Canaries 


Arctopus 

Jasmine        -  -  Circassia  Bell-fower 

Elder-tree  -  Persia  Cherr.iS 

Tulip    -        -  -  Cappadocia  Figs  - 

Daffodil    -  -  Italy  Date-plum 

Lily      -  Syria  Mulberry 

Tuberose  -  Java,  &c.  Nectarine 

Carnation     ■       Italy,  &c.  Passion-flower 
Ranunculus         Alps 

Lentils  -        -    -  France  Api'jles         -  ■  Syria  Rosemary        -  Italy 

Chervil     -        -  Italy  Apricots  -  -  Epirus  Laburnum   -    -  Hungary 

Celery  -        -    -  Flanders         Currants       -  -  Zante  Laurel      -        -  Levant 

Potatoes   •        -  Brazil  Damask-rose  -  Damascus  Lavender     -    ■  Italy_ 

Tobacco       -    -  America         Hops    -        -  -  Artois  Peaches    -        -  Persia 

Cabbage   •        -  Holland  Gooseberries  -  Flanders  Uui»ice         -    -  Austria 

Anise    -        -    -  Egypt  Gilly-flowers  -  Toulouse 

Parsley     •        -  Egypt  Musk-rose  -  Damascus 

Musk-melons  and  other  rich  fnrits  that  are  now  cultivated  in  England,  and 
the  pale  gooseberry,  together  with  salads,  garden-roots,  cabbages,  (fcc, 
were  brought  from  Flanders,  and  hops  from  Artois,  in  1520.  The  damask- 
rose  was  brought  hither  by  Dr.  Linacre,  physician  to  Henry  VIII.,  about 
1540.  Pippins  were  brought  to  England  by  Leonard  Mascal,  of  Plumstead, 
in  Sussex,  1525.  Currants  or  Corinthian  grapes  were  first  planted  in  Eng- 
land in  1533,  brought  from  the  Isle  of  Zante.  The  musk-rose  and  several 
sorts  of  plums  were  brought  from  Italy  by  lord  Cromwell.  Apricots  came 
from  Epirus,  154:0.  The  tamarisk  plant  was  brought  from  Germany,  by 
archbishop  Grindal,  about  1570  ;  and  about  Norwich,  the  Flemings  planted 
flowers  unknown  in  England,  as  gilly-flowers,  carnations,  the  Provence  rose, 
&c.,  1567.  Woad  came  originally  from  Toulouse,  in  France.  Tulip  roots 
from  Vienna.  1578 ;  also,  beans,  peas  and  lettuce,  now  in  common  use, 
1600.  See  Flowers;  Fruits. 
GARTER,  Ordkr  of  the.  This  institution  outvies  all  other  similar  institu- 
tions in  the  world.  It  owes  its  origin  to  Edward  III.,  who  conquered  France 
and  Scotland,  and  brought  their  kings  prisoners  to  England.  Edward, 
with  a  view  of  recovering  France,  which  descended  to  him  by  right  of  his 
mother,  was  eager  to  draw  the  best  soldiers  of  Europe  into  his  interest,  and 
thereupon  projecting  the  revival  of  king  Arthur's  round  table,  he  proclaimed 
a  solemn  tilting,  to  invite  foreigners  and  others  of  quality  and  courage  to 
the  exercise.  The  king,  upon  New  Year's  day,  1844,  published  royal 
letters  of  protection  for  the  safe  coming  and  returning  of  such  foreign 
knights  as  had  a  mind  to  venture  their  reputation  at  the  jousts  and  tour- 
naments about  to  be  held.  The  place  of  the  solemnity  was  Windsor ;  it 
was  begun  by  a  feast,  and  a  table  was  erected  in  the  castle  of  200  feet  dia- 
meter, in  imitation  of  king  Arthur's  at  Winchester,  and  the  knights  were 
entertained  at  the  king's  own  expense  of  lOOZ.  a  week.  In  1346,  Edward 
gave  bis  garter  for  the  signal  of  a  battle  that  had  been  crowned  Avith  suc- 
cess (supposed  to  be  Cressy),  and  being  victorious  on  sea  and  land,  and 
having  David,  king  of  Scotland,  a  prisoner ;  and  Edward  the  Black  Prince, 


332     "  THE    AVORLD's    progress.  [  GEN 

his  son,  having  expelled  the  rebels  in  Castile,  and  enthroned  the  lawful  so- 
vereign, Don  Pedro,  he,  in  memory  of  these  exploits,  instituted  this  order, 
A.  D.  April  23,  1349-50.  Edward  gave  the  garter  pre-eminence  among  the 
ensigns  of  the  order ;  it  is  of  blue  velvet  bordered  with  gold,  with  the  in- 
scription in  old  French — "  Honi  soU  qui  mal  y  pense  " — evil  to  him  who  evil 
thinks.  The  knights  are  always  installed  at  Windsor;  and  were  styled 
Equites  aurecs  Periscelidis,  knights  of  the  golden  garter. — Beatson. 

GAS.  The  inflammable  aeriform  fluid  was  first  evolved  from  coal  by  Dr. 
Clayton,  in  1739. — Phil.  Trans.  Its  application  to  the  purposes  of  illumi- 
nation was  first  tried  by  Mr.  Murdock,  in  Cornwall,  in  1792.  The  first  dis- 
play of  gas-lights  was  made  at  Boulton  and  Watt's  foundry,  in  Birmingham, 
on  the  occasion  of  the  rejoicings  for  peace  in  1802.  Gas  was  permanently 
used  to  the  exclusion  of  lamps  and  candles  at  the  cotton  mills  of  Phillips 
and  Lee,  Manchester,  where  1000  burners  were  lighted,  1805.  Gas-lights 
were  first  introduced  in  London,  at  Golden-lane,  August  16,  1807.  They 
were  used  in  lighting  Pall  Mall,  in  1809;  and  were  general  through  London 
in  1814.  They  were  first  used  in  Dublin  in  1816,  and  the  streets  there  ge- 
nerally lighted  in  October,  1825.  The  gas-pipes  in  and  round  London  ex- 
tend to  1100  miles.  The  streets  in  New  York  (the  first  in  the  United  States) 
first  lighted  with  gas,  1823-4. 

GAZETTE.  A  paper  of  public  intelligence  and  news  of  divers  countries,  first 
printed  at  Venice  about  the  year  1620,  and  so  called  (some  saj')  because 
ima  gazctta,  a  SBiall  piece  of  Venetian  coin,  was  given  to  buy  or  read  it. 
Others  derive  the  name  from  gaza,  Italian  for  magpie,  i.  e.  chatterer. — 
Tnisler.  A  gazette  was  printed  in  France  in  1631 ;  and  one  in  Germany  in 
ni5.—Nouv.  Did.  Hist. 

GAZETTE,  THE  LONDON.  See  Neivspapers.  The  first  English  gazette  was  pub- 
lished at  Oxford,  the  court  being  then  there  on  account  of  the  plague,  Nov. 
7,  1665.  On  the  removal  of  the  court  to  the  capital,  the  title  was  changed 
to  the  London  Gazette,  Feb.  5,  1666.  London  Gazettes  Extraordinary  are 
used  for  the  publication  of  extraordinary  ofiicial  news.  One  of  these  latter 
was  forged  with  a  view  of  afiecting  the  funds,  May  22,  1787.  The  fraud 
succeeded,  but  the  planners  of  it  were  never  discovered. — Phillips.  The 
Dublin  Gazette  was  first  published  in  an  official  form  about  1767. 

GENERAL  ASSEMBLY  of  SCOTLAND.  The  first  General  Assembly  of  the 
church  was  held  December  20,  1560.  The  General  Assembly  constitutes 
the  highest  ecclesiastical  court  in  the  kingdom  ;  it  meets  annually  in  Edin- 
burgh in  May,  and  sits  about  ten  days.  It  consists  of  a  grand  commis- 
sioner, appointed  by  the  king,  who  represents  his  majesty,  and  delegates 
from  presbyteries,  royal  boroughs,  and  universities,  some  being  laymen. 
To  this  court  all  appeals  from  the  inferior  ecclesiastical  courts  lie,  and  its 
decision  is  final.     See  Church  of  Scotland. 

GENERALS.  This  rank  has  been  given  to  commanders  from  very  remote 
times.  Matthew  de  Montmorency  was  the  first  officer  honored  with  the 
title  of  General  of  the  French  armies,  a.  d.  1203. — Henault.  It  is  observed 
by  M.  Balzac  that  cardinal  Richelieu  first  coined  the  word  Generalissimo, 
upon  his  taking  the  supreme  command  of  the  French  armies  in  Italy,  in 
1629. 

GENEVA.  Part  of  the  empire  of  Charlemagne,  about  a.  d.  800.  The  Repub- 
lic was  founded  in  1512.  It  became  allied  to  the  Swiss  Cantons  in  1584. 
Memorable  insurrection  here,  February  1781 :  about  1000  Genevans,  in 
consequence  of  it,  applied,  in  1782,  to  earl  Temple,  lord  lieutenant  of  Ire- 
land, for  permission  to  settle  in  that  country :  the  Irish  parliament  voted 
50.000Z.  to  defray  the  expenses  of  their  joui-ney,  and  to  purchase  them 
lands  near  Waterford,  called  New  Geneva.     Many  of  the  fugitives  oame  tc 


GEO  ]  DICTIONARif    OF    DATES.  333 

Ii-elaad  iu  July  1783,  but  they  soon  after  abandoned  it :  at  this  period  many 
Genevan  families  settled  in  England.  Another  revolution,  July  1794.  Ge- 
neva was  admitted  by  the  diet  into  the  Swiss  Confederation,  in  1813. 

GENOA.  Its  ancient  inhabitants  were  the  Ligures,  who  submitted  to  the  Ro- 
mans. 115b.  c,  and  underwent  the  revolutions  of  the  Roman  empire  till 
A.  D.  950.  The  Genoese  revolt  against  their  count,  choose  a  doge  and  other 
magistrates  from  among  their  nobility,  and  become  an  aristocratic  Republic, 
1030  to  1034.  Several  revolutions  occurred  up  to  1528,  when  the  celebrated 
Andrew  Doria  rescued  his  country  from  the  dominion  of  foreign  powei'S. 
Bombarded  by  the  French  in  1684,  and  by  the  British  in  1688  and  1745. 
Genoa  was  taken  by  the  Imperialists,  Dec.  8,  1746 ;  but  their  oppression  of 
the  people  was  such,  that  the  latter  suddenly  rose,  and  expelled  their  con- 
querors, who  again  besieged  the  city  the  next  year,  August  17,  without 
eflfect.  Genoa  Tost  Corsica  1730.  The  celebrated  bank  failed  1750.  The 
city  sustained  a  siege  by  a  British  fleet  and  Austrian  army,  until  literally 
starved,  and  was  evacuated  by  capitulation,  Maj^  1800  ;  but  it  was  surren- 
dered to  the  French  soon  after  their  victory  at  Mai'engo.  The  Jiigurian 
Republic  was  founded  upon  that  of  Genoa,  in  1801,  and  the  doge  solemnly 
invested,  August  10,  1802.  Genoa  annexed  to  the  French  empire,  May  25, 
1805.  It  surrendered  to  the  combined  English  aiid  Sicilian  army,  April  18, 
1814 ;  and  was  transferred  to  the  king  of  Sardinia  in  1816.  Insurrection 
against  Victor  Emmanuel,  April  1 ;  subdued  April  11,  1849. 

GENTLEMEN.  The  Gauls  observing  that,  during  the  empire  of  the  Romans, 
the  Scutarii  and  Gentiles  had  the  best  appointments  of  all  the  soldiers,  ap- 
plied to  them  the  terms  ecuyers  and  gentilsho7)imes.  This  distinction  of  gen- 
tleman was  much  in  use  in  England,  and  was  given  to  the  well  descended, 
about  A.  D.  1430. — Sidney. 

GEOGRAPHY.  The  first  correct  record  we  have  of  geographical  knowledge 
is  from  Homer.  He  describes  the  shield  of  Achilles  as  representing 
the  earth,  surrounded  by  the  sea. — Iliad.  He  accurately  describes  the 
countries  of  Greece,  islands  of  the  Archipelago,  and  site  of  Troy.  The 
isriests  taught  that  the  temple  of  Apollo  at  Delphos  was  the  centre  of  the 
world.  Anaximander  of  Miletus  was  the  inventor  of  geographical  maps, 
about  568  b.  c.  Hipparchus  attempted  to  reduce  geography  to  mathemati- 
cal bases,  about  135  b.  c.  It  was  first  brought  to  Europe  by  the  Moors  of 
Barbary  and  Spain,  about  a.  d.  1201. — Lenglet.  The  invention  of  the  mari- 
ner's compass  is  the  important  connecting-link  between  ancient  and  modern 
geography.  The  modern  maps  and  charts  were  introduced  into  England 
by  Bartholomew  Columbus  to  illustrate  his  brother's  theory  respecting  a 
western  continent,  a.  d.  1489. 

GEOLOGY.  The  science  of  the  earth  has  been  the  subject  of  philosophical 
speculation  from  the  time  of  Homer ;  and  this  science  is  said  to  have  been 
cultivated  in  China  many  ages  before  the  Christian  era.  When  the  theories 
and  discoveries  of  geologists  were  first  propounded,  they  were  condemned  as 
being  opposed  to  the  statements  of  the  Bible ;  but  in  this  enlightened  age  the 
astronomer  and  geologist,  in  proportion  as  their  minds  are  expanded  by 
scientific  investigation,  see  that  there  is  no  collision  between  the  discovericf- 
in  the  natural  world,  and  the  inspired  record.  We  are  not  called  upon  l>y 
Scripture  to  admit,  neither  are  we  required  to  deny,  the  supposition  that 
the  matter  without  form  and  void,  out  of  which  this  globe  of  eartli  was 
framed,  may  have  consisted  of  the  wrecks  and  relics  of  more  ancient  worlds 
created  and  destroyed  by  the  same  Almighty  power  which  called  our  world 
into  being,  and  will  one  day  cause  it  to  pass  away.  Thus  while  the  Bible 
reveals  to  us  the  moral  history  and  destiny  of  our  race,  and  teaches  us  tliat 
man  and  other  living  things  have  been  placed  but  a  few  thousand  years 


3^4  THE    world's    progress.  [  GEB 

upon  the  earth,  the  physical  monuments  of  our  globe  bear  witness  to  tHe 
same  truth  ;  and  as  astronomy  unfolds  to  us  myriads  of  worlds,  not  spoken 
of  in  the  sacred  records,  geology  in  like  manner  proves,  not  by  arguments 
dra-vvn  from  analogy,  but  by  the  incontrovertible  evidence  of  physical  phe- 
nomena, that  there  were  former  conditions  of  our  planet,  separated  from 
each  other  by  vast  intei'vals  of  time,  during  which  this  world  was  teeming 
with  life,  ere  man,  and  the  animals  which  are  his  contemporaries,  had  been 
called  into  being. — Dr.  Mantell  and  Bishop  Blomfield. 

GEOMETRY.  Its  origin  is  ascribed  to  the  Egyptians ;  the  annual  inundations 
of  the  Nile  having  given  rise  to  it  by  carrying  away  the  landmarks,  and  the 
boundaries  of  farms.  Thales  introduced  geometry  into  Greece  about  600 
B.  c.  Euclid's  Elements  were  compiled  about  280  b.  c.  The  doctrine  of 
curves  originally  attracted  the  attention  of  geometricians  from  the  conic 
sections,  which  were  introduced  by  Plato  about  390  b,  c.  The  conchoid 
curve  was  invented  by  Nicomedes,  220  b.  c.  The  sciencvi  of  geometry  was 
taught  in  Europe  in  the  thirteenth  century.  Books  on  the  subject  of  geo- 
metry and  astronomy  were  destroyed  in  England,  being  regarded  as  infected 
with  magic,  7  Edward  VI.,  1552. — Stoioe. 

GEORGES'  CONSPIRACY.  The  memorable  conspiracy  in  France ;  general 
Moreau,  general  Pichegru,  Georges  Cadoudal,  who  was  commonly  known 
by  the  name  of  Georges,  and  others,  arrested  at  Paris,  charged  with  a  conspi- 
racy against  the  life  of  Bonaparte,  and  for  the  restoration  of  Louis  XVIII., 
Feb.  23, 1804.  The  conspirators  were  tried  June  9,  when  seventeen  were 
sentenced  to  death,  and  many  to  imprisonment.  Moreau  was  suffered  to  leave 
France,  and  was  escorted  from  the  temple  to  embark  for  America,  June  22. 
In  1813  he  received  his  mortal  wound  before  Dresden,  which  see. 

GEORGIA,  one  of  the  United  States,  was  granted  by  George  II.  to  Gen.  Ogle- 
thorpe, who,  with  forty  followers,  founded  Savannah,  Feb.  1,  1733.  Savan- 
nah taken  by  the  Britisli  in  the  revolutionary  war,  Dec.  29,  1778  ;  the  town 
and  State  evacuated  by  them  in  July  1782.  The  State  unanimously  adopted 
tlie  Federal  Constitution,  Jan.  2, 1788.  Population  in  1790,  82.584 ;  in  1840, 
691,392,  including  280,944  slaves.     Staple  commodities,  cotton  and  rice. 

GERMANIC  CONFEDERATION.  Napoleon  had  determined  that  the  German, 
or  Holy  Roman  Empire,  as  it  was  called,  should  no  longer  exist ;  but  that 
instead  thereof  a  confederation  of  states  should  be  formed ;  and  this  ar- 
rangement was  adopted  in  1815.  by  the  allied  sovei-eigns ;  and  Germany  is 
now  governed  b.y  a  diet  consisting  of  seventeen  voices,  and  in  case  any 
alteration  be  requisite  in  the  constitution,  they  are  then  to  take  a  new  divi- 
sion, and  the  general  assembly  then  to  be  formed  is  to  contain  sixty-five, 
divided  according  to  the  relative  consequence  of  the  states.     See  Addenda. 

GERMANY.  From  Germanni,  warlike  men.  First  mentioned  by  the  Roman 
historians  about  211  b.  c.  :  it  was  anciently  divided  into  several  independent 
states  until  25  b.  c,  when  the  Germans  withstood  the  attempt  of  the  Romans 
to  subdue  them,  although  tliey  conquered  some  parts;  but  by  the  repeated 
efforts  of  the  Germans  they  were  entirely  expelled,  about  a.d.  290.  In  432, 
the  Huns,  driven  from  China,  conquered  the  greatest  part  of  this  extensive 
coimtry ;  but  it  was  not  totally  subdued  till  Charlemange,  the  first  emperor, 
became  master  of  the  whole,  a.  d.  802. 

Charlemagne  crowned  emperor  of  the  Charles  HI.  was  the  first  sovereign  who 

West  atllome  -  -        a.  d.  800  ;      added  "  in  the  year  of  oui'  Lord"  to 

He  adds  a  second  head  to  the  eagle,  to  :      his  reign  ....    87£ 

denote  that  the  empires  of  Rome  and  |  The  German  princes  assert  their  inde- 

Germany  are  united  in  him   -  -  802  j      pendence,  and  Conrad  reigns  -    912 

Louis  (£)e6ore«a/ce)  separates  Germany  [The  electoral  character  assumed  about 

freni  France     -  -  -  -  814  I      this  time.    See  Eleclots.]       -  -    912 


GEE,  ] 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES. 


335 


GERINIANY,  continued. 

Reign  of  Henry  I.  (king)  surnamed  the 
Fowler ;  he  vanquishes  the  Huns, 
Danes,  Vandals,  and  Bohemians 

Otho  I.  extends  liis  dominions,  and  is 
crowned  emperor  by  the  pope 

Henry  III.  conquei-s  Bohemia,  wasting 
it  with  tire  and  sword 

Peter  the  Hermit  leads  the  crusaders 
through  Germany,  where  they  mas- 
sacre tlie  Jews  -  -  -  . 

Henry  IV.  excommunicated  by  pope 
Pascal  I.  (Hildebrand)  about 

Disputes  relating  to  ecclesiastical  in- 
vestitures, with  the  pope 

The  Guelph  and  Ghibeline  teuds  begin 

Conrad  III.  leads  a  large  army  to  The 
holy  wars,  where  it  is  destroyed  by 
the  treachery  of  the  Greeks    - 

Teutonic  order  of  knighthood 

Reign  of  Rodolph,  count  ofHapsburgh, 
chosen  by  the  electors 

The  famous  edict,  called  the  Golden 
Bull,  by  Charles  IV.     - 

Sigismond,  king  of  Bohemia,  elected 
emperor.  He  betrays  John  Huss  and 
Jerome  of  Prague,  who  are  burned 
alive  (see  Bohemia)   - 

Sigismond  being  driven  from  the  throne, 
Albert  II.,  duke  of  Austria,  succeeds. 
(In  his  family  the  crown  resides  for 
three  centuries) 

The  Pragmatic  sanction  {which  see)    - 

Tiie  empire  divided  into  circles 

Era  of  the  Reformation  (iyM?/je;0 

AlDdication  of  Charles  V. 

War  of  the  two  parties,  the  Evangelic 
union  under  Frederick,  elector  pala- 
tine, and  the  Catholic  league,  under 
the  duke  of  Bavaria 

Battle  of  Prague,  which  lost  the  elector 
palatine  the  crown 

Treaty  of  Westphalia  -  -   ,  - 

John  Sobieski,  king  of  Poland,  defeats 
the  Turks  in  many  battles,  and  obliges 
them  to  raise  the  siege  of  Vienna 

The  peace  of  Carlowiiz 

The  Pragmatic  sanction  {ichich  see)    - 

The  reign  of  Charles  VI.  is  chiefly  occu- 
pied with  wars  against  the  Turks,  and 
in  establishing  the  Pragmatic  sanc- 
tion, in  favor  of  the  succession  of  his 
daughter,  Maria  Theresa,  married  to 
the  duke  of  Lorraine        -        1711  to 

Francis  I.,  Duke  of  Lorraine,  marries 
the  heiress  of  Austria,  the  celebrated 
Maria  Theresa,  queen  of  Hungary ; 
and  is  elected  emperor 

Joseph  II.  extends  his  dominions  by  the 
dismemberment  of  Poland 

Again,  by  the  final  partition  of  that  de- 
voted kingdom 

[Li  the  ruinous  wars  between  Germany 
and  France,  the  emperor  loses  the 
Netherlands,  all  his  territories  west 
of  the  Rhine,  and  his  estates  in  Italy, 
1793,  et  seq.'\ 

Francis  I.  assumes  the  title  of  empe- 
ror of  Austria    -  -         Aug.  11, 

Dissolution  of  the  German  empire';  for- 
mation of  the  Confederation  of  the 
Rhine  -  -  -     July  12, 

General  agitation  among  the  iieo|)le. 


919 
962 
1042 

1095 

1106 

1122 
1140 


1147 
1190 


1273 
1356 


1414 


1438 
1439 
1512 
1517 
1550 


1620 
1648 


1683 
1699 
1722 


1745 
1772 
1795 


ISM 


and  demands  for  reform  granted  in 
various  degrees  by  sovereigns  of 
Prussia,  Bavaria,  &c. ;  and  by  those 
of  the  smaller  principalities  of  Ger- 
many    •  -        Feb.  and  March,  1848 

A  federal  union  of  the  German  States 
demanded  by  Prussia  March,  1848 

Congress  of  deputies  at  Frankfort — Mit- 
ter-Meyer,  President  March  31, 1848 

German  Parliament  meets  at  Frank- 
fort       -  -  -  May  18,  1818 

The  archduke,  John  of  Austria,  elected 
by  the  parliament  as  lord-lieutenant 
of  the  Empire-  -  June  29, 1843 

He  is  installed  at  Frankfort,  and  names 
his  ministers    -  -  July  15,  1848 

Great  excitement  in  German)^  on  ac- 
count of  the  execution  at  Vienna  of 
Robert  Blum,  a  Leipsic  publisher, 
for  aiding  the  insurrection      Nov.  "  1848 


814. 
840. 
855. 
875. 
878. 
879. 


912. 

912. 
919. 
936. 
973. 
983. 
1002. 

1024. 
1039. 
10.55. 
1077. 
lOSO. 
1105. 
1125. 
11.38. 
1152. 

1191. 
1198. 
1208. 
1211. 
1245. 
1246. 
1273. 

1291. 
1298. 
1308. 

1314. 

1347. 
1378 
1399. 
1400. 
1410. 
1437. 

1440. 


EMPERORS   Cr-   GBMANY. 

Charlemagne  the  Great. 

Louis  the  Debonnaire. 

Lothaire. 

Louis  II. 

Charles  II.,  the  Bald  ;  poisoned. 

Louis  III.,  the  Stammerer. 

Charles  III.,  the  Gross. 

Arnould. 

Louis  IV. 

Oiho,  duke  of  Saxony  ;  he  refused  the 

dignity  on  account  of  his  age. 
Conrad,  duke  of  Franconia. 
Henry  I.,  the  Fowler. 
Otho  I.,  the  Great. 
Otho  II,,  the  Bloody. 
Otho  III.,  the  Red  ;  poisoned. 
Henry  II.,  duke  of  Bavaria ;  the  Holy 

and  Lame. 
Conrad  II.,  the  Salique. 
Henry  III.,  the  Black. 
Henry  IV. ;  deposed. 
Rodolphus;  killed  in  battle. 
Henry  IV. ;  re-instated. 
Henry  V. 
Lothaire  II. 
Conrad  III. 

Frederick  Barbarossa ;  drowned  ia  Bo- 
hemia. 
Henry  VI.,  the  Sharp. 
Philip  ;  killed  at  Bamberg.  - 
Otho  IV;  deposed. 
Frederic  II. ;  deposed. 
Henry  VII  ;  killed. 
William  ;  killed  in  battle. 
Rodolphus,  count  of  Hapsburg,  the 

first  of  the  Austrian  family. 
Adolphus ;  deposed. 
Albert  I. ;  killed  by  his  nephew. 
Henry  VIII. ;  poisoned  by  a  priest,  in 

the  consecrated  wafer. 
Louis  IV.,  of  Bavaria ;  killed  by  a  fall 

from  his  horse. 
Charles  IV.,  of  Luxembourg. 
Wenceslaus,  king  of  Bohemia. 
Frederick,  Dukeof  Brunswick. 
Rupert,  palatine  of  the  Rhine. 
Sigismond,  king  of  Hungary. 
Albert  II.,  duke  of  Austria  and  king  of 

Bohemia. 
Frederick  III.,  archduke  of  Austria. 


336 

GERMANY,  continued. 


THE    WORLD  S    PROGRESS. 


[  GIB 


1493.  Maximilian  I. ;  lie  married  the  heiress 

of  Burgundy. 
1519.  Charles  V.,  king  of  Spain. 
1558.  Ferdinand!.,  king  of  Hungary. 
1564.  Maximilian  II. 
1576.  Rodolphus  II. 
1612.  Matthias  I. 

1619.  Ferdinand  II.,  king  of  Hungary. 
1637.  Ferdinand  III.,  ditto. 
1658.  Leopold  L,  ditto 
1705.  Joseph  II.,  ditto,  and  of  Bohemia. 
1711.  Charles  VL 
1742.  Charles  VII. 


1745.  Francis!.;  husband  of  Maria  Theresa 
queen  of  Hungary  and  Bohemia. 

1765.  Joseph  II. 

1790.  Leopold  II. 

1792.  Francis  II. ;  he  takes  the  title  of  era 
peror  of  Austria  only,  in  1806. 

1806.  Confederation  of  the  Rhine  (which  see). 

)815.  Germanic  Confederation. 

1835.  Ferdinand  I.,  of  Austria. 

(See  Tabular  Views  in  this  vol.,  beginning 
p.  76 ;  see,  also,  Austria,  Bavaria, 
Prussia,  Wurteinburg,  &c.) 


There  are  about  20  German  principalities  with  territories  equal  to  English 
counties.  The  free  towns  are  Hamburg,  Bremen,  Frankfort  on  the  Maine 
(one  of  the  greatest  trading  places  in  Europe),  and  Lubeck,  which  was  the 
head  of  the  famous  Hanseatic  League,  formed  in  that  city  in  1164. 

GHENT.  Anciently  the  capital  of  the  Nervii.  Prince  John,  third  son  of  Ed- 
ward III.  of  England,  was  born  here,  and  hence  named  John  of  Gaunt. 
Pacification  of  Ghent,  November  8,  1576.  Ghent  was  taken  by  the  duke  of 
Marlborough  in  a.  d.  1706,  and  several  times  taken  and  retaken  by  the  con- 
tending armies  during  the  late  wars.  The  peace  of  Ghent  between  Great 
Britain  and  the  United  States,  was  signed  here,  December  24,  1814. 

GIANTS.  The  emperor  Maximus  was  eight  feet  and  a  half  in  height;  he  was 
also  of  great  bulk,  and  used  the  bracelet  of  his  wife  as  a  ring  for  his  thumb, 
and  his  shoe  was  longer  by  a  foot  than  that  of  an  ordinary  man. — Zuinglius. 
"  The  tallest  man  that  hath  been  seen  in  our  age  was  one  named  Gabara, 
who  in  the  days  of  Claudius  the  late  emperor  was  brought  out  of  Arabia. 
He  Avas  nine  feet  nine  inches  high." — Pliny.  John  Middleton,  of  Hale,  in 
Lancashire,  born  in  1578,  was  nine  feet  three  inches  high.  Patrick  Cotter, 
the  celebrated  Irish  giant,  born  in  1761,  was  eight  feet  seven  inches  in 
height ;  his  hand,  from  the  commencement  of  the  palm  to  the  extremity  of 
the  middle  finger,  measured  twelve  inches,  and  his  shoe  was  seventeen  inch- 
es long;  he  died  in  September  1806,  in  his  46th  year.  Giants'  bones  17,  18, 
20,  and  30  feet  high,  were  once  reported  to  have  been  found  ;  but  there  is 
now  no  doubt  that  they  were  organic  remains  of  colossal  quadrupeds. 

GIBRALTAR.  A  fortress,  whose  immense  strength  excites  wonder  and  admi- 
ration, and  renders  it  impregnable :  it  is  the  ancient  Calpe,  which,  with 
Abyla  on  the  opposite  shore  of  Africa,  obtained  the  name  of  the  Pillars  of 
Hercules.  The  height  of  the  rock,  according  to  Cuvier,  is  1437  English 
feet :  it  was  taken  by  the  Saracens  under  Tarik  ( Gibel-  Tarik,  Mountain  of 
Tarik,  whence  its  present  name)  in  x.  d.  712.  In  the  year  1462  the  king  of 
Castile  took  Gibraltar  from  the  Moors  ;  and  the  English,  under  sir  George 
Rooke,  the  prince  of  Hesse  Darmstadt,  sir  John  Leake,  and  admiral  Byng, 
bravely  won  it,  July  24,  1704.  It  was  surrendered,  after  a  dreadful  cannon- 
ade, to  the  British,  by  the  governor,  the  marquis  de  Salines ;  and  it  has  since 
continued  an  appendage  to  the  British  crown. 


Gibraltar  attacked  by  the  British  on  the 
21st  July,  and  taken  on  the  24th,  a.  d.  1704 

Besieged  by  the  Spanish  and  French : 
they  lose  10,000  men,  and  the  victori- 
ous English  but  400     -  Oct.  11,  1704 

The  Spaniards  agam  attack  Gibraltar, 
and  are  repulsed  with  great  loss       -  1720 

They  again  attack  it  with  a  force  of 


20,000  men,  and  lose  5000,  while  the 
loss  of  the  English  is  only  300  -  1727 

Memorable  siege  of  the  Spaniards  and 
French,  whose  prodigious  arma- 
ments* (the  greatest  ever  brought 
against  a  fortress)  were  wholly  over- 
thrown. The  siege  continued  from 
July  1779,  to  Feb.        -  -  1783 


*  The  army  amounted  to  40,000  men.    The  duke  of  Crillon  commanded  12,000  of  the  best  troops 
of  France.     1000  pieces  of  "artillery  were  l)roLight  lo  bear  against  the  fortre.ss,  besiiles  which,  there 


GLE  ]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  337 

GILDING.  First  practised  at  Rome,  about  145  b.  c.  The  capitol  was  the  first 
building  on  which  this  enrichment  was  bestowed. — Pliny.  Of  gold  leaf  for 
gilding  the  Romans  made  but  750  leaves,  four  fingers  square,  out  of  a  whole 
ounce. — Pliny.  It  consequently  was  more  like  our  plating. —  Trusler.  A 
single  grain  ot  gold  may  now  be  stretched  out  under  the  hammer  into  a  leaf 
that  Avill  cover  a  hoii.se. — Dr.  Halley.  Gilding  with  leaf  gold  on  bole  ammo- 
niac was  first  introduced  by  Margaritone,  in  1273.  The  art  of  gilding  on 
wood,  previously  known,  was  improved  in  1680. 

GISORS,  Battle  of,  in  France,  between  the  armies  of  France  and  England,  in 
which  the  former  was  signally  defeated  by  Richard  I.,  whose  parole  for  the 
day  was  '•  Dieiict  mon  ciroii" — "  God  and  my  right;"  and  from  this  time  it 
■  "was  made  the  motto  to  the  royal  arms  of  England,  a.  d.  1198. 

GI  ADIATORS.  They  were  originally  malefactors  who  fought  for  their  lives, 
or  captives  who  fought  for  their  freedom.  They  exhibited  at  the  funeral 
ceremonies  of  the  Romans,  263  b.  c,  probably  following  the  Greek  custom 
of  sacrificing  to  the  manes  of  deceased  warriors  the  prisoners  taken  in  battle. 
Gladiator  fights  afterwards  exhibited  at  festivals,  about  215  b.  c.  When 
Dacia  was  reduced  by  Trajan,  1000  gladiators  fought  at  Rome  in  celebra- 
tion of  his  triumph  for  123  days,  a.  d.  103.  Their  combats  on  public  thea- 
tres were  suppressed  in  the  East  by  Constantino  the  Great,  a.  d.  325.  Fi- 
nally suppressed  by  Theodorick,  in  the  year  500. — Lenglet. 

GLASGOW.  Erected  into  a  burgh  in  a.  d.  1180.  Its  charter  was  obtained  from 
James  II.,  in  1451,  at  which  period  the  university  was  foimded.  Its  earliest 
commerce  was  in  salmon,  about  1420. 

GLASS.  The  Egyptians  are  said  to  have  been  taught  the  art  of  making  glass 
by  Hermes.  The  discovery  of  glass  took  place  in  Syria. — Pliny.  Glass- 
houses were  erected  in  Tyre,  where  glass  was  a  staple  manufacture  for 
many  ages.  This  article  is  mentioned  among  the  Romans  in  the  time  of 
Tiberius ;  and  we  know,  from  the  ruins  of  Pompeii,  that  windows  were 
formed  of  glass  before  a.  d.  79.  Italy  had  the  first  glass  windows,  next 
France,  whence  they  came  to  England.  Used  for  windows  in  private  houses 
in  the  reign  of  Henry  II.,  1177,  but  imported. — Andersoii.  The  manufacture 
was  established  in  England  at  Crutched-friars,  and  in  the  Savoy,  in  1557.— 
Stowe.  It  was  improved  in  1635.  and  was  brought  to  great  perfection  in  the 
reign  of  William  III.  The  duties  on  glass  in  England  were  entirely  remit- 
ted, 1845. 

GLASS,  Painting  on.  This  was  a  very  early  art.  It  was  practised  at  Marseilles 
in  a  beautiful  style,  about  a.  d.  1500.  It  is  said  the  art  existed  in  England 
towards  the  12th  centurj^.  It  reached  to  a  state  of  great  perfection  about 
1530. 

GLENCOE,  Massacre  or.  This  was  the  horrible  massacre  of  the  unoffending 
and  unsuspecting  inhabitants,  the  Macdonalds,  merely  for  not  surrendering 
in  time  to  king  William's  proclamation.  About  38  men  were  brutally  slain ; 
and  v/omen  and  children,  their  wives  and  offspring,  were  turned  out  naked 


were  47  sail  of  the  line,  all  three-deckers;  10  great  floating  batteries,  esteemed  invincible,  carrying 
212  guns;  innumerable  frigates,  xebeques,  bomb-ketches,  cutters,  and  gun. and  mortar  boats; 
while  small  craft  for  disembarking  the  forces  covered  the  bay.  For  weeks  together,  6000sitells 
were  daily  thrown  into  the  town;  and  on  a  single  occasion,  8000  barrels  of  gunpowder  were  ex- 
jjended  by  the  enemy.  Yet  in  one  night,  their  floating  batteries  were  destroyed  with  red-hot  balls, 
and  their  whole  line  of  works  annihilated  by  a  sortie  from  the  garrison,  commanded  by  general 
Elliot,  Nov.  27,  1781.  The  enemy's  lo.ss  in  munitions  of  war,  on  this  night  alone,  was  estimated  at 
upwards  of  2,600,000/.  sterlins:.  But  their  L'nuid  itel'eat  by  a  gatrison  of  only  7i}0(3  British,  occurred 
Sept.  1-3,  1782. 

15 


338  ~         THE    world's   progress.  [  GOB 

in  a  dark  and  freezing  night,  and  perished  by  cold  and  hunger :   this  black 
'  deed  was  perpetrated  by  the  earl  of  Argyle's  regiment,  May  9,  1691. 

GLOBE.  The  globular  form  of  the  earth,  the  five  zones,  some  of  the  principal 
circles  of  the  sphere,  the  opacity  of  the  moon,  and  the  true  cause  of  lunar 
eclipses,  wei-e  taught,  and  an  ecHpse  predicted,  by  Thales  of  Miletus,  about 
640  B.  c.  Pythagoras  demonstrated  from  the  varying  altitudes  of  the  stars 
by  change  of  place,  that  the  earth  must  be  round ;  that  thera  might  be  an- 
tipodes on  the  opposite  part  of  the  globe ;  that  Venus  was  the  morning  and 
evening  star ;  that  the  universe  consisted  of  twelve  spheres — the  sphere  of 
the  earth,  the  sphere  of  the  water,  the  sphere  of  the  air,  the  sphere  of  fire, 
the  spheres  of  the  moon,  the  sun,  Venus,  Mercury,  Mars,  Jupiter,  Saturn, 
and  the  sphere  of  the  stars,  about  506  b.  c.  Aristarchus,  of  Samos,  main- 
tained that  the  earth  turned  on  its  own  axis,  and  revolved  about  the  sun ; 
which  doctrine  Avas  held  by  his  contemporaries  as  so  absurd,  that  the  phi- 
losopher had  nearly  lost  his  life  to  his  theory,  280  b.  c.  The  first  voyage 
round  the  globe  was  performed  by  Picaro,  commanding  a  ship  of  Magel- 
lan's squadron,  1520-4.  The  first  English  navigator  who  performed  the  same 
enterprise  was  sir  Francis  Drake,  1577. — See  CircumnavigatioJi,  and  Earth. 

GLORY,  Tlie  glory  or  nimbus  drawn  by  painters  round  the  heads  of  saints, 
angels,  and  holy  men,  and  the  circle  of  rays  on  images,  were  adopted  from 
the  Cjesars  and  their  flatterers,  by  whom  they  were  used  in  the  first  century. 
The  doxology  of  the  prayer  Gloria  Patri  was  ordained  in  the  church  of 
Rome,  and  was  called  doxology  because  it  began  with  dS^a,  glory,  a.  d. 
382. 

GLOVES.  They  were  in  use  in  very  early  times.  In  the  middle  ages,  the  giving 
of  a  glove  was  a  ceremony  of  investiture  in  bestowing  lands  and  dignities ;  and 
two  bishops  were  put  in  possession  of  their  sees  bj'  each  receiving  a  glove, 
A  D.  1002.  In  England,  in  the  reign  of  Edward  II.  the  deprivation  of  gloves 
was  a  ceremony  of  degradation.  The  Glovers'  company  of  London  was  in- 
corporated in  1556.  Embroidered  gloves  were  introduced  into  England  in 
1580,  and  are  presented  to  judges  at  maiden  assizes  to  this  day. 

GNOSTICS.  Ancient  heretics,  who  were  famous  from  the  first  rise  of  Christianity. 
The  tenets  of  this  sect  were  revived  in  Spain,  in  the  fourth  century,  by  the 
Priscillianists ;  but  the  name,  which  was  once  glorious,  at  length  became  in- 
famous. The  Gnostics  were  not  so  much  a  particular  sect  of  heretics,  as  a 
complication  of  many  sects ;  and  were  so  called,  because  they  pretended  to 
extraordinarj'  illuminations  and  knowledge,  one  main  branch  of  Avhich  con- 
sisted in  their  pretended  genealogies  or  attributes  of  the  Deity,  in  which 
they  diflered  among  themselves  as  much  as  they  did  from  others. 

GOBELIN-TAPESTRY.  Tapestry  so  called  from  a  noted  house  at  Paris,  in  the 
suburb  of  St.  Marcel,  formerly  possessed  by  famous  wool-dyers,  Avhereof  the 
chief,  called  Giles  Gobelin,  Avho  lived  in  the  reign  of  Francis  I.,  is  said  to 
have  found  the  secret  of  dyeing  scarlet,  which  was  from  him  called  the 
scarlet  of  the  Gobelins ;  the  house  and  river  that  runs  by  it  also  took  the 
same  name.  This  house  Avas  purchased  hj  Louis  XIV.  for  a  manufactory  of 
all  manner  of  curious  works  for  adorning  the  royal  palaces,  under  the  direc- 
tion of  Mons.  Colbert,  especially  tapestry,  designs  for  Avhich  were  drawn  by 
the  celebrated  Le  Brun.  by  appointment  of  the  king,  a.  d.  1666. — Du  Pres- 
noy. 

GODFATHERS  and  GODMOTHERS.  The  Jcavs  had  godfathers  in  the  cir- 
cumcision of  their  sons.  In  the  Christian  church  sponsion  in  baptism  arose 
in  the  desire  of  assuring  that  the  child  should  be  of  the  religion  of  Christ. 
It  Avas  first  ordained  to  be  used,  according  to  some,  by  pope  Alexander ; 
according  to  others,  by  Sixtns,  and  others  refer  it  to  Telesphorus,  about  a.  d. 


GOO  ]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  331 

130.    In  Catholic  countries  they  ha\  o  g-odfatliers  and  godmothers  in  the 
baptism  of  their  bells. 

GOLD.  The  purest  and  most  ductile  of  all  the  metals,  for  which  reason  it  has, 
from  the  earliest  ages,  been  considered  by  almost  all  nations  as  the  most 
valuable.  It  is  too  soft  to  be  used  pure,  and  to  harden  it  it  is  alloyed  with 
copper  or  silver :  in  its  pure  state  it  is  twenty-four  carats ;  that  used  in  our 
coin  is  twenty-two  carats,  and  two  parts  of  copper.  In  the  early  ages  no 
metals  were  used  but  those  found  pure,  as  gold,  silver,  and  copper.  The 
smelting  of  ores  was  a  comparatively  late  invention,  and  ascribed  both  to 
ol)servations  on  volcanoes  and  to  the  burning  of  forests. 

GOLD  MINES.  Gold  is  found  in  various  parts  of '  the  earth,  but  is  most 
abundant  in  Africa,  Japan,  and  South  America,  in  which  last  gold  was  dis- 
covered by  the  Spaniards  in  1492,  from  which  time  to  1731,  they  imported 
into  Europe  6000  millions  of  pieces  of  eight,  in  register  gold  and  silver,  ex- 
clusively of  what  were  unregistered.  In  1730,  a  piece  of  gold  weighing 
ninety  marks,  equal  to  sixty  pounds  troy  (the  mark  being  eight  ounces), 
was.  found  near  La  Paz,  a  town  of  Peru.  Gold  was  discovered  in  Malacca, 
in  1731 ;  in  New  Andulasia  in  1785  ;  in  Ceylon  in  1800  ;  in  Virginia  1829 ; 
in  North  Carolina  1824 ;  South  Carolina  1829 ;  in  Georgia  1830 :  in  Cali- 
fornia, April  1848. 

GOLD  AND  SILVER.  Quantity  produced  in  forty  years  from  1790  to  1830,  as 
stated  in  the  Mining  Journal : 

Gold.  Silver. 

Mexico £6,436,453  =  £139,818,032 

Chili       ........         2,768,488  =         1,&22,924 

Buenos  Ayres 4,021,895  =       27,182,673 

Russia 3,703,743  =         1,502,981 

£17,003,579  =  £170,326,610 
The  mines  of  North  and  South  America  had,  in  1840,  sent  to  Europe  3^ 
times  more  gold,  and  12  times  more  silver,  than  those  of  the  other  hemis- 
phere. The  gold  mines  in  Virginia,  North  and  South  Carolina,  and  Georgia, 
discovered  1824-30,  had  produced  altogether  up  to  1835,  S'4,377,500.  Those 
of  California,  discovered  in  the  spring  of  1848,  had  produced  up  to  Feb. 
1850,  at  least  25  millions  of  dollars  in  value,  a  considerable  part  of  which 
was  sent  to  Europe.  The  amount  of  California  gold  coined  at  the  U.  S. 
mint  in  1849  was  about  86,000,000.  The  total  annual  production  of  gold  in 
the  world  was  estimated  in  1840  at  about  36  tons,  proportioned  thus  :  North 
and  South  America  11,  Europe  and  Asiatic  Russia  6^,  Indian  Archipelago, 
4|,  Africa  14.     See  Coin. 

GOLDEN  FLEECE.  Jason,  the  Argonaut,  sailed  with  his  companions  from 
lolchos  to  Colchis  to  avenge  the  death  of  his  kinsman  Phryxus,  and  to  re- 
cover his  treasures,  which  the  perfidious  ^Stes,  Idngof  Colchis,  had  seized, 
after  murdering  their  owner.  The  ship  in  which  Phryxus  had  sailed  to 
Colchis,  was  adorned  with  the  figure  of  a  ram  on  the  poop  ;  which  gave 
occasion  to  the  poets  to  pretend  tliat  the  journey  of  Jason  was  for  the  re- 
covery of  the  golden  fleece,  1263  b.  c. 

(iOLDEN  NUMBER.    The  cj'cle  of  nineteen  years,  or  number  which  shows 

the  years  of  the  moon's  cj'cle  ;  its  invention  is  ascribed  to  Meton,  of  Athens, 

,  ab<'ut  432  b.  c— Pliny.    To  find  the  golden  number  or  year  of  the  Lunar 

cjxle,  add  one  to  the  date  and  divide  by  nineteen,  then  the  quotient  is  the 

number  of  cycles  since  Christ,  and  the  remainder  is  the  Golden  number, 

GOOD  FRIDAY.  From  the  earliest  records  of  Christianity,  this  day  has  been 
held  as  a  solemn  fast,  in  remembrance  of  the  crucifixion  of  our  Saviour  on 
Friday,  April  3.  a.  d.  33.  Its  appellation  of  good  appears  to  be  peculiar  to 
the  Church  of  England  :  our  Saxon  forefathers  denominated  it  Lona-  Fri- 


340  THK    world's    progress.  [  GOV 

day,  on  account  of  the  great  length  of  the  offices  observed,  and  fastings  en- 
joined on  this  day. 

GORDIAN  KNOT.  The  knot  made  of  the  thongs  that  served  as  harness  to 
the  wagon  of  Gordius,  a  husbandman,  who  was  afterwards  king  of  Phrygia. 
Whosoever  loosed  this  knot,  the  ends  of  which  were  not  discoverable,  the 
oracle  declared  should  be  emperor  of  Persia.  Alexander  the  Great  cut 
away  the  knot  with  his  sword  until  he  found  the  ends  of  it,  and  thus,  in  a 
military  sense  at  least,  this  "conqueror  of  the  world"  interpreted  the  ora- 
cle, 330  B.  c. 

GORDON'S  "NO  POPERY"  MOB:  occasioned  by  the  zeal  of  lord  George 
Gordon.  It  consisted  of  40.000  persons  who  assembled  in  St.  George's 
Fields,  under  the  name  of  the  Protestant  Association,  to  carry  up  a  peti^L-n 
to  parliament  for  the  repeal  of  the  act  which  granted  certain  indulgences 
to  the  Roman  Catholics.  The  mob  once  raised,  could  not  be  dispersed,  but 
proceeded  to  the  most  daring  outrages,  pillaging,  burning,  and  jiulling  down 
the  chapels  and  private  houses  of  the  Catholics  first,  but  afterwards  of  several 
other  persons ;  breaking  open  prisons,  setting  the  prisoners  free,  even  at- 
tempting the  Bank  of  England,  and  in  a  word  totally  overcc  ming  the  civil 
power  for  nearly  six  daj^s.  At  length,  by  the  aid  of  armed  associations  of 
the  citizens,  the  horse  and  foot  guards,  and  the  militia  of  several  counties, 
then  embodied  and  marched  to  London,  the  riot  was  quelled.  It  com- 
menced June  2 ;  and  on  the  8d,  the  Catholic  chapels,  and  numerous  private 
mansions,  were  destroyed,  the  bank  attempted,  and  the  jails  opened; 
among  these  were  the  King's  Bench,  Fleet,  and  Bridewell  prisons ;  on  the 
5th,  thirty-six  fires  were  seen  blazing  at  one  time.  In  the  end,  210  of  the 
rioters  were  killed,  and  248  were  wounded,  of  whom  75  died  afterwards  in 
the  hospitals.  Many  were  tried,  convicted,  and  executed.  Lord  George 
was  tried  the  year  after  for  high  treason,  but  acquitted,  June  2  to  7,  1780. 
— Annual  Reg  ister. 

GOSPELS.  St.  Mark  wrote  his  gospel  a.  d.  44 ;  St.  Matthew  in  the  same  year ; 
St.  Luke  in  55  ;  and  St.  John  in  96-7.  The  gospel  of  Matthew  was  found 
buried  in  the  tomb  of  St.  Barbus,  and  was  conveyed  to  Constantinople  in 
485. — Butler.  John  wrote  his  gospel  at  Ephesus  two  years  after  he  was 
thrown  into  a  caldron  of  burning  oil,  from  which  he  was  taken  out  unhurt, 
and  b-anished  to  the  isle  of  Patmos. — Idem.  The  gospel  is  the  glad  tidings 
of  the  actual  coming  of  the  Messiah,  and  hence  the  evangelical  history  of 
Christ. — Hammond.  Dr.  Robert  Bray  was  the  author  of  the  first  plan  for 
propagating  the  gospel  in  foreign  parts.  Society  for  the  Propagation  of  the 
Gospel  in  Foreign  Countries,  incorporated  in  1701. 

GOSPELLERS.  The  name  which  was  given  to  the  followers  of  Wickliffe,  who 
first  attempted  the  reformation  of  the  Church  from  the  errors  of  popery  : 
it  was  affixed  to  them  by  the  Roman  Catholics  in  derision,  on  account  of 
their  professing  to  follow  and  preach  only  the  gospel,  a.  d.  1377. — Bishop 
Burnet. 

GOTHS.  A  warlike  nation  that  inhabited  the  space  between  the  Caspian, 
Pontus,  Euxine,  and  Baltic  seas.  They  attacked  the  Roman  empire  a.  d. 
251.  They  were  defeated  by  Claudius,  and  320,000  slain,  a.  d.  269.  After 
the  destruction  of  the  Roman  empire  by  the  Heruli,  the  Ostrogoths,  under 
Theodoric,  became  masters  of  the  greater  part  of  Italy,  where  they  retained 
their  dominion  till  a.  d.  553,  when  they  were  finally  conquered  by  Narses, 
Justinian's  general.  The  Visigoths  settled  in  Spain,  and  founded  a  king- 
dom, which  continued  until  the  country  was  subdued  by  the  Saracens. 

GOVERNMENT,  cost  of,  in  EUROPE  and  the  UNITED  STATES.  In  an 
elaborate  article  in  the  American  Almanac,  1847.  this  result  is  reached,  viz. : 


GR^  ] 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES. 


341 


in  the  United  States :  aggregate  of 
national  expenditure,  lor  each  in- 
habitant     -  -  -  -      $0  97 

Aggregate  of  State  expenditure,  for 
each  inhabitant      -  -  -       0  50 

Aggregate  of  town  or  city  expendi- 
ture, for  each  inhabitant  -  -        0  92 

Total  cost  of  Government  in  the       

United  States,  per  head    -  -     $2  39 

or  147,800,000  if  the  population  is 
20  millions. 

In  England,  according  to   Blaccul- 


loch,  the  average  is  equal,  per 
head,  to       - 

In  France,  according  to  Chevalier, 
in  1S33,  the  cost  was  about  1,250 
millions  of  francs,  or  40  francs  per 
head — say  -  -  .  - 

Thus,  France  pays  about  three 
times,  and  Great  Britain  five  times 
as  much  for  Government  as  the 
United  States.  (See  Administra- 
tions of  the  United  States.) 


$12  32 


$7  50 


GRACE  AT  MEAT.  The  table  was  considered  by  the  ancient  Greeks  as  the 
altar  of  friendship,  and  held  sacred  itpon  that  .account.  They  would  not 
partake  of  anj^  meat  until  they  had  first  offered  part  of  it,  as  the  first  fruits, 
to  their  gods ;  and  hence  came  the  short  jjrayer  said  before  and  after  meat 
in  all  Christian  countries  from  the  earliest  times. — Lenglet. 

GRAMMARIANS,  or  CRITICS.  Anciently,  the  most  eminent  men  in  litera- 
ture were  denominated  grammarians.  A  society  of  grammarians  was  formed 
at  Rome  so  early  as  276  b.  c. — Blair.  Apollodorus  of  Athens,  Varro,  Ci- 
cero, Messala,  Julius  Cassar,  Nicias,  .^lius  Donatus,  Remmius  Palemon, 
Tyrannion  of  Pontus,  Athenieus,  and  other  distinguished  men,  Avere  of 
this  class.  Cobbett  declared  Mr.  Canning  to  be  the  only  purely  grammati- 
cal orator  of  his  time ;  and  Dr.  Parr,  speaking  of  a  speech  of  Mr.  Pitt's 
said,  "  We  threw  our  whole  grammatical  mind  upon  it  and  could  not  dis- 
cover one  error." 

GRANARIES.  The  Romans  formed  granaries  in  seasons  of  plenty,  to  secure 
foo'd  for  the  poorer  citizens  ;  and  all  who  wanted  it  were  provided  with  corn 
from  these  reservoirs,  in  necessitous  times,  at  the  cost  of  the  public  trea- 
sury. There  were  three  hundred  and  twenty-seven  granaries  at  Rome. — 
Univ.  Hist.  Twelve  new  granaries  were  built  at  Bridewell  to  hold  6000 
quarters  of  corn,  and  two  store-houses  for  sea-coal  to  hold  4000  loads, 
thereby  to  prevent  the  sudden  dearness  of  these  articles  by  the  great  in- 
crease of  inhabitants,  7  James  I.,  1610. — Stowe. 

GRANICUS,  Battle  of,  in  which  Alexander  the  Great  signally  defeated  the 
Persians.  The  Macedonian  troops  crossed  the  GraniciTS  in  the  face  of  the 
Persian  army,  although  the  former  did  not  exceed  30,000  foot  and  5000 
horse,  while  the  Persian  amiy  amounted  to  600,000  foot,  and  20,000  horse. 
— Justin.  Yet  the  victors  lost  in  this  great  battle  but  fifty-five  foot  soldiers, 
and  sixty  horse.  Sardis  capitulated,  Miletus  and  Halicarnassus  were  taken 
by  storm,  and  numerous  other  great  towns  submitted  to  the  conqueror,  334 
B.  c. — Bossuet. 

GRATES.  The  hearths  of  the  early  Britons  were  fixed  in  the  centre  of  their 
halls.  The  fire-place  originally  was  perhaps  nothing  more  than  a  large 
stone  depressed  below  the  level  of  the  ground  to  receive  the  ashes.  There 
were  arched  hearths  among  the  Anglo-Saxons ;  and  chafing  dishes  were 
most  in  use  until  the  general  introduction  of  chimneys,  about  a.  d,  1200. 
See  Chimneys. 

GRAVITATION.  This,  as  a  supposed  innate  power,  was  noticed  by  the 
Greeks,  and  also  by  Seneca,  who  speaks  of  the  moon  attracting  the  waters, 
about  A.  D.  88.  Kepler  enlarged  upon  it,  about  a.  d. -1615;  and  Hook  pub- 
lished it  as  a  system.  The  principles  of  gravity  were  proved  by  Galileo,  at 
Florence,  about  1633;  and  they  were  subsequently  adopted  by  Newton, 
about  1687. 

GRiECIA  MAGNA.    That  part  of  Italy  where  the  Greeks  planted  colonies 


342 


THE   world's   progress. 


[gre 


but  its  boundaries  are  very  uncertain.  Some  say  that  it  extended  to  the 
southern  parts  of  Italy ;  and  others  suppose  that  Magna  Grgecia  compre- 
hended only  Campania  and  Lucania.  To  these  is  added  Sicily,  which  was 
likewise  peopled  by  the  Greek  colonists. — Lemprkre. 

GREECE.  The  first  inhabitants  of  this  justly  celebrated  country  of  the  an- 
cient world,  were  the  progeny  of  Javan,  fourth  son  of  Japheth.  Greece 
was  so  called  from  a  very  ancient  king  named  Grascus  ;  and  another  king 
named  Hellen,  gave  his  subjects  the  appellation  of  Hellenists.  Homer  calls 
the  inhabitants,  indifterentiy,  Myrmidions,  Hellenists,  and  Achains.  For 
ancient  Grecian  history,  see  Tabular  Views,  p.  5  et  seq. 


Sicyon  founded  (Eusebius)  -  b.  c.  2089 
Uranus  arrives  in  Greece  {Lejiglet)  -  2042 
Revolt  of  the  Titans       -  -  -   *    ' 

War  of  the  Giants  -  -  -  *    ' 

Kingdom  of  Argos  begun  (Eusebius)-  1856 
Reign  of  Ogyges  in  BffiOtia  (idem)  -  179G 
Sacrifices  to  the  gods  iirst  introduced  in 

Greece  by  Plioroneus  -  -  -  1773 

According  to  some  authors,  Sicyon  was 

now  begun  (Lenglet)  -  -  -  1773 

Deluge  oi  Ogyges  (which  see)  -  -  17(J4 

A  colony  of  Arcadians  emigrate  to  Italy 

under  Oinotrus  :    the   country   first 

called  Qi!nortria,  afterwards  Magna 

Groicia  (Eusebius)    ■  -  -  1710 

Chronology  of  the  Arundelian  marbles 

commences  (Eusebius)         -  -  1582 

Cecrops  comes  into  Attica  (idem)  -  1556 
The  Areopagus  instituted  -  -  1506 

Deluge  of  Deucalion  (Eusebius)  -  1503 
Reign  of  Hellen  (z'dewi)  -  -  -14.59 

Caclinus,  with  the  Phcenician  letters, 

settles  in  Boeotia  -  -  -  1493 

Lelex,  lirst  king  of  Laconia,  afterwards 

called  Sparta    -  -  -  -  1490 

Arrival  of  Danaus,  with  the  first  ship 

ever  seen  in  Greece     -  -  -1485 

He  gets  possession  of  Argos.    His  fifty 

daughters       -  ...  1475 

First  Olympic  games  celebrated  at  Elis, 

by  the  Idcbi  Daclyli  (Eusebius)  ■  1453 
Iron  discovered  by  the  Idc&i  Dactyli  -  1400 
Corinth  rebuilt,  and  so  named  -  -  1384 

Ceres  arrives  in  Greece,  and  teaches 

the  art  of  making  bread         -  -  1383 

The  Isthmii.i  games  instituted  -  -  1-326 

Mycenae  created  out  of  Argos    -  -1313 

Argonautic  expedition  (tohich  see)       ■  1263  . 
The  Pythian  games  by  Adrastus  •  1263 

War  of  the  seven  Greek  captains  -  1225 
The  Amazonian  war ;  these  martial  fe- 
males penetrate  into  Greece  -  -  1213 
Rape  of  Helen  by  Theseus  -  -1213 
Rape  of  Helen  by  Paris  -  -1198 
Commencement  of  the  Trojan  war  -  1193 
Troy  taken  and  destroyed  on  the  night 

of  the  7th  of  the  month  Tliargelion 

(27th  May,  or  Uth  .lune)        -  -  llSl 

^neas  sets  sail,  winters  in  Thrace,  and 

arrives  in  Italy  -  -  -  1181 

Migration  of  the  ^olian  colonies,  who 

build  Smyrna,  &c.       •  -  -  1124 

Settlement  of  the  lonians  from  Greece 

in  Asia  Minor  .  -  -  - 1044 

The  first  laws  of  navigation  originate 

with  the  Rhodians       -  -  -    916 

Homer     flourishes    about    this    time 

(Arundelian  Marbles)  -  -    907 

Olympic  games  revived  at  Elis  -    884 


The  first  Messenian  war  ^  -  b.  0.  743 
The  second  Messenian  war  *     -  -   685 

The  capture  of  Ira  -  -  -    670 

The  Messenians  emigrate  to  Sicily,  and 
give  their  own  name  Messene  to  Zan- 
cle  (now  called  Messina)        -  -   668 

Sea-fight,  the  first  on  record,  between 
the  Corinthians  and  the  inhabitants 
of  Corcyra       -  -  -  -    664 

Byzantium  built  by  the  Argives  -    658 

Sybaris,  in  Magna  Grsecia,  destroyed, 
100,000  Crotonians  under  Milo  defeat 
300,000  Sybarians        -  -  -   508 

Sardis  taken  and  burnt,  which  occa- 
sions the  Persian  invasion      -  -    504 
Thrace  and  Macedonia  conquered       -   496 
Battle  of  Marathon  (icAzcA  see)  -  -   490 
Xerxes  invades  Greece,  but  is  checked   480 

at  Thermopylce  by  I.eonidas  - 
Battle  of  Salamis  (w/ucA  see)  -  -   480 

Mardonius  defeix'^d  at  Plataea  -  ■  -  479 
Battle  of  Eutyraedon  ...  476 
The  third  Messenian  war  -  -   465 

Athens  begins  to  tyrannize  over  the 

other  states  of  Greece  -  -    459 

Peloponnesus  overrun  by  Pericles  -  455 
The  first  sacred  war       -  -  -   448 

Herodotus    reads   his   history  ir:    the 

Council  at  Athens       ...   445 
The  sea-fight  at  Cnidus  -  -  -   394 

Battle  of  Mantinea  -  -  -    633 

Sacred  war  ended  by  Philip,  who  takes 

all  the  cities  of  the  Phoceans  -   348 

Battle  of  Ch^ronea        -  -  -    338 

Alexander,  the  son  of  Philip,  enters 
Greece ;  subdues  the  Athenians,  and 
destroys  the  city  of  Thebes    -  -    335 

Commencement  of  the  Macedonian  or 

Grecian  Monarchy       -  -  -   331 

Alexander  goes  to  Susa,  and  sits  on  the 
throne  of  Darius  -  -  -   330 

Alaric  invades  Greece    -  -     a.  d.    395 

The  empire  under  Nicephorus  com- 
menced ....  gii 
Greece  mastered  by  the  Latins  -  -  1204 
Re-conquered  ....  1261 
Invaded  by  the  Turks  -  -  -  1.350 
Its  final  overthrow.    See  Easter?i  Ein- 

pire 13.53 

[This  country,  so  long  illustrious  for  the 
military  exploits,  the  learning,  and 
arts  of  its  people,  became  of  late 
years  the  scene  of  desperate  con- 
flicts with  the  Turks,  in  order  to  re- 
gain its  independence,  and  the  coun- 
cils of  the  great  powers  of  Europe 
were  friendly  to  the  design.] 
Great  struggle  for  indepondeuce  •  1770 


gre] 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES. 


34a 


GREECE,  co'ritinued. 

The  firet  decided  movement  in  tliese  lat- 
ter times,  by  ilie  Servians      -     a.  d,  1800 

Tlie  Servians  defeat  ilie  Turks  at  Nyssa 

April  2,  1807 

100,000  Turks,  under  Chourshid  Pasha, 
overrun  the  country,  committing  the 
most  dreadful  excesses  -  -  1813 

Insurrection  in  Moldavia  and  Walla- 
chia,  in  which  the  Greeks  join  - 1821 

Proclamation  of  prince  Alexander  to 
shake  off  the  Turkish  yoke     March,  1821 

The  Greek  patriarch  put  to  death  at 
Constantinople  -         April  23,  1821 

10,000  Christians  perish  in  Cyprus,  al- 
though not  engaged  in  the  revolt      -  1821 

Massacre  of  the  inhabitants  of  Bucha- 
rest; even  the  women  and  children 
not  spared         .  -  .  .  1821 

Independence  of  Greece  formally  pro- 
claimed -  -  Jan.  27,  1822 

Siege  of  Corinth  -  -  -     Felj.  1822 

Bombardment  of  Scio  ;  its  capture  ; 
most  horrible  massacre  recorded  m 
modern  history*  -  April  23, 1822 

Victories  of  the  Greeks  at  I^arissa, 
Thermopylae,  and  Saloiiica,  -  July  8,  1822 

National  Congress  at  Argos  -  April  10,  1823 

Victories  of  Marco  Botzans      -    June,  1823 

Lord  Byron  lands  in  Greece,  to  devote 
himself  to  its  cause        -        August.  1823 

Lamented  death  ol'  Lord  Byron,  at  Mis- 
solonghi  -  -  April  19,  1824 

Signal  defeat  of  the  Capitan  Pacha,  at 
Samos  -  -         August  16,  1824 

The  Provisional  Government  of  Greece 
instituted  -  -  Oct.  12, 1824 

The  Greek  fleet  defeats  that  of  the  Ca- 
pitan Pacha  -  -      June  2,  1825 

The  Provisional  Government  of  Greece 
invites  the  protection  of  Englanct 

July  24, 1825 

Siege  of  Missolonghi :  the  besieging 
Turks  are  defeated  in  a  formidable 
attack  upon  it  -  August  1,  1826 

The  Greeks  disperse  the  Ottoman  fleet 

Jan.  28, 1826 


Ibrahim  Pacha  takes  Mistolonghi  by 
assault  -  -  April  23,  1826 

The  Greeks  land  near  Salonica ;  battle 
with  Omer  Pacha  -        June  1, 182G 

Ibrahim  Pacha  signally  defeated  by  the 
Mainotes         -  August  8  and  9,  1826 

Redschid  Pacha  takes  Athens,  Aug.  15,  1826 

Tieaty  of  London,  between  Great  Bri- 

■  tain,  Russia,  and  France,  on  behalf 
of  Greece,  signed  -  July  6,  18-7 

Battle  of  Navarino  '^which  see) ;  the 
Turkish  fleet  destroyed      -    Oct.  20,  18-7 

Count  Capo  d'Istria  arrives  as  Presi- 
dent of  Greece     -  -        Jan.  18.  18-ti 

The  Panhellenion  or  Grand  Council  of 
State  established  -  Feb.  2,  1828 

National  Bank  founded       •     Feb.  14,  1S2S 

Greece  divided  into  departments,  viz. 
Argolis,  Achaia,  Elis,  Upper  Messe- 
nia.  Lower  Messenia,  Laconia,  and 
Arcadia,  and  the  islands  formed  also 
into  departments  -        April  26,  1328 

Final  evacuation  of  the  Morea  by  the      ■* 
Turks  -  -  -    Oct.  30,  1828 

Missolonghi  surrenders    -         May  17,  1829 

Greek  National  Assembly  commences 
its  sittings  at  Argos  -     July  23,  1829 

The  Porte  acknowledges  the  indeperjc^- 
ence  of  Greece        -  -  April  25,  1830 

Prince  Leopold  finally  declines  the  so- 
vereignty -  -  May  21,  1S30 

Count  Capo  d'Istria,  Preside'nt  of 
Greece,  assassinated  by  the  brother 
and  son  of  Mavromichaelis,  a  Mainote 
chief,  whom  he  had  imprisoned  Oct.  9, 1831 

The  assassins  put  to  death        Oct.  29, 1831 

Otho  I.  elected  king  of  Greece,  Jan.  25, 1833 
Colocotroni's  conspiracy      -     Oct.  27,  1833 
A  bloodless  revolution  at  Athens,  to  en- 
force  ministerial  responsibility  and 
national  representation,  is  consum- 
mated -  ■  -  Sept.  14, 1843 
The  king  accepts  the  new  constitution 

March  16,  1844 
[See  Athens,  Macedon,  Sparta,  Thrace,  and 
other  states  of  Greece.] 


GREEK  CHURCH.  A  difference  arose  in  the  eighth  centurj^  between  the 
eastern  and  western  churches,  which  in  the  course  of  two  centuries  and  a 
half  terminated  in  a  separation :  this  cliurch  is  called  Greek  in  contradis- 
tinction from  the  latter,  or  Roman  church.  The  Greek  church  claims  prior- 
ity as  using  the  language  in  which  the  Gospel  was  first  promulgated,  and 
many  of  its  forms  and  ceremonies  are  similar  to  those  of  the  Roman  Catho- 
lics ;  but  it  disowns  the  supremacy  of  the  pope.  It  is  the  established  reli- 
gion of  Russia. 

GREEK  FIRE.  A  composition  of  combustible  matter  invented  by  one  Calli- 
nicus,  an  ingenious  engineer  of  Heliopolis,  in  SjTia,  in  the  seventh  century, 


*  The  slaughter  lasted  10  days ;  40,000  of  both  sexes  falling  victims  to  the  sword,  or  to  the  fire 
which  raged  until  every  house,  save  those  of  the  foreign  consuls,  was  burned  to  the  ground.  7000 
Greeks,  who  had  fled  to  the  mountains,  were  induced  to  surrender  by  a  promise  of  amnesty,  guar- 
anteed by  the  consuls  of  England,  France  and  Austria,  yet  even  they  were,  every  man  of  tfiem, 
butchered !  The  only  exception  made  dining  the  massacre  was  in  favor  of  the  young  and  more 
beautiful  women  and  boys,  30,000  of  whom  were  reserved  for  the  markets.  The  narrative  of  plun- 
del',  violation,  and  crime,  while  the  mfidel  army  was  let  loose  upon  the  captured  cilv.  is  too  long 
and  too  shocking  for  transcription  here. 


344  THE   world's    PKOGnESS.  (  \JtVA 

in  order  to  destroy  the  Saracens'  ships,  which  was  effected  by  the  general 
of  the  emperor  Pogonat's  fleet,  and  80,000  men  were  killed.  The  property 
of  this  fire  was  to  burn  briskest  in  water,  to  difituse  itself  on  all  sides,  ac- 
cording to  the  impi'ession  given  it.  Nothing  but  oil,  or  a  mixture  of  vine- 
gar, urine,  and  sand,  could  quench  it.  It  was  blown  out  of  long  tubes  of 
copper,  and  shot  out  of  cross-bows,  and  other  spring  instruments.  The  in- 
vention was  kept  a  secret  for  many  years  by  the  court  of  Constantinople ; 
but  it  is  now  lost. 

GREEK  LANGUAGE.  The  Greek  language  was  first  studied  in  Europe 
about  A.  D.  1450 — in  France,  1473.  William  Grocyn,  or  Grokeyn,  a  learned 
English  professor  of  this  language,  travelled  to  acquire  its  true  pronuncia- 
tion, and  introduced  it  at  Oxford,  where  he  had  the  honcr  to  teach  Ei'asmus, 
1490. —  Wood's  Athen.  Oxon. 

GREENLAND.  Discovered  by  some  Norwegians  from  Iceland,  about  a  p.  980, 
and  thus  named  on  account  of  its  superior  verdure  compared  with  the  latter 
country.  It  was  visited  by  Frobisher,  in  1576.  The  first  ship  from  England 
to  Greenland  was  sent  for  the  Avhale  fishery  by  the  Muscovy  Company,  2 
James  I.  1604.  In  a  voyage  performed  in  1630,  eight  men  were  left  behind 
by  accident,  and  suffered  incredible  hardships  till  the  following  year,  when 
the  company's  ships  brought  them  home. —  Tindal.  The  Greenland  Fishing 
Company  was  incorporated  in  1693. 

GREENWICH  OBSERVATORY.  Built  at  the  solicitation  of  sir  Jonas  Moore 
and  sir  Christopher  Wren,  by  Charles  II.,  on  the  summit  of  Flamstead-hill, 
so  called  from  the  great  astronomer  of  that  name,  who  was  the  first  astro- 
nomer-royal here.  The  English  began  to  compute  the  longitude  from  the 
meridian  of  this  place,  1675 ;  some  make  the  date  1679.  This  observatory 
contains  a  transept  circle  by  Troughton ;  a  transit  instrument  of  eight  feet 
by  Bird  ;  two  mural  quadrants  of  eight  feet,  and  Bradley's  zenith  sector. 
The  telescopes  are  forty  and  sixty  inch  achromatics,  and  a  six-feet  re- 
flector ;  and  among  other  fine  instruments  and  objects  is  a  famous  camera 
obscura. 

GREGORIAN  CALENDAR.  Ordained  to  be  adopted  by  pope  Gregory-  XIIL, 
from  whom  it  derives  its  name,  a.d.  1582  ;  and  introduced  into  the  Catholic 
states  of  Europe  in  that  year  ;  into  most  other  states  in  1710 ;  and  adopted 
by  England  in  1752.  To  the  time  of  Gregory,  the  deficiency  in  the  Julian  ca- 
lendar had  amounted  to  ten  days  ;  and  in  the  year  1752  it  had  amounted  to 
eleven  days.     See  Calendar,  and  Ne%o  Style. 

GRENADA.  Conquered  by  the  Moors,  a.  d.  715 ;  it  was  the  last  kingdom  pos- 
sessed by  them,  and  was  not  annexed  to  the  crown  of  Castile  until  1491 ; 
the  capital  of  this  province  is  magnificent.  New  Grenada  M'as  conquered 
by  the  Spaniards  in  1536.  Grenada,  in  the  West  Indies,  was  settled  by  the 
French,  1650 ;  it  was  taken  from  them  by  the  English  in  1762,  and  waa 
ceded  to  England  in  1763.  The  French  possessed  themselves  of  it  again,in 
1779  ;  but  it  was  restored  to  the  English  at  the  peace  of  1783.  In  1795  the 
French  landed  some  troops,  and  caused  an  insurrection  in  this  island,  which 
was  not  finally  quelled  till  June,  1796. 

GROCERS.  One  of  the  oldest  trades  in  England.  The  word  anciently  meant 
"  ingrossers  or  monopolizers,"  as  appears  by  a  statute,  37  Edward  III.  The 
Grocers'  Company  is  one  of  the  twelve  chief  companies  of  the  city  of  Lon- 
don, incorporated  in  1429. 

GUADALOUPE.  Discovered  by  Columbus,  a.  d.  1493.'  It  was  colonized  by 
the  French  in  1635.  Taken  by  the  English  in  1759,  and  restored  in  1763. 
Again  taken  by  the  English  in  1779,  1794,  and  1810 ;  and  in  order  to  allure 


GUY  ]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  345 

the  Swedes  into  the  coalition  against  France,  gave  them  this  island.    It  was, 
howevei",  by  the  consent  of  Sweden,  restored  to  France  in  1814. 

GUELPHS  AND  GHIBELINES.  These  were  party  names,  and  are  said  to  have 
been  derived  from  Hiewelf  and  Hiegiblin,  the  names  of  towns.  The  desig- 
nation began  in  Italy,  a.  d.  1139,  and  distinguished  the  contending  armies 
during  the  civil  wars  in  Germany;  the  Guelplis  were  for  the  pope,  and  the 
Ghibelines  were  for  the  emperor.  Guelph  is  the  name  of  the  present  royal 
family  of  England. — See  Brunswick.  The  Guelphic  order  of  knighthood 
was  instituted  for  the  kingdom  of  Hanover,  by  the  prince  regent,  afterwards 
George  IV.,  in  1816. 

GUILLOTINE.  An  engine  for  decapitation,  which  has  made  an  otherwise 
obscure  name  immortal.  A  similar  instrument,  but  of  ruder  form,  may  be 
seen  in  an  engraving  accompanying  the  Symbolicts  Questiones  of  Achilles 
Bocchius,  4to,  1555  (see  the  Travels  of  Father  Labat  in  Italy) ;  it  is  there 
called  the  Mo.nnaia.  In  Scotland,  also  at  Halifax,  England  (see  Halifax  ; 
Maiden),  soon  after  it  was  in  use,  and  served  to  behead  its  introducer,  the 
regent  Morton.  Dr.  Guillotin,  about  1785,  recommended  its  use  in  France, 
from  motives  of  humanity,  as  a  substitute  for  the  more  cruel  gibbet,  and  his 
name  was  applied  to  it,  at  first  from  mere  waggishness.  Its  unwilling  god- 
father was  imprisoned  during  the  revolutionary  troubles,  and  ran  some 
hazard  of  being  subjected  to  its  deadly  operation ;  but  he  (contrary  to  a 
prevailing  opinion)  escaped,  a.nd  lived  to  become  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
Academy  of  Medicine  at  Paris.  He  died  May  26,  1814,  aged  seventy-six, 
enjoying  to  the  last  the  esteem  of  all  who  knew  him,  for  his  mild  virtues. 

GUINEAS.  An  English  gold  coin,  so  named  from  their  having  been  first 
coined  of  gold  brought  from  the  coast  of  Guinea,  a.  d.  1673.  They  were 
then  valued  at  oOs.  and  were  worth  that  sum  in  1696.  They  were  reduced 
in  currency  from  225.  to  21s.  by  parliament  in  1717.  Broad  pieces  were 
coined  into  giiineas  in  1732.  The  original  guineas  bore  the  impression  of 
an  elephant,  on  account  of  their  having  been  coined  of  this  African  gold. 

(xUNPOWDER.  The  invention  of  gunpowder  is  generally  ascribed  to  Ber- 
tholdus  or  Michael  Schwartz,  a  Cordelier  monk  of  Goslar,  south  of  Bruns- 
wick, in  Germany,  about  a.  d.  1320.  But  many  writers  maintain  that  it  was 
known  much  earlier  in  various  parts  of  the  Avorld.  Some  say  that  the  Chi- 
nese possessed  the  art  a  number  of  centuries  before.  Its  composition, 
moreover,  is  expressly  mentioned  by  our  own  famous  Roger  Bacon,  in  his 
treatise  De  Nullitate  Magice,  which  was  published  at  Oxford,  in  1216. 

GUNPOWDER  PLOT  in  ENGLAND.  The  memorable  conspiracy  known  by 
this  name,  for  springing  a  mine  under  the  houses  of  parliament,  and  des- 
troying the  three  estates  of  the  realm — king,  lords,  and  commons — there 
assembled,  was  discovered  on  Nov.  5,  1605.  This  diabolical  scheme  was 
projected  by  Robert  Catesby,  and  many  high  persons  were  leagued  in  the 
enterprise  G  aj'-  Faux  was  detected  in  the  vaults  under  the  House  of  Lords, 
preparing  the  train  for  being  fired  on  the  next  day.  Catesby  and  Percy  (of 
the  family  of  Northumberland)  were  killed  ;  sir  Everard  Digby,  Rockwood, 
Winter.  Garnet,  a  Jesuit,  and  others,  died  by  the  hands  of  the  executioner, 
as  did  Guy  Faux.  January  31.  1606.  The  vault  called  Guy  Faux  cellar,  in 
which  the  conspirators  lodged  the  barrels  of  gunpowder,  remained  in  the 
late  houses  of  parliament  till  1825,  when  it  was  converted  into  oflices. 

GUY'S  HOSPITAL.  This  celebrated  London  hospital  is  indebted  for  its  origin 
to  Thomas  Guy,  an  eminent  and  wealthy  bookseller,  who,  after  having  be- 
stowed immense  sums  on  St.  Thomas's,  determined  to  be  the  sole  founder 
of  another  hospital.  At  the  age  of  seventy-six,  in  1721,  he  commenced  the 
erection  of  the  present  building,  and  lived  to  see  it  neai'ly  completed.     It 

15* 


346  THE  world's  progress.  [hao 

cost  him  18,793<.,  in  addition  to  whicli  he  left  to  endow  it,  the  immense  sum 
of  219,499/.  A  splendid  bequest,  amounting  to  200,000/.  was  made  to  this 
hospital  by  Mr.  Hunt,  to  provide  additional  accommodation  for  100  patients ; 
his  will  was  proved  Sept.  24,  1829. 
GYMNASIUM,  a  place  among  the  Greeks,  where  all  the  public  exercises  were 
performed,  and  where  not  only  wrestlers  and  dancers  exhibited,  but  also 
philosophers,  poets,  and  rhetoricians  repeated  their  compositions.  In  wrest- 
ling and  boxing,  the  athletes  were  often  naked,  whence  the  word  Gymna- 
sium— gumnos,  7iudus.  They  anointed  themselves  with  oil  to  brace  their 
limbs,  and  to  render  their  bodies  slipperj^,  and  more  difficult  to  be  grasped. 
The  first  modern  treatise  on  the  subject  of  Gymnastics  was  published  in 
Germany  in  1793.    London  society  formed,  1826. 

■3iTSIES,  OR  EGYPTIANS.  A  strange  commonwealth  of  wanderers  and  pecu- 
liar race  of  people,  who  made  their  appearance  first  in  Germany,  about  a.  d. 
1517,  having  quitted  Egypt  when  attacked  by  the  Turks.  They  are  the  des- 
cendants of  a  great  body  of  Egyptians  who  revolted  from  the  Turkish  yoke, 
and  being  defeated,  dispersed  in  small  parties  all  over  the  world,  while  their 
supposed  skill  in  the  black  art  gave  them  an  universal  recej.tion  in  ^hat  age 
of  credulity  and  superstition.  Although  expelled  from  France  in  1560,  and 
from  most  countries  soon  after,  thej'  are  yet  found  in  every  part  of  Europe, 
as  well  as  in  Asia  and  Africa.  Having  recovered  their  footing,  they  have  con- 
trived to  maintain  it  to  this  day.  In  England  an  act  was  made  against  their 
itinerancy,  in  1530;  and  in  the  reign  of  Charles  I.  thirteen  persons  Avere  ex- 
ecuted at  one  assizes  for  having  associated  with  gypsies  for  about  a  month, 
contrary  to  the  statute.  The  gypsey  settlement  at  Norwood,  near  London, 
was  broken  up,  and  tliey  were  treated  as  vagrants,  May  1797.  There  were 
in  Spain  alone,  previously  to  the  j^ear  1800,  more  than  120.000  gypsies,  and 
many  communities  of  them  yet  exist  in  England;  and  notwithstanding  their 
intercourse  with  other  nations,  they  are  still,  like  the  Jews,  in  their  manners, 
customs,  visage,  and  appearance,  wholly  unchanged. 

H. 

HABEAS  CORPUS.  The  subjects' TFHi  of  Right,  passed  for  the  security  and 
liberty  of  individuals.  May  27,  1679.  This  act  is  next  in  importance  to 
Magna  Charta,  for  so  long  as  the  statute  remains  in  force,  no  subject  of  En- 
gland can  be  detained  in  prison,  except  in  cases  wherein  the  detention  is 
shown  to  be  justified  by  the  law.  Tlie  Habeas  Corpus  Act  can  alone  be  sus- 
pended by  the  authority  of  parliament,  and  then  for  a  short  time  only,  and 
when  the  emergency  is  extreme.  In  such  a  case,  the  nation  parts  with  a 
portion  of  its  liberty  to  secure  its  own  permanent  welfare,  and  suspected 
persons  may  then  be  arrested  without  cause  or  purpose  being  assigned. — 
BlacksLone. 

HACKNEY  COACHES  are  of  French  origin.  In  France,  a  strong  kind  of  cob- 
horse  {liaquenee)  was  let  out  on  hire  for  short  journej^s:  these  were  latterly 
harnessed  (to  accommodate  several  wayfarers  at  once)  to  a  plain  vehicle 
called  cochc-tb-haquenee :  hence  the  name.  The  legend  tliat  traces  their  ori- 
gin to  Hackney,  near  London,  is  a  vulgar  error.  They  were  first  licensed  in 
1662,  and  subjected  to  regulations,  6  William  and  Mary,  1694. — Survey  of 
London.  The  number  plying  in  London  fixed  at  1000,  and  their  fares  raised., 
1771.  The  cabriolets  are  of  Parisian  origin;  but  the  aristocratic  taste  of 
Englishmen  suggested  the  propriety  of  obliging  the  driver  to  be  seated  on 
the  outside  of  the  vehicle. 

HAGUE.  Once  called  the  finest  village  in  Europe :  the  place  of  meeting  of  the 
States-General,  and  residence  of  the  former  earls  of  H'.illand,  the  princes  of 


HAM  ]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  347 

Holland,  &c.  Here  the  States,  in  1588,  abrogated  the  authority  of  Philip 
n.  of  Spain,  and  held  a  conference  in  1610,  upon  the  live  articles  of  the  re- 
monstrants, which  occasioned  the  synod  of  Dort.  Treaty  of  the  Hague, 
entered  into  with  a  view  to  preserve  the  equilibrium  of  the  North,  signed 
by  England,  France,  and  Holland,  May  21,  1659.  De  Witt  was  torn  in  pieces 
here,  August  20,  1672.  The  French  took  possession  of  the  Hague  in  Janu- 
ary, 1795;  favored  by  a  hard  frost,  they  marched  into  Holland,  where  the 
inhabitants  and  troops  declared  in  their  favor,  a  general  revolution  ensued, 
and  the  stadtholder  and  his  family  were  compelled  to  leave  the  country  and 
escape  to  England.  The  Hague  was  evacuated  in  November  1813,  shortly  , 
after  the  battle  of  Leipsic,  and  the  stadtholder  returned  to  his  dominions 
and  arrived  here  in  December,  that  year.  Treaty  of  Commerce  bfltween 
England  and  Holland,  December  16,  1837. 

HAIR.  By  the  northern  nations,  and  in  Gaul,  hair  was  much  esteemed,  and 
hence  the  appellation  Gallia  comata;  and  cutting  off  the  hair  was  inflicted 
as  a  punishment  among  them.  The  royal  family  of  France  had  it  as  a  par- 
ticular mark  and  privilege  of  the  kings  and  princes  of  the  blood,  to  wear 
long  hair,  artfully  dressed  and  curled.  The  clerical  tonsure  is  of  apostolic 
institution. — -Isidorus  Hispalensis.  Pope  Anicetus  forbade  the  clergy  to  wear 
long  hair,  a.  d.  155.  Long  hair  was  out  of  fashion  during  the  Protectorate 
of  Cromwell,  and  hence  the  term  Round-heads.  It  was  again  out  of  fashion 
in  1795 ;  and  very  short  hair  was  the  mode  in  1801.  Hair-powder  came  into 
use  in  1590;  and  in  1795  a  tax  was  laid  upon  persons  rising  it  in  England, 
which  yielded  20.000Z.  per  annum, 

HALCYON  DAYS,  in  antiquity,  implied  seven  days  before  and  as  many  after 
the  winter  solstice,  because  the  halcyon  laid  her  eggs  at  this  time  of  the 
year,  and  the  weather  during  her  incubation  was  always  calm.  The  phrase 
was  afterwards  employed  to  express  any  season  of  transient  prosperity,  or 
of  brief  tranquillity,  the  septem  placidi  dies  of  human  life. — Butler. 

HALLIDON  HILL,  Battle  of,  near  Berwick,  between  the  English  and  Scots, 
in  which  the  latter  were  defeated  with  the  loss  of  13,000  slain,  while  a  com- 
paratively small  number  of  the  English  suffered,  reign  of  Edward  III.,  July 
19, 1333.  After  this  victory,  Edward  placed  Edward  Baliol  on  the  throne  of 
Scotland. — Robertson. 

HALIFAX,  Yorkshire.  Here  prevailed  a  remarkable  law.  The  woollen  ma-' 
nufacture  being  very  great,  and  prodigious  quantities  of  cloths,  kerseys, 
shalloons,  &c.  being  continually  on  the  tenters  and  liable  to  be  stolen, -the 
town,  at  its  first  incorporation,  was  empowered  to  punish  capitally  any  crim- 
inal convicted  of  stealing  to  the  value  of  upwards  of  thirteen  pence  halfpenny, 
by  a  peculiar  engine,  which  beheaded  the  offender  in  a  moment;  but  king 
James  I.  in  tlie  year  1620,  took  this  power  away :  and  the  town  is  now  under 
the  ordinary  course  of  justice.     See  Maiden. 

HALLELUJAH  and  AMEN.  Hebrew  expressions  frequently  used  in  the 
Jewish  hymns :  from  the  Jewish  they  came  into  the  Christian  church.  The 
meaning  of  the  first  is  Praise  the  Lord,  and  of  the  second  So  be  it.  They  were 
first  introduced  by  Haggai,  the  prophet,  about  584  b.  c.  ;  and  their  intro- 
duction from  the  Jewish  into  the  Christian  church  is  ascribed  to  St.  JeromC; 
one  of  the  primitive  Latin  fathers,  about  a.  d.  390. — Cave's  Hist.  Lit. 

HAMBURGH.  The  company  of  Hambro'  merchants  was  incorporated  in  1296. 
France  declared  v>-ar  upon  Hamburgh  for  its  treachery  in  giving  up  Napper 
Tandy,  (see  Nappe rTamly.)  October  1799.  British  property  sequestrated, 
March  1801.  Hamburgh"'taken  by  the  French  after  the  battle  of  Jena  in 
1806.  Incorporated  with  France,  January  1810.  Evacuated  by  the  French 
on  the  advance  of  the  Russians  into  Germanj^  in  1813 ;  and  restored  to  its 


348  THE    world's    progress.  [  HAP 

independence  by  the  allied  sovereigns,  May  1814.    Awful  fire  here,  which 
destroyed  numerous  churches  and  public  buildings,  and  2000  houses ;  it  con- 
tinued for  three  days,  May  4,  1842. 
HAMPTON-COURT  PALACE.    Built  by  cardinal  Wolsey  on  the  site  of  the 
manor-house  of  the  knights-hospitallers.     In  1526,  the  cardinal  presented  it 
to  his  royal  master,  Henry  VIII.    Here  Edward  VI.  was  born,  and  his 
mother,  Jane  Seymour,  died ;   and  Mary,  Elizabeth,  Charles,  and  others  of 
our  sovereigns,  resided.    Most  of  the  old  apartments  were  pulled  down,  and 
the  grand  inner  court  built,  by  William  III.  in  1694.     In  this  palace  was 
held,  in  1604,  the  celebrated  conference  between  the  Presbyterians  and  the 
members  of  the  Established  Church,  which  led  to  a  new  translation  of  the 
Bible.     See  Conference. 
HANGED,  DRAWN,  and  QUARTERED.    The  first  infliction  of  this  barbar- 
ous punishment  took  place  upon  a  pirate,  named  William  Marise,  a  noble- 
man's son,  25  Henry  III.,  1241.     Five  gentlemen  attached  to  the  duke  of 
Gloucester  were  arraigned  and  condemned  for  treason,  and  at  the  place  of 
execution  were  hanged,  cut  down  alive  instantly,  then  stripped  naked,  and 
their  bodies  marked  for  quartering,  and  then  pardoned,  25  Henry  VI.  1447. 
— Stov;e.    The  punishment  of  death  by  hanging  has  been  abolished  in  nu- 
merous cases  by  various  statutes.     See  Death,  punishment  of.     Hanging  in 
chains  was  abolished  4  William  IV.,  1834. 
HANOVER.    This  country  had  no  great  rank,  although  a  duchy,  until  George 
I.  got  possession  of  Zell,  Saxe,  Bremen,  Verden,  and  other  duchies  and 
principalities.     Hanover  became  the  ninth  electorate,  a.  d.  1692.     It  was 
seized  by  Prussia,  April  3,  1801 ;  was  occupied  by  the  French,  June  5, 1803 ; 
and  annexed  to  Westphalia,  March  1,  1810.    Regained  to  England  by  the 
crown  prince  of  Sweden,  November  6,  1813,  and  erected  into  a  kingdom, 
Oct.  13,  1814.    The  duke  of  Cambridge  appointed  lieutenant  governor,  in 
November,  1816.     Visited  by  George  IV.  in  October,  1821.    Ernest,  duke 
of  Cumberland,  succeeded  to  the  throne,  June  20, 1837  ;  he  granted  freedom 
of  the  press  and  other  concessions,  March  17,  1848. 
HANOVERIAN  SUCCESSION,  established  by  law,  June  12,  1701,  when  an 
act  passed  limiting  the  succession  of  the  crown  of  England,  after  the  demise 
of  William  III.  and  of  queen  Anne  (without  issue),  to  the  princess  Sophia, 
of  Hanover  and  the  heirs  of  her  body,  being  protestants,  she  being  the 
granddaughter  of  James  I.     George  I.  the  son  of  Ernest  Augustus,  duke  of 
Brunswick  Luneburgh    elector  of  Hanover,  and  of  Sophia,  ascended  the 
throne,  to  the  exclusion  of  the  exiled  family  of  the  Stuarts,  Aiigust  1,  1714. 
HANSE   TOWNS.      A  commercial  union  called  the  Hanseatic  league,  was 
formed  by  a  number  of  port  towns  in  Germany,  in  support  of  each  other 
against  the  piracies  of  the  Swedes  and  Danes :    this  association  began  in 
1164,  and  the  league  was  signed  in  1241.     At  first  it  consisted  only  of  towns 
situate  on  the  coasts  of  the  Baltic  Sea,  but  its  strength  and  reputation  in- 
creasing, there  was  scarce  any  trading  city  in  Europe  but  desired  to  be 
admitted  into  it,  and  in  process  of  time  it  consisted  of  sixty-six  cities.    They 
grew  so  formidable  as  to  proclaim  war  on  Waldemar,  king  of  Denmark, 
about  the  year  1348,  and  against  Erick  in  1428,  with  forty  ships,  and  12  000 
regular  troops  besides  seamen.     This  gave  umbrage  to  several  princes,  who 
ordered  the  merchants  of  their  respective  kingdoms  to  withdraw  their 
effects,  and  so  broke  up  the  greatest  part  and  strength  of  the  association. 
In  1630,  the  only  toAvns  of  note  of  this  once  powerful  league  retaining  the 
name,  were  Lubeck,  Hamburg,  and  Bremen. 
HAPSBURGH,  House  op.      One  of  the  most  illustrious  families  in  Europe. 
Hapsburgh  was  an  ancient  castle  of  Switzerland,  on  a  lofty  eminence,  near 
Schintznach.    This  castle  was  the  cradle,  as  it  were,  of  the  house  of  Austria, 


HAS  ]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  349 

whose  ancestors  may  be  traced  back  to  the  beginning  of  the  13th  century, 
when  Rodolph,  count  of  Hapsburgh,  was  elevated  to  the  empire  of  Germany 
and  archduchy  of  Austria,  a.  d.  1273.     See  Germany. 

HARLEQUIN.  This  term  is  derived  from  a  famous  and  droll  comedian,  who 
so  much  frequented  Mr.  Harley's  house,  that  his  friends  and  acquaintance 
used  to  call  him  Harlequhw,  httle  Harley.— ilfcmaore.  Originally  the  name 
implied  a  merry  andrew,  or  buffoon ;  but  it  now  means  an  expert  dancer  at 
a  play-house. 

H  ARLOTS.  "Women  who  were  called  by  synonyma  conveying  the  meaning  of 
harlot,  were  tolerated  among  the  Jews,  Greeks,  and  Romans.  The  celebra- 
ted Lais  of  Corinth,  a  beautiful  courtesan,  but  remarkable  for  her  vicious 
amours,  was  assassinated  in  the  temple  of  Venus,  by  the  women  of  Thes- 
saly,  in  order  to  prevent  her  corrupting  the  fidelity  of  their  husbands,  about 
350  B.  c.  It  is  affirmed  that  the  mother  of  William  I.,  of  England,  a  fur- 
rier's daughter  of  Falaise,  whose  name  was  Arlotta,  was  of  so  infamous  a 
character,  that  our  odious  term  harlot  is  derived  from  her  name. — Dr.  John- 
son. In  England,  harlots  were  obliged  to  wear  striped  hoods  of  party  ?olors, 
and  their  garments  the  wrong  side  outwards,  by  statute  27  Edward  III.. 
1352. 

HARMONIC  STRINGS.  Pythagoras  is  said  to  have  invented  harmonic  strings, 
in  consequence  of  hearing  four  blacksmiths  working  with  hammers  in  har- 
mony, whose  weights  he  found  to  be  six,  eight,  nine,  and  twelve ;  or  rather 
by  squares,  as  thirtj^-six,  sixty-four,  eighty-one,  and  one  hundred  and  forty- 
four.  The  harmonica,  or  musical  glasses,  airs  from  the  tones  of  them  were 
first  formed  by  an  Irish  gentleman  named  P'uckeridge. — Franklin.  The  in- 
vention was  improved  by  Dr.  Franklin  in  1760. 

HARP.  It  is  traced  to  the  earliest  nations.  David  played  on  the  harp 
before  Saul. — 1  Sam.  xvi.  23.  The  lyre  of  the  Greeks  is  the  harp  of  the 
moderns.  The  Romans  had  their  harp  ;  so  had  the  Jews,  but  it  had  very 
few  strings.  The  Cirabri  or  English  Saxons  had  this  instrument.  The  cele- 
brated Welch  harp  was  strung  with  gut ;  and  the  Irish  harp,  like  the  more 
ancient  harps,  with  wire. 

HARRISON'S  TIME-PIECE.  Mr.  Harrison's  first  instrument  was  invented  in 
1735 ;  his  second  in  1739  ;  his  third  in  1749  ;  and  his  fourth,  which  procured 
him  the  reward  of  20,000^.,  advertised  13th  Anne  by  the  Board  of  Longi- 
tude, was  produced  a  few  years  after.  His  celebrated  time-piece  was  per- 
fected in  1772. 

HARTFORD  CONVENTION.  The  celebrated  convention  of  delegates  from 
the  New  England  States  opposed  to  the  war  and  to  the  administration  of 
]\Iadison,  met  Dec.  15,  1814. 

HASTINGS,  Battle  of,  one  of  the  most  memorable  and  bloody,  and  in  which 
more  than  thirty  thoi;sand  were  slain,  fought  between  Harold  II.  of  Eng- 
land, and  William,  duke  of  Normandy,  in  which  the  former  lost  his  life  and 
kingdom.  William,  hence  surnamed  the  Conqueror,  was  soon  after  crowned 
king  of  England,  and  introduced  a  memorable  epoch,  known  as  the  Con- 
quest, in  the  annals  of  the  country,  Oct.  14,  1066. 

HASTINGS,  WARREN,  Trial  op.  Mr.  Hastings,  governor-general  of  India, 
tried  by  the  peers  of  Great  Britain  for  high  crimes  and  misdemeanors,  but 
acquitted,  although  he  had  committed  many  acts  during  his  government 
which,  it  was  thought,  ought  to  have  led  to  a  different  result.  Among  other 
charges  against  him,  Avas  liis  acceptance  of  a  present  of  100,000Z.  from  the 
nabob  of  Oude,  and  this  was  not  a  solitary  instance  of  his  irregular  means 
of  accumulating  wealth.     The  trial  lasted  seven  years  and  three  month?. 


350  THE    world's    progress.  [  HEG 

1788-95.  Shei-idan's  celebrated  speech,  on  the  impeachment  of  Mr.  Has- 
tings, attracted  universal  admiration. 
HATS.  See  article  Caps.  First  made  by  a  Swiss  at  Paris,  a.  d.  1404.  They 
are  mentioned  in  history  at  the  period  when  Charles  VII.  made  his  trium- 
phal entry  into  Rouen,  in  1449.  He  wore  a  hat  lined  with  red  velvet,  and 
surmounted  with  a  rich  plume  of  feathers.  It  is  ft-om  this  reign  that  the 
use  of  hats  and  caps  is  to  be  dated,  which  henceforward  began  to  take  place 
of  the  chaperoons  and  hoods  that  had  been  worn  before  in  France.  Hats 
were  first  manufactured  in  England  by  Spaniards,  in  1510 :  before  this  time 
both  men  and  women  wore  close-knit  woollen  caps. — Stowe.  Verj'  high 
crowned  hats  were  worn  by  queen  Elizabeth's  courtiers ;  and  high  crowns 
were  again  introduced  in  1788.  A  stamp-duty  was  laid  upon  hats  in  Eng- 
land in  1784,  and  again  in  1796 ;  it  was  repealed  in  1811. 

IIaVRE-DE-GRACE.     This  place  was  defended  for  the  Huguenots  by  the 

English,  in  1562.     It  has  been  bombarded  several  times  by  the  British  navy, 

^  in  1759,  in  1794.  in  1795  and  in  1798.     Declared  to  be  in  a  state  of  blockade, 

Sept.  6,  1803.    The  attempts  to  burn  the  shipping  here  failed,  August  7, 

1804. 

HAYTI,  OR  H.iiTi,  the  Indian  name  of  St.  Domingo,  discovered  by  Columbus  .n 
1492.  Before  the  Spania,rds  finallj'  conquered  it,  they  are  said  to  have  de- 
stroyed in  battle  or  cold  blood,  8.000  000  of  its  inhabitants,  including 
women  and  children.  Toussaint  established  an  independent  republic  in  St. 
Domingo,  July  22,  1801.  He  surrendered  to  the  French,  May  7,  1802.  Des- 
salines  made  a  proclamation  for  the  massacre  of  all  the  whites,  March  29, 
1804.  See  St.  Dooningo.  Dessalines  was  crowned  king,  by  the  title  of  Jac- 
ques I.,  Oct.  8,  1804.  He  died  Sept.  21,  1805.  Henry  Christophe,  a  man  of 
color,  became  president  in  Feb.  1807,  and  was  crowned  emperor  by  the  title 
of  Henry  I.,  in  March  1811 ;  while  Petion  ruled  as  president  at  Port-au-Prince. 
Numerous  black  nobility  and  prelates  were  created  same  year.  Petion  died, 
and  Boyer  Avas  elected  in  his  room,  in  May  1818.  Christophe  committed 
suicide  in  Oct.  1820.  Independence  declared  at  St.  Domingo,  in  Dec.  1821. 
Decree  of  the  king  of  France  confirming  it,  A\)\'\\  1825.  Souloque  elected 
president,  March  2,  1847 ;  proclaimed  emperor  of  Hayti,  August  24,  1849. 

HEBRIDES,  NEW,  discovered  by  the  navigator  Quiros,  a.  d.  1606.  Bourgain- 
ville  visited  them  in  17C8,  and  found  that  the  land  was  not  connected,  but 
composed  of  islands,  which  he  called  the  Great  Cyclades.  Cook,  in  1774, 
ascertained  the  extent  and  situation  of  the  whole  group,  and  gave  them  the 
name  they  now  bear. 

HECATOMB.  This  was  a  sacrifice  among  the  ancients  of  a  hundred  oxen ; 
biit  it  was  more  particularly  observed  by  the  Lacedemonians  when  they 
possessed  a  himdred  capital  cities.  In  the  course  of  time  this  sac- 
rifice was  reduced  to  tv.-enty-three  oxen;  and  in  the  end,  to  lessen  the 
expense,  goats  and  lambs  were  substituted  for  oxen. — Potter. 

HECLA.  Its  first  eruption  is  recorded  as  having  occurred  a.  d.  1004.  About 
twenty-two  eruptions  have  taken  place,  according  to  Olasson  and  Paulson. 
The  most  dreadful  and  multiplied  convulsions  of  this  great  volcanic 
mountain  occurred  in  1783.     See  Iceland. 

HEGIRA,  Era  op  thk,  dates  from  the  flight  of  Mahomet  from  Mecca  to  Medina, 
v.'hicii  event  took  place  in  the  night  of  Thursday  the  15th  July,  a.  d.  622 ; 
the  era  commences  on  the  following  day,  viz : — the  16th  of  July.  Many 
chronologists  have  computed  this  era  from  the  15th  July;  but  Cantemir 
has  givon  examples  proving  that,  in  most  ancient  times,  the  16th  was  the 
first  day  of  the  era  ;  and  there  is  now  no  doubt  it  is  so.  See  Mahovieiisvi 
and  Medina. 


DOR,  J  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  351 

HEIDELBERG,  and  HEIDELBERG  TUN.  Heidelberg,  in  Germany,  on  the 
river  Neckar,  was  formerly  the  capital  of  the  Palatinate :  the  protestant 
electoral  house  becoming  extinct  in  1693,  a  bloody  war  ensued,  in  which  the 
famous  castle  was  ruined,  and  the  elector  removed  his  residence  to  Mann- 
heim. Here  was  the  celebrated  Heildelberg  Tun,  which  held  800  hogsheads, 
and  was  formerly  kept  full  of  the  best  Rhenish  wine.  The  University  of 
Heidelberg,  one  of  the  most  celebrated  in  Europe,  was  founded  in  1346, 
contained  in  1840,  622  students. 

HELEN,  Rape  of,  which  caused  the  Trojan  war,  1204  b.  c.  Helen  was  the 
most  beautiful  woman  in  the  world,  and  even  in  her  childhood  was  so  very 
lovely,  that  Theseus  stole  her  away  in  her  tenth  year.  From  him,  however, 
she  was  released,  yet  innocent,  by  her  brothers;  and  after  her  return  to  the 
court  of  Sparta  she  was  eagerly  sought  in  marriage  by  the  princes  of  Greece, 
and  Ulysses  persuaded  the  suitors  to  bind  themselves  on  oath  to  abide  by 
the  iminfluenced  choice  of  Helen,  and  to  defend  her  person  and  character 
from  that  time.  The  princes  took  the  oath,  and  Helen  then  made  choice  of 
Menelaus.  Paris  coming  soon  after  to  the  court  of  this  king,  abused  his 
hospitality  by  corrupting  the  fidelity  of  Helen :  carrying  her  away,  though 
not  an  unwilling  captive,  to  Asia  Minor.  At  Troy,  the  father  of  Paris,  Priam, 
received  her  in  his  palace  without  difficulty ;  and  Menelaus,  assembling  the 
princes  of  Greece,  reminded  them  of  their  oath :  and  the  siege  and  destruc- 
tion of  Troy  followed,  1184  b.  c.  Paris  was  previously  married,  his  wife 
being  ffinone,  who  lived  with  him  in  happiness  on  Mount  Ida ;  and  at  his 
death  by  one  of  the  arrows  of  Hercules,  then  in  the  possession  of  Philoc- 
tetes,  he  desired  in  his  dying  moments  to  be  carried  to  QHnone,  whom  he 
had  so  basely  deserted ;  but  he  expired  on  the  way.  The  nymph,  however, 
still  mindful  of  their  former  happiness,  threw  herself  upon  the  body,  bathed 
it  with  her  tears,  and  then  plunged  a  dagger  in  her  heart. 

HELENA,  St.  This  island  was  discovered  by  the  Portuguese,  on  the  festival 
of  St.  Helena,  a.  d.  1502.  The  Dutch  were  afterwards  in  possession  of  it 
until  1600,  when  they  were  expelled  by  the  English.  The  British  East  India 
company  settled  here  in  1651 ;  and  the  island  was  alternately  possessed  by 
the  English  and  Dutch,  until  1673,  when  Charles  II.  on  Dec.  12,  assigned  it 
to  the  company  once  more.  St.  Helena  M'as  luade  the  place  of  Napoleon's 
captivity,  Oct.  16,  1815,  and  it  became  the  scene  of  his  death,  May  5, 
1821. 

HELIGOLAND.  This  island  formerly  belonged  to  the  Danes,  from  whom  it 
was  taken  by  the  British,  Sept.  5,  1807,  and  formed  a  dep6t  for  British  mer- 
chandise intended  for  the  Continent  during  the  Avar.  Confirmed  to  England 
by  the  treaty  of  Kiel,  Jan.  14,  1814,  the  same  treaty  by  which  Norway  was 
ceded  to  Sweden.  Though  a  mere  rock,  this  is  an  important  possession  of 
the  British  crown. 

HELIOMETER.  a  valuable  scientific  instrument  for  measuring  the  stars,  in- 
vented by  M.  Bouguer,  in  1774.  The  helioscope  was  invented  by  Christo- 
pher Scheiner  in  1625. 

HELMETS.  They  were  Avorn,  it  is  said,  by  the  most  savage  tribes.  Among 
the  Romans  the  helmet  was  provided  with  a  vizor  of  grated  bars,  to  raise 
above  the  eyes,  and  a  bever  to  lower  for  eating;  the  helmet  of  the  Greeks 
was  round,  and  that  of  the  Romans  square.  Richard  I.  of  England  wore  a. 
plain  round  helmet;  and  after  this  monarch's  reign  most  of  the  English 
kings  had  crowns  above  their  helmets.  Alexander  III.  of  Scotland,  1249,  had 
a  flat  helmet,  with  a  square  grated  vizor,  and  the  helmet  of  Robert  I.  was 
surmounted  by  a  crown,  1306. — Gwillini. 

HELOTS.    The  people  of  Helos,  against  Avhom  the  Spartans  bore  desperate 


352  THE  world's  progress.  [hek 

resentment  for  refusing  to  pay  tribute,  883  b.  c.  The  Spartans,  not  satisfied 
with  the  ruin  of  their  city,  reduced  tlae  Helots  to  the  most  debasing  slavery ; 
and  to  complete  their  infamy,  they  called  all  the  slaves  of  the  state,  and  the 
prisoners  of  war,  by  the  degrading  name  of  HelotcB,  and  further  exposed 
them  to  every  species  of  contempt  and  ridicule,  669  b.  c.  But  in  the  Pelo- 
ponnesian  war  the  Helots  behaved  with  uncommon  bravery,  and  were  reward- 
ed with  their  liberty,  431  b.  c.  But  this  act  of  justice  did  not  last  long ;  and 
the  sudden  disapi>earance  of  2000  manumitted  slaves  was  attributed  to  the 
Lacedemonians. — Herodotus. 

HEMP  AND  FLAX.  Flax  was  first  planted  in  England,  when  it  was  directed 
to  be  sown  for  fishing-nets,  a.  d.  1533.  Bounties  were  paid  to  encourage  its 
cultivation  in  1783 ;  and  every  exertion  should  be  made  bj^  the  government 
and  legislature  to  accomplish  such  a  national  good.  In  1785  there  were  im- 
ported from  Russia  in  British  ships,  17,695  tons  of  hemp  and  flax. — Sir  John 
Sinclair.  The  annual  importations  of  these  articles  now  amount  to  about 
100,000  tons.  More  than  180,000  lbs.  of  rough  hemp  are  used  in  the  cordage 
of  a  first-rate  man-of-war,  including  rigging  and  sails. 

HEPTARCHY.  The  Heptarchy  (or  government  of  seven  kings)  in  England 
was  gradually  formed  from  a.  d.  455,  when  Hengist  became  the  king  of  Kent, 
and  that  kingdom  was  erected.  The  Heptarchy  terminated  in  a.  d.  828, 
when  Egbert  reduced  the  other  kingdoms,  and  became  sole  monarch  of 
England.     For  the  several  kingdoms  of  the  Heptarchy,  see  Britain. 

HERACLID^^,  The,  or  the  retm-n  of  the  Heraclidse  into  the  Peloponnesus :  a 
famous  epoch  in  chronology  that  constitutes  the  beginning  of  profane  his- 
torj',  all  the  time  preceding  that  period  being  accounted  fabulous.  This 
return  happened  100  j^ears  after  they  were  expelled,  and  eighty  years  after 
the  destruction  of  Troy,  1104  b.  c. 

HERALDRY.  Signs  and  marks  of  honor  were  made  use  of  in  the  first  ages  of 
tlie  world. — Nisbct.  The  Phrygians  had  a  sow ;  the  Thracians,  Mars ;  the 
Romans,  an  eagle:  the  Goths,  a  bear;  the  Flemings,  a  bull;  the  Saxons,  a 
horse  ;  ahd  the  ancient  French,  a  lion,  and  afterwards  the  fleur-de-lis,  which 
see.  Hei'aldry,  as  digested  into  an  art,  and  subjected  to  rules,  may  be  ascribed 
in  the  first  instance  to  Charlemagne,  about  the  year  800 ;  and  in  the  next, 
to  Frederick  Barbarossa,  about  the  year  1152 ;  it  began  and  grew  with  the 
feudal  law. — Sir  George  Mackenzie.  It  was  at  length  methodized  and 
perfected  bv  the  crusades  and  tournaments,  the  former  commencing  in 
1095. 

HERCTJL  ANEUM.  An  ancient  city  of  Campania,  overwhelmed,  together  with 
Pompeii,  by  an  eruption  of  Vesuvius,  Aug.  24,  a.  d.  79.  Herculaneum  was 
buried  under  streams  of  lava,  and  successive  eruptions  laid  it  still  deeper 
under  the  surface.  All  traces  of  them  were  lost  until  a.  d.  1711,  from  which 
year  manj^  curiosities,  works  of  art,  and  monuments  and  memorials  of  civil- 
ized life  have  been  discovered  to  the  present  time.  150  volumes  of  MSS. 
were  found  in  a  chest,  in  1754 ;  and  many  antiquities  were  purchased  by  sir 
William  Hamilton,  and  re-purchased  by  the  trustees  of  the  British  museum, 
where  they  are  deposited ;  but  the  principal  antiquities  are  preserved  in  the 
museum  of  Portici. 

HE.RETICS.  Formerly  the  term  heresy  denoted  a  particular  sect ;  now  here- 
tics are  those  who  propagate  their  private  opinions  in  opposition  to  the  Ca- 
tholic church.— i?a-co?i.  Tens  of  thousands  of  them  have  suffered  death  by 
torture  in  Roman  Catholic  countries. — Burnet.  See  Inquisition.  Simon 
Magus  was  the  first  heretic;  he  came  to  Rome  a.  d.  41.  Thirty  heretics 
came  from  Germany  to  England  to  propagate   their  opinions,    and  were 


HIG  J  DICTIONARY    OF    UATKS.  353 

branded  in  the  forehead,  wliipped,  and  thrust  naked  into  the  streets  in 
the  depth  of  winter,  wliere,  none  daring  to  relieve  them,  they  died  of  hun- 
ger and  cold,  1160.— Speed.  In  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  to  be  in  possession 
of  Tindal's  Bible  constituted  heresy.  The  laws  against  heretics  were  re- 
pealed, 25  Henry  VIH.,  1534-5. 

HERMITS.  The  name  first  given  to  those  that  retired  to  desert  places,  to 
avoid  persecution,  where  they  gave  themselves  up  to  prayers,  fasting,  and 
meditation.  They  were  also  caUed  anchorets ;  and  commonly  lodged  in 
dark  caves,  where  their  food  was  such  roots  as  nature  bestowed  freely  with- 
out culture.  From  these  came  the  monks,  and  almost  all  the  sorts  of  reli- 
gious assemblies  that  Hve  in  monasteries.  In  the  seventh  persecution  of  the 
Christians,  one  Paul,  to  avoid  the  enemies  of  his  faith,  retired  into  Thebais, 
and  became  the  first  example  of  a  monastic  life,  about  a.  d.  250. 

HERO  AND  LEANDER:  their  amour.  The  fidelity  of  these  lovers  was  so 
great,  and  their  attachment  to  each  other  so  strong,  that  Leander  in  the 
night  frequently  swam  across  the  Hellespont,  from  Abydos  to  Sestos,  to 
have  secret  interviews  with  Hero,  a  beautiful  priestess  of  Venus,  she  -Ji- 
recting  his  course  by  a  burning  flambeaux.  After  many  stolen  interviews, 
Leander  was  drowned  in  a  tempestuous  night,  and  Hero  threw  herself  from 
her  tower,  and  perished  in  the  sea,  627  s.  c.—Livij,  Herodotus. 

HERRING-FISHERY.  It  was  largely  encouraged  by  the  Scotch  so  early  as 
the  ninth  century.  The  herring  statute  was  passed  in  1357.  The  mode  of 
preserving  herrings  by  pickling  was  discovered  about  1390,  and  gave  rise  to 
the  herring  fishery  as  a  branch  of  commerce. — Anderson.  The  British 
Herring  Fishery  Company  was  instituted  Sept.  2,  1750. 

HERSCHEL  TELESCOPE,  The.  Herchel's  seven,  ten,  and  twenty-feet  re- 
flectors were  made  about  1779.  He  discovers  the  Georgium  Sidus  (which 
see\  March  21,  1781.  He  discovers  a  volcanic  mountain  in  the  moon,  in 
1783  ;  and  about  this  time  laid  the  plan  of  his  great  forty-feet  telescope, 
which  he  completed  in  1787,  when  he  discovered  two  other  volcanic  moun- 
tains, emitting  fire  from  their  summits.  In  1802,  he  by  means  of  his  teles- 
copes, was  enabled  to  lay  before  the  Royal  Society  a  catalogue  of  5000  new 
nebulaj,  nebulous  stars,  planetary  nebulae,  and  clusters  of  stars  which  he 
had  discovered. 

HESSE,  House  of.  Its  various  branches  derive  their  origin  from  Gerberge, 
daughter  of  Charles  of  Lorraine,  uncle  of  Louis  V.  of  France,  who  was 
descended  from  Louis  the  Courteous.  She  was  married  to  Lambert  II.  earl 
of  Louvain,  from  whom  the  present  landgraves  of  Hesse-Cassel,  by  Henry 
v.,  first  of  the  family  who  bore  the  title  of  landgrave,  are  descended. 
There  is  no  family  in  Germany  more  noble  by  their  alliances  than  this  ;  and 
it  gives  place  to  none  for  the  heroes  and  statesmen  it  has  produced.  Sis 
thousand  Hessian  troops  arrived  in  England,  in  consequence  of  an  invasion 
being  expected,  in  1756.  The  sum  of  471,000Z.  three  per  cent,  stock,  was 
transferred  to  the  landgrave  of  Hesse,  for  Hessian  auxiliaries  lost  in  the 
American  war,  at  30Z.  per  man,  Nov.  1786.  The  Hessian  soldiers  were  again 
hired  by  England,  and  served  in  Ireland  during  the  memorable  rebellion 
there  in  1798. 

HIEROGLYPHICS.  The  first  writing  men  used  was  only  the  single  pictures 
and  engravings  of  the  things  they  would  represent. —  Woodvrard.  Hiero- 
glyphic characters  were  invented  by  Athothes,  2112  b.  c. —  Usher.  The 
earliest  records  of  them  were  the  Egyptian,  the  first  step  towards  letters, 
and  some  monuments  whose  objects  were  described  by  exaggerated  tradi- 
tion, or  when  forgotten,  imagined. — Phillips. 

HIGH  CHURCH  and  LOW  CHURCH  PARTIES.    These  were  occasioned  by 


354 


THE    WORLD  S    PROGRESS. 


[hoi 


the  prosecution  of  Dr.  Sacheverel,  preacher  at  St.  Saviour's  Southwark,  for 
two  seditious  sermons,  the  object  of  which  was  to  rouse  the  apprehensions 
of  the  people  for  the  safety  of  the  Churcli,  and  to  excite  hostility  against 
the  dissenters.  His  friends  were  called  High  Church,  and  his  opponents 
Low  Chui'ch,  or  moderate  men,  8  Anne,  1710.  The  queen,  Avho  f-ivored  Sa- 
cheverel, presented  him  with  the  valuable  rectory  of  St.  Andrew's,  Holborn. 
He  died  in  1724. 

HIGH  TREASON.  The  highest  offence  known  to  the  law,  and  in  regulating 
the  trials  for  which  was  enacted  the  memorable  statute,  so  favorable  to 
British  liberty,  the  25tli  of  Edward  HI.  1552.  By  this  statute  two  living 
witnesses  are  required  in  cases  of  high  treason  ;  and  it  arose  in  the  refusal 
of  parliament  to  sanction  the  sentence  of  death  against  the  duke  of  Somer- 
set— it  is  that  which  regulates  indictments  for  treason  at  the  present  day. 
By  the  40th  George  HI.  1800,  it  was  enacted  that  where  there  was  a  trial 
for  high  treason  in  which  the  overt  act  was  a  direct  attempt  upon  the  life 
of  the  sovereign,  such  trial  should  be  conducted  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
case  of  an  indictment  for  murder.     Sec  Trials. 

HIGHNESS.  The  title  of  Highness  was  given  to  Henry  VII. ;  and  this,  and 
sometimes  Your  Gra:.e,  was  the  manner  of  addressing  Henry  VIII. ;  but 
about  the  close  of  the  reign  of  the  latter  mentioned  king,  the  title  of  High- 
ness and  "  Your  Grace  "  were  absorbed  in  that  of  Majesty. 

HINDOO  ERA,  or  Era  of  the  Caliyug,  began  3101  b.  c.  or  756  before  the  De- 
luge, in  2-348  :  and  the  Hindoos  coimt  their  months  by  the  progress  of  the 
sun  through  the  zodiac.  The  Samoat  era  begins  57  b.  c.  :  and  the  Saca  era, 
A.  D.  77  :  they  are  all  used  by  the  Hindoo  nations. 

HISTORY.  Previously  to  the  invention  of  letters  the  records  of  history  are 
vague,  traditionary,  and  erroneous.  The  chronicles  of  the  Jews,  the  Parian 
Chronicle,  the  histories  of  Herodotus  and  Ctesias,  and  the  poems  of  Homer, 
are  the  foundations  of  early  ancient  history.  Later  ancient  history  is  con- 
sidered as  ending  with  the  destruction  of  the  Roman  empire  in  Italy,  a.  d. 
476  ;  and  modern  history  dates  from  the  age  of  Charlemagne,  about  a.  d. 
800.  There  was  not  a  professorship  of  modern  history  in  either  of  the 
English  universities  mitil  the  j^ears  1724  and  1736.  when  Regius  professor- 
ships were  established  by  George  I.  and  George  II.  A  professorship  of 
"history  founded  at  Harvard  College,  was  filled  by  Jared  Sparks,  who  was 
succeeded  by  Francis  Bowen,  1850. 

HOHENLINDEN,  Battle  of,  between  the  Austrian  and  French  armies,  the 
latter  commanded  by  general  Moreau.  The  Imperialists  were  defeated 
with  great  loss,  their  l^illed  and  wounded  amounting  to  10,000  men,  and 
their  loss  in  prisoners  to  10-000  more,  November  3,  1800. 

HOLLAND.  The  original  inhabitants  of  this  country  were  the  Batavians,  who 
derived  their  origin  from  the  Catti,  a  people  of  Germany.  Having  been 
obliged  to  abandon  tlieir  country  on  account  of  civil  Avars,  they  came  and 
established  themselves  in  a  morass,  formed  by  the  waters  of  the  Rhine  and 
the  Waal,  which  they  named  Bettuive,  or  Batavia,  from  Batton,  the  son  of 
their  chieftain.  To  these  have  since  been  added  a  pretty  large  proportion 
of  Francs  and  Frisians. 


Sovereignty  fiunded  by  Thierry,  first 

count'of  H  'land  -  -  a.  d.    868 

The  county  o    Holland  devolves  to  the 

counts  of  Hdinault     -  -  -  1299 

It  falls  to  the  crown  of  Philip  the  Good, 

duke  of  Burgundy      -  -  -  1436 

100,000  persons  arc  drowned  by  the  sea 

breaking  in  at  Dort  -  -      ■  H46 


Burgundy  and  its  dependencies  become 
a  circle  of  the  empire  -         -  -  1521 

They  fall  to  Spain,  vdiose  tyranny  and 
religious  persecution  cause  a  revolt 
in  Batavia  -  -  -      -  1066 

The  revolted  states  with  William, 
prince  of  Orange,  at  their  liead,  en- 
ter into  a  treaty  at  Utrecht    -  ■  1579 


hol] 


DICTIONARY   OF   DATES. 


355 


HOLIiAND,  continued. 

They  elect  William  as  Stadiholdnr 

The  Stadtholder,  William,  is  assassi- 
nated        -  -  -  -    .  - 

The  Dutch  East  India  company  found- 
ed   

After  a  struggle  of  thirty  years,  the  king 
of  Spain  is  obliged  to  declare  the  Ba- 
tavians  free  -  -  -      - 

The  republic  wars  against  Spain  in  the 
East,  and  in  America ;  the  Dutch  ad- 
miral, Peter  Hen,  takes  several  Spa- 
nish galleons,  value  20,000,000^.  ster- 
ling        

Cromwell  declares  war  against  Hol- 
land, and  many  naval  battles  are 
fought;  Blake  signally  defeats  Van 
Tromp .  -  -  -  - 

William,  prince  of  Orange,  having 
married  Mary,  daughter  of  James  II., 
is  called  to  the  British  throne 

The  office  of  Stadtholder  is  made  here- 
ditary in  the  Orange  family 

Era  of  the  civil  war 

The  French  Republican  army  march 
into  Holland ;  the  people  declare  in 
their  favor  -  -  -      - 

Tlie  Stadtholder  expelled  Jan.  10, 

He  arrives  in  England       -        Jan.  21, 

Battle  of  Camperdown,  Duncan  sig- 
nally defeats  the  Dutch     -     Oct.  11, 

The  Texel  fleet,  of  twelve  ships  of  the 
line,  with  thirteen  Imiiamen.  surren- 
dered to  the  British  admiral  Duncan, 
without  firing  a  gun       -      Aug.  28, 

A  new  constitution  is  given  to  the  Ba- 
tavian  republic ;  the  chief  officer  (R. 
J.  Schimmelpennick)  takes  the  title 
of  Grand  Pensionary     -      April  26, 


1579 

1584 
1G02 

1609 


1747 
1787 


1793 
1795 
1795 

1797 


1805 


.    Holland  erected  into  a  kingdom,  and 
]       Louis  Bonaparte  declared  king 
I  June  5, 1806 

!   Louis  abdicates    -  -  July  1,  1810 

Holland  united  to  France      -     July  9, 1810 
I   Restored  to  the  house  of  Orange,  and 
Belgium  annexed  to  its  dominions 

Nov.  18,  1813 

The  prince  of  Orange  is  proclaimed  so- 
vereign prince  of  the  United  Nether- 
lands -  -  -      Dec.  6,  1813 

He  receives  the  oath  of  allegiance 
from  his  subjects       -        March  30,  1814 

And  takes  the  title  of  king  as  William 
I.  -  -  -      March  16,  1815 

The  revolution  in  Belgium  {which  see) 
commenced     -  -  Aug.  25,  1830 

The  Belgians  take  the  city  of  Antwerp 
Qwhicii  ,-.ee)      -  -  Oc;  27,  1830 

Belgium  is  separated  from  Holji.nd, 
and  Leopold  of  Cobourg  is  elected 
king  -  -  -      July  12,  1831 

Holland  renews  the  war  against  Bel- 
gium      -  -  -  Aug  ?j  1831 

Conference  in  London  on  the  affairs  of 
Holland  and  the  Netherlands  termi- 
nates, see  Belgium       -       Nov.  15,  1831 

Treaty  between  Holland  and  Belgium, 
signed  in  London  -       April  19,  1839 

Abdication  of  William  I.  in  favor  of 
his  son  -  -  -    Oct.  8,  1840 

Death  of  the  ex-king        -        Dec.  12, 1844 

The  king  promises  his  assent  to  all  re- 
forms passed  by  the  chambers 

March  14,  1848 

New  constitution  appears,      April  17,  1848 

Death  of  William  II.      -       March  17,  1849 


STADTHOLDEKS,  ETC. 


A.D.1554  William  the  Great  succeeds  his  cou- 
sin Rene,  to  whom  the  United  Pro- 
vinces owe  their  foundation  and  glo- 
ry :  killed  by  an  assassin,  hired  by 
Phifip  of  Spain. 

1584  Henry  Philip  William. 

1618  Maurice,  a  consummate  general. 

1625  Frederick  Henry. 

1647  William  II. 

1650  William  III.  made  stadtholder  in  1672, 
and  king  of  England  in  1689. 


1702  John  William  Frizo,  drowned  in  pass- 
ing a  ferry  in  Holland. 

171 1  Charles  Henry  Frizo. 

1747  William  IV.,  first  hereditary  stadt- 
holder. 

1751  William  V. 

KINGS. 

1813  William  I. 
1840  William  II. 

1849  William  III.,  present  king,  (1852.) 
See  Belgium. 

HOLLAND,  NEW.  It  is  not  clearly  ascertained  when  this  country  was  first 
discovered.  In  1605,  etseq.,  various  parts  of  the  coast  were  traced  by  the 
Spanish,  Portuguese,  Dutch,  and  English.  What  was  deemed  till  lately  the 
south  extremity,  was  discovered  by  Tasman,  in  1642.  The  eastern  coast, 
called  New  South  Wales,  was  taken  possession  of,  in  his  Britannic  majesty's 
name,  by  captain  Cook,  in  1770.  See  Botayiy  Bay,  New  South  Walex,  and 
Van  Diemeii's  Land. 

HOLY"  ALLIANCE.  A  leagne  so  called  between  the  emperors  of  Russia  and 
Austria,  and  the  king  of  Prussia,  by  which  they  ostensibly  bound  them- 
selves, among  other  things,  to  be  governed  by  Christian  principles  in  all 
their  political  transactions.  This  alliance  was  ratified  at  Paris,  Septem- 
ber 26,  181-5. 

HOLY  WATER  is  said  to  have  been  used  in  churches  as  early  as  a.  d.  120.— 

Askc. 


356  THE  world's  progress.  [  HOP 

HOMER'S  ILIAD  and  ODYSSEY.  The  misfortunes  of  Troy  furnish  the  two 
most  perfect  Epic*  poems  in  the  world,  written  by  the  greatest  poet  that 
has  ever  lived ;  about  915  b.  c.  The  subject  of  the  first  is  the  wrath  of 
Achilles ;  the  second  recounts  the  voyages  and  adventures  of  Ulysses  after 
the  destruction  of  Troy.  Among  the  thousands  of  volumes  burnt  at  Con- 
stantinople, A.  D.  477,  were  the  works  of  Homer,  said  to  have  been  written 
in  golden  letters  on  the  great  gut  of  a  dragon,  120  feet  long. —  Univ.  Hist. 
The  works  of  Homer  are  supposed  by  some  to  have  done  great  injury  to 
mankind,  by  inspiring  the  love  of  military  glory.  Alexander  was  said  to 
sleep  with  them  always  on  his  pillow. — Darwin. 

HOMICIDE.  This  crime  was  tried  at  Athens  by  the  Areopagites,  1507  b.  c. 
He  that  killed  another  at  any  public  exercise  of  skill,  or  who  killed  another 
that  lay  perdue  to  do  a  person  mischief  of  a  grievous  nature,  was  not 
deemed  guilty.  He  who  liilled  a  man  taken  with  another's  wife,  sister, 
daughter,  or  concubine,  or  he  who  killed  a  man  who,  without  just  grounds, 
assaulted  another  violently,  was  not  deemed  a  homicide.  Among  the  Jews, 
wilful  murder  was  capital ;  but  for  chance-medley,  the  offender  should  fly 
to  one  of  the  cities  of  refuge,  and  there  continue  till  the  death  of  the  high 
priest.  In  the  primitive  church,  before  the  Christians  had  the  civil  power, 
wilful  homicide  was  punished  with  a  twentj'-  years'  penance.  Our  laws  dis- 
tinguish between  justifiable  homicide  and  homicide  in  its  various  degrees 
of  guilt,  and  circumstances  of  provocation  and  wilfulness.     See  Murder. 

HONEY-MOON.  Among  the  ancients,  a  beverage  prepared  with  honey,  such 
as  that  known  as  mead,  and  as  metheglin,  in  England,  was  a  luxurious 
drink.  It  was  a  custom  to  drink  of  diluted  honey  for  thirty  days  or  a 
moon's  age,  after  a  wedding-feast,  and  hence  arose  the  term  honey-moon,  of 
Teutonic  origin.  Attila,  the  devastating  Hun,  who  ravaged  nearly  all  Eu- 
rope, drank,  it  is  said,  so  freely  of  hydromel  on  his  marriage-day,  that  he 
died  in  the  night  from  suftbcation,  453  a.  d.  His  death  is.  however,  ascribed 
to  another  cause.     See  AUila. 

"HONI  SOIT  QUI  MAL  Y  PENSE."  It  is  said  that  the  countess  of  Salis- 
bury, at  a  ball  at  court,  happening  to  drop  her  garter,  the  king,  Edward 
III.,  took  it  up,  and  presented  it  to  her  with  these  words:  "  Honi  soit  qui  vial 
y  pense"  "  evil  be  to  him  who  evil  thinks."  They  afterwards  became  the 
motto  of  the  Garter ;  but  this  statement  of  the  origin  of  the  motto  is  un- 
supported by  sufficient  authority. —  Goldsmith. 

HONOR.  Honor  was  a  virtue  highly  venerated  by  the  ancients,  particularly 
among  the  Romans,  and  temples  Avere  ultimatelj^  erected  to  Honor  bj''  that 
people  as  a  divinity.  The  first  temple  Avas  built  bj^  Scipio  Africanus,  about 
B.  c.  197  ;  and  others  were  raised  to  her  worship  bj'  C.  Marius,  about  102 
B.  c.  These  temples  were  so  constructed  that  it  Avas  impossible  to  enter 
that  to  Honor  Avithout  going  through  the  temple  of  Virtue ;  and  Marius 
ordered  his  edifices  not  to  be  built  too  much  elevated  or  too  lofty,  thereby 
to  intimate  to  the  Avorshippers  that  humility  AA'as  the  true  Avay  to  honor. 

HOPS.  Introduced  from  the  Netherlands  into  England,  a.  d.  1524,  and  Averc 
used  in  brcAving ;  but  the  physicians  having  represented  that  they  Avere  un- 
wholesome, parliament  Avas  petitioned  against  them  as  being  a  wicked  AA'eed, 
and  their  use  AA'as  prohibited  in  1528. — Anderson.  At  present  there  are 
betAveen  fifty  and  sixty  thousand  acres,  on  an  average,  annually  under  the 


'  The  epic  poems  of  Homer  and  Vikgil,  the  GierusaJetnme  of  Tasso,  the  Paradise  Lout  of 
Milton,  and  the  Ilenriade  of  Voltaire,  are  the  noblest  that  exist ;  and  JMilton's  is  considered 
to  rank  next  to  Homer's.  "  Paradise  Lost  is  not  the  greatest  of  epic  poems,"  observe.s  Dr.  John- 
son, "  only  because  it  is  not  the  first." — Butler. 


HUD  ]  DICTJOjSIARY    OF    DATES.  357 

culture  of  hops  in  England.  They  are  grown  chiefly  in  Hereford,  Kent,  and 
Worcestershire. 

HORATII  AND  CURATII,  The  Combat  of  the,  669  b.  c.  The  Romans  and  the 
Albans  contesting  for  superiority,'  agreed  to  choose  three  champions  on 
each  side  to  determine  to  which  it  belonged ;  and  the  three  Horatii,  Roman 
knights,  and  the  three  Curatii,  Albans,  being  elected  bj^  their  respective 
countries,  engaged  in  the  celebrated  combat  which,  by  the  victory  of  the 
Horatii,  united  Alba  to  Rome. 

HORSE.  The  people  of  Thessaly  were  excellent  equestrians,  and  probably 
were  the  first,  among  the  Greeks  at  least,  Avho  rode  upon  horses,  and  broke 
them  in  for  service  in  war  ;  whence  arose  the  fable  that  Thessaly  was  ori- 
ginally inhabited  by  centaurs.  And  Solomon  had  40.000  stalls  of  horses  for 
his  chariots,  and  12.000  horsemen. — 1  Kings,  iv.  26.  The  power  of  the 
horse  is  equal  to  that  of  five  men. — Smeaton.  A  horse  can  perform  the 
work  of  six  men. — Bosstoet.  The  Greeks  and  Romans  had  some  covering 
to  secure  their  horses'  hoofs  from  injury.  In  .the  ninth  century,  horses  were 
only  shod  in  the  time  of  frost.  The  practice  of  shoeing  was  introduced 
into  England  by  William  I.,  1066.  In  England  there  are  two  millions 
of  draught  and  pleasure  horses,  and  one  hundred  thousand  agricultural 
horses,  which  consume  the  produce  of  seven  millions  of  acres.  The  horse- 
tax  was  imposed  in  1784,  and  was  then  levied  on  all  saddle  and  coach  horses 
in  England.  The  existing  duty  upon  "  horses  for  riding  "  only  in  England, 
amounts  to  about  350,000Z.  per  year.     See  Race  Horses. 

HOSPITALLERS.  Military  knights  of  the  order  of  St.  John,  of  Jerusalem, 
who  were  under  religious  vows  ;  instituted  by  opening  a  hospital  for  the 
reception  of  pilgrims  at  Jerusalem,  in  a.  d.  1048.  They  became  a  monastic 
order  in  1092  ;  and  a  military  order  in  1118.     See  Malta. 

HOSPITALS  OF  LONDON.  Several  of  these  most  valuable  and  merciful  in- 
stitutions are  of  ancient  date,  and  richly  endowed.  One  of  the  most  muni- 
ficent erections  by  a  single  individual  is  that  of  Guy's  Hospital,  Southwark, 
a  London  bookseller  of  that  name  having  built  it  at  the  cost  of  18,793Z.,  and 
endowed  it,  in  1724,  by  a  bequest  of  219,499Z.     See  Infirmaries. 

HOST,  Elevation  of  the.  Introduced  in  Roman  Catholic  worship,  and  pros- 
tration enjoined,  in  a.  d.  1201.  Pope  Gregory  IX.  was  the  first  pontifi^  who 
decreed  a  bell  to  be  rung  as  a  signal  for  the  people  to  betake  themselves  to 
the  adoration  of  the  host,  which  is  done  to  this  day. — Dr.  A.  Rees. 

HOURS.  The  day  began  to  be  divided  into  hours  from  the  year  293  b.  c,  when 
L.  Papirius  Cursor  erected  a  sun-dial  in  the  temple  of  Quirinus  at  Rome. 
Previously  to  the  invention  of  water-clocks  (lohich  see),  158  b.  c,  the  time 
was  called  at  Rome  by  public  criers.  The  Chinese  divide  the  day  into 
twelve  parts  of  t\vo  hours  each.  The  Italians  reckon  twenty-four  hours  round, 
instead  of  two  divisions  of  twelve  hours  each,  as  we  do.  In  England,  the 
measurement  of  time  was  alike  uncertain  and  difficult :  one  expedient  was 
by  wax  candles,  three  inches  burning  an  hour,  and  six  wax-candles  burning 
twenty-four  liours  :  these  candles  were  invented  by  Alfred,  clocks  and  hour- 
glasses not  being  then  known  in  England,  a.  d.  886. 

HUDSON'S  BAY.  Discovered  by  captain  Henry  Hudson,  when  in  search  of  a 
North-West  passage  to  the  Pacific  Ocean,  a.  d.  1610 ;  but  in  fact,  this  part 
of  North  America  may  more  properly  be  said  to  have  been  discovered  by 
Frobisher  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  although  Hudson  ventured  further 
north.  The  latter  pas.sing  the  winter  in  this  bay  on  his  fourth  voyage,  was, 
with  four  others  thrown  by  liis  sailors  into  a  boat,  and  left  to  perish.  The 
Hudson-Bay  Company  obtained  cliartered  possessions  here,  in  1670.  The 
forts  were  destroyed  liy  the  Frencli  in  1686  and  1782. 


358 


THE    world's    progress. 


[  HUH 


HUE  AN])  CRY.  The  old  common-law  process  of  pursuing  "  with  horn  and 
with  voice,"  from  hundred  to  hundred,  and  count}''  to  county,  all  .robbers 
and  felons.  Formerly  the  hundred  was  bound  to  make  good  all  loss  occa- 
sioned by  the  robberies  therein  committed,  unless  the  felon  were  taken; 
but  by  subsequent  laws  it  is  made  answerable  only  for  damage  committed 
by  riotous  assemblies. 

HUGUENOTS.  This  word  is  of  uncertain  derivation.  It  was  used,  as  a  term 
of  reproach,  by  the  French  Catholics,  to  nickname  their  countrjauen  of  the 
reformed  churches,  or  Protestants  of  France,  and  had  its  rise  in  1560.  The 
memorable  massacre  of  the  Huguenots  of  France,  on  the  festival  of  St. 
Bartholomew,  took  place  on  Aug.  24,  1572. — See  Bartholomew,  St.  A  con- 
siderable number  of  Huguenots  emigrated  after  that  event  to  North  Ame- 
rica, and  settled  on  the  Delawai-e,  and  in  the  Carolinas. 

HUMILIATI.  A  congregation  of  religious  in  the  church  of  Rome,  which  was 
formed  by  some  Milanese  who  had  been  imprisoned  under  Frederick  I., 
1162.  This  order  had  ninety  monasteries ;  but  it  was  abolished  for  luxury 
and  cruelty  by  pope  Pius  V.,  and  their  houses  were  given  to  the  Domini- 
cans and  Cordeliers,  in  1570. 

HUNGARY.  The  Pannonia  of  the  ancients;  and  subject  to  the  Romans,  11 
B.  c,  and  kept  possession  of  by  them  until,  in  the  fourth  century  of  the 
Cliristian  era,  the  Vandals  drove  them  out  of  it.  About  forty  years  after- 
wards, the  Vandals  migrated  towards  Gaul,  and  their  deserted  settlements 
were  occupied  by  the  Goths,  who  in  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century  were 
expelled  by  the  Huns,  a  ferocious  tribe  of  Scythians,  hekded  by  Attila, 
whose  dreadful  ravages  obtained  him  the  ai^pellation  of  "The  Scourge  of 
God." — In  more  recent  times,  the  Hungarians  have  been  much  intermixed 
with  Sclavonic  nations,  as  Bohemians,  Croats,  Russians,  and  Vandals ;  be- 
sides German  settlers,  as  Austrians,  Styrians,  Bavarians,  Franks,  Swabians, 
Saxons,  &c.  Hungary  was  annexed  to  the  empire  of  Germany  under  Char- 
lemagne, but  it^^became  an  independent  kingdom  in  920. 


Stephen  receive.?  tlie  title  of  Apostolic 
king  from  the  pope     -  -     A.  D.    997 

The  Poles  overrun  Hungary     -  -  1061 

Dreadful  ravages  of  the  Tartars  under 
the  sonsof  Jenghis  Khan,  throughout 
Hungary,Bohemia,and  Russia,  1226  et  seq. 

Victories  of  Louis  the  Great  in  Bulga- 
ria, Servia,  and  Dalmaiia       -  -  1342 

Louis  carrie.s  his  arms  into  Italy  -  1342 

He  dies,  and  the  history  of  Hungary 
now  presents  a  frightful  catalogue  of 
crimes   -----  1378 

Charles  Duras  is  murdered;  Elizabeth, 
queen  of  Louis,  is  drowned,  and  king' 
Mary,  their  daughter,  marries  Sigis- 
mond,  marquis  of  Brandcrd^arg,  and 
causes  ihe  rivers  of  Hungary  to  flow 
with  blood        .  .  -  .  1378 

The  unhappy  Hungarians  call  the 
Turks  to  their  assistance        -  -  1380 

Sultan  Bajazet  vanquishes  Sigismond 
in  battle  ....  1389 

Sigismond  recovers  from  this  blow, 
and  makes  Wallaclua  and  Moldavia 
tributarv  to  him  -  -  -  1390 


He  obtains  the  crown  of  Bohemia,  and 
is  elected  emperor  of  Germany         -  1410 

Albert  of  Austria  succeeds  to  the  throne 
of  Hungary,  thus  la,ying  the  founda- 
tion oflhe  subsequent  power  and 
greatness  of  the  house  of  Austria      - 1437 

It  passes  to  the  king  of  Poland  -  1439 

Solyman  II.,  emperor  of  the  Turks,  in- 
vades Hungary,  and  takes  Buda; 
battle  of  Mohatz  (which  see)  -  -  1520 

Buda  sacked  a  second  time  by  the 
Turks,  and  all  the  inhabitants  put  to 
the  sword  ....  ]540 

Sclavonia  taken  by  the  Turks   -  -  1540  . 

Temeswar  taken  by  them  -  - 1552 

Transylvania  seized  by  Solyman         -  1556 

The  duke  of  Lorraine  loses  30,000  men 
in  a  fruitless  attempt  to  take  Buda 
from  the  Turks  -  -  -  1681 

He  at  length  carries  Buda  by  storm, 
and  delivers  up  the  Mahometans  to 
the  fury  of  the  soldiers  -  -  1686 

Temeswar  wrested  from  the  Tui'ks  by 
prince  Eugene  -  .  •  .  17Ib 


'  The  Hungarian  people  have  nn  irreconcilable  aversion  to  the  naxae  of  gueen ;  and  ooiise- 
qaently,  whenever  a  female  succeeds  to  the  throne  of  Hungary,  she  reigns  with  the  title  of  king. 
Thus,  in  1.3S-%  when  Mary,  the  daughter  of  Cliarles  Uuras,  came  to  the  crown,  she  was  styled 
King  Mary. 


flUN  J 


DICTfONARY    OF    DA^tES. 


359 


HUNGARY,  continued. 

Servia  and  Wallachia  ceded  to  Turkey 
at  the  peace  of  Belgrade         -  •  1739 

Temeswar  incorporated  with  the  king- 
dom of  Hungary  -  -  -  1778 

The  struggle  for  independence  com- 
menced m         -  -  -  -  1SJ8 

Count  Lomburg,  Austrian  commission- 
er, murdered  at  Pesth  Sept.  27, 

The  Hungarian  Diet  dissolved  by  the 
emperor  of  Austria  ;  martial  law 
proclaimed ;  Jellachich,  Ban  of  Cro- 
atia, appointed  to  the  supreme  gov- 
ernment, -  -  Oct.  3,  1848 

Kossuth  appointed  by  the  Diet  presi- 
dent of  the  defence  committee  and 
dictator  -  -  -  -     Oct.  1848 

[InsuiTection  of  Vienna,  Oct.  6.] 

Hungarian  army  advances  within  six 


miles  of  Vienna ;  Jellachich  also  ad- 
vances there,  October  11;  Kossuth 
retreats  to  Hungarian  territory,  17th, 

Hungary  declares  itself  an  independent 
republic  -  -  -     Dec.  1848 

Raab  (Dec.)  and  Buda  Pesth,  entered 
by  Windisgratz  -  -  Jan.  5,  1849 

Ukase  of  Russian  emperor  Nicholas, 
declaring  his  purpose  of  aiding  Aus- 
tria against  Hungary  -         April  26, 

Gorgey,  commander-in-chief,  surren- 
ders the  Hungarian  army  to  the  Aus- 
trians  at  Villargos       -  Aug.  11,  18-49 

The  war  ended  by  ihe  complete  subju- 
gation of  Hungary,  and  the  flight  or 
execution  of  her  leaders. 
See  Gerinany. 


KINGS   OP   HUNGARY. 


A.  D.  997  Stephen,  duke,  assumes  the  title  of  king. 
1038  Peter  I.,  deposed. 
1041  Otto,  killed  in  battle. 
1044  Peter  again    ascends    the  throne  ;    is 

again  deposed,  and  has  liis  eyes  put 

out. 
1047  Andrew,  assassinated  by  his  brother 

Bela. 
1059  Bela,  killed  by  the  fall  of  a  ruinous 

tower. 
1063  Solomon,  deposed  by  his  son. 
1073  Geiga  I. 
1076  St.  Ladislaus. 
1095  Ooloman. 

1114  Stephen  11,,  surnamed  Thunder;  turn- 
ed monk. 
1131  Bela  II. ;  he  had  his  eyes  put  out  by 

his  uncle  Coloman,  so  that  his  queen 

ruled  the  kinadom. 
1141  Geisa  II. 
1161  Stephen  III. 
1173  Bela  111. 
1191  Emeric. 

1200  Ladislaus  11. 

1201  Andrew  II. 
1235  Bela  IV. 
1275  Stephen  IV. 

1278  Ladislaus  III.,  miu-.lered. 
1291  Andrew  III. 
1301  Wenceslaus. 
1304  Otho. 


1309  Charles  Robert. 

1342  Louis  I.  the  Great. 

1383  Mary. 

1.389  Mary,  and  her  husband  Sigism  ltd. 

1437  Albert ;  he  died  of  a  surfeit  of  melons. 

1440  Ladislaus  IV.,  killed  in  battle  with  the 
Turks. 

1444  LadLslaus  V. ,  poisoned  while  an  infant. 

1458  Matthias  I.,  son  of  Huniades,  late  re- 
gent. 

1490  Ladislaus  VL 

1516  Louis  II.  drowned  whilst  fighting  the 
Turks. 

1526  John  Sepusius,  deposed. 

1327  Ferdinand,  king  ol'  Bohemia. 

1534  John  Sepusius,  again. 

1539  John  II. 

1561  Maximilian,  afterwards  emperor  of 
Germany. 

1.573  Rodolphus. 

1609  Matthias  11. 

1618  Ferdinand  II.,  emperor  of  Germany. 

1625  Ferdinand  HI.,  ditto. 

1647  Ferdinand  IV. 

1656  Leopold,  emperor  of  Germany. 

1687  Joseph,  ditto 

1711  Charles  VI    ditto. 

1740  Maria  Theresa. 

1780  Joseph,  her  son,  emperor  of  Germany. 
See  Germany. 


On  the  death  of  Charles  VI.,  m  1740,  his  daughter,  Maria  Theresa,  who  had 
married  into  the  house  of  Lorraine,  was  in  danger  of  being  deprived  of  her 
father's  hereditary  dominions  by  France,  and  also  by  Bavaria  ;  but  at  length 
overcoming  all  difficulties,  her  husband  was  elected  emperor,  and  Hungary, 
Austria,  and  Bohemia  are  at  this  time  governed  by  their  descendants.  See 
Germany. 

HUNS.  A  fierce  and  warlike  nation,  occupying  eastern  Tartary  nearly  1200 
years ;  they  Avere  almost  wholly  exterminated  by  the  Chinese,  in  a.d.  93,  and 
the  remnants  settled  on  the  Volga,  and  attacked  the  Roman  allies  on  the 
Danube,  in  376 ;  but  having  been  subsidized  imder  Attila,  they  turned  their 
arms  towards  Germany.  The  latter  country  and  Scythia  were  conquered  by 
them,  about  a.  d.  433.  100  000  of  them  were  slain  on  the  plains  of  Cham- 
pagne in_447.  Tliey  were  detVated  liv  Charles  the  Great  in  several  battles 
during  eight  years,  and  were  almosi  cxtiipated  and  soon  ceased  to  appear  a.>i 


360  THE    world's    progress.  '  [  lAJl 

a  distinct  nation  after  780.    When  they  settled  in  Pannonia,  they  gave  it  the 
name  of  Hungarj^,  which  see ;  see  also  Attlla. 

HUSS,  JOHN ;  His  Martyrdom.  The  clergy  having  instigated  the  pope  to 
issue  a  bull  against  heretics,  Huss,  who  had  been  zealous  to  promote  a  refor- 
mation, was  cited  to  appear  before  a  council  of  divines  at  Constance  to  give 
an  account  of  his  doctrines.  To  encourage  him  to  do  so,  the  emperor  Sigis- 
mund  sent  him  a  safe  conduct,  and  engaged  for  his  security.  On  the 
strength  of  this  pledge  he  presented  himself  accordingly,  but  was  soon 
thrown  into  prison,  and  after  some  months'  confinement  was  adjudged  to  be 
burned  alive.  He  endured  this  dreadful  death  with  magnanimity  and  resig- 
nation, July  6,  1415.  The  same  luihappy  fate  was  borne  with  the  same 
fortitude  and  constancy  of  mind  by  Jerome  op  Prague,  the  intimate  com- 
panion of  Huss,  who  came  to  this  council  with  the  generous  design  of  sup- 
porting and  seconding  his  persecuted  friend :  he,  too,  suffered,  May  30, 1416. 
See  Cranmer,  and  MarLyrs. 

HUSSARS.  This  species  of  force  originated  in  Poland  and  Hungary ;  and  as 
they  were  more  fitted  for  a  hasty  enterprise  than  a  set  battle,  they  are  sup- 
posed to  have  taken  their  names  from  the  huzzas  or  shout  they  made  at  their 
lirst  onset.  They  were  generally  opijosed  to  the  Turkish  horse,  "and  were 
oddly  clothed,  having  the  skins  of  tigers  and  other  wild  beasts  hanging  on 
their  backs,  against  bad  weather,  and  wore  fur  caps,  with  a  cock's  feather," 
— Pardon. 

HYDROMETER.  The  oldest  mention  of  the  Hydrometer  occurs  in  the  fifth 
century,  and  may  be  found  in  the  letters  of  Synesius  to  Hypatia;  but  it  is 
not  imjDrobable  that  Archimedes  was  the  inventor  of  it,  though  no  proofs 
of  it  are  to  be  found.— i?«7.:/Ma?iw.  Hypatia  was  torn  to  pieces,  415  a.  d., 
and  Archimedes  was  killed  212  b.  c.  Hydraulic  chemistry  became  a  science 
in  1746. 

HYDROSTATICS  were  probably  first  studied  in  the  Alexandrian  school,  about 
300  B.  c.  The  pressure  of  fiuids  was  discovered  by  Archimedes,  about  250 
B.  c.  The  forcing-pump  and  air-fountain  were  invented  by  Hero,  about  120 
B.  c.  Water-mills  were  known  about  the  time  of  the  birth  of  Christ.  The 
science  was  i-evived  by  Galileo,  about  a.  d.  1600.  The  theory  of  rivers  was 
scientifically  understood  in  1697.  The  correct  theory  of  fiuids  and  oscilla- 
tion of  waves,  explained  by  Newton,  in  1714.  A  scientific  form  was  given 
to  hydrodynamics,  by  Bernoulli,  1738. 

HYMNS.  Religious  songs,  or  odes,  were  at  first  used  by  the  heathens  in  praise 
of  their  false  deities,  and  afterwards  introduced  both  into  the  Jewish  and 
Christian  churches.  St.  Hilary,  the  bishop  of  Aries,  in  France,  is  said 
to  have  been  the  first  who  composed  hymns  to  be  sung  in  Christian  churches, 
about  a.  d.  431.  The  hymns  of  the  Jews  are  usually  accompanied  with 
trumpets,  drums,  and  cymbals. 


IAMBIC  VERSE.  lambe,  an  attendant  of  Metanira,  wife  of  Celeus,  king  of 
Sparta,  when  trying  to  exhilarate  Ceres,  while  the  latter  was  travelling  over 
Attica  in  quest  of  her  daughter  Proserpine,  entertained  her  with  jokes, 
stories,  and  poetical  effusions ;  and  from  her  free  and  satirical  verses  have 
been  called  Iambics. — Apollodorus.  Iambic  verses  were  first  written,  about 
700  B.  c,  by  Archilochus,  who  had  courted  Neobule,  the  daughter  of  Lycam- 
Ijes  ;  but  after  a  promise  of  marriage,  the  father  preferred  another  suitor, 
richer  than  the  poet;  whereupon  Archilochus  wrote  so  bitter  a  satire  on  tho 
old  man's  avarice,  that  he  hanffcd  himself. — Hcroiioliis. 


:D0  J  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  361 

ICE.  Galileo  was  the  first  who  observed  ice  to  be  lighter  than  the  water  which 
composed  it,  and  hence  ice  floats,  about  1597.  Ice  produced  in  summer  by 
means  of  chemical  mixtures,  prepared  by  Mr.  Walker  and  others,  in  1782. 
Leslie  froze  water  under  the  receiver  of  an  air-pump  by  placing  under  it  a 
vessel  full  of  oil  of  vitriol.  One  part  of  sal-ammonia  and  two  of  common 
salt,  with  five  of  snow,  produce  a  degree  of  cold  twelve  degrees  below  the 
zero  of  Fahrenheit.  Fivp  parts  of  muriate  of  lime  and  four  of  snow  freeze 
mercury ;  and  mercury  can  be  solidified  by  preparations  of  sulphuric  acid, 
so  as  to  bear  the  stroke  of  a  hammer.    See  Cold. 

ICE  TRADE,  The,  in  the  United  States,  was  commenced  by  Frederick  Tudor, 
of  Boston,  in  1805,  who  shipped  the  first  cargo  to  Martinique  and  the  first  to 
Calcutta,  1833.  The  ice-houses  of  the  dealers  near  Boston  at  present  are 
capable  of  containing  141,332  tons. 

ICELAND.  Discovered  by  some  Norwegian  chiefs  who  were  compelled  to 
leave  their  native  country,  a.  d.  871 ;  according  to  some  accounts,  it  had 
been  previouslj^  visited  by  a  Scandinavian  pirate.  It  was  peopled  by  the 
Norwegians,  in  874.  In  1783,  there  occurred  here  the  most  tremendous  vol- 
canic eruption  on  record ;  it  Avas  accompanied  by  violent  wind  and  rain,  and 
a  darkness  of  the  heavens ;  and  it  was  feared  that  the  island  would  fall  to 
pieces.  Three  fire  spouts  broke  out  of  Mount  Skapta,  which,  after  rising 
to  a  considerable  height  in  the  air,  formed  a  torrent  of  red-hot  lava  that 
flowed  for  six  weeks,  and  ran  a  distance  of  60  miles  to  the  sea,  in  a  broken 
breadth  of  nearly  12  miles :  12  rivers  were  dried  up ;  21  villages  totally 
overwhelmed  bj'  fire  or  water ;  and  34  others  were  materially  injured. 

ICELANDIC  LITERATURE,  Royal  Society  of,  in  Copenhagen.  Their 
library,  containing  2000  Icelandic  MSS.  and  many  books,  burnt,  September 
26,  1847. 

ICONOLOGY.  The  science  that  describes  men  and  deities,  distinguished  by 
some  peculiar  characteristic,  and  the  doctrine  of  picture  or  image  reiDresen- 
tation.  Thus,  Saturn  is  represented  as  an  old  man  with  a  scythe ;  Jupiter 
with  a  thunderbolt,  and  an  eagle  by  his  side ;  Neptune  with  a  trident,  in  a 
chariot  drawn  by  sea-horses ;  Mercury,  with  wings  on  his  hat  and  at  his 
heels ;  Bacchus,  crowned  with  ivy ;  Pallas,  leaning  on  her  a3gis ;  Venus, 
drawn  by  Swans  or  pigeons ;  Juno,  riding  in  a  cloud,  &c.  Heathen  mytho- 
logy gave  rise  to  the  later  worship  of  the  sun,  moon,  stars,  and  other  objects ; 
and  to  the  repre.sentation  of  the  true  God  in  various  forms;  and  to  images. 
The  Iconoclastic  schism  rent  asunder  the  Roman  Catholic  church  in  the 
early  part  of  the  eighth  century.     See  Iduls. 

IDES.  In  the  Roman  calendar,  the  ides  meant  the  thirteenth  day  of  each 
month  except  in  March,  May,  July,  and  October,  in  which  months  it  was 
the  fifteenth  day,  because  in  these  four  it  was  six  days  before  tlie  nones, 
and  in  the  other  months  four  days.  The  ides  of  March  was  the  daj^'  on 
which  Julius  Caesar  was  assassinated  in  the  senate  house  by  Casca  and  other 
conspirators,  44  b.  c. 

IDIOTS.  It  is  shown  by  the  latest  returns,  that  exclusive  of  lunatics  (see  In- 
sanity), there  are  in  England,  pauper  idiots,  or  idiots  protected  by  national 
institutions,  males,  8372 ;  females,  3893 ;  total,  7265.  In  England  there  is 
one  lunatic  or  idiot  in  everj^  1083  individuals ;  in  Wales,  there  is  one  in 
every  807 ;  in  Scotland,  one  in  731 ;  and  in  Ireland,  one  in  812. 

IDOLS,  AND  IDOLATRY.  The  public  worship  of  idols  was  introduced  by  Ni- 
nus,  king  of  Assyria,  2059  b.  c. —  Vossius.  Idols  are  supposed  to  have  origi- 
nated in  the  pillar  set  up  by  Jacob,  at  Bethel,  about  1800  b.  c. — Dufresnoy. 
Constantino,  emperor  of  Rome,  ordered  all  the  heathen  temples  to"  be  de- 
stroyed, and  all  sacrifices  to  cease,  330  a.  d. — Diifresiioy.     In  Britain,  the 

in 


362  THE   world's    PE-OGEESS.  [  IM1< 

religion  of  the  Druids  gave  way  to  the  more  gross  and  barbarous  supersti- 
tions of  the  Saxons,  who  had  their  idols,  altars,  and  temples,  and  they  soon 
overspread  the  country  with  them :  they  had  a  god  for  every  day  in  the 
week.  See  Week.  The  idolatry  of  the  Saxons  yielded  to  Christianity  after 
the  coming  of  St.  Augustin.     See  Christianity. 

ILIUM.  A  city  was  built  here  by  Dardanus,  and  called  Dardania,  1480  b.  c. 
Troy  {which  see),  another  city,  was  founded  by  Troas,  about  1341  b.  c.  ;  and 
Ilus,  his  successor,  called  the  country  Ilium.  This  kingdom  existed  296 
years  from  the  reign  of  Dardanus,  Priam  being  the  sixth  and  last  king.  The 
Trojan  war  was  undertaken  by  the  united  states  of  Greece  to  recover  Helen, 
whom  Paris,  son  of  Priam,  had  borne  away  from  lier  husband,  Menelaus, 
king  of  Sparta,  1204  b.  c.  See  Helen.  More  than  100,000  warriors  engaged 
in  this  expedition ;  and  the  invaders,  having  wasted  many  defenceless  towns 
and  villages,  laid  siege  to  the  capital,  1193  b.  c.  Troy  was  taken  after  ten 
years'  war  by  stratagem,  and  burnt  to  ashes  by  the  conquerors,  who  put  the 
inhabitants  to  the  sword,  or  carried  them  off  as  slaves,  1184  b.  c. — A^ulo- 
dorus. 

ILLINOIS.  One  of  the  United  States,  first  settled  on  the  Kaskaskia  and  Caho- 
kia  by  the  French  from  Canada.  Ceded  to  Great  Britain  at  the  peace  of 
1763.  Chiefly  settled  by  emigrants  from  other  states  since  1800.  In  1789  it 
was  part  of  the  North-West  territory.  In  1809  it  was  made  a  separate  terri- 
tory, and  in  1818  admitted  into  the  Union,  being  the  23d  state.  Population 
in  1810,  12,282 ;  in  1830,  157,575 ;  in  1840,  476,183.  It  is  a  free  state  and  has 
always  been  so.  The  chief  products  are  grain  and  Indian  corn ;  it  has  in- 
exhaustible lead-mines.    New  constitution  adopted  August  81,  1847. 

ILLUMINATI.  These  were  heretics  who  sprang  up  in  Spain,  where  they  were 
called  Alumbrados,  about  a.  d.  1575 ;  and  after  their  suppression  in  Spain, 
they  appeared  in  France.  One  of  their  leaders  was  the  friar  Anthony  Bou- 
chet.  The  chief  doctrine  of  this  sect  was,  that  they  obtained  grace,  and 
attained  perfection,  by  their  own  sublime  manner  of  prayer.  A  secret 
society  bearing  this  name  was  founded  by  Dr.  Adam  Weishaupt,  in  May, 
1776. 

ILLUMINATED  BOOKS  and  PAGES.  The  practice  of  adopting  ornaments, 
drawings,  and  emblematical  figures,  and  even  portraits,  to  enrich  MSS.,  is  of 
great  antiquity ;  and  illuminated  pages  are,  many  of  them,  exquisitely  painted. 
Varro  wrote  the  lives  of  700  illustrious  Romans,  which  he  embellished  Avith 
their  likenesses,  about  70  b.  c. — Plin.  Hist.  Nat. 

IMPEACHMENT.  The  first  impeachment  by  the  commons  house  of  parlia- 
ment, and  the  first  of  a  lord  chancellor,  Avas  in  1386.  By  statute  of  the  12th 
and  13th  of  William  and  Mary,  it  was  enacted,  that  no  pardon  under  the 
great  seal  shall  be  pleaded  to  an  impeachment  by  the  commons  in  i^arlia- 
ment,  1699  and  1700.  Memorable  impeachment  of  Warren  Hastings,  Feb. 
13,  1788 ;  the  trial  lasted  seven  years,  ending  April  25, 1795,  in  an  acquittal. 
Impeachment  of  lord  Melville,  April  29,  and  his  acquittal,  June  12,  1806. 
Inquiry  into  the  charges  preferred  by  colonel  Wardle  against  the  duke  of 
York,  commenced  Jan.  26,  and  ended  March  20,  1809,  in  his  acquittal. 
Trial  of  Caroline,  queen  of  George  IV.,  by  bill  of  pains  and  penalties,  be- 
fore the  house  of  lords,  commenced  Aug.  16 ;  Mr.  Brougham  entered  on 
her  majesty's  defence,  Oct.  3  ;  and  the  last  debate  on  the  bill  took  place, 
Nov.  10,  1820.     See  Queen  of  George  IV. 

IMPERIAL  PARLIAMENT.  By  the  Union  with  Ireland,  the  parliament  of 
Great  Britain  became  Imperial ;  and  the  first  Imperial  parliament,  admit- 
ting 100  Irish  members  into  the  commons,  and  28  temporal  and  4  spiritual 
peers  into  the  hoitse  of  lords,  was  held  at  Westminster,  Jamiary  22,  1801. 


IMP  J 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES. 


36S 


The  Imperial  parliament  is  now  constituted  thus :  in  the  Commons,  since 
the  passing  of  the  Reform  Bill  {which  see),  in  1832,  there  are  471  English; 
29  Welsh ;  105  Irish ;  and  53  Scotch  members — in  all  658.  In  the  Lords, 
459  members,  of  whom  28  are  temporal,  and  4  spiritual  representative  peers 
of  Ireland ;  and  16  representative  peers  of  Scotland.  See  Commons,  Lords, 
Parliament,  and  Reform. 

IMPORTS  OP  MERCHANDISE  m  the  UNITED  STATES.  See  Exports,  &c. 
Table,  p.  317. 

VALUE   OF  IMPORTS   INTO    GREAT   BRITAIN,   FROM   ALL  PARTS   OF   THE  WORLD. 

In  1710  -  jB4,753,777  I  In  1800  -  je30,.570,605  1  In  1830  -  .£46,315,241 
1750  -  -  7,289,582  1810  -  -  41,136,135  1840  -  -  62,004,000 
1775    -   -  14,815,855 1   1820   -   -  36,514,564  1   1845    -   -  85,281,958 

1  IMPOSTORS.  The  names  and  pretensions  of  religious,  political,  and  other  im- 
postors, would  fill  a  volume ;  they  have  been,  of  course,  found  in  every 
country,  and, have  existed  in  every  age.  The  following  are  selected  from 
various  authorities,  as  being  among  the  most  extraordinary : — 

Boleyn.    She  and  her  confederates  were 


Aldebert,  who,  in  the  eighth  century,  pre- 
tended he  had  a  letter  from  the  Redeem- 
er, wliich  fell  from  heaven  at  .lerusalem ; 
he  seduced  multitudes  to  follow  him  into 
woods  and  deserts,  and  to  live  in  imitation 
of  John  the  Baptist. 

Gonsalvo  Martin,  a  Spaniard,  pretended  to 
be  the  angel  Michael  j  he  was  burnt  by 
the  inquisition  of  Spam,  in  1360. 

George  David,  son  of  a  waterman  at  Ghent, 
styled  himself  the  nephew  of  God,  sent 
into  the  world  to  adopt  children  worthy  of 
heaven;  he  denied  the  resurrection, 
preached  against  marriage,  in  favor  of  a 
community  of  women,  and  taught  that 
the  body  only  could  be  defiled  by  sin ;  he 
had  many  foUowere ;  died  at  Basle,  1556. 

Demetrius  Griska  Eutropeia,  a  friar,  pre- 
tended to  be  the  son  of  Basilowitz,  czar  of 
Muscovy,  whom  the  usurper  Boris  had 
put  to  death ;  but  he  maintained  that  ano- 
ther child  had  been  substituted  in  his 
place :  he  was  supported  by  the  arms  of 
Poland ;  his  success  astonished  the  Rus- 
sians, who  invited  him  to  the  throne,  and 
delivered  into  his  hands  Fedor,  the  reign- 
ing czar,  and  all  his  family,  whom  he 
cruelly  put  to  death :  his  impositioii  being 
discovered,  he  was  assassinated  in  his 
palace,  1606. — D'  AleinberV  s  Revolutions 
of  Russia. 

Sabbata  Levi,  a  Jew  of  Smyrna,  amused 
the  Turks  and  Jews  a  long  time  at  Con- 
stantinople and  other  places,  by  person- 
ating our  Saviour,  1666. 

IMPOSTORS   EXTRAORDINARY    IN    BRITISH 
HISTORY. 

Two  men  crucified,  both  pretending  to  be 
the  Messiah ;  and  two  women  executed  for 
assuming  the  characters  of  the  Virgin 
Mary  and  Mary  Masdalen,  5  Henry  III., 
1221. 

Elizabeth  Barton,  styled  the  Holy  maid  of 
Kent,  spirited  up  to  hinder  the  Reforma- 
tion, by  pretending  to  inspirations  from 
heaven,  fortelling  that  the  king  would  have 
an  early  and  violent  death  if  "he  divorced 
Catherine  of  Spain,  and   married  Anne 


hanged  at  Tyburn,  24  Henry  VIII,  1534.— 
Rapin. 

In  the  first  year  of  Mary's  reign,  after  her 
marriage  with  Philip  of  Spain,  Elizabeth 
Croft,  a  girl  of  18  years  of  age,  was  se- 
creted in  a  wall,  and  with  a  wliistle,  made 
for  the  purpose,  uttered  many  seditious 
speeches  against  the  queen  and  the  princs, 
and  also  against  the  mass  and  confession, 
for  which  she  was  sentenced  to  stand  upon 
a  scaffold  at  St.  Paul's  cross,  during  ser- 
mon-time, and  make  public  confession  of 
her  unposture,  1553:  she  was  called  the 
Spirit  of  the  Wa.\\.— Baker's  Chron. 

William  Hacket,  a  fanatic,  personated  our 
Saviour,  and  was  executed  for  blasphemy, 
34  Eliz.,  1591. 

James  Naylor,  personated  our  Saviour ;  he 
was  convicted  of  blasphemy,  scourged, 
and  his  tongue  bored  through  with  a  hot 
iron  on  the  pillory,  by  sentence  of  the 
House  of  Commons,  under  Cromwell's 
administration,  1656. 

Valentine  Greatrakes,  an  Irish  impostoi', 
who  pretended  to  cure  all  diseases  by 
stroking  the  patient ;  his  imposture  de- 
ceived the  credulous,  and  occasioned  very 
warm  disputes  in  Ireland,  in  1665,  and  in 
England,  where  it  fell  into  disrepute,  in 
1666,  upon  his  examination  belbre  the 
Royal  Society,  after  which  we  hear  no 
more  of  him.  Birch's  Memoirs  of  the 
Roy.  Society. 

Dr.  Titus  Gates.    See  Conspiracies. 

Mary  Tofts,  of  Godalming,  by  pretending 
she  bred  rabbits  within  her,  so  imposed 
upon  many  persons  (among  others,  Mr. 
St.  Andre,  surgeon  to  the  king),  that  they 
espoused  her  cause,  1726. 

The  Cock-lane  ghost  imposture  by  William 
Parsons,  his  wife,  and  daughter,  1762. 

Johanna  Southcote,  Trho  proclaimed  her 
conception  of  the  Messiah,  and  had  a  mul 
titude  of  followers ;  she  died  in  Dec.  1S14 

IN   THE   UNITED    STATES. 

Matthias,  alias  Matthews,  who  professed  to 

be  the  Messiah,  New- York.  18.30-31. 
Joseph  Smith.  See  article  Mormons. 

IMPRESSMENT  of  SEAMEN.     Affirmed  bv  Sir  M.  Fester  to  be  of  ancient 


364  THE  world's  progress.  [ind 

practice.  The  statute  2  Richard  II.  speaks  of  impressment  as  a  matter  well 
known,  1378.  The  first  commission  for  it  was  issued  29  Edward  III.  1355. 
Pressing,  either  for  the  sea  or  land  service,  declared  to  be  illegal  by  the  Bri- 
tish parliament,  Dec.  1641.  None  can  be  pressed  into  the  king's  naval  service 
above  55,  nor  under  18.  No  apprentice  nor  landsmen  who  have  not  served  at 
sea  for  3  or  2  years.  No  masters  of  merchants'  ships,  first-mates  of  50  tons, 
and  boatswains  and  carpenters  of  100  tons.  No  men  employed  by  the  pub- 
lic boards,  and  none  except  by  an  ofiicer  with  a  press-warrant. 

INCENDIARIES.  The  punishment  for  arson  was  death  by  the  Saxon  laws  and 
Gothic  constitutions.  In  the  reign  of  Edward  I.  incendiaries  were  burnt  to 
death.  This  crime  was  made  high  treason  by  statute  8  Henry  VI.,  1429 ;  and 
it  was  denied  benefit  of  clergy,  21  Henry  VIII.,  1528. 

[N(^EST.  It  has  been  looked  upon  with  horror  by  most  nations,  but  Persia  and 
Egypt  are  exceptions.  The  history  of  the  latter  country  abounds  with  in- 
stances of  incestuous  marriages  among  its  sovereigns.  Physcon  married  his 
brother's  queen,  then  repudiated  her,  and  married  her  daughter  by  his 
brother,  and  murdered  his  children  by  both  wives,  129  b.  c.  See  Egypt. 
In  our  own  countiy,  Vortigern,  a  king  of  South  Britain,  married  his  own 
daughter,  a.  d.  446.  The  instances  are  numerous  in  Portugal.  Maria, 
queen  of  Portugal,  married  her  uncle,  the  prince  of  Brazil,  June,  1760;  and 
the  son  of  that  incestuous  marriage,  Josepli,  then  in  his  sixteenth  year,  mar- 
ried his  aunt,  the  princess  Mary,  Feb.,  1777.  The  present  Don  Miguel  of 
Portugal  was  betrothed  to  his  niece,  Donna  Maria,  by  procuration  at  Vienna, 
in  Oct.  1826,  she  being  then  only  seven  years  of  age.  In  England,  incest  was 
early  punished  with  death ;  and  was  again  made  capital  by  a  law  of  the 
Commonwealth,  in  1650. 

INCOME  TAX  IN  ENGLAND.  This  is  not.  as  some  suppose,  a  new  impost. 
In  1512,  parliamenC  granted  a  subsidy  of  two  fifteenths  from  the  commons, 
and  two  tenths  from  the  clergy,  to  enable  the  king  to  enter  on  a  war  with 
France. — Rapm.  This  tax  was  attempted  in  1793,  and  1799 :  and  again  in 
1802;  but  was  abandoned.  In  1803,  it  was  revived,  at  the  rate  of  5  per 
cent,  on  all  incomes  above  150Z.,  and  lower  rates  on  smaller  incomes.  In 
1805,  it  was  increased  to  6^  per  cent. ;  and  in  1806  was  raised  to  10  per  cent, 
embracing  the  dividends  at  the  bank.    It  produced — 

In  1804,  at  Is.  in  the  pound      -    £4,650,000  I  In  1806,  at  2s.  in  the  pound      -  jEU, 500,000 
In  1805,  at  Is.  Zd.  ditto  -  -       5,937,500  |  And  subsequently  -  -      16,548,935 

The  tax  produced  from  lands,  houses,  rentages,  &c.,  8,657,937^. ;  from  fund- 
ed and  stock  properties,  2,885  505/. ;  the  profits  and  gains  of  trade,  3,831,088/. 
and  salaries  and  pensions,  1,174,456/.;  total,  sixteen  millions  and  a  half. 
Repealed  in  March,  1816.  Sir  Robert  Peel's  bill,  imposing  the  present  tax 
of  21.  18s.  Ad.  per  cent,  per  ann.,  to  subsist  for  three  years,  passed  June  22, 
1842 ;  it  produced  about  5,350,000/.  a  year.  This  tax  was  renewed  for  three 
years  more,  in  March,  1845. 

INDEPENDENTS.  Sects  of  Protestants,  chiefly  in  England  and  Holland.  They 
are  such  as  hold  the  independency  of  the  church,  or  that  each  congregation 
may  govern  itself  in  religious  matters.  They  say  there  is  no  absolute  occa- 
sion for  synods  or  councils,  whose  resolutions  may  be  taken  to  be  wise  and 
prudent  advice,  but  not  as  decisions  to  be  peremptorily  obeyed ;  they  affirm 
that  one  church  may  advise  or  reprove  another,  but  has  no  authority  to  ex- 
communicate or  censure.  Their  first  meeting-house  founded  in  England  was 
that  by  Henry  Jacobs,  1616. 

INDEX  EXPURGATORY.  A  catalogue  of  prohibited  books  in  the  Church  of 
Rome,  first  made  by  the  inquisitors,  and  approved  by  the  council  of  Trent. 


ind] 


DICTIONARY    OF   DATES. 


365 


The  index  of  heretical  boolis,  by  which  tlie  reading  of  tlie  Scriptures  was 
forbidden  (with  certain  exceptions)  to  the  laity,  was  confirmed  by  a  bull  of 
pope  Clement  VIII.  in  1595.  It  enumerated  most  of  the  celebrated  works 
of  France.  Spain,  Germany,  and  England,  and  which  are  still  prohibited. 
— Ashe.  , 

INDIA.  Known  to  the  ancients,  many  of  whose  nations,  particularly  the  Ty- 
rians  and  Egj^ptians,  carried  on  much  commerce  with  it.  It  was  conquered  by 
Alexander,  327  b.  c,  and  subsequently  the  intercourse  between  India  and 
the  Roman  empire  was  very  great.  The  authentic  history  of  Hindoostan  is 
reckoned  to  commence  with  the  conquests  of  Mahmud  Gazni,  a.  d.  1000. — 
Rennel. 


Irruption  of  the  Mahometans,  under 
Mahmud  Gazni  -  -     a.  d.  1000 

Patna,  or  Afghan  empire  founded        -  1205 

Reign  of  Jenghis  Khan,  one  of  the  most 
bloody  conquerors  of  the  world ; 
14,000,000  of  the  human  race  perish 
by  his  sword,  under  the  pretence  of 
establishing  the  worship  of  one  god : 
he  died 1237 

The  Mogul  Tartars,  under  the  conduct 
of  the  celebrated  Timour,  or  Tamer- 
lane, invade  Hindostan  -  - 1398 

Tamerlane  takes  the  city  of  Delhi ;  de- 
feats the  Indian  army,  makes  a  con- 
quest of  Hindostan,  and  butchers 
100,000  of  its  people    -  -  -1399 

The  passage  to  India  discovered  by 
Vasco  da  Gama  -  -  -  1497 

Conquest  of  the  country  completed  by 
the  sultan  Baber,  founder  of  the  Mo-  I 

gul  empire       ....  1525 

Reign    of  the   illustrious  Acbar,  tlie  I 

greatest  prince  of  Hindostan  -  -  1555 

Reign  of  Aurungzebe ;  his  dominions 
extending  from  10  to  35  degrees  in 
latitude,  and  nearly  as  much  m  longi- 
tude, and  his  revenue  amounting  to 
32,000,000^.  sterling      -  -  -  1660 

Invasion  of  the  Persian,  Nadir  Shah,  or 
Kouli  Khan      ....  1738 

At  Delhi  he  orders  a  general  massacre, 
and  150,000  persons  perish     -  -  1738 

He  carries  away  treasure  amounting 
to  125,000,000/.  sterling  -  .  1739 

Defeat  of  the  last  imperial  army  by  the 
Rohillas  ....  1749 

[The  Mogul  empire  now  became  mere- 
ly nominal,  distinct  and  independent 
sovereignties  being  formel  by  nu- 
merous petty  princes.  The  empe- 
rors were  of  no  political  consequence 
from  this  period. 

BKITISH  POWER  IN  INDIA. 

Attempt  made  to  reach  India  by  the 

north-east  and  north-west  passages  -  1528 
Sir  Francis  Drake's  expeditions  -  1579 

Levant  company  make  a  land  expedi- 
tion to  India      -  -  .  -  1589 
First  adventure  from  England  -           -  1591 
First  charter  to  the  London  company 

of  merchants    ....  I6OO 
Second  charter  to  the  East  India  com- 
pany       1609 

Calcutta  purchased        -  -  -  1698 

Capture  of  Calcutta  by  Serajah  Dowla. 

See  Calcutta.   -  -  -  .  1756 

He  imprisons  146  British  subjects,  of 


whom  123  perish  in  one  night.    See 
Blackhole.        -  -  May  19,  1756 

Calcutta  retaken  by  colonel,  afterwards 
lord  Clive ;  he  defeats  the  soubah,  at 
Plassey  -  -  June  20,  1757 

Warren  Hastings  becomus  governor  of 
Bengal  -  -  -         April  13,  1772 

India  Bill.    See  India  Bill      June  16,  1773 

Supreme  court  established        -  -  1773 

Pondicherry  taken  -  Oct.  11,  1778 

The  strong  fortress  of  Gualior  taken  by 
major  Popham  -  Aug.  4, 1778 

Hyder  All  overruns  the  Carnatic,  and 
defeats  the  British       -  Sept.  10, 1780 

He  takes  Arcot    -  -  Oct.  31,  17S0 

Lord  Macartney  arrives  as  governor  of 
Madras  -  -  -  June  22, 1781 

Hyder  Ali  signally  defeated  by  Sir  Eyre 
Coote    -  -  -  -July  1,178) 

Death  of  Hyder,  and  accession  of  his 
son,  Tippoo  Saib         -  Dec.  11,  1782 

Trial  of  Warren  Hastings.  See  Hast- 
ings, Trial  of  -  Feb,  13,  1788 

Definitive  treaty  with  Tippoo ;  his  two 
sons  hostages   -  -        March  19,  1792 

Government  of  lord  Mornington,  after- 
wards marquis  Wellesley       May  17, 1798 

Seringa  patam  stormed,  and  Tippoo 
Saib  killed        -  -  May  4, 1799 

Victories  of  the  British ;  the  Carnatic 
conquered         ....  igoo 

Victories  of  Sir  Arthur  Wellesley        -  I8OS 

Marquis  Comwallis  resumes  the  gov- 
ernment -  -  July  30,  1805 

Act  by  which  the  trade  to  India  was 
thrown  open ;  that  to  China  remain, 
ing  with  the  company  July  31,  1813 

Lord  Amherst's  government   .  Aug.  1, 1823 

Lord  William  Bentinck  arrives  as  go- 
vernor-general -  -  July  4, 1828 

Act  opening  the  trade  to  India,  and  tea 
trade,  <fec.  to  China,  forming  a  new 
era  in  British  commerce    -  Aug.  28, 1833 

Lord  Auckland,  governor-general;  he 
leaves  England  -  .     Sept.  1835 

Battle  of  Ghizny ;  victory  of  Sir  John, 
now  Lord  Keane.   (See  Ghizny) 

July  23, 1339 

Shah  Soujah  restored  to  his  sovereignty, 
and  he  and  the  British  army  enter 
Cabul  .  -  -     Aug.  7,  1839 

English  defeat  Dost  Mahomed,  -  Oct.  18,  1840 

Kurrock  Singe,  king  of  Lahore,  dies ;  at 
his  funeral  his  successor  is  killed  by 
accident,  and  Dost  Mahomed,  next 
heir,  surrenders  to  England  -  Nov.  5,  1840 

General  rising  against  the  British  at 


366 


THE   WORLD  S   PROGRESS. 


riNi> 


INDIA,  continued. 

Cabul ;    Sir  Alexander  Burnes  and 
other  officers  murdered     -     Nov.  2,  1841 

Lord  EUenborough  appointed  governor- 
general  -  -        -     Oct.  13,  1841 

Sir  William  Macnaghten  treacherously 
assassinated  -  -     Dec.  25,  1841 

The  British,  under  a  convention,  evacu- 
ate Cabul,  placing  Lady  Sale,  &c.,  as 
hostages  in  the  hands  of  Akbar  Khan ; 
a  dreadful  massacre  ensues  -  Jan.  6,  1842 

THE   LATE   WAR  BETWEEN  THE 

The  Silch  troops  cross  the  Sutlej  river, 

and  attack  the  British  post  at  Feroze- 

pore,  which  was  held  by  Sir  John 

Littler  -  -  -   Dec.  14,  1845 

Battle  of  Aliwal ;  the  Sikhs  defeated 

Jan.  28,  1846 
Battle  of  Sobraon;  the  enemy  defeated 

with   immense   loss   in   killed   and 

'drowned  -  -  Feb.  10,  184G 

[The  Sikhs  lost  10,000  men  ;  the  British 

2,338  in  killed  and  wounded.] 

INDIA  COMPANY,  the  East.  The  first  commercial  intercourse  of  the  En- 
glish with  the  East  Indies,  was  a  private  adventure  with  three  ships  fitted 
out  in  1591 ;  only  one  of  them  reached  India,  and  after  a  voj'age  of  three 
years,  the  commander,  captain  Lancaster,  was  hroug-ht  home  in  another 
ship,  the  sailors  having  seized  on  his  own ;  but  his  information  gave  rise  to 
a  capital  mercantile  voj'age,  and  the  Company's  first  charter,  in  Dec.  1600. 
Their  stock  then  consisted  of  72,000/.,  and  they  fitted  out  four  ships,  and 
meeting  with  success,  have  continued  to  trade  ever  since.  India  stock  sold 
at  500/.  for  a  share  of  lOOZ.,  in  1683.  A  new  company  was  formed  in  1698; 
and  both  were  united  in  1702.  The  India-house  was  built  in  1726,  and  en- 
larged in  1799.    Board  of  control  instituted  1784. 

INDIA  BILL.  The  bill  placing  the  company's  affairs  under  the  control  of  the 
British  government,  and  re-organizing  the  various  departments  in  India, 
passed  June  16,  1773.  See  East  India  BUI.  Mr.  Fox's  celebrated  bill 
passed  in  the  commons,  but  was  thrown  out  in  the  lords'  house,  1783.  Mr. 
Pitt's  bill  constituting  the  Board  of  Control  passed  August  18,  1784. 


Ameers  of  Scinde  defeated  by  Sir  Char- 
les Napier ;  Scinde  is  afterwards  an- 
nexed to  the  British  empire  -  Feb.  17, 1843 

Battles  of  Maharajpoor  and  Punniar ; 
the  strong  fort  of  Gwalior,  the  "  Gib- 
raltar of  the  East,"  taken   -  Dec.  29, 1843 

Sir  Henry  Hardinge  appointed  gover- 
nor-general -  -         May  2,  1844 


SIKHS   AND   THE  BRITISH. 

The  citadel  of  Lahore  is  occupied  by 
the  British  under  Sir  Hugh  Gough ; 
and  the  war  terminates     -    Feb.  20, 1846 

Great  battle  between  the  British  under 
Lord  Gough,  and  the  Sikhs  under 
Sheere  Singh,  at  Ramluggar,  Nov.  22,  1848 

Moultan  taken,  after  a  long  siesre,  Jan.  3, 1849 

Sheere  Sing  defeated  by  Lord  Gough 

Feb.  21, 1849 

The  Punjaub  formally  annexed  to  the 
British  crown  -  March  29, 1849 


INDIA  RUBBER.  Also  called  Caoutchouc,  first  brought  to  Europe  from 
South  America,  about  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century.  Several 
plants  produce  various  kinds  of  elastic  gum;  but  that  in  commerce  is 
chiefly  the  juice  of  the  Slphonia  Elastica,  or  syringe  tree.  Incisions  in  the 
bark  of  this  tree  give  vent  to  a  liquid  which  forms  India  rubber.  No  sub- 
stance is  yet  known  which  is  so  pliable,  and  at  the  same  time  so  exceedingly 
elastic ;  it  oozes  out  under  the  form  of  a  vegetable  milk,  from  incisions 
made  in  the  tree,  and  is  gathered  chiefly  in  the  time  of  rain,  because  it 
flows  then  most  abundantly. — M.  Macqiter. 

INDIANA,  one  of  the  western  United  States,  first  settled  at  Vincennes  by  the 
French  ;  ceded  to  England  at  the  peace  of  1763,  but  no  settlement  made 
by  them  until  1787.  Was  part  of  the  N.  W.  Territory  in  1801.  Suffered 
much  during  the  war  of  1812.  See  battle  of  Tippecanoe.  Admitted  into 
the  Union  in  1816.  Population  in  1800,  5,641 ;  in  1820,  147,178  ;  in  1840. 
685,866. 

INDIANS,  North  American.  The  origin  of  the  aborigines  of  this  continent 
continues  to  be  a  matter  of  speculation  among  the  ethnologists.  They 
have  gradually  but  now  almost  entirely  disappeared  before  the  track  of  the 
white  man  east  of  the  Mississippi,  and  even  in  the  far  west  their  numbers 


IND  ]  DICTIONARY   OF    DATES.  367 

are  yearly  becoming  smaller.  King  Philip's  Indian  war  in  New  England, 
1675.  Indians  joined  the  French  against  the  English  colonies,  1690.  At- 
tacked bv  Capt.  Church,  1704;  burned  Deerfield,  Mass.,  1704;  and  Haver- 
hill, N.  H.,  1708 ;  Indian  war  in  South  Carolina,  1715 ;  again  joined  the 
French,  1754-9 ;  CheroKecs  subdued,  1761 ;  Indians  besieged  Detroit,  1763. 
[During  the  revolutionary  war  the  Indians  were  employed  at  times  on  both 
sides,  but  chiefly  by  the  British.]  Treaty  with  the  Choctaws,  1786  ;  with 
the  Creeks,  1790 ;  Gen.  Harmer  defeated  by  the  Indians  near  Chillicothe, 
1790 ;  Gen.  Butler  defeated  by  the  Indians  on  the  Miami,  1791 ;  treaty 
with  Six  Nations,  &c.,  1794  ;  with  the  Delawares,  1804 ;  Gov.  Harrison  de- 
feated hostile  Indians  on  the  "Wabash,  May  16,  1811 ;  Creek  war  in  Florida, 
Gen.  Jackson,  1813  ;  treaty  with  Choctaws,  Cherokees,  &c.,  by  Gen.  Jack- 
son, 1816  ;  Indian  land  in  Ohio  ceded  to  the  United  States,  1816  ;  war  with 
Seminoles,  1817  ;  bill  for  removing  the  Indians  west  of  Mississippi,  passed 
May  27,  1832  ;  war  with  Winnebagoes,  1832  ;  Black  Hawk  captured,  Aug. 

27,  1832;  Winnebagoes  subdued  by  Gen.  Scott,  1832;  war  against  the 
Indians  in  Florida,  Alabama,  and  Georgia,  conducted  by  Gens.  Scott,  Gaines, 
Jessup,  &c.,  1835-40.    In  1836  the  Secretary  of  War  reported  as  follows  : 

Number  of  Indians  emigrated  from  the  Atlantic  States  to  the  lands  provided  for 
them  west  of  the  Mississippi  -  .....    31,357 

Number  yet  to  be  removed   ...------    72,131 

Number  of  Indians  of  indigenous  tribes,  between  the,  Mississippi  and  the  Rocky 
JMountains  ......  150,341 

Total  within  the  territory  of  the  United  States  -  -  352,879 

Treaty  with  the  Sioux,  they  relinquishing-  5,000,000  acres  west  of  Missis- 
sippi for  S'1;000,000,  Sept.  29, 1837  ;  Avith  Winnebagoes,  Oct.  1,  1837;  Powell 
alias  Osceola,  the  Seminole  chief,  with  50  warriors,  taken  prisoners  in  Flo- 
rida, Oct.  20,  1837 ;  great  mortality  from  small-pox  among  the  Mandans, 
Mintarees,  Blackfeet,  and  other  Indians  in  Missouri  territory — the  Mandans 
tribe  entirely  destroyed— Nov.,  Dec,  1837;  fight  in  Arkansas  between  the 
Ross  and  Ridge  parties  and  Cherokees — Ross  and  about  40  others  killed,  June 

28,  1839 ;  150  Chippewas  treaclierously  massacred  by  the  Sioux,  at  a  meet- 
ing for  a  treaty  at  the  Falls  of  St.  Anthony,  July  1,  1839  ;  Cayuse  Indians 
in  Oregon  having  attacked  and  murdered  15  persons,  and  carried  off  64  pri- 
soners from  a  missionary  station,  are  chastised  by  the  settlers  in  a  severe 
engagement,  Nov.  29,  1847. 

[NDIGO.  Before  the  American  colonies  were  established,  all  the  indigo  iised 
in  Europe  came  from  the  East  Indies ;  and  until  the  discovery  of  a  passage 
round  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  it  was  conveyed  like  other  Indian  products, 
partly  through  the  Persian  Gulf,  and  partly  by  land  to  Babylon,  or  through 
Arabia  and  up  the  Red  Sea  to  Egypt.  The  real  nature  of  indigo  was  so 
little  known  in  Europe,  that  it  was  classed  among  minerals,  as  appears  by 
letters-patent  for  erecting  works  to  obtain  it  from  mines  in  the  principality 
of  Halberstadt,  dated  Dec.  28,  1705 ;  yet  what  Vitruvius  and  Pliny  call 
indicum,  is  supposed  to  have  been  our  indigo. — Beckmann.  The  first  men- 
tion of  indigo  occurs  in  English  statutes  in  1581.  The  first  brought  to 
Europe  was  procured  from  Mexico.  Its  cultivation  was  begun  in  Carolina, 
in  1747.  The  quantity  imported  into  Great  Britain  in  1840,  was  5,831,2691b., 
and  in  1845,  it  was  10,127,4881b. 

INDULGENCES.  They  were  commenced  by  Leo.  HI.,  about  a.  d.  800 ;  were 
much  used  by  Urban  II.  1090 ;  and  were  subsequently  conferred  by  the  Ro- 
man pontiffs  in  the  twelfth  century  as  rewards  to  the  crusaders.  Clement 
V.  was  the  first  pope  who  made  public  sale  of  indulgences,  1313.  In  1517, 
Leo.  X.  published  general  indulgences  throughout  Euroiie,  when  the  prac- 
tice led  to  the  Reformation  in  Genuany,  in  1517,  and  to  the  Reformation  in 


368  T'-iE  world's  progress.  [  ino 

England,  in  1584. — Boicers  Lives  of  the  Popes.  Indulgences  were  for  the 
pardon  of  sins,  and  were  sometimes  so  extensive  as  to  be  for  the  past,  pre- 
sent, and  to  come.  They  were  written  upon  parchment,  and  sealed  and 
signed  by  the  pope  or  his  delegates. — Ashe. 

INFIRMARIES.  Ancient  Rome  had  no  houses  for  the  cure  of  the  sick.  Dis- 
eased persons,  however,  were  carried  to  the  temple  of  ^sculapius  for  a  cure, 
as  Christian  believers  were  taken  to  churches  which  contained  wonder- 
working images.  Benevolent  institutions  for  the  accommodation  of  tra- 
vellers, the  indigent,  and  sick,  were  first  introduced  with  Christianity,  and 
the  first  infirmaries  or  hospitals  were  built  close  to  cathedrals  and  monaste- 
ries. The  emperor  Louis  II.  caused  infirmaries  situated  on  mountains  to  be 
visited,  a.  d.  855.  In  Jerusalem  the  knights  and  brothers  attended  on  the 
sick.  There  were  hospitals  for  the  sick  at  Constantinople,  in  the  11th  cen- 
tury. The  oldest  mention  of  physicians  and  surgeons  established  in  infir- 
maries, occurs  in  1437. — Beckmann.     See  Hospitals. 

INFORMERS.  This  tribe  was  once  very  numerous  in  Greece  and  Rome,  they 
being  countenanced  by  wicked  princes.  The  emperor  Titus  punished  in- 
formers by  banishment,  and  sometimes  death ;  and  Pliny  gives  praise  to 
Trajan  for  the  like  good  policy.  In  England,  and  particxilarly  in  London, 
numbers  of  unprincipled  men  obtain  large  gains  as  informers  against  per- 
sons whose  slightest  infractions  of  the  law,  often  unconsciously  committed, 
subject  them  to  the  power  and  exactions  of  this  despised  class. 

INK.  The  ancient  black  inks  were  composed  of  soot  and  ivory-black,  and 
Vitruvius  and  Pliny  mention  lamp-black ;  but  they  had  likewise  various 
colors,  as  red,  gold,  silver,  and  purple.  Red  ink  was  made  by  them  of  ver- 
milion and  various  kinds  of  gum.  Indian  ink  is  brought  from  China,  and 
must  have  been  in  use  by  the  people  of  the  east  from  the  earliest  ages, 
most  of  the  artificial  Chinese  productions  being  of  very  great  antiquity. 
It  is  usually  brought  to  Europe  in  small  quadrangular  cakes,  and  is  com- 
posed of  a  fine  black  and  animal  glue. — Beckmann. 

INNS  OF  COURT.  A  number  of  inns  of  court  were  established  at  different 
periods,  in  some  degree  as  colleges  for  teaching  the  law.  The  Temple  (of 
which  there  were  three  societies,  namely,  the  Inner,  the  Middle  and  the 
Outer)  was  originally  founded  in  the  Temple  church,  built  by  the  knights 
Templars,  32  Henry  II.  1185.  The  inner  and  Middle  Temple  were  made 
inns  of  law  in  the  reign  of  Edward  III.,  about  1340 ;  the  Oater  not  until  the 
reign  of  Elizabeth,  about  1560. — Stowe's  Survey. 

INOCULATION.  Lady  Mary  Wortley  Montague  introduced  inoculation  in 
England  from  Turkey.  In  1718  she  had  her  own  son  inoculated  at  Adrian- 
ople,  with  perfect  success ;  and  she  Avas  allowed  to  have  it  tried,  for  the 
first  time  in  England,  on  seven  condemned  criminals,  7  George  I.  1721. 
The  practice  was  preached  against  by  many  of  the  bishops  and  other  clergy 
from  that  period  until  1760.*  Vaccine  inoculation  was  introduced  by  Dr. 
Jenner,  January  21,  1799 ;  he  had  discovered  its  virtue  in  1796,  and  had 
been  making  experiments  during  the  intermediate  three  years.  He  was 
voted  10,000^.  as  a  reward  by  parliament,  June  2,  1802.  The  emperor  Na- 
poleon valued  this  service  of  Dr.  Jenner  to  mankind  so  highly  that  he  libe- 
berated  Dr.  Wickham,  when  a  prisoner  of  war,  at  Jenner'g  request,  and 
subsequently  the  emperor  liberated  whole  families  of  English,  making  it  a 

*  Inoculation  was  deemed  a  very  precarious  affair  by  our  grandfathers.  The  London  Daily 
Advertiser  (Nov.  7,  1751)  has  this  paragraph : — "  We  hear  that  the  son  and  daughter  of  Thomss 
Davison,  esq.,  of  Blakestone,  have  been  inoculated  in  tliis  town  (Newcastle"),  and  that  they  are 
both  well  recovered."  Dr.  Mead  practised  inoculation  veiy  successfully  up  to  1754,  and  Dr 
Dimsdale  of  London  inoculated  Catharine  II.,  empress  of  Russia,  in  1768.    See  Small  Pox. 


INS  ]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  369 

point  to  refuse  him  nothing  that  he  asked.     Innoculation  introduced  in  the 
United  States  by  Dr.  B.  Waterliouse,  1800.     See  Small  Po.-cand  Vaccination. 

INQUISITION.  Before  the  conversion  of  Constantino  the  Great,  the  bishops 
only  examined  into  doctrines,  and  punished  heresy  with  excommunica- 
tion ;  but  after  the  emperors  became  Christians,  they  ordained  that  such  as 
were  excommunicated  should  be  also  banished  and  foi-feit  their  estates. 
This  continued  till  about  the  year  800,  when  the  western  bishops'  power 
was  enlarged  to  the  authority  of  citing  persons  to  their  courts,  both  to  con- 
vict and  punish  them  by  imprisonment,  penances,  or  death.  In  the  twelfth 
century,  heresy,  as  it  was  then  called,  was  much  increased ;  and  the  inqui- 
sition arose  in  the  persecution  of  the  Albigenses  and  Waldenses.  It  was 
instituted  by  pope  Innocent  III.,  in  1203  ;  and  Gregory  IX.  in  a  council  held 
at  Toulouse  in  1229,  gave  it  its  final  form,  committing  the  management  of 
it  to  the  bishops  ;  but  afterwards  thinking  these  too  indulgent,  he  gave  the 
direction  of  his  inquisition  to  the  Dominicans.  It  was  established  in  France, 
by  St.  Louis,  in  1226  ;  and  in  the  four  Christian  kingdoms  of  Spain.  It  was 
established  in  Portugal  in  1536.  The  last  great  Auto  da  Fe  was  celebrated 
in  1781 ;  and  although  the  i-ack  and  faggot  are  not  now  employed  in  the 
work  of  torture  and  death,  yet  the  power  of  the  Holy  office  is  still  exer- 
cised in  encouraging  vexations ;  enjoining  ridiculous  penances  and  priva- 
tions ;  prohibiting  liberal  institutions  ;  and  interdicting  useful  books. 

INSANITY.  In  England  within  twenty  j^ears,  insanity  has  more  than 
tripled.  In  France  it  is  more  extensive  in  proportion  to  its  population  than 
it  is  in  most  other  countries.  The  total  number  of  lunatics  and  idiots  in 
England  is  as  follows:  lunatics  6806 — idiots  5741 — together  12,547;  but 
allowing  for  defective  returns,  the  number  may  be  taken  at  14,000 — an  ave- 
rage of  oiie  to  every  tlwusand  of  the  population.  In  Wales :  lunatics  133 — 
idiots  763 — total  896 ;  and  adding  for  parishes  that  have  made  no  returns, 
they  may  be  set  down  at  1000 — a  proportion  of  one  to  eight  hundred.  Scotland 
has  3652  insane  persons — or  one  to  about  seven  hundred.  In  Ireland  the  num- 
ber of  lunatics  and  idiots  exceeds  8000,  as  shown  by  returns,  which,  however, 
Avere  not  completed. — Sir  Andrew  Halliday.  The  number  of  insane  persons 
and  idiots  in  the  United  States,  in  1840,  was  17,434.  There  were  23  asylums 
capable  of  containing  2840  patients.  Great  advances  have  been  made  of 
late  years  in  the  treatment  of  insanity.  The  late  Dr,  A.  Brigham  of  Utica, 
formerly  of  Hartford,  was  an  able  and  successful  philanthropist  in  this 
cause. 

INSOLVENCY  m  the  UNITED  STATES.  In  May,  1837,  a  '  commercial  crisis' 
was  at  its  height.  The  '  heavy'  failures,  in  two  months,  in  New  York  alone 
amounted  to  260,  besides  countless  smaller  ones.  Failures  in  New  Orleans 
to  the  amount  of  $27,000,000  in  two  days.  In  Boston  168  failures  from  Nov. 
1,  1836,  to  May  12,  1837.  New  York  city  Banks  all  suspended  specie  pay- 
ments May  10,  1837.  The  New  England  Banks  generally,  immediately 
after. 

INSOLVENCY.  The  first  Insolvent  Act  in  England  was  passed  in  1649,  but  it 
was  of  limited  operation ;  a  number  of  acts  of  more  extensive  operation  were 
passed  at  varioys  periods,  and  particularly  in  the  reign  of  George  III.  The 
benefit  of  the  act  known  as  the  Great  Insolvent  Act,  was  taken  in  England, 
by  50,733  insolvents,  from  the  time  of  its  passing  in  1814,  to  March  1827,  a 
period  of  thirteen  years.  Since  then,  the  acts  relating  to  insolvency  have 
been  several  times  amended.  Persons  not  traders,  or,  being  traders,  whose 
debts  are  less  than  300?.,  may  petition  the  Court  of  Bankruptcy,  and  propose 
compositions,  and  have  pro  tern,  protection  from  all  process  against  his  per- 
son and  property,  6  Vict.,  1842.     Act  amended,  8  Vict.,  Aug.,  1844. 

INSURANCE  ON  SHIPS  and  MERCHANDISE.     Suetonius  conjectures  that 

16* 


370  THE  woe-ld's  progress.  [ino 

Claudius  was  the  first  contriver  of  it,  a.  d.  43.  Insurance  was  in  general  use 
in  Italy  in  1194,  and  in  England  in  1560.  Insurance  policies  were  first  used  in 
Florence  in  1523.  The  first  law  relating  to  insurance  was  enacted  in  1601. 
Insurance  of  houses  and  goods  in  London  began  in  1667.  This  was  the  year 
following  that  of  the  great  fire  of  London.  An  office  was  then  set  up  for 
insuring  houses  and  buildings,  principally  contrived  by  Dr.  Barton,  one  of 
the  first  and  most  extensive  builders  of  the  city  of  London.  The  first  regular 
office  set  up  in  London  was  the  Hand-in-Hand,  in  1696.  A  duty  was  laid 
on  insurances  of  Is.  Qd.  per  hundred  pounds  insured,  in  1782 :  this  duty  was 
increased  in  1797,  and  was  variously  altered  since.  The  date  of  the  first  in- 
surance office  in  the  United  States,  has  not  been  ascertained. 

INSURRECTIONS  in  the  UNITED  STATES.  Shay's  Insurrection  in  Massa- 
chusetts (caused  by  the  scarcity  of  money  and  heavy  taxes),  1786.  Insur- 
rection in  Pennsylvania,  caused  by  duties  on  spirits,  1794.  See  the  accounts 
of  Conspiracies,  Massacres,  Rebellions,  Riots,  &c. 

INTEREST  or  MONEY.  It  was  twenty  per  cent,  in  Europe  in  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury. Fixed  at  twelve  per  cent,  in  Spain,  Germany  and  Flanders,  by  Charles 
V.  in  1560. — Robertson.  Till  the  fifteenth  century,  no  Christians  were  allow- 
ed to  receive  interest  of  money,  and  Jews  were  the  only  usurers,  and,  there- 
fore, often  banished  and  persecuted.  Interest  was  first  settled  by  law  in 
England  at  ten  per  cent.,  37  Henry  VIII. ,  1546.  This  law  was  repealed  by 
Edward  VI. ;  but  it  was  restored  by  Elizabeth.  In  those  days  the  monarch 
could  not  borrow  without  the  collateral  security  of  the  metropolis.  Interest 
was  reduced  to  eight  ;;t'r  cent.,  and  the  word  first  used  instead  of  usury,  21 
James  I.,  1624.  Reduced  by  the  Riimp-parliament  to  six  per  cent.-^  and  so 
confirmed  at  the  Restoration.  Reduced  to  five  per  cent.,  13  Anne,  1714,  at 
which  rate  it  remains.  The  rate  in  Ireland  is  six  per  cent. ;  regulated  14 
George  III.,  1773.  All  interest  above  the  legal  standard  of  Britain  is  usury, 
and  punishable  by  the  statute. — Blackstone.  The  law  does  not  now  apply  to 
bills  having  onlj^  60  days  to  run.     See  Us^iry  Laios. 

INTEREST  OP  MONEY  in  the  UNITED  STATES.  The  rates  vary  in  differ- 
'  ent  States,  viz: — In  La.  five  pr.  ct.,  in  Maine,  N.  H.,  Vt.,  Mass.,  R.  I.,  Conn., 
N.  J.,  Pa.,  Del.,  Md.,  Va.,  N.  Ca.,  Tenn.  Kent.,  Ohio,  Ind.,  Illin.,  Misso., 
Ark.,  and  the  United  States  government  claims,  the  rate  is  six  per  cent.  In 
N.  Y.,  S.  Ca.,  Mich.,  and  Wise,  seven  per  cent.  In  Geo.,  Ala.,  Mississ.,  and 
Flor.,  eight  per  cejii.  Laws  against  usury,  with  penalty  of  forfeiting  the 
whole  debt,  in  Me.,  Conn.,  N.  Y.,  N.  J.,  Penn.,  Del.  Forfeit  of  the  usury, 
and  double,  treble,  the  usury,  in  14  other  States.  Usurious  contracts  void 
in  Md.,  N.  Ca.,  Geo.,  Tenn.,  Ohio,  Ark. 

INUNDATIONS,  It  would  be  impossible  to  record  in  this  volume  the  numerous 
catastrophes  which  class  under  this  head;  the  following  are  among  the  most 
remarkable: — 


An  inundation  at  Glasgow,  which  drowned 
more  than  400  families,  738. — Fordun. 

Flanders  inundated  by  the  sea,  and  the  town 
and  liarbor  of  Ostend  totally  immersed, 
1108.  The  present  city  was  built  above  a 
league  from  the  channel  where  the  old  one 
lies  submerged. — Ilistoire  de  Flandre. 

At  the  Texel,  which  first  raised  the  com- 
merce of  Amsterdam,  1400. 

The  sea  broke  in  at  Dort,  and  drowned  72 
villages,  and  100,000  people,  and  formed 
the  Zuyder  Sea  (see  Dorl),  April  17, 1446. 

The  Severn  overflovi'ed  during  ten  days,  and 
carried  away  men,  women,  and  children, 
in  their  beds,  ar.d  covered  ihe  tops  of  many 
mountains ;  the  waters  settled  upon  the 


lands,  and  were  called  The  Great  Waters 
for  100  years  after,  1  Richard  III.  14&3.— 
HolUnshed. 

A  general  inundation  by  the  failure  of  the 
dikes  in  Holland,  1530  ;  the  number  of 
drowned  said  to  have  been  400,000. 

At  Catalonia,  where  50,000  persons  perish- 
ed, 1617. 

An  inundation  at  Yorkshire,  when  a  rock 
opened,  and  poured  out  water  to  the  height 
of  a  church  steeple,  1686. —  Vide  Phil. 
Trans. 

Part  of  Zealand  overflowed,  1300  inhabitants 
were  drowned,  and  incredible  damage  was 
done  at  Hamburg.  1717. 

At  Madrid,  several  of  i.he  Snanish  nobilit-j 


low  J 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES. 


371 


INUNDATIONS,  co7itvmed. 

and  other  persons  of  distinction  perished, 
1723. — Du  Fresnoy. 

In  Navarre,  where  2000  persons  lost  their 
lives  by  the  torrents  from  the  mountains, 
Sept.  1787. 

At  Pest,  near  Presburg,  the  overflow  of  the 
Danube,  by  which  24  villages  and  their 
inhabitants  were  swept  away,  April  1811. 

By  the  overflow  of  the  Danube,  a  Turkish 
corps  of  2000  men,  on  a  small  island  near 
Widdin,  were  surprised,  and  met  instant 
death,  Sept.  14,  1813. 

In  Silesia,  6000  inhabitants  perished,  and  the 
ruin  of  the  French  army  under  Macdonald 
was  accelerated  by  the  floods ;  also  in  Po- 
land 4000  lives  were  supposed  to  have 
been  lost,  same  year. 

In  Germany,  119  villages  were  laid  under 
water,  and  great  loss  of  life  and  property 
was  sustained,  in  March  1816. 

Awful  inundation  at  Dantzic,  occasioned  by 
the  Vistula  breaking  through  some  of  its 
dikes,  by  which  10,000  head  of  cattle  and 
4000  houses  were  destroyed,  and  numerous 


At  Vienna,  the  dwellings  of  50,000  of  its  iri' 
habitants  laid  under  water,  Feb.  1830. 

10,000  houses  swept  away,  ard  &bout  1000 
persons  perished,  at  Cantor.!,  ir.  China,  in 
consequence  of  an  inundation,  occasioned 
by  incessant  rains.  Equal  or  greater  ca- 
lamity was  produced  by  the  same  cause 
in  other  parts  of  China,  Oct.  1833. 

Awful  inundation  in  France  ;  the  Saone 
poured  its  waters  into  the  Rhone,  broka 
through  its  banks,  amd  covered  60,000 
acres  ;  Lyons  was  inundated,  in  Avignon 
100  houses  were  swept  away ;  218  houses 
were  carried  away  at  La  Guillotiere ;  and 
upwards  of  300  at  Vaise,  Marseilles,  and 
Nismes  ;  the  Saone  had  not  attained  such 
a  height  for  238  years,  Oct.  31  to  Nov.  4, 
1810. 

Inundation  of  the  Mississippi  at  New  Or- 
leans, 160  squares  and  1600  houses  flood- 
ed. May  12,  1849. 

The  inundations  of  the  Ohio,  Mississippi, 
&c.,  at  different  times,  have  caused  great 
destruction  of  property,  and  (at  times)  of 
life. 


liveslost,  April  9, 1829. 

INVOCATION  OP  THE  VIRGIN  and  SAINTS.  The  practice  of  the  Romish 
church  of  invoking  the  intei'cessiou  of  saints  with  God,  particularly  the 
prayers  to  the  Virgin,  has  been  traced  to  the  time  of  Gregory  the  Great, 
about  A.  D.  593. — Ashe.  The  Eastern  church  begun  (in  the  fifth  century)  by 
calling  upon  the  dead,  and  demanding  their  suffrage  as  present  in  the  di- 
vine ofBces  ;  but  the  Western  church  carried  it  so  far  as  frequently  to  ca- 
nonize those  they  had  any  regard  for,  though  the  wickedness  of  their  lives 
gave  them  no  title  to  any  such  honor,  to  make  processions,  masses,  litanies, 
prayers  and  oblations  for  and  to  them. 

IODINE.  This  most  important  substance  was  discovered  by  M.  de  Courtois,  a 
manufacturer  of  saltpetre  at  Paris,  in  1812;  the  discovery  was  pursued  with 
great  advantage  by  M.  Clement,  in  1813.  Iodine  is  very  active ;  it  is  of  a 
violet  hue,  easily  evaporates,  and  melts  at  220  degrees  ;  changes  vegetable 
blues  to  yellow,  and  a  seven-thousandth  part  converts  water  to  a  deep  yel- 
low color,  and  starch  into  a  purple.  Five  volumes  of  oxygen  and  one  of 
iodine  form  iodic  acid. 

IONIAN  ISLANDS.  They  were  subject  to  Venice  until  ceded  by  the  treaty 
of  Campo-Forniio  to  France,  in  1797.  By  a  treaty  between  Russia  and 
Great  Britain  they  were  placed  under  the  protection  of  the  latter  power, 
November  5,  1815.  A  constitution  was  ratified  by  the  prince  regent  of 
England  for  the  government  of  these  islands  in  1818.  The  Ionian  Islands 
are  now  among  the  free  states  of  Europe.  Corfu  is  the  principal,  and  the 
seat  of  government. 

IONIC  ORDER  OF  ARCHITECTURE.  This  order  which  is  an  improvement 
on  the  Doric,  was  founded  by  the  lonians,  about  1350  b.  c. —  VUruvius  by 
PerrmiU. 

IONIC  SECT  OP  PHILOSOPHERS.  Founded  by  Thales  of  Miletus,  570  b.  c. 
This  sect  dtstinguished  itself  for  its  deep  and  abstruse  speculations,  under 
the  successors  and  pupils  of  the  Milesian  philosopher,  Anaximander,  Anax- 
imenes,  Auaxagoras,  and  Archelaus,  the  master  of  Socrates. 

IOWA,  now  one  of  the  United  States,  once  formed  part  of  the  French  posses- 
sions, and  was  included  in  the  vast  tract  of  country  purchased  in  1803 
under  the  general  name  of  Louisiana.  First  purchase  of  land  from  the 
Indians  in  Iowa  was  made  in  1832.  Iowa  separated  from  Wisconsin  as  a  ter- 
ritory, 1838.    Admitted  into  the  Union,  Dec.  1846.   Poi^ulation  in  1840, 43,111, 


J72 


THE    world's    progress. 


[IRO 


IPSUS,  Battle  of,  by  which  Seleucus  is  confirmed  in  his  kicgdom  by  the  de- 
feat and  death  of  Antigonus,  king  of  Asia.  On  the  one  side  were  Antigo- 
nus  and  his  son ;  on  the  other  Seleucus,  Ptolemy,  Lysimachus,  and  Cas- 
sander.  The  former  led  into  the  field  an  army  of  above  70,009  foot,  and 
10,000  horse,  with  75  elephants.  The  latter's  forces  consisted  of  64,000  in- 
fantry, besides  10,500  horse,  400  elephants,  and  120  armed  chariots.  Anti- 
gonus and  his  son  were  defeated,  301  b.  c. — Plutarch. 

IRELAND.  It  is  disputed  by  historians  from  what  nation  this  country  was 
originally  peopled.  It  seems,  however,  to  be  satisfactorily  shown  that  the 
first  colonists  were  Phoenicians.  The  Partholani  landed  in  Ireland  about 
2048  B.C.  The  descent  of  the  Damnonii  was  made  aboiit  1463  b.  c.  This  was 
followed  by  the  descent  of  Heber  and  Heremon,  Milesian  princes,  from  Gali- 
cia,  in  Spain,  who  conquered  Ireland,  and  gave  to  its  throne  a  race  of  171 
kings. 

Arrival  of  Heremon       -  -     b.  c.  1070 

A  colony  from  Spain  bring  -vvith  them 

the  Phoenician  letters,  about  -  -    500 

Arrival  of  St.  Patrick     -  -     a.  ».    448 

.   The    renowned    Brian    Boiroimhe   ia 

crowned  at  Tara         -  -  -1002 

Battle  of  Clontarf,  which  terminates 

the  power  of  the  Danes  •  -  1039 

[In  the  twelfth  century  Ireland  is  divi 


ded  into  five  kingdoms,  viz. :  Ulster, 
Leinster,  Meath,  Connaught,  and 
Munster ;  besides  a  number  of  petty 
principalities,  whose  sovereigns  con- 
tinually war  with  each  other.] 

Adrian  IV.  permitted  Henry  II.  to  in- 
vade Ireland,  on  condition  that  he 
compelled  every  Irish  family  to  pay 
a  carolus  to  the  Holy  See,  and  held 
it  as  a  fief  of  the  church         -  -1157 

Henry  II.  lands  near  Waterford,  and  re- 
ceives the  submissions  of  the  kings 
and  princes  of  the  country,  settles  the 
government  upon  a  footing  similar  to 
that  of  England,  and  makes  his  son 
John  lord  of  Ireland    -  •  - 1172 

Ireland  wholly  subdued  -  -  -  1210 

English  laws  and  customs  introduced 
by  king  Jolm    -  -  -  -  1210 

Henry  VIII.  assttmes  the  title  of  king, 
instead  of  lord  of  Ireland  -        -  1542 


sacre  the  Protestant  settlers  in  Ulster, 
to  the  number  of  40,000  persons,  com- 
menced on  St.  Ignatius's  day,  Oct.  23,  1641 

Cromwell  and  Ireton  reduce  the  whole 
island  to  Obedience  between  1649  and  1656 

Landing  of  king  William  HI.  at  Car- 
rickfergus  -  -       June  14,  1690 

Battle  of  the  Boyne ;  the  Duke  of 
Schomberg  killed  -  July  1,1690 

Memorable  Irish  rebellion  commenced 
May  4, 1798,  and  was  not  finally  sup- 
pressed until  the  next  year    -  - 1799 

Legislative  Union  of  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland  -  -  -    Jan.  1, 1801 

Emmett's  insurrection       -       July  23, 1803 

Roman  Catholic  emancipation.  (See 
Ro7nan  Catholics)    -  April  13, 1829 

Great  repeal  movement;  meeting  at 
Trim.    (See  Repeal)      ■    March  19, 1843 

O'Connell's  trial.  (See  Trials)  Jan.  15, 1844 

O'Connell  died  at  Genoa,  sA.  72,  May  15, 1847 

Famine  and  great  distress  in  Ireland 
throughout  -  -  -        -  1847 

Relieved  by  England,  and  by  voluntary 
gifts  from  the^United  States. 

Bill  for  suppression  of  crime  in  Ireland 
passed  parliament         -        Dec.  20. 1847 

Mitchell  convicted  of  treason  -  May  26, 1848 

Habeas  Corpus  act  suspended,  July  25, 1848 

Smith  O'Brien  arrested,  and  the  rebel- 
lion put  down  -  -   Aug.  5, 1848 


The  Catholics  enter  into  a  conspiracy  to 
expel  the  English,  and  cruelly  mas- 

IRON.  It  was  found  on  Mount  Ida  by  the  Dactyles,  owing  to  the  forests  of  the 
mount  having  been  burnt  by  lightning,  1432  b.  c. — Arundelian  Marbles. 
The  Greeks  ascribed  the  discovery  of  iron  to  themselves  and  referred  glass 
to  the  Phoenicians  ;  but  Moses  relates  that  iron  was  Avrought  by  Tubal-Cain. 
Iron  furnaces  among  the  Romans  were  unprovided  with  bellows,  but  were 
placed  on  eminences  with  the  grate  in  the  direction  of  the  prevailing  winds. 
Swedish  iron  is  very  celebrated,  and  Daunemora  is  the  greatest  mine  of 
Sweden.  British  iron  was  cast  by  Ralph  Page  and  Peter  Baude,  in  Sussex, 
in  1543. — Eij7ner's  Fcedera.  Iron-mills  were  first  used  for  slitting  iron  into 
bars  for  smiths  by  Godfrey  Bochs,  in  1590.  Tinning  of  iron  was  first 
introduced  from  Bohemia  in  1681.  There  are  upwards  of  800,000  tons  of 
iron  produced  annually  in  England.*  For  iron  vessels,  iron  war-steamtirs, 
&c.,  see  Steamers. 


*  T'neie  is  iron  enough  in  the  blood  of  forty-two  men  to  make  a  ploughshare  weighing  twenty- 
four  pounds. — Anon. 


ita] 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  373 


IRON- MASK,  THE  MAN  of  the.  A  mj^sterious  prisoner  in  France,  wearing  a 
mask,  and  closely  confined,  under  M.  de  St.  Mars,  at  Pignerol,  Sainte  Mar- 
guerite, and  afterwards  at  the  Bastile.  He  was  of  noble  mien,  and  was 
treated  with  profound  respect ;  but  his  keepers  had  orders  to  dispatch  him 
if  he  uncovered.  M.  de  St.  Mars  himself  always  placed  the  dishes  on  his 
table,  and  stood  in  his  presence.  Some  conjecture  him  to  have  been  an 
Armenian  patriarch  forcibly  carried  from  Constantinople,  although  he  died 
ten  years  before  the  mask  ;  others  that  he  was  the  count  de  Vermandois, 
son  of  Louis  XIV.,  although  he  was  reported  to  have  perished  in  the  camp 
before  Dixmude.  More  believe  him  to  have  been  the  celebrated  duke  of 
Beaufcit,  whose  head  is  recorded  to  have  been  taken  olF  before  Candia ; 
while  ^till  more  assert  that  he  was  the  unfortunate  James,  duke  of  Mon- 
mouth, who,  in  the  imagination  of  the  Londoners,  at  least,  was  executed  on 
Tower-hill.  But  there  are  two  better  conjectures ;  he  is  said  to  have  been 
a  son  of  Anne  of  Austria,  queen  of  Louis  XIII.,  his  father  being  the  duke 
of  Buckingham ;  or  the  twin-brother  of  Louis  XIV.,  whose  birth  was  con- 
cealed to  prevent  civil  dissensions  in  France,  which  it  might  one  day  have 
caused.    The  mask  died  after  a  long  imprisonment,  Nov.  19,  1703. 

ISLAMISM.  The  religion  of  Mahomet,  planned  by  him  in  a  cave  near  Mecca, 
where  he  employed  a  Persian  Jew,  well  versed  in  history  and  laws,  and  two 
Christians,  to  assist  him.  One  of  these  latter  was  of  the  Jacobite,  and  the 
other  of  the  Nestorian  sect.  With  the  help  of  these  men  he  ft-amed  his 
Koran,  or  the  book  which  he  pretended  to  have  received  at  different  times 
from  heaven  by  the  hands  of  the  angel  Gabriel.  At  the  age  of  forty  he 
publicly  assumed  the  prophetical  character,  calling  himself  the  apostle  of 
God,  A.  D.  604.     See  Koran,  Mecca,  ifc. 

ISLE  OF  FRANCE.  Discovered  by  the  Portuguese  in  1500 ;  but  the  Dutch 
were  the  first  settlers  in  1598.  The  French  formed  their  establishment  at 
Port  Louis  in  1715.  This  island,  together  with  six  French  frigates  and 
many  Indiamen  was  taken  by  the  British,  Dec.  2,  1810.  They  retain  pos- 
session of  it,  and  it  is  now  a  fixed  British  colony.     SeeMauritius. 

ISMAEL,  Siege  of,  in  Bessarabia.  After  a  long  siege  by  the  Russians,  who 
lost  20;000  men  before  the  place,  the  town  was  taken  by  storm,  December 
22,  1790 ;  Avhen  the  Russian  general,  Suwarrow,  the  most  merciless  and  sa- 
vage warrior  of  modern  times,  put  the  brave  Turkish  garrison,  consisting 
of  30,000  men,  to  the  sword ;  everj^  man  was  butchered ;  and  Suwarrow, 
not  satisfied  with  this  vengeance,  delivered  up  Ismael  to  the  pillage  of 
his  ferocious  soldiery,  and  ordered  the  massacre  of  6000  women,  who  were 
murdered  in  cold  blood. 

ISSUS,  Battle  of.  Alexander  defeats  Darius  in  this,  his  second  great  battle 
with  him ;  Darius  loses  100,000  men,  and  his  queen  and  family  are  cap- 
tured, 333  B.  c. — Plutarch.  The  Persians  lost  100,000  foot  and  10,000  horse 
in  the  field;  and  the  Macedonians  only  300  foot  and  150  horse. — Diodorus 
Slcnlus.  The  Persian  army,  according  to  Justin,  consisted  of  400,000  foot 
and  100,000  horse,  and  61,000  of  the  former,  and  10,000  of  the  latter,  were 
left  dead  on  the  spot,  and  40,000  were  taken  prisoners. — Justin. 

ISTHMIAN  GAMES.  These  were  combats  among  the  Greeks,  and  received 
their  name  from  the  isthmus  of  Corinth,  where  they  were  observed,  insti- 
tuted in  honor  of  Melicerta,  1326  b.  c. — Lenglet.  They  were  re-instituted 
in  honor  of  Neptune  by  Theseus,  and  their  celebration  was  held  so  sacred 
and  inviolable  that  even  a  public  calamity  could  not  prevent  it.  1259  b.  c— 
Arundelian  Marbles. 

ITALY.  The  garden  of  Europe,  and  the  nurse  of  arts  as  well  as  arms.  It  re- 
ceived its  name  from  Italus,  a  king  of  the  country,  or  from  Italos,  a  Greek 
word    signifying    an  ox.     The  aborigines  of  Italy  were  the  progenj'-  of 


sr4 


THE    WOK.LD  S    PROGRESS. 


[  JAO 


Meshecti,  the  sixth  son  of  Japheth.  In  pi-ocess  of  time,  the  Gomerites  oi 
Celts,  who  inhabited  the  greatest  part  of  Gaul,  sent  several  colonies  into 
Italy,  while  other  colonists  arrived  from  Greece,  and  the  country  was  di- 
vided into  three  grand  parts,  viz. — Cisalpine  Gaul,  the  settlement  of  the 
Celts;  Italia  Propria,  the  residence 'of  the  first  inhabitants;  and  Magna 
Grascia,  the  seat  of  the  Grecian  colonists.  The  modern  inhabitants  of  Italy 
may  be  derived  from  the  Goths  and  Lombards,  who  contributed  so  largely 
to  the  overthrow  of  the  Roman  empire,  and  who  founded  on  its  ruins  the 
kingdoms  of  Italy  and  Lombardy.    For  Roman  empire,  see  Tabular  Vieiis. 


447 


553 


568 
596 
697 
774 

800 


Rome  taken  and  plundered  by  the  Visi- 
goths under  Alaric,     See  Rome  A.  D.   410 

The  Huns  ravage  the  Roman  empire 
under  Attila,  "  the  Scourge  of  Gtjd"  - 

The  Western  Roman  empire  is  de- 
stroyed by  the  Heruli,  whose  leader, 
Odoacer,  erects  the  kingdom  of  Italy    476 

The  reign  of  Totila,  who  twice  pillages 
Rome,  and  reduces  the  inhabitants  to 
such  distress,  that  the  ladies  and  peo- 
ple of  quality  are  obliged  to  beg  tor 
bread  at  the  doors  of  the  Goths  -  511  to  552 

The  power  of  the  Goths  destroyed,  and 
their  kingdom  overthrown  by  the  ge- 
nerals of  the  Eastern  empire  - 

Narses,  governor  of  Italy,  invites  the 
Lombards  from  Germany  into  this 
country  .  .  .  - 

The  Lombards  overrun  Italy 

Venice  first  governed  by  a  doge 

Charlemagne  invades  Italy  - 

He  repairs  to  Rome,  and  is  crowned 
emperor  of  the  West  - 

[During  the  reign  of  Charlemagne,  the 
pope  of  Rome,  who  had  hitherto  been 
merely  a  spiritual  minister,  finds 
means  to  assume  a  temporal  power, 
not  only  independent  of,  but  superior 
to  all  others.] 

Pope  Damasius  II.  is  the  first  who  caus- 
es himself  to  be  crowned  with  a  tiara  1053 

Pope  Gregory  VII.,  surnamed  Hildo- 
brand,  pretends  to  universal  sove- 
reignty, in  which  he  is  assisted  by  the 
countess  Matilda,  mistress  of  the 
greater  part  of  Italy,  who  makes  a  do- 
nation of  all  her  estates  to  the  Church  1076 

Disputes  between  the  popes  and  empe- 
rors, relative  to  the  appointment  of 
bishops,  begin  about  1106,  and  agitate 
Italy  and  Germany  during  several 
centuries. 

The  Venetians  obtain  many  victories 
over  the  Eastern  emperors    -  -1125 

Tuscany  becomes  independent       -     -  1208 

The  duchies  of  Ferrara,  Modena,  and 
Reggio  are  created      -  -  -  1228 

Milan  erected  mto  a  duchy  -      -  1277 


The  papal  seat  removed  for  seventy 
years  to  Avignon,  in  France  -  - 1308 

The  cardinals  not  agreeing  in  the  elec- 
tion'of  a  pope,  they  set  fire  to  the  con- 
clave, and  separate,  and  the  papal 
chair  is  left  vacant  for  two  years      -  1314 

Louis  Gonzaga  makes  himself  master 
of  Mantua,  with  the  title  of  imperial 
vicar       .  -  -  -  1328 

Lucca  becomes  an  independent  reput 
lie 1370 

Naples  conquered  by  Cjiarles  VIII.      -  1492 

The  republic  of  Venice  loses  all  its  Ita- 
lian provinces  in  a  single  campaign, 
assailed  by  the  pope,  the  emperor, 
and  the  kings  of  Spain  and  France    - 1509 

Leo  X.  having  exhausted  all  his  finan- 
ces, opens  the  sale  of  indulgences  and 
absolutions,  which  soon  replenislies 
■     his  treasury        ....  1517 

Parma  and  Placentia  made  a  duchy    -  1545 

Cosmo  de  Medicis  made  grand-duke  oi' 
Tuscany  by  Pius  V.    •  -  -  1569 

Pope  Gregory  XIII.  reforms  the  calen- 
dar.    See  Cale7idar    -  -  -  1582 

Ambassadors  from  Japan  to  the  pope. 
See  Jeddo         ....  1619 

The  Corsicans  revolt  from  the  Genoese, 
•and  choose  Theodore  for  their  king. 
See  Corsica     ....  1736 

Milan  vested  in  the  house  af  Austria  by 
the  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  -  1748 

Division  of  'Jhe  Venetian  states  by 
France  and  Austria        -  -        -  1797 

Italy  overrun,  and  Pius  VI.  deposed  by 
Bonaparte  -  ...      -  1798 

The  Italian  republic       -  .  -  1802 

Italy  formed  into  a  kingdom,  and  Napo- 
leon crowned   -  -  -  -  1805 

Eugene  Beauhamois  made  Viceroy  of 
Italy 1805 

The  kingdom  ceases  on  the  overthrow 
of  Napoleon  -  -  -     -  1814 

[The  various  other  events  relating  to 
Italy  will  be  found  under  the  respec- 
tive heads  of  Genoa,  Lombardy,  Mi- 
Ian,,  Naples,  Rome,  Venice,  ^c.} 


The  population  of  the  whole  of  Italy  proper  now  aiBOunts  to  23,677,000.— 
Alvi.  de  Gotha. 


S.  Introduced  into  the  alphabet  by  Giles  Beys,  printer,  of  Paris,  1660. — Du 
Frcsnoy. 

JACOBINS.  The  name  given  to  one  of  the  principal  parties  in  the  French  re- 
volution. The  Jacobin  club  originated  from  a  small  and  secret  association 
of  about  forty  gentlemen  and  men  of  letters,  who  had  united  to  disseminate 


JAN  J  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  375 

political  and  other  opinions  ;  the  members  were  called  Jacobins  from  their 
meeting  in  the  hall  of  the  Jacobin  friars  at  Paris.  The  club  became  nu- 
merous and  popular,  and  fraternal  societies  were  instituted  in  all  the  prin- 
cipal to>vias  of  the  kingdom.  From  its  institution,  one  principal  object  was, 
to  disciiss  such  political  questions  as  seemed  likely  to  be  agitated  in  the 
national  assembly,  in  order  that  the  members  might  act  in  concert.  They 
are  represented  as  having  been  determined  enemies  of  monarchy,  aristo- 
cracy, and  the  Christian  religion,  and  may  be  regarded  as  the  first  grand 
spring  of  the  revolution.  They  were  suppressed  October  18,  1794.  The 
religious  sect  called  Jacobins  are  those  of  both  sexes  who  follow  the  rules 
of  St.  Dominick.     See  Dominicans. 

JACOBITES.  A  sect  among  the  eastern  Christians,  so  called  from  Jacob  Ba- 
radseus,  a  Syrian,  whose  heresy  spread  to  a  ^reat  extent  in  the  sixth  and 
seventli  centuries.  In  England  existed  a  political  party  called  Jacobites. 
They  were  the  partisans  of  James  II.,  and  were  so  named  after  his  expul- 
sion in  1688.  Those  who  openly  appeared  in  arms  for,  or  who  expressed 
their  wishes  to  restore  the  abdicated  family,  were  called  Jacobites ;  the  dis- 
tinction is  now  entii'ely  lost. 

JAFFA.  Celebrated  in  Scripture  as  Joppa,  the  port  whence  Jonah  embarked, 
and  the  place  where  Peter  raised  Tabitha  from  the  dead.  In  profane  history, 
the  place  whence  Perseus  delivered  Andromeda.  Jaffa  was  taken  by  Bona- 
parte in  February  1799  ;  and  the  French  were  driven  out  by  tlie  British  in 
June,  same  year.  Here,  according  to  sir  Robert  Wilson,  were  massacred 
3800  prisoners  bj^  Bonaparte  :  but  this  is  reasonably  doubted. 

JAMAICA.  Discovered  by  Columbus,  May  3,  1495.  It  was  conquered  from 
the  Spaniards  by  admiral  Penn,  and  the  land  forces  commanded  by  Venables 
in  1655 ;  the  expedition  had  been  planned  bj^  Oliver  Cromwell  against  St. 
Domingo.  An  awful  earthquake  occurred  here  in  1692 ;  and  the  island  was 
desolated  by  a  furious  hurricane  in  1722 ;  and  again  1734  and  1751.  In  June 
1795,  the  Maroons,  or  original  natives,  who  inhabit  the  moimtains,  rose 
against  the  English,  and  were  not  quelled  till  March  1796.  Tremendous 
hurricane,  by  which  the  whole  island  was  deluged,  hundreds  of  houses 
washed  away,  vessels  wrecked,  and  a  thousand  persons  drowned,  October 
1815.  An  alarming  insurrection,  commenced  by  the  negro  slaves,  in  which 
numerous  plantations  were  burned,  and  property  of  immense  value  destroy- 
ed. Before  they  were  overpowered,  the  governor,  lord  Belmore,  declared, 
the  island  under  martial  law,  Dec.  22,  1831.  Awful  fire  here,  Aug.  26, 
1843.    The  Cholera  in  1850. 

JANISSARIES.  This  order  of  infantry  in  the  Turkish  army  was  formerly 
reputed  to  be  the  grand  seignor's  foot  guards.  They  were  first  raised  by 
Amurath  I.  in  1361 ;  and  have  several  times  deposed  the  sultan.  Owing  to 
an  insurrection  of  these  troops  on  the  14th  June,  1826,  when  3000  of  them 
were  killed  on  the  spot,  the  Ottoman  army  was  reorganized,  and  a  firman 
was  issued  declaring  the  abolition  of  the  Janissaries  two  days  afterwards. 

JANSENISM.  Tliis  sect  was  founded  by  Cornelius  Jansen,  bishop  of  Ypres, 
about  1625.  Jansen  was  a  prelate  of  piety  and  morals,  but  his  "Augusti- 
nus"  a  book  in  which  he  maintained  the  Augustine  doctrine  of  free  grace, 
and  recommended  it  as  the  true  orthodox  belief,  kindled  a  fierce  contro- 
versy on  its  publication  in  1640,  and  was  condemned  by  a  bull  of  pope  Ur- 
ban VIII. 

JANUARY.  This  month,  the  first  in  our  year,  derives  its  name  from  Janus,  a 
divinity  among  the  early  Romans.  See  next  article.  January  was  added  to 
the  Roman  calendar  by  Numa,  713  b.  c.  He  placed  it  about  the  winter  sol- 
stice, and  made  it  the  first  month,  because  Janus  was  supposed  to  preside 
over  the  beginning  of  all  business.    This  god  was  painted  with  two  faces, 


376  THE    WORLDS    PROGRESS.  [  JEN 

because,  as  some  persons  have  it,  on  the  one  side  the  first  of  January  looked 
towards  the  new  year,  and  on  the  other  towards  the  old  one.  On  the  first 
day,  it  was  customary  for  friends  and  acquaintances  to  make  each  other 
presents,  from  whence  the  custom  of  new  year's  gifts,  still  retained  among 
us,  was  originally  taken. 

JANUS,  Temple  op,  at  Rome.  Was  erected  by  Romulus,  and  kept  open  in 
the  time  of  war  and  closed  in  time  of  peace.  It  was  shut  only  twice,  during 
above  700  years,  via : — under  Numa,  714  b.  c.  and  under  Augustus,  5  b.  c. ; 
and  during  that  long  period  of  time,  the  Romans  were  continually  employed 
in  war, 

JANVILLIERS,  Battle  of,  between  the  French  and  Prussians,  in  which,  after 
an  obstinate  engagement,  Blucher,  who  commanded  the  latter  army,  was 
driven  back  to  Chalons  with  considerable  loss,  February  14,  1814.  About 
this  period  there  were  many  battles  fought  between  Napoleon  and  Blucher, 
and  Napoleon  and  prince  Schwartzenberg,  until  the  capitulation  of  Paris, 
March  31,  1814. 

JAPAN.  This  island  was  first  made  known  to  Europe  by  Marco  Paulo ;  and 
was  visited  by  the  Portuguese  about  1535.  The  Japanese  are  as  fabulous  as 
the  Chinese  in  the  antiquity  of  their  empire,  but  the  certain  period  begins 
with  the  hereditarj^  succession  of  the  ecclesiastical  emperors,  from  the  year 
660  B.  c.  The  English  visited  Japan  in  1612.  There  was  once  a  great  num- 
ber of  Christians  in  different  parts  of  the  empire ;  but,  in  1622,  they  under- 
went great  persecutions,  insomuch  that  they  were  all  extirpated.  See 
Jeddo. 

JAVA.  The  atrocious  massacre  of  20,000  of  the  unarmed  natives  by  theDutch, 
sparing  neither  women  nor  children,  to  possess  their  effects,  took  place  in  1740, 
and  for  its  cruelty  and  cowardice  fixes  an  indelible  stain  not  only  upon 
their  nation,  but  upon  man.  The  island  capitulated  to  the  British,  August 
8,  1811.  The  sultan  was  dethroned  by  the  English,  and  the  hereditary 
prince  raised  to  the  throne,  in  June,  1813.  Java  was  restored  to  Holland 
in  1814. 

JEDDO.  The  capital  of  Japan,  containing  about  1,680,000  inhabitants,  a  num- 
nearly  equal  to  London.  In  1619,  ambassadors  from  Japan  arrived  at  the 
court  of  Paul  V.  to  do  him  homage  as  the  head  of  the  Christian  religion, 
which  their  master  had  embraced  through  the  preaching  of  the  Jesuit  mis- 
sionaries ;  but  the  misconduct  of  the  Jesuits,  who  were  endeavoring  to  over- 
turn the  Japanese  government,  caused  them  to  be  expelled  in  1622,  and  the 
inhabitants  relapsed  into  their  former  idolatry.  The  emperor's  palace  is  of 
indescribable  magnificence ;  its  hall  of  audience  is  supported  by  many  pillars 
of  massive  gold  and  plates  of  gold  cover  its  three  towers,  each  nine  stories 
high.  Several  other  costly  palaces,  belonging  to  the  emperor,  empress,  con- 
cubines, and  vassal  kings,  enrich  this  great  eastern  city. 

JEMMAPPES,  Battle  of,  one  of  the  most  obstinate  and  bloody  of  modern 
times ;  40,000  French  troops  forced  28,000  Austrians,  who  were  intrenched  in 
woods  and  mountains,  defended  by  forty  redoubts,  and  an  immense  number 
of  cannon ;  the  revolutionary  general  Dumouriez  was  the  victor  in  this  battle, 
whish  lasted  four  days.  According  to  the  most  authentic  accounts,  the 
number  of  killed  on  the  side  of  the  Austrians  amounted  to  10,000,  on  that 
of  the  French  to  12,000,  Nov.  5,  1792. 

JENA,  Battle  of,  one  of  the  most  sanguinary  of  modern  times,  between  the 
French  and  Prussian  armies;  the  one  commanded  by  the  emperor  Na- 
poleon, and  the  other  by  the  Prussian  king,  who  was  signally  defeated,  with 
the  loss  of  80,000  slain,  and  nearly  as  many  thousands  made  prisoners.    In 


JES  J  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  377 

this  battle  the  Prussians  lost  200  field-pieces,  and  Napoleon  advanced  to 
Berlin,  Oct.  14, 1806. 

JERSEY,  GUERNSEY,  SARK,  and  ALDERNEY,  appendages  to  the  duchy 
of  Normandy,  were  united  to  the  crown  of  England,  by  William  the  Con- 
queror, in  1066.  Jersey  was  attempted  by  the  French  in  1779  and  1781.  A 
body  of  French  troops  surprised  the  governor,  made  him  prisoner,  and 
compelled  him  to  sign  a  capitulation;  but  major  Pierson,  the  commander  of 
the  English  troops,  refusing  to  abide  by  this  forced  capitulation,  attacked 
the  French,  and  compelled  them  to  surrender  prisoners  of  war;  but  he  was 
killed  in  the  moment  of  victory,  Jan.  6,  1781. 

JERUSALEM.  Built  1800  b.  c.  The  first  and  most  famed  Temple  was  found- 
ed by  Solomon,  1015  b.  c.  ;  and  was  solemnly  dedicated  on  Friday,  October 
30,  1004  B.  c,  being  one  thousand  years  before  the  birth  of  Christ  — Blair ; 
Usher ;  Bible.  Jerusalem  was  taken  by  the  Israelites,  1048  b.  c.  and  by 
Nebuchadnezzar,  587  b.  c.  Razed  to  the  ground  by  Titus,  a.  d.  70,  after  one 
of  the  most  remarkable  sieges  in  history.  More  than  1,100,000  of  the  Jews 
perished  on  this  occasion.  A  citj^  was  built  on  the  ruins  of  the  former  by 
the  emperor  Adrian,  a.  d.  130.  The  walls  were  rebuilt  by  the  empress  Eu- 
doxia  in  437.  Jerusalem  was  taken  by  the  Persians  in  614;  by  the  Saracens 
in  636;  and  by  the  crusaders,  when  70,000  infidels  were  put  to  the  sword, 
1099.  A  new  kingdom  was  founded,  which  lasted  88  years.  Taken  from 
the  Chi'istians  by  Saladin,  in  1187;  and  by  the  Turks,  who  drove  away  the 
Saracens  in  1217.  Jerusalem  was  taken  by  the  French  under  Bonaparte  in 
February  1799.     See  Jews. 

JESTER.  In  some  ancient  works,  a  jester  is  described  as  "  a  witty  and  jocose 
person,  kept  by  princes  to  inform  them  of  their  faults,  and  those  of  other 
men,  under  the  disguise  of  a  waggish  story."  Several  of  the  early  English 
kings  kept  jesters,  and  particularly  the  Tudors.  There  was  a  jester  at  court 
in  the  reign  of  James  I.,  but  we  hear  of  no  licensed  jester  afterwards. 

JESUITS.  The  order  Avas  founded  by  Ignatius  Loyola  (who  was  canonized), 
a  page  to  Ferdinand  V.  of  Spain,  and  subsequently  an  officer  of  his  army. 
Loyola  having  been  wounded  at  the  siege  of  Pampeluna,  in  both  legs,  a.  d. 
1521,  devoted  himself  to  theology  while  under  cure,  and  renounced  the  mi- 
litary for  the  ecclesiastical  profession.  His  first  devout  exercise  was  to  dedi- 
cate his  life  to  the  Blessed  Virgin  as  her  knight ;  he  next  made  a  pilgrimage 
to  the  Holy  Land,  and  on  his  return  laid  the  foi^ndation  for  his  new  order 
in  France.  He  presented  the  institutes  of  it  in  1539,  to  pope  Paul  HI.  who 
made  many  objections  to  them ;  but  Ignatius  adding  to  the  three  vows  of 
chastity,  povertj^,  and  obedience,  a  fourth  of  imjilicit  submission  to  the 
holy  see,  the  institution  was  confirmed  by  a  bull,  September  27,  1540,  by 
which  their  number  was  not  to  exceed  60.  That  clog,  however,  was  taken 
oflf  by  another  bull,  March  14,  1548  ;  and  popes  Julius  III.,  Pius  V.,  and 
Gregory  XHL,  granted  them  such  great  privileges  as  rendered  them  pow- 
erful and  numerous.  But  though  Francois  Xavier,  and  other  missionaries, 
the  first  brothers  of  the  order,  carried  it  to  the  extremities  of  the  habitable 
globe,  it  met  with  great  opposition  in  Europe,  particularly  at  Fxris.  The 
Sorbonne  issued  a  decree  in  1554,  by  which  they  condemned  the  institution, 
as  being  calculated  rather  for  the  ruin  than  the  edification  of  the  faithful. 
Even  in  Romish  countries,  the  intrigues  and  seditious  writings  of  this  order, 
have  occasioned  it  to  be  discountenanced.  The  Jesuits  were  expelled  Eng- 
land by  proclamation,  2  James  I.  1604,  and  Venice  1606.  They  were  put 
down  in  France  by  an  edict  from  the  king,  and  their  revenues  confiscated, 
1764 ;  and  were  banished  Spain  1767.  Suppressed  by  pope  Clement  XIV. 
in  1773.    Restored  by  Pius  VII.  in  1814  ;  and  since  tolerated  in  other  states, 


378 


THE    WORLD'S   PROGRESS. 


[  JEW 


and  e'ven  where  not  tolerated,  the  body,  as  now  in  England,  possesses  a  se- 
cret and  extensive  existence. 

JESUS  CHRIST.  Born  on  Monday,  December  25,  a.  m.  4004,  in  the  year  of 
Rome  752  ;  but  this  event  should  be  dated  four  years  before  the  commence- 
ment of  the  common  era.  See  Nativity.  Christ's  baptism  by  John,  and 
his  first  ministry,  a.  d.  30.  He  celebrated  the  last  passover,  and  instituted 
the  sacrament  in  its  room,  on  Thursday,  April  2.  He  was  crucified  on  Fri- 
day, April  3,  at  three  o'clock  in  the  afternoon.  He  arose,  April  5 ;  ascended 
to  heaven  from  Mount  Olivet,  on  Thursday,  May  14,  following :  and  hia 
Spirit  descended  on  his  disciples  on  Sunday,  the  day  of  Pentecost,  May  24, 
A.  D.  33. 

JEWELRY.  Woi-n  by  most  of  the  early  nations.  So  prodigious  was  the  ex- 
travagance of  the  Roman  ladies,  that  Pliny  the  elder  says,  he  saw  LoUia 
Paulina  wearing  ornaments  which  were  valued  at  322,916Z.  sterling.  Jewels 
were  worn  in  France  by  Agnes  Sorel,  in  1434.  The  manufacture  was  ex- 
tensively encouraged  in  England  in  1685.     See  article  Dress. 

JEWISH  ERA.  The  Jews  usually  employed  the  era  of  the  Seleucidas  until 
the  fifteenth  century,  when  a  new  mode  of  computing  was  adopted  by  them. 
They  date  from  the  creation,  which  thej'^  consider  to  have  been  3760  years 
and  three  months  before  the  commencement  of  our  era.  To  redxice  Jewisli 
time  to  ours,  subtract  3761  years. 

JEWS.  A  people  universally  known  both  in  ancient  and  modern  times.  They 
derive  their  origin  from  Abraham,  with  whom,  according  to  the  Old  Testa- 
ment and  the  Jewish  writers,  God  made  a  covenant,  1921  b.  c.  See  Tabular 
Views,  p.  6  to  p.  42. 

JEWS,  Modern  HrsTORV  of. 

Titus  takes  Jerusalem ;  the  city  and 
temple  are  sacked  and  burnt,  and 
1,100,000  of  the  Jews  perish,  multi- 
tudes destroying  themselves        A.  D.     70 

100,000  Greeks  and  Romans  are  mur- 
dered by  the  Jews  about  Cyrene        -    115 

Adrian  rebuilds  Jerusalem,  and  erects 
a  temple  to  Jupiter     -  -  -    130 

More  than  580,000  of  the  Jews  are  slain 
by  the  Romans,  in  135  and     -  -    136 

[They  are  now  banished  from  Judea  by 
an  edict  of  the  emperor,  and  are  for- 
bidden to  return,  or  even  to  look  back 
upon  their  once  flourishing  and  be- 
loved city,  on  pain  of  death.  From 
this  period,  the  Jews  have  been  scat- 
tered among  all  other  nations.] 

GENERAL   HISTORY. 

Jews  first  arrive  in  England      -  -  1078 

Thinking  to  invoke  the  divine  mercy,  at 

a  solemnization  of  the  Passover,  they 

sacrifice  a  j-outh,  the  son  of  a  rich 

tradesman  at  Paris,  for  which  the 

criminals  are  executed,  and  all  Jews 

banished  France  -  -  -  1080 

The  Jews  massacred  in  London,  on  the 

coronation-day  of  Richard  I.,  at  the 

instigation  of  the  priests         -  -1089 

500  being  besieged  in  York  castle  by 

the  mob,  they  cut  each  other's  throats 

to  avoid  their  fury       -  -  -  1190 

Jews  of  both  se.\es  imprisoned ;  their 

eyes  or  teeth  plucked  out,  and  num- 
bers inhumanly  butchered,  by  king 

John 1204 

They  circumcise  and  attempt  to  cruci- 
fy a  child  at  Norwich ;  the  offenders 


are  condemned  in  a  fine  of  20,000 
marks    -  ...  -  1235 

They  crucify  a  child  at  Lincoln,  for 
which  eighteen  are  hanged    -  -  1255 

700  Jews  are  slain  in  London,  a  Jew 
having  forced  a  Christian  to  pay  him 
more  than  2s.  per  week  as  interest 
upon  a  loan  of  20s. — Slowe   -  -  1262 

Statute  that  no  Jew  should  enjoy  a  free- 
hold, passed      ....  1269 

Every  Jew  lending  money  on  interest 
compelled  to  wear  a  plate  on  his 
breast  signifying  that  he  was  a  usu- 
rer, or  to  quit  the  realm         -  - 1274 

267  Jews  hanged  and  quartered  for 
clipping  coin    -  -  -  -  1277 

They  crucify  a  child  at  Northampton, 
for  which  fifty  are  drawn  at  horses' 
tails  and  hanged  -  -  -  1282 

15,660  Jews  are  apprehended  in  one 
day,  and  are  all  banished  England. — 
Rophi  -----  1287 

Massacre  of  the  Jews  at  Verdun  by  the 
peasantry ;  500  defend  themselves  in 
a  castle,  where,  for  want  of  weapons, 
they  throw  their  children  at  their  en- 
emies, and  then  destroy  one  another  131 

A  fatal  distemper  raging  in  Europe, 
they  are  suspected  of  having  poison- 
ed the  springs,  and  1,500,000  are  mas- 
sacred.— Lenglet.         -  -  -  1348 

500,000  Jews  are  banished  Spam,  and 
150,000  from  Portugal  -  -  1492 

They  are  banished  France         -  -  1494 

After  having  been  banished  England 
365  years,  they  are  re-admitted  by 
Cromwell,  in  virtue  of  a  treaty  with 
Blanasseh  Ben  Israel  -  -  -  1652 


JUD  ]  DICTIONARY  OF  DATES.  379 


land,  lost  on  the  second  reading,  by  a 
majority  in  tlie  Commons,  22S  against 
165         -  -  -  Blay  17,  1830 

Moses  Montefiore,  esq.,  elected  sheritf 
of  London ;  and  knighted  by  the 
queen,  being  the  first  Jew  on  whom 
tliat  honor  has  been  conferred,  Nov.  9, 1837 

Ukase  of  the  emperor  of  Russia,  jjer- 
mitting  the  title  of  citizen  of  tlie  first 
class  to  be  held  by  any  Jew  who  ren- 
ders himself  worthy  of  it       -  -  1839 

Owing  to  the  disappearance  of  a  Greek 
priest,  a  persecution  of  the  Jews  be- 
gan at  Dan.  ascus. — See  Damascus 

Feb.  1,  1840 


JEWS,  continued. 

Statute  to  naturalize  them  in  England, 

passed  -----  1753 
This  act  repealed  on  the  petition  of  all 

the  cities  in  England   -  -  -  1754 

The   Jews    of   Spain,    Portugal,    and 

Avianon  are  declared  to  be  citizens 

of  France  .  .  -  .  1790 

Sitting  of  the  great  Sanhedrim,  of  Paris, 

convened  by  the  emperor  Napoleon 

Jan.  20, 1807 
London  Society  for  promoting  Christi- 
anity among  the  Jews  -  -  1808 
Alexander  of  Russia  grants  land  on  the 

sea  of  Azoph  to  converted  Jews, 

Sept.  1, 1820 
Bill  for  Jewish  emancipation  in  Eng-  | 

JOAN  OF  ARC,  OR  MAID  OF  ORLEANS.  The  young  and  celebrated  heroine 
of  France.  The  English  under  Bedford  closely  besieging  Orleans,  ,/oan  of 
Arc  pretended  she  had  a  divine  commission  to  expel  them,  and  Charles 
VII.  intrusted  her  with  the  command  of  the  French  troops.  She  raised 
the  siege,  and  entered  Orleans  with  supplies,  April  29,  1429,  and  the  En- 
glish who  were  before  the  place  from  October  12,  preceding,  abandoned  the 
enterprise,  May  8,  following.  She  captured  several  towns  in  the  possession 
of  the  English,  whom  she  defeated  in  a  battle  near  Patay,  June  10,  1429._ 
In  her  various  achievements  no  unfeminine  cruelty  ever  stained  her  conduct." 
She  was  wounded  several  times  herself,  but  never  killed  any  one,  or  shed 
any  blood  with  her  own  hand.  She  was  taken  at  the  siege  of  Compiegne, 
May  25,  1431 ;  and  to  the  great  disgrace  of  the  English,  was  burnt  for  a 
witch  five  days  afterwards  at  Rouen,  in  the  22d  (some  say  29th)  year  of  her 
age. —  Voltaire's  Piicelle  d' Orleans. 

JOHN  DOE  AND  RICHARD  ROE.  Names,  as  pledges  to  prosecute,  well 
known  in  the  law.  Magna  Charta  demanded  witnesses  before  trial,  and 
since  the  reign  of  Edward  III.  the  fictitious  names  of  John  Doe  and  Richard 
Roe  are  put  into  writs,  as  pretended  witnesses. 

JUBILEE.  By  Mosaic  institution  the  Jews  celebrate  a  Jubilee  every  fifty 
years.  Among  the  Christians  a  jubilee  every  century  was  instituted  by 
pope  Boniface  VIII. ,  in  the  j^ear  1300.  It  was  celebrated  every  fifty  years 
by  command  of  pope  Clement  VI. ;  and  was  afterwards  reduced  by  Urban 
VI.  to  every  thirty-third  year  ;  and  Sixtus  V.  to  every  twenty-fifth  year,  at 
which  period  it  is  now  fixed, 

JTJDGES.  On  the  Norman  conquest  the  judges  had  the  style  of  Justiciarms 
AnglicB:  these  judges  continued  until  the  erection  of  the  Courts  of  King's 
Bench  and  Common  Pleas.  The  last  who  had  the  office  of  Justiciarius  Anglice 
was  Phillip  Basset,  in  1261.  Judges  punished  for  bribery,  17  Edward  I. 
1288,  when  Thomas  de  Weyland  was  banished  the  land;  and  in  1351,  Wil- 
liam de  Thorp  was  hanged.  John  de  Cavendish  was  beheaded  by  the  Kent- 
ish rebels,  1382.  Tresylian,  chief  justice,  was  executed  for  favoring  des- 
potism, and  other  judges  were  seized  and  condemned,  1388.  The  prince  of 
Wales  was  committed  by  Judge  Gascoigne  for  assaulting  him  on  the  bench, 
1412.  Sir  Thomas  More,  lord  chancellor,  was  beheaded,  July  6,  1535. 
Judges  threatened  with  impeachment,  and  Berkeley  taken  off  the  bench 
and  committed  by  the  commons,  1641.  Three  impeached,  1680.  Most  of 
them  dismissed  for  not  allowing  the  legality  of  a  dispensing  power  in  the 
crown,  3  James  II.  1687.  The  celebrated  Judge  Jefferies  was  committed  by 
the  lord  mayor  to  the  Tower,  where  he  died,  1689.  The  independence  of  the 
judges  in  England  was  established  by  making  their  appointments  patents 
for  life,  1761.    Judges  were  sent  to  India,  1773.    Three  additional  judges, 


380  THE  world's  progress.  [  JUl 

one  to  each  court,  were  appointed,  1784.  A  new  judge  took  his  seat  as 
vice-cliancellor,  May  5,  1813. 
JUDGES  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES.  Those  of  the  Supreme  Court,  eight  in 
number,  are  appointed  for  life  or  during  good  conduct,  by  the  President  and 
Senate.  The  chief  justices  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States  have 
been  John  Jay,  appointed,  1789;  Wilham  Cushing,  of  Mass.,  179G;  Oliver 
Ellsworth,  1796 ;  John  Marshall,  1801 ;  Roger  B.  Taney,  1836.  U.  S.  Cir- 
cuit Judges  were  first  appointed  1801.  The  judges  of  the  several  States 
are  thus  appointed : — 

By  the  Governor  and  Legislature,  or  Senate,  or  Council,  in  Maine,  New 
Hampshire,  Massachusetts,  Maryland,  Louisiana,  Missouri,  Indiana,  and 
Michigan. 

By  the  Legislature  alone,  in  Vermont,  Rhode  Island,  Connecticut,  New  Jersey, 
Virginia,  North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  Georgia,  Alabama,  Arkansas, 
Tennessee,  Ohio,  and  Illinois. 

By  the  Governor  alone  in  Pennsylvania,  Delaware,  and  Kentucky. 

By  popular  vote,  in  Mississippi  and  in  New  York.* 

The  term  of  Office  of  the  superior  judges,  is  for  life  (or  "  during  good 
behavior  ")  in  Massachusetts,  Pennsylvania,  Delaware,  Maryland,  Virginia, 
North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  Louisiana,  Kentucky  and  Illinois. 

Until  seventy  jj'ears  of  age,  in  Maine,  New  Hampshire,  Connecticut. 

Until  sixty-five  j'ears  of  age,  in  Missouri. 

For  periods  varying  from  tivo  to  twelve  years,  in  New  Jersey,  Georgia,  Ala- 
bama, Mississippi,  Arkansas,  Tennessee,  Ohio,  Indiana,  Michigan ;  arid  for 
one  year  in  Rhode  Island,  and  Vermont. 

They  are  removable — 
By  impeachment  in  fourteen  States.  By  conviction  of  misconduct  in  a  court 
of  law,  in  Maryland.  By  joint  resolution  of  Senate,  and  two- thirds  of  As- 
sembly, in  New  York. 
JUDICIAL  COMMITTEE  of  the  PRIVY  COUNCIL,  in  lieu  of  the  Court  of 
Delegates,  for  appeals  from  the  Lord  Chancellors  of  England  and  Ire 
land  in  cases  of  lunacy — from   the  Ecclesiastical  and  Admiralty  Court^ 

■  of  England,  and  Vice  Admiralty  Courts  abroad — from  the  Courts  of  the 
Isle  of  Man,  the  Colonial  Courts,  &c.,  fixed  by  statute  3  and  4  William 
IV.  1833. 
JUGGERNAUT,  or  "  Lord  of  the  world."  The  first  object  of  Hindoo  venera- 
tion, is  a  celebrated  idol  of  an  irregular  pjTamidical  black  stone,  with  two 
rich  diamonds  to  represent  eyes ;  the  nose  and  mouth  are  painted  yermil- 
lion,  and  the  visage  is  frightful.  The  number  of  pilgrims  that  visit  the  god 
is  stated  at  1,200,000  annually:  of  these  a  great  many  never  return,  and 
to  the  distance  of  fifty  miles  the  waj^  is  strewed  with  human  bones :  the 
temple  of  Juggernaut  has  existed  above  800  years. 
JUGURTHA,  the  War  with.  A  memorable  war  against  the  Numidian  to  re- 
duce his  kingdom,  commenced  111  b.  c.  and  continued  five  years.  Cfficilius 
Metell us  was  first  sent  against  him,  and  defeated  him  in  two  battles;  and 
afterwards  Sylla  and  Marius ;  the  latter  of  whom  dragged  him  in  chains  to 
Rome  to  adorn  his  triumph.  The  name  and  wars  of  Jugurtha  have  been 
immortalized  by  the  pen  of  Sallust. 
JULIAN  PERIOD.  A  term  of  years  produced  by  the  multiplication  of  the 
lunar  cycle  19,  solar  cycle  28,  and  Roman  indiction  15.    It  consists  of  7980 

*  The  election  of  judges  by  the  people,  in  New  York,  was  first  provided  for  by  the  new  consti 
tution  of  1846. 


jur]  dictionary  of  dates.  381 

years,  and  began  4713  years  before  our  era.  It  has  been  employed  in  comput- 
ing time,  to  avoid  the  puzzling  ambiguity  attendant  on  reckoning  any  period 
antecedent  to  our  era,  an  advantage  which  it  has  in  common  with  the  mun- 
dane eras  used  at  different  times.  By  subtracting  4713  from  the  Julian 
period,  our  year  is  found  ;  if  before  Christ,  subtract  the  Julian  period  from 
4714.     For  Julian  j'ear,  see  Calendar  and  Year. 

JULY.  The  seventh  month  of  the  year,  from  the  Latin  Julius,  the  surname  of 
C.  Ceesar,  the  dictator  of  Rome,  who  was  born  in  it.  It  was  the  fifth  month 
in  the  Roman  calendar  until  Numa  added  January  and  February  to  the 
year,  718  b.  c.    See  those  months  severally,  and  article  Year. 

JTJNE.  The  sixth  month,  but  originally  the  fourth  month  of  the  Roman  year. 
It  had  its  name  Junius,  which  some  derive  a  Junone,  and  others  a  Juniori- 
bus,  this  being  for  the  young,  as  the  month  of  May  was  for  aged  persons. 
When  Numa  added  two  months  before  March,  this  month  became,  as  it  is 
now,  the  sixth  of  the  calendar,  713  b.  c.    See  Year. 

JUNIUS'S  LETTERS.  Junius  was  the  assumed  name  of  a  concealed  political 
writer,  who  published  his  letters  in  the  Public  Advertiser,  in  1769.  They 
were  written  in  a  nervous,  sarcastic,  and  clear  style,  and  produced  a  power- 
ful impression,  and  the  volume  is  now  one  of  the  most  admired  in  British 
literature.  These  letters  have  been  ascribed  to  Mr.  Burke,  Mr.  William 
Gerard  Hamilton,  commonly  called  single-speech  Hamilton,  John  Wilkes, 
Mr.  Dunning  (afterwards  lord  Ashburton),  Mr.  Serjeant  Adair,  the  rev.  J. 
Rosenhagen,  John  Roberts,  esq.,  Mr.  Charles  Lloyd,  Mr.  Samuel  Dyer,  ge- 
neral Lee,  Hugh  Boyd,  esq.,  and  sir  Philip  Francis;  but  the  matter  is  still 
hidden  in  obscurity.  "I  am  the  depositary  of  my  own  secret,  and  it  shall 
perish  with  me." — Junius. 

JUPITER.  Known  as  a  planet  to  the  Chinese  and  the  Chaldeans :  to  the  for- 
mer, it  is  said  3000, Te.  c.  ;  and  correctly  inserted  in  a  chart  of  the  heavens, 
made  about  600  b.  c,  and  in  which  1460  stars  are  accurately  described  ;  this 
chart  is  said  to  be  in  the  royal  library  at  Paris.  The  satellites  of  Jupiter 
were  discovered  by  Galileo,  a.  d.  1610;  but  Jansen,  it  is  affirmed,  claimed 
some  acquaintance  with  them  about  twenty  years  before. 

JURIES.  Trial  by  jury  was  introduced  into  England  during  the  Saxon  Hep- 
tarchy, mention  being  made  of  six  Welsh  and  six  Anglo-Saxon  freemen 
appointed  to  try  causes  between  the  English  and  Welsh  men  of  property, 
and  made  responsible  with  their  whole  estates,  real  and  personal,  for  false 
verdicts. — Lambard.  But  by  most  authorities  their  institution  is  ascribed 
to  Alfred.  In  Magna  Charta,  juries  are  insisted  on  as  the  great  bulwark  of 
the  people's  liberty.  When  either  party  is  an  alien  born,  the  jury  shaU  be 
one-half  denizens,  and  the  other  half  aliens,  statute  28  Edward  III.  1353. 
By  the  common  law  a  prisoner  upon  indictment  or  appeal,  might  challenge 
peremptorily  thirty-five,  being  under  thi-ee  juries  ;  but  a  lord  of  parliament, 
and  a  peer  of  the  realm  that  is  to  be  tried  by  his  peers,  cannot  challenge 
any  of  his  peers. 

JURIES,  Coercion  of.  About  the  year  927,  the  plaintiff  and  defendant  used 
to  feed  the  jury  empanelled  in  their  action,  and  hence  arose  the  common 
law  of  denying  sustenance  to  a  jury  after  the  hearing  of  the  evidence.  A 
jury  may  be  detained  during  the  pleasure  of  the  judge  if  they  cannot  agree 
upon  a  verdict ;  and  maybe  confined  without  meat,  drink,  or  candle,  till 
they  are  unanimous.  Some  jurors  have  been  fined  for  having  fruit  in  their 
pockets,  when  they  were  withdrawn  to  consider  of  their  verdict,  though 
they  did  not  eat  it. — Leon.  Dyer.  137.  A  jury  at  Sudbury  not  being  able  "to 
agree,  and  having  been  some  time  under  duress,  forcibly  broke  from  the 
court  where  they  were  locked  up,  and  went  home,  October  9,  1791.— 
Phillips. 


382  THE    world's    progress.  [  KIE 

JUSTICES  OP  THE  PEACE.  These  are  local  magistrates,  invested  with  ex- 
tensive powers  in  minor  cases,  but  subject  to  supercession  and  punish- 
ment by  the  king's  bench  for  an  abuse  of  tlieir  authority.  Justices  of  the 
peace  in  every  county  first  nominated  by  William  the  Conqueror,  in  1076. 
— Stowe.  In  the  United  States  the  office  is  held  by  special  appointment, 
and  the  tenure  is  different  in  different  States ;  it  is  usually  for  seven  years. 

JUSTINIAN  CODE.  Wherein  was  written  what  may  be  termed  the  statute 
law,  scattered  through  2000  volumes,  reduced  to  fifty,  completed  a.  d.  529. 
To  this  code  of  laws  Justinian  added  the  Pandects,  the  Institutes,  and 
Novels.  These  compilations  have  since  been  calle(i.  collectively,  the  body 
of  civil  law  {corpics  jims  civilis).     A  digest  was  made  in  533. — Blair. 

K. 

KALEIDOSCOPE.  This  optical  instrument,  which  combines  mirrors,  and  pro- 
duces a  symmetrical  reflection  of  beautiful  images,  was  invented  by  Dr. 
Brewster  of  Edinburgh  ;  it  was  first  suggested  in  1814,  and  the  instrument 
perfected  in  1817,  when  it  found  its  way  into  every  body's  hands.  It  is  in- 
tended to  assist  jewellers,  glass-painters,  and  other  ornamental  artists,  in  the 
formation  of  patterns,  of  which  it  produces  an  infinite  number. 

KAMTSCHATKA.  The  peninsula  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Asia.  It  was  dis- 
covered by  Morosco,  a  Cossack  chief,  a.  d.  1690;  and  was  taken  possession  of 
by  Russia  in  1697 ;  it  was  not  ascertained  to  be  a  peninsula  until  visited  by 
Behring,  in  1728.  Four  months,  commencing  at  our  midsummer,  may  be 
considered  as  the  spring,  summer,  and  autumn  here,  the  rest  of  the  year 
being  dreary  winter. 

KENIL WORTH  CASTLE.  Built  in  1120,  but  much  of  the  pile  was  erected 
subsequently  by  John  of  Gaunt ;  and  its  remains  now  form  one  of  the  most 
picturesque  objects  in  the  kingdom.  This  celebrated  castle  was  conferred 
on  Dudley,  earl  of  Leicester,  by  queen  Elizabeth,  whom  he  afterwards  en- 
tertained within  its  walls  for  seventeen  days.  His  sumptuous  entertainment 
of  the  queen  commenced  July  19,  1575,  and  cost  the  earl  daily  lOOOZ.  a  vast 
expenditure  in  those  times. 

KENTUCKY,  one  of  the  United  States,  was  first  explored  by  Daniel  Boone, 
an  enterprising  hunter,  in  1770.  First  white  settlement  near  Lexington,  1775. 
Was  a  part  of  Virginia  until  1782,  when  it  was  made  a  separate  district.  Ad 
mitted  into  the  Union  1792.  Population  in  1790,  73,677;  in  1810,  406,511 , 
in  1830,  688,844;  in  1840,  779,828,  including  182,258  slaves. 

KEYS.  The  invention  of  them  is  ascribed  to  Theodore,  of  Samos,  by  Pliny, 
about  730  b.  c.  But  this  is  an  error,  as  keys  are  mentioned  in  the  siege  of 
Troy,  1193  b.  c.  Keys  were  originally  made  of  wood,  and  the  earliest  form 
was  a  simple  crook  similar  to  the  common  picklock  now  in  use.  The  ancient 
keys  now  to  be  found  in  the  cabinets  of  the  curious  are  mostly  of  bronze. 
The  late  Francis  Douce,  esq.,  had  some  of  remarkable  shapes,  the  shaft  ter- 
minating on  one  side  by  the  works,  on  the  other  by  a  ring.  Keys  of  this 
description  were  presented  by  husbands  to  wives,  and  were  returned  again 
upon  divorce  or  separation. 

ivIEL,  Treaty  or.  Between  Great  Britain,  Sweden,  and  Denmark,  signed  Jan- 
uary 14,  1814.  By  this  treaty  Norway  was  ceded  to  Sweden.  Previously 
the  Norwegians  had  been  deserted  by  the  king  of  Denmark,  and  had  sent 
a  deputation  to  England,  to  interest  that  country  in  their  favor.  The  ruission 
was  fruitless.  On  the  contrary,  the  English  blockaded  the  ports  of  Norway, 
and  the  Swedes  entered  by  land.  The  Norwegians  fought  some  brave  actions, 
but  they  were  defeated.  The  prince  of  Denmark  quitted  Norway,  and  the 
diet  elect'i'^  the  king  of  Sweden  to  be  their  king. 


KIN  j  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  383 

KING.  The  Latin  Rex,  the  Scythian  Reis,  the  Spanish  Rey,  the  French  Roi, 
all  come  from  the  Hebrew  Rosch,  chief,  or  head.  Nimrod  Avas  the  first 
founder  of  a  kingdom,  2245  b.  c. — Du  Fresnoy.  Misraim  built  cities  in 
Egj"pt,  and  was  the  first  who  assumed  the  title  of  king-  in  that  division  of  the 
earth.  Saul  was  the  first  king  of  Israel,  1095  b.  c.  Most  of  the  Grecian  states 
were  governed  by  kings ;  and  kings  first  ruled  in  Rome.  The  Egyptians 
understood  the  only  just  principle  of  government,  namely,  to  make  the  peo- 
ple happy ;  and  although  among  them  the  monarchy  was  hereditary,  the 
sovereign  was  as  muchbound  by  the  laws  as  his  meanest  subject:  there  was 
a  peculiar  code  for  his  direction  in  the  most  minute  particulars  of  pubhc 
and  private  life.  The  king's  hour  of  rising,  the  portion  of  time  he  should 
devote  each  day  to  the  services  of  religon,  the  administration  of  justice, 
the  quality  of  his  food,  and  the  rank  of  persons  by  whom  he  was  served, 
were  all  i^rescribed. 

KING  OF  ENGLAND.  The  style  "  kirg  of  England,"  was  first  used  by  Egbert 
A.  D.  828;  but  the  title  Rex  gentis  Angloriim,  king  of  the  English  nation, 
existed  during  the  Heptarchy.  See  Britain.  The  plural  phraseology  of  we, 
lis,  our,  was  first  adopted  by  king  John,  in  1207.  The  title  of  "  king  of  Ire- 
land," by  British  sovereigns,  was  not  assumed  until  .  542,  when  Henry  VHI. 
changed"  lord  of  Ireland  into  king.  The  style  "  Great  Britain  "  was  adopted 
at  the  union  of  England  and  Scotland,  6  Anne,  1707  ;  and  of  the  "United 
Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  "  at  the  union  of  these  countries,  Jan- 
uary 1,  1801,  when  the  royal  style  and  title  was  appointed  to  run  thus : — 
"Georgius  Tertms,  Dei  G-ratia  Britaimiaruin  Rex,  Fidei  Defensor,"  "George 
the  third,  by  the  Grace  of  God  of  the  United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland  King,  Defender  of  the  Faith." 

KING  OF  THE  FRENCH.  Decreed  by  the  National  Assembly  that  the  title  ol 
"  king  of  France"  should  be  changed  in  the  person  of  Louis  XVI.  to  that  ol 
"  king  of  the  French,"  October  16,  1789.  The  royal  title  was  abolished  in 
1792;  but  restored  in  the  Bourbon  family,  in  1814.  Louis-Philippe  I. 
was  invited  to  the  monarchy  under  the  style  of  the  "  king  of  the  French," 
August  9,  1830.     See  France. 

KING  OF  HUNGARY.  The  averseness  of  the  Hungarian  people  to  the  term 
queen,  has  led  to  the  custom  among  them,  that  whenever  a  female  succeeds 
to  the  throne,  she  shall  be  called  king.  Thus  it  will  be  seen  in  the  annals  of 
Hungary,  that  the  daughter  of  Louis  I.  reigned  as  king  Mary,  in  1383.  See 
Hungary. 

KING  OP  THE  ROMANS.  The  emperors  of  Germany,  in  order  that  their  eldest 
sons  might  be  chosen  their  successors,  in  their  own  lifetime  politically  ob- 
tained them  the  title  of  "king  of  the  Romans,"  this  people  being  compre- 
hended in  that  sovereignty.  The  first  emperor  so  elected  was  Henry  IV.,  in 
1055.  Richard,  brother  of  Henry  III.  of  England,  was  induced  to  go  to 
Germany,  where  he  disbursed  vast  sums  imder  the  promise  of  being  elected 
next  emperor;  he  obtained  the  title  of  "king  of  the  Romans,"  but  failed  in 
succeeding  to  the  Imperial  crown.  The  style  "  king  of  Rome  "  was  revived 
by  Bonaparte,  who  conferred  it  on  his  son,  upon  his  birth,  in  April,  1811 ; 
but  the  title  ceased  with  the  extinction  of  the  dynasty  of  Napoleon,  April 
5,  1814. 

KING'S  BENCH,  Court  of,  in  England.  Obtained  its  name  from  the  khig 
sometimes  sitting  here  on  a  high  bench,  and  the  judges,  to  whom  the 
judicature  belongs  in  his  absence,  on  a  low  bench  at  his  feet.  The  jurisdic- 
tion of  this  court  extends  all  over  England,  and  is  not  so  subject  to  control 
as  othei-s,  because  the  law  presunu-s  the  king  to  be  here  in  person.  The 
name  of  this  court    has  been  altered  to  that  of  Qn.cen's  Bench,  since   the 


384  THE  world's  progress.  [  KNl 

accession  of  Victoria,  in  June,  1837,  as  is  ttie  case  with  all  institutions  in 
immediate  connection  with,  or  dependent  upon  the  sovereign. 

KING'S  EVIL.  Supposed  to  be  cured  by  the  touch  of  the  kings  of  England. 
The  first  who  touched  for  it  was  Edward  the  Confessor,  1058.  This  vulgar 
credulity  had  in  the  age  of  Charles  II.  arisen  to  such  a  height,  that  in  four- 
teen years,  92,107  persons  were  touched ;  and,  according  to  Wiseman,  the 
king's  physician,  they  were  nearly  all  cured  !  Queen  Anne  officially  an- 
nounced in  the  London  Gazette,  March  12, 1712,  her  royal  intention  to  touch 
publicly  for  the  cure  of  the  evil ;  and  touching  for  it  continued  a  custom  un- 
til it  was  wisely  discouraged,  and  ultimately  dropped  by  George  I.,  1714. 

KING'S  SPEECH.  The  first  royal  speech  from  the  throne  was  delivered  by 
Henry  I.,  in  1107.  A  late  celebrated  writer,  after  remarking  with  his  accus- 
tomed harshness  upon  Mr.  Canning,  who  had  just  then  (April  1827)  become 
chief  of  a  new  administration,  said — "  Canning  being  now  minister,  of  one 
thing,  and  one  thing  only,  we  are  certain,  we  shall  have  no  more  grammati- 
cal blunders  in  king's  speeches ;  these  things  will  still  be  written  in  the 
same  meagre  way,  in  point  of  matter,  as  before ;  but  we  shall  have  them  in 
a  perspicuous  and  pure  style."-^Colibett. 

KINGDOMS.  The  origin  of  kingdoms  may  be  referred  to  Belus,  supposed  to 
have  been  the  Nimrod  of  Holy  Writ ;  he  was  the  founder  of  the  Babylonian 
monarchy,  2245  b.  c. —  Usher.  Menes,  or  Misral'm,  makes  his  son  Atholas, 
surnaraed  the  first  Mercury,  king  of  Upper  Egypt ;  and  another  son,  Tose- 
thrus,  he  establishes  at  Memphis,  2188  b.  c. — Blair.  Ninus  founds  the  As- 
syrian monarchy,  2059  b.  c. — Lenglet. 

KISSING.  Kissing  the  hands  of  great  men  was  a  Grecian  custom.  Kissing 
was  a  mode  of  salutation  among  the  Jews,  as  we  may  collect  from  Judas 
approaching  his  master  with  a  kiss  ;  it  was  also  customary  in  Rome.  Kiss- 
ing the  poi:)e's  foot  took  its  rise  from  the  custom  of  kneeling  to  sovereigns, 
and  began  with  Adrian  I.  or  Leo  III.  at  the  close  of  the  eighth  century. 
From  kneeling  to  sovereigns  came  also  the  ceremony  of  a  vassal  kneeling 
to  his  lord  in  homage,  first  practised,  a.d.  709. 

KIT-KAT  CLUB.  A  society  which  consisted  of  about  thirty  noblemen  and 
gentlemen  of  distinguished  abilities,  instituted  in  1703,  fur  the  purpose  of 
promoting  the  Protestant  succession  in  the  house  of  Hanover,  which  they 
eflfected  by  spirited  publications  as  well  as  other  measures.  Addison,  Steele, 
and  Dr.  Garth  were  members,  and  made  several  epigrams  upon  the  toasts  of 
the  club.  The  club  took  its  name  from  one  Christoi^her  Kat,  a  pastry-cook, 
who  lived  near  the  tavern  where  they  met,  in  King-street,  Westminster,  and 
who  served  them  with  pastry. — Bowyer's  Life  of  Queen  Anne. 

KNIGHT.  The  origin  of  this  title  as  a  military  honor  is  said  to  be  derived 
from  the  siege  of  Troy,  but  this  solely  depends  upon  a  passage  or  two  in 
Homer.  With  certainty  we  may  trace  the  distinction  to  the  Romans,  who. 
after  their  union  with  the  Sabines,  created  three  centuries  of  knights,  about 
750  B.  c. — Livij. 

KiNIGHT-ERRANTRY.  Took  its  rise  in  the  combats  of  the  Celtic  nations, 
particularly  the  judicial  combats,  and  much  prevailed  in  Spain,  France,  and 
Germany.  Tilts  and  tournaments  commenced  with  the  return  of  the  cru- 
saders from  the  holy  wars,  and  for  about  300  years  they  were  the  chief 
amusements  of  courts,  and  the  successful  combatants  acquired  knighthood, 
and  the  favor  of  .the  ladies.  When  public  combats  declined,  the  knights 
travelled  in  search  of  adventures,  to  correct  injustice,  and  fight  in  the 
cause  of  the  fair ;  and  the  consequent  follies  gave  rise  to  the  novel  of  Don 
Quixote. 

KNIGHTHOOD.    Was  conferred  in  England  by  the  priest  at  the  altar,  after 


KNl] 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES. 


385 


confession  and  consecration  of  tlie  sword,  during  tlie  Saxon  Heptarchy. 
The  first  knight  made  by  tlie  sovereign  with  the  sword  of  state  was  Athel- 
stan,  on  whom  Alfred  bestoAved  this  new  dignity,  a.  d.  900. — Spelmmi.  The 
custom  of  ecclesiastics  conferring  the  honor  of  knighthood  was  suppressed 
in  a  synod  held  at  Westminster  in  1100. — Ashmole's  Institutes.  All  persons 
having  ten  pounds  yearly  income  were  obliged  to  be  knighted,  or  pay  a  fine, 
38  Henry  HI.  l2^L~Salmon. 

KNIGHTHOOD  in  EUROPE.  As  a  system,  under  the  denomination  of  chi- 
valry, knighthood  is  to  be  dated  from  the  eleventh  century.  On  the  de- 
cline of  the  empire  of  Charlemagne,  all  Europe  being  reduced  to  a  state  of 
anarch j^,  the  proprietor  of  everj'  manor  became  a  petty  sovereign ;  his  man- 
sion was  fortified  by  a  moat,  and  defended  by  a  guard,  and  called  a  castle. 
Excursions  were  made  by  one  petty  lord  against  another,  and  the  women  and 
treasure  were  carried  off  by  the  conqueror.  At  length  the  owners  of  rich 
fiefs  associated  to  repres  these  marauders,  and  to  make  property  secure,  and 
to  protect  the  ladies ;  binding  themselves  to  these  duties  by  a  solemn  vow, 
and  the  sanction  of  a  religious  cei'emony.  The  first  knights  being  men  of 
the  highest  rank  and  largest  possessions,  adriisBion  into  the  order  was 
deemed  a  great  honor. 


MILITARY,    RELIGIOUS,   AND 

Alcantara,  instituted       -  -     a.  d. 

Alexander  Nevskoi,  Russia 

Amaranta,  Sweden         -  - 

"Angelic  Knights,  Greece      -  -     • 

Annunciada,  Mantua 

Annunciation,  Savoy 

Argonauts,  Naples  ... 

Avis,  Portugal  -  -  -     - 

Band,  Spairi         .... 

Bannerets,  England,  13G0.  Kenewed. 
See  Bannerets       -  -  -      - 

Batii,  England,  1399.  Renewed.  See 
Bath     ..... 

Bear,  Switzerland     -  -  -     - 

Black  Eagle,  Prussia,  instituted  by 
Frederick  I.      - 

Blood  of  Christ,  Mantua       -  -     - 

Brotherly  Love,  instituted 

Burgundian  Cross     -  -  -     - 

Calatrava,  Castile,  instituled  by  San- 
cho  III.  -  .  .  -  - 

Carpet,  England       -  -  -     - 

Catharine,  Russia 

Chase,  instituted  by  the  duke  of  Wir- 
temberg      -  -  -  -     - 

Christ,  Livonia    -  -  .  - 

Christ,  Portugal        -  -  -     - 

Christian  Charity,  France 

Cincinnatus,  America 

Conception  of  the  Virgin 

Concord,  Prussia,  instituted  by  Chris- 
tian Ernest,  elector  of  Brandenburgh 

Crescent,  Naples       -  -  -      - 

Crown  Royal,  France     - 

Daneburgh,  Denmark,  instituted  by 
Waldemar  II.,  1219 ;  revived  by 
Christian  V.  -  -  -     - 

Death's  Head,  Female  Order,  by  the 
widow  -Louisa  Elizabetlr  of  Saxe 
Mersburgh        .  .  .  . 

Dove  of  Castile         -  -  -     - 

Dragon,  Hungary 

Ear  of  Corn,  Brittany  -  -     - 

Elephant,  Denmark,  by  Christian  I.    - 

Ermine,  France  -  -  -  - 

Garter,  England        •  -  -     - 

i: 


1700 
1615 
456 
1618 
1355 
1382 
1147 
1232 

1485 

1725 
1213 

1701 
1608 
1708 
1535 

1150 
1553 
1698 

1719 
1203 
1319 
1590 
1783 
1619 

1660 

1448 
802 


1671 


1709 
1379 
1439 
1050 
1478 
14.50 
1360 


Revived  - 


HONORARY   ORDERS    OF   KNIGHTHOOD. 

1160     Generosity,  Brandenburgh 

Golden  Fleece,  instituted  at  Bruges  by 

Philip,  surnamed  the  Good 
Golden  Lion,  Hesse-Cassel 
Golden  Shield  and  Thistle 
Golden  Spur,  by  Pius  IV. 
Guelphic,  Hanover  - 
Holy  Ghost,  France,  1468. 
Holy  Ghost,  Rome 
Holy  Trinity  - 
Hospitallers  (which  see) 
Januarius,  Naples     - 
.Jerusalem.     See  Malta  - 
.lesus,  France 
Jesus  Christ,  Rome,  instituted  by  John 

XXII.,  1415.    Reformed  by  Paul  V. 
Knot,  Naples       .  .  .  - 

La  Calza,  Venice      -  -  -     - 

Legion  of  Honor,  France,  instituted  by 

Napoleon  Bonaparte  - 
Lily  of  Arragon         -  -  -     - 

Liiy  of  Navarre  -  -      .     - 

Loreito,  Lady  of        -  -  -      - 

ftlalta.     See  Malta. 

Martyrs,  Palestine     -  -  -     - 

Maria-Theresa,  Order  of  Ladies,  Spain 
Mauritians,  Savoy 
Merit,  instituted  by  the  landgrave  of 

Hesse  Cassel  •  -  -     - 

Merit,  Prussia      ...  - 

Noble  Passion,  Germany     - 
Oak  of  Navarre,  Spain  - 
Passion  of  Jesus  Christ,  France 
Pius,  founded  by  Pius  IV.   - 
Porcupine,  France 

Red  Eagle,  Prussia  -  -  -     - 

Redemption,  instituted  - 
Rosary,  Spain  -  -  -     - 

Round  Table,  England — See  Knights 

of  the  Romid  Table    - 
St.  Andrew,  Russia  (tradition  ascribes 

to  this  saint  the  introduction  of  Chris 

tianity  into  Muscovy) 
St.   Andrew,  Scotland,  809 ;   renewed 

14.52 ;  and  again  by  James  VI. 
St.  Anihnny,  Ethiopia  r 


1685 

1429 
1785 
1370 
1559 
1816 
1559 
1198 
1211 
1092 
1738 
1048 
1206 

1610 
1351 
1400 

1802 
1403 
1048 
1587 
1531 
1319 
1792 
1430 

17S5 
1740 
1704 
722 
1382 
1.559 
1393 
1792 
1212 
1172 

528 


-  1698 


1605 
357 


386 


THE   world's    progress. 


[kni 


KNIGHTHOOD  in  EUROPE,  continued. 

■  1382 

-     -  1250 

- 1163 

■     - 1698 
-  1267 


St.  Anthony,  Hainault    - 
St.  Blaze,  Aeon 
St.  Catharine,  Palestine  - 
St.  Catharine,  Russia 
St.  Denis,  France 


St.  George,  Austria  -  -  -      -  1470 

St.  George,  Carinthia     -  -  •  1279 

St.  George,  Defender  of  the  Immacu- 
late Conception,  Bavaria  -     •  1729 
St.  George,  England;  instituted  by  Ed- 
ward 111.    See  Garter           -  -  1349 
St.  George;  tutelary  saint  of  Genoa,  by 

Frederick  III.         -  -  -'     -1460 

St.  George,  Rome  -  -  -  1496 

St.  George,  Russia    -  -  -     -  1782 

St.  George,  Spain  -  •  - 1318 

St.  George,  Venice    -  -  -     - 1200 

St.  Hubert,  Germany,  by  the  duke  of 

Juliers  and  Cleves      -  -  -  1447 

St.  James,  Holland    -  •  -     -  1290 

St.  James,  Portugal        -  -  -  1310 

St.  James,  Spain       -  •  -     -  1030 

St.  Jerome,  Germany     -  -  -11.54 

St.  John  of  Aeon       -  -  -     -1370 

St.  John  of  Jerusalem     -  -  -1048 

St.  John  of  Malta       -  -  -     -  1522 

St.  John  of  Rhodes  -  •  -  1300 

St.  Julian,  of  Alcantara       -  -     -  1176 

St.  Lazarus,  and  St.  Maurice,  by  Eman- 
uel Philibert,  duke  of  Savoy  -  -1572 
St.  Louis,  France  -  -  -  -  1693 
St.  Mark,  Venice,  830 ;  renewed  •  1562 
St.  Mary  the  Glorious  -  -  -  1233 
St.  Mary  de  Merced,  Spain  •■  -  1218 
St.  Michael,  France  -           -           -     -  1469 


St.  Michael,  Germanj    - 

St.  Patrick,  Ireland  - 

St.  Paul,  Rome    - 

St.  Peter,  Rome 

St.  Rupert,  Germany,  by  ths  archbish- 
op ol  Saltzburgh 

St.  Sepulchre,  Palestine 

St.  Stephen,  by  Casimir  de  Medicis, 
grand-duke  of  Tuscany 

St.  Thomas  of  Aeon  • 

Saviour,  Greece  -  -  June  1 

Seraphiuis,  Sweden  -  -  - 

Ship  and  C  re -cent,  France 

Sincerity,  instituted  by  the  elector  of 
Saxony       -  -  .  . 

Slaves  of  Virtue,  Germany 

Swan,  Cleves 

Sword,  Cyprus    - 

Sword,  Sweden,  1523 ;  revived 

Templars. — See  Templars- 

Teste  Morte,  Wurtemburg  - 

Teutonic,  1190 ;  renewed  in  Prussia 

Thistle  of  Bourbon 

Thistle  of  Scotland,  812 ;  revived  - 

Trinitarians,  Spain 

Truxillo,  Spain 

United  Ladies  for  the  honor  of  tiie 
Cross,  in  Germany 

Virgin  Mary  - 

Virgin  of  Mount  Carmel,  France 

Warfare  of  Christ,  Poland  - 

Warfare  of  Christ,  Russia 

Wing  of  St.  Michael,  Portugal 

Wladimir,  Russia 


1613 
1783 
1540 
1520 

1701 
1092 

1561 
1370 
1833 
1334 
1269 

1690 
1662 
960 
1195 
1772 
1118 
1652 
1522 
1370 
1540 
1594 
1227 

1666 
1233 
1607 
1705 
1325 
1165 
1682 


KNIGHTS,  Female.  The  title  of  knight,  which  was  given  to  men  of  superior 
worth,  ability,  and  fortune,  in  former  times,  was  sometimes  given  to  women 
also.  As  an  instance,  it  was  conferred  on  the  women  who  preserved  the 
city  of  Tortosa  from  falling  into  the  hands  of  the  Moors  in  1149,  by  their 
stout  resistance  and  vigorous  attack  of  the  besiegers,  by  which  means  the 
Moors  were  forced  to  raise  the  siege.  Large  immunities  and  favors  were 
granted  to  them  and  their  descendants  for  their  heroism  on  this  occasion. 

KNIGHTS  OF  THE  ROUND  TABLE.  Instituted  by  king  Arthur,  about  a.  d. 
528. — Asset's  Life  of  Alfred.  This  ancient  order  was  revived  by  Edward 
III.  at  Windsor,"  upon  New  Year's  day,  1344.  The  king,  with  a  view  to  the 
recovery  of  France,  which  descended  to  him  in  right  of  his  mother,  became 
anxious  to  draw  the  best  soldiers  of  Europe  into  his  interest,  and  thereupon 
projecting  and  setting  up  king  Arthur's  Round  Table,  he  proclaimed  a 
solemn  tilting,  to  invite  foreigners  of  quality  and  courage  to  the  exercise. 
He  published  his  royal  letters  of  protection,  for  the  safe  coming  and  return 
of  such  foreign  knights  as  had  a  mind  to  venture  their  reputation  at  those 
jousts  and  tournaments. — Beatson. 

KNIGHTS  OF  THii;  SHIRE.  Tiie  barons,  or  tenants  in  chief,  or  freeholders  by 
Doomsday-book,  were  700  in  mimber,  but  being  split  into  small  parts,  wer(! 
greater  and  lesser,  all  of  whom  were  entitled  to  sit  in  parliament ;  but  tht; 
fatter,  or  lesser  barons,  were  allowed  to  choose  two  representatives,  hence 
called  knights  of  the  shire,  a.  d.  1307. 

KNIGHTS  TEMPLARS.  A  religious  and  military  order,  instituted  a.  d.  1118. 
They  came  to  England  early  in  Stephen's  reign,  and  settled  at  the  Temple 
in  London ;  and  at  other  places  in  the  reign  of  Henry  II.  All  the  knights 
were  arrested  in  France  in  one  day,  being  charged  with  great  crimes,  and 
possessing  great  riches  ;  fifty-nine  of  them  were  burnt  alive  at  Paris  in  Oct., 


LAB  "I  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  38» 

1307.  Those  ia  England  were  all  seized  the  same  j'^ear.  Their  order  was 
abolished  by  Philip  the  Fair  of  France,  at  the  council  of  Vienne,  in  1312 ; 
and  many  thousands  were  subsequently  massacred,  their  wealth  being  given 
to  the  knights  of  Malta.     See  Malta. 

KNIVES.  First  made  in  England  in  1563.  They  were  the  earliest  branch  of 
cutlerj"-,  and  were  first  manufactured  by  one  Mathews,  of  Fleet-Bridge,  Lon- 
don, 5th  Eliz.,  1563. — Chamberlain's  England,  edit.  1683.     See  Forks. 

KORAN,  OR  ALKORAN  of  MAHOMET,  written  about  a.  d.  610.  Its  general 
aim  was,  to  unite  the  professions  of  Idolatry  and  the  Jews  and  Christians  in 
the  worship  of  one  God  (whose  unity  was  the  chief  point  inculcated),  under 
certain  laws  and  ceremonies,  exacting  obedience  to  Mahomet  as  the  pro- 
phet. It  was  written  in  the  Koreish  Arabic,  and  this  language,  which  cer- 
tainly possessed  every  fine  quality,  was  said  to  be  that  of  paradise.  Maho- 
met  asserted  that  the  Koran  was  revealed  to  iim,  during  a  period  of  twenty- 
three  years,  by  the  angel  Gabriel.  The  style  of  this  volume  is  beautiful, 
fluent,  and  concise,  and  %vhere  the  majesty  and  attributes  of  God  are  de- 
scribed, it  is  sublime  and  magnificent.  Mahomet  admitted  the  divine  mis- 
sion both  of  Moses  and  Jesus  Christ. — Dr.  Jortin.  The  leading  artkjle  of 
faith  which  this  impostor  preached,  is  compounded  of  an  eternal  truth,  and 
a  necessary  fiction,  namely,  that  there  is  only  one  God,  and  that  Mahomet 
is  the  apostle  of  God. —  Gibbon.  The  Koran  was  translated  into  Latin  in 
1143  ;  and  into  English  and  other  European  languages  about  1763,  et  seq. 
It  is  a  rhapsody  of  3000  verses,  divided  into  114  sections.  See  Alcoran; 
Islamisni;  Mecca;  Makometism,  <^c. 

L. 

LA  HOGUE,  Battle  of,  between  the  English  and  Dutch  combined  fleets,  under 
admirals  Russel  and  Rooke,  and  the  French  fleet  commanded  bj'  admiral 
Tourville.  The  English  attacked  the  French  near  La  Hogue,  gaining  a 
splendid  victory,  burning  thirteen  of  the  enemy's  ships,  destroying  eight 
more,  forcing  the  rest  to  fly,  and  thus  pi'eventing  a  threatened  descent  upon 
England,  May  19,  1692. 

LA  PEROUSE'S  VOYAGE.  It  was  commenced  in  1785,  when  Perouse  sailed 
from  France  for  the  Pacific,  with  the  Boussole  and  Astrolabe  under  his  com- 
mand. The  last  direct  intelligence  received  from  him  was  from  Botany  Bay, 
in  March  1788.  Several  expeditions  were  subsequently  dispatched  in  search 
of  Perouse,  but  no  certain  information  was  had  until  captain  Dillon,  of  the 
East  India  ship  Research,  ascertained  that  the  French  ships  had  been  cast 
a.way  on  two  diiFerent  islands  of  the  New  Hebrides — a  fate  authenticated  by 
various  articles  of  the  wreck  of  these  vessels,  which  capt.  Dillon  brought 
with  him  to  Calcutta,  April  9,  1828,  40  years  afterwards. 

LA  VENDEE,  War  of.  The  French  Royalists  here  took  to  arms,  and  were 
successful  in  a  number  of  battles  with  the  Republican  armies,  fought  be- 
tween July  12,  1793,  and  January  1,  1794,  when  they  experienced  a  severe 
reverse.  Numerous  other  engagements  were  fought,  with  various  success, 
until  this  war  terminated,  Jan.  10,  1800. 

LABYRINTH.  Thei-e  were  four  most  famous  in  history :  the  first  was  built  by 
Dtedalus,  in  the  island  of  Crete,  to  secure  the  Minotaur,  about  1210  b.  c.  ; 
the  second  in  Egypt  in  the  isle  of  Moeris,  by  Psammeticus,  king  of  that 
place,  683  b.  c.  ;  and  the  fourth  in  Italy,  erected  by  Porsenna,  king  of  the 
Hetruriffi,  about  520  b.  c. — Pliny.  The  beauty  and  art  of  the  labyrinth  of 
Egypt  were  almost  beyond  belief;  it  had  12  halls  and  3000  chambers,  with 
pillars,  was  encrusted  with  marble,  and  adorned  with  sculpture. — Herodotus. 
The  labvrintli  of  Woodstock  i.s  famou.s  from  its  connection  with  the  storv  of 


388  THE   world's   progress.  [  LAM 

Fair  Rosamond,  mistress  of  Hemy  11. ;  there  is  a  ciirious  Maze  at  Hampton 
Court  that  is  much  visited. 
LACE.  Mention  is  made  of  it  as  being  of  very  delicate  texture  in  France  and 
Flanders  in  1320 ;  and  line  laces  were  much  in  use  for  ruffles  and  frills  for 
the  men,  and  headdresses  for  the  women,  in  the  fifteenth  century.  Lace 
was  general  in  the  court  costume  of  Elizabeth's  reign.  Dresden,  Valencien- 
nes, Mechlin,  and  Brussels,  have  long  been  famous  for  their  fine  lace.  An 
ounce  weight  of  Flanders  thread  has  been  frequently  sold  for  four  pounds 
in  London,  and  its  value  when  manufactured  has  been  increased  to  forty 
pounds,  ten  times  the  price  of  standard  gold. 

LACED^MON.  See  Sparta.  Lelez  begins  the  kingdom  of  Lelegia,  in  Laco- 
nia,  1516  b.  c.  Eurotas  gives  his  daughter  Sparta  in  marriage  to  Laced^^ 
mon,  and  makes  him  partner  on  the  throne,  1490  b.  c.  The  city  of  Sparta 
was  built  about  this  time,  and  hence  the  name  by  which  the  country  is  most 
known.  The  Lacedsemon  republic  became  famous  in  history  after  700  b.  c. 
particularly  by  the  conquest  of  Athens.  It  was  made  a  Roman  province  71 
B.  c.    The  territory  now  belongs  to  the  Turks. —  Thucydides ;  Priestley. 

LADIES.  The  mistresses  of  manor-houses,  in  former  times,  served  out  to  the 
poor  weekly  Avith  their  own  hands  certain  quantities  of  bread,  and  were 
therefore  called  Lef-days — two  Saxon  words  signifying  bread-giver,  and  the 
words  were  at  length  corrupted,  and  the  mistress  is  called  to  this  day  Lady, 
that  is,  Lff-day.  The  introduction  of  ladies  to  court,  was  first  to  that  of 
Louis  XII.  of  France  in  1499.  As  a  title  of  honor,  the  title  of  lady  properlj'' 
belongs  only  to  the  daugliters  of  earls,  and  all  of  higher  rank ;  but  custom 
has  made  it  a  term  of  complaisance  for  the  wives  of  knights,  and  all  women 
of  eminence  or  gentility.     See  Lord. 

LADRONE  ISLES.  Discovered  by  Magellan,  in  1520 ;  they  are  eleven  in  num- 
ber ;  at  the  island  of  Guam  he  first  touched.  Here,  some  of  the  natives 
having  stolen  some  of  his  goods,  and  showing  a  great  disposition  to  theft, 
he  named  the  islands  the  Ladrones,  or  Islands  of  Thieves,  which  they  are 
called  to  this  day. 

LADY  DAY.  This  festival,  the  25th  March,  was  instituted  about  a.  d.  350, 
according  to  some  authorities,  and  not  before  the  sevehth  century  accord- 
ing to  others.  On  this  day,  the  25th  of  March,  the  angel  Gabriel  brought 
to  the  Virgin  Mary  the  message  concerning  her  son  Jesus  ;  hence  it  is  called 
the  Annunciation,  and  is  celebrated  in  the  Catholic  church  as  one  of  its 
chief  feasts ;  and  in  the  Reformed  church  also,  on  account  of  the  con- 
nection between  the  circumstance  commemorated  and  the  Incarnation.  In 
England,  before  the  alteration  of  the  style,  the  new  year  began  on  the  25th 
of  March. 

LA  FAYETTE'S  first  visit  to  the  United  States,  to  aid  the  cause  of  American 
independence  ;  he  arrived  at  Charleston,  April  25,  1777,  being  then  nineteen 
years  old.  He  raiied  a  corps  at  his  own  expense  ;  was  wounded  at  Brandy- 
wine  ;  employed  in  Rhode  Island,  1778 ;  visited  France,  promoting  new  re- 
inforcements for  the  United  States,  and  returned  1779.  His  triumphal 
reception  in  the  United  States  on  a  visit  of  pleasure,  Aug.  13,  1824 ;  re- 
ceived from  Congress  the  sum  of  $200,000  and  a  township  of  land  in  reward 
for  his  sei'vices ;  returned  to  France  in  the  frigate  Brandywine,  September 
7,  1825. 

LAMPS.  See  Lanterns.  Lamps  are  mentioned  in  all  the  early  ages ;  they 
were  in  use  in  Egypt,  Greece,  and  Rome.  The  earthen  lamp  which  Epic- 
tetus  the  philosopher  had  in  his  study  sold,  after  his  death,  for  3000 
drachmas,  a.  d.  161.  Lamps  with  horn  sides  were  the  invention  of  Alfred. 
Lamps  were  in  general  use  through  the  streets  of  London  up  to  the  close 


LAN  ]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  389 

of  the  18tli  century,  as  were  flambeaux  which  were  carried  by  link-boys. 
London  streets  were  first  lighted  by  oil-lamps  in  1681 ;  and  with  gas  lamps 
in  1814.  The  domestic  lamp  is  now  of  elegant  manufacture  ;  of  this  kind 
is  the  Argaud  lamp,  brought  into  general  use  in  England  in  1785,  et  seq. 
See  Safely  Lamp. 

LANCASTERIAN  SCHOOLS.  On  a  system  of  education  by  means  of  mutual 
instruction,  propagated  by  Joseph  Lancaster  and  Dr.  Bell ;  they  were  not 
much  patronized  till  about  1808,  when  Lancaster's  system  attracted  general 
attention,  notwithstanding  the  prejudices  that  existed  against  the  founder, 
who  had  been  laboring  to  introduce  schools  upon  his  economic  plan  from 
1798.  They  became  general  in  1818,  and  there  are  now  some  hundreds  of 
them  in  England,  and  in  London  more  than  forty.  They  were  founded  in 
Senegal,  and  were  extensively  instituted  in  Russia,  in  1819. 

LAND.  "Was  let  generally  in  England  for  Is.  per  acre,  36  Hemy  VIII.  1544. 
The  whole  rental  of  the  kingdom  was  about  6,000,OOOZ.  in  1600.  It  was 
about  14,000,000Z.  in  1688.  In  1798  Mr.  Pitt  proposed  his  Income  Tax  of 
10  per  cent,  on  an  estimate  of  100  millions,  taking  the  rent  of  land  at  50 
millions,  the  rent  of  houses  at  10  millions,  and  the  profits  of  trade  at  4Q 
millions ;  but  in  this  estimate  v/ere  exempted  much  land  and  the  inferior 
class  of  houses.  See  Incmne  Tax.  The  rental  of  the  United  Kingdom  has 
been  recently  estimated  in  parliament  at  127  millions,  but  authorities  vary 
much  on  the  amount.     See  Public  Lands,  U.  S. 

LANDGRAVE.  This  is  from  land,  and  grave  a  count,  a  German  title  of  do- 
minion, which  appears  to  have  commenced  in  the  eleventh  century  ;  it  be- 
came the  title  of  the  house  of  Hesse  Cassel,  about  the  year  1300 ;  and  the 
rank  was  subsequently  assumed  by  the  branches  of  Hesse  Homburg,  Hesse 
Philipstal,  Hesse  Darmstadt,  &c.     See  Hesse. 

LANGSIDE,  Battle  op  ;  between  the  forces  of  the  regent  of  Scotland,  the 
earl  of  Murraj^,  and  the  army  of  Mai-y  queen  of  Scots,  in  which  the  latter 
suffered  a  complete  defeat.  May  15,  1568.  Immediatelj^  after  this  last  fatal 
battle,  the  unfortunate  Mai-y  fled  to  England,  and  landed  at  Workington,  in 
Cumberland,  on  May  16;  and  was  soon  afterwards  imprisoned  by  Elizabeth. 

LANGUAGE.  Language  must  either  have  been  revealed  originally  from  hea- 
ven, or  it  is  the  fruit  of  human  invention.  The  latter  opinion  is  embraced  by 
Horace,  Lucretius,  Cicero,  and  most  of  the  Greek  and  Roman  writers ;  the 
former  opinion  by  the  gi-eat  majority  of  the  Jews  and  Christians,and  the  pro- 
foundest  philosophers  of  France  and  England.  It  has  been  affirmed  that 
Hebrew  was  the  language  spoken  by  Adam :  but  others  deny  this,  and  say  that 
the  Hebrew,  Chaldee,  and  Arabic,  are  only  dialects  of  the  original,  which  has 
for  many  ages  been  lost  and  unknown.  Psammeticus  the  Powerful,  desiring 
to  know  the  most  ancient  people  and  language  on  the  earth,  caused  two 
children  to  be  kept  from  all  knowledge  of  the  use  of  speech,  until  they 
were  tAvo  years  old  :  they  were  then  brought  into  his  presence,  and  they 
both  pronounced  the  sound  b'eccos,  the  Phoenician  term  for  bread.  He  there- 
fore gave  the  Phoenician  the  precedence,  in  point  of  antiquity,  to  all  other 
nations,  647  b.  c. — Herodohcs,  Pohjan.,  Slrabo. 

LANGUAGES.  Of  the  Hebrew,  the  Chaldee  and  Syriac  are  dialects.  The 
original  European  ones  are  thirteen,  viz :  Greek,  Latin,  Dutch,  Sclavonian, 
spoken  in  the  east ;  Welsh,  Biscayan,  spoken  in  Spain  ;  Irish,  Albanian,  in 
the  mountains  of  Epirus,  Tartarian,  the  old  Illyrian,  the  Jazj^gian,  remain- 
ing yet  in  Liburnia;  the  Chaucin,  in  the  north  of  Hungary;  and  the  Finnic, 
in  East  Friesland.  Arabic  is  the  mother  tongue  of  Africa.  From  the  Latin 
sprung  the  Italian,  French  and  Spanish;  and  from  the  Spanish  the  Portu- 
guese. The  Turkish  is  a  mixed  dialect  of  the  Tartarian.  From  the  High 
,   Dutch,  or  Teutonic,  sprang  the  Danish,  Swedish,  Norwegian,  English,  Scotch, 


390  THE    world's    PUOGR.ESS.  [  laT 

&c.  There  are  3664  known  languages  now  used  in  the  world.  Of  these, 
937  are  Asiatic ;  587  European ;  276  African;  and  1624  American  languages 
and  dialects. — Professor  Adelimg. 

LANTERNS.  In  general  use  from  a  very  early  date.  Those  of  scraped  horn 
were  invented  in  England,  it  is  said  by  Alfred,  and  it  is  supposed  that  horn 
was  used  for  window-lights  also,  as  glass  was  not  known  in  Alfred's  reign, 
A.  D.  872-901. — Stowc's  Chron.  London  was  lighted  by  suspended  lanterns, 
with  glass  sides,  a.  d.  1415.  The  pellucid  laminae  of  the  ox  horn  has  served 
for  ages  for  the  sides  of  lanterns  instead  of  glass,  and  for  many  uses  aro 
preferred.    See  article.  Lamps. 

LAOCOON.  This  exquisite  work  of  art,  executed  in  marble,  is  universally 
allowed  to  be  the  triumph  of  Grecian  sculpture.  It  was  modelled  by  Ages- 
ander,  Athenodorus,  and  Polydorus.  all  of  Rhodes,  and  of  great  eminenco 
as  statuaries ;  and  in  all  ages,  and  by  all  nations,  this  beautiful  group  is 
allowed  to  be  the  greatest  victory  of  art  that  has  ever  been  achieved  by 
human  hands. 

LATERAN,  COUNCILS  or  the.  They  were  held  in  the  Basilica  of  the  La- 
teran,  at  Rome.  Of  these,  councils  there  were  five :  by  the  first,  the  right 
of  investitures  was  settled  between  pope  Calixtus  II.  and  the  emperor  Henry 
v.,  1122  ;  by  the  second  council  was  secured  the  temporalities  of  ecclesias- 
tics, 1189 ;  the  third  was  to  denounce  schismatics,  1179 ;  the  fourth  on 
church  affairs,  attended  by  400  bishops  and  1000  abbots  ;  and  the  fifth  was 
the  famous  council  of  Julius  II.,  1512. 

liATHE,  for  turning  ivory,  wood,  iron,  and  other  substances,  so  as  to  shape 
them  to  the  views  of  the  artist,  was  originally  an  instrument  of  rude 
construction,  invented  by  Talus,  a  grandson  of  Daedalus,  about  1240  b.  c. 
Pliny  ascribes  the  invention  to  Theodore  of  Samos.  Modern  lathe  engines 
frequently  cost  thousands  of  pounds. 

LATIN  LANGUAGE.  One  of  the  thirteen  original  languages  of  Europe,  and 
from  which  sprang  the  Italian,  French,  and  Spanish.  It  is  named  after  the 
Latini,  and  the  Latini  from  Latinus,  their  king.  A  vast  portion  of  our  most 
beautiful  and  expressive  words  are  derived  from  the  Latin.  It  ceased  to  be 
spoken  in  Italy,  about  a.  d.  681 ;  and  was  first  taught  in  England  by  Adel- 
mus,  brother  of  Ina,  in  the  seventh  century.  During  six  or  seven  hundred 
years  the  Latin  tongue  prevailed  in  all  public  proceedings  from  the  Tweed 
to  the  Euphrates,  and  from  the  Danube  to  Mount  Atlas,  and  has  been  more 
or  less  retained  even  to  this  day.  In  England  it  was  ordered  to  be  discon- 
tinued in  conveyancing,  and  in  courts  of  law,  in  1731. 

LATITUDE.  First  determined  by  Hipparchus  of  Nice,  about  170  b.  c.  It  is 
the  extent  of  the  earth,  or  of  the  heavens,  reckoned  from  the  equator  to 
either  pole.  Maupertuis,  in  latitude  66.20,  measured  a  degree  of  latitude, 
and  made  it  69.493 ;  he  measured  it  in  1737.  Swanberg,  in  1803,  made  it 
69.292.  At  the  equator,  in  1744,  four  astronomers  made  it  68.732 ;  and 
Lambton,  in  latitude  12,  made  it  68.743.  Mudge,  in  England,  made  it 
69.148.  Cassini,  in  France,  in  1718  and  1740,  made  it  69.12 ;  and  Biot, 
68.769 ;  while  a  recent  measure  in  Spain  makes  it  but  68.63 — less  than  at 
the  equator  ;  and  contradicts  all  the  others,  proving  the  earth  to  be  a  pro- 
late spheroid,  which  was  the  opinion  of  Cassini,  Bernouilli,  Euler,  and 
others,  while  it  has  more  generally  been  regarded  as  an  oblate  spheroid. 

LATIUM.  Now  the  city  of  Romania  ;  built  by  Latinus,  king  of  Janiculum, 
who  gave  his  name  to  the  country,  calling  his  subjects  Latines,  904  b.  c. 
Laurentum  was  the  capital  of  the  country  in  the  reign  of  Latinus,  Lavinium 
under  -^Zneas,  and  Alba  under  Ascanius.  The  Latins,  though  originally 
known  only  among  their  neighbors,  soon  rose  in  rank  when  Romulus  had 
founded  the  city  of  Rome  in  their  country. 


LAW  J  DICTIONARY    OP   DATES.  39. 

LATTER-DAY  SAINTS.  A  new  sect,  whose  principles  are  variously  repre- 
sented. By  some  we  are  told  that  their  tenets  do  not  vary  much  from  those 
•of  the  Church  of  England,  the  Scriptures,  without  mysticism,  being  the 
foundation  of  them.  By  others  it  is  said  that  they  assume  the  power  of 
curing  the  sick,  resisting  the  operations  of  the  deadliest  poisons,  and  work- 
ing miracles  of  several  kinds  ;  and  maintain  that  this  is  the  last  generation 
of  men.  They  have  appeared  in  Hertfordshire,  Lancashire,  and  Yorkshire ; 
and  an  address  was  published  by  them  at  Manchester,  in  May,  1840.  Great 
numbers  of  these  fanatics  have  lately  emigrated  to  the  United  States. 

LAWS.  ANCIENT.  The  laws  of  Phoroneus,  in  the  kingdom  of  Argos,  1807 
B.  c,  were  the  first  Attic  laws,  reduced  to  a  system  by  Draco,  for  the  Athe- 
nians, 623  B.  c. ;  but  the  latter  code  was  afterwards  superseded  by  that  of 
Solon,  578  b.  c.  The  Spartan  laws  of  Lycurgus  were  made  884  b.  c.  ;  they 
remained  in  full  force  for  700  years,  and  are  calculated  to  raise  our  admira- 
tion, as  well  by  their  singularity,  as  by  the  eftect  they  had  in  forming  a  race 
of  men  totally  different  from  all  others  living  in  civilized  society.  The  Roman 
laws  were  founded  on  those  of  Phoroneus.  The  Gregorian  and  Hermogin'an 
codes  were  published  in  a.  d.  290.  The  Theodosian  code  in  435.  The  Jus- 
tinian code,  in  529,  and  the  digest,  in  533. — Blair.    See  Civil  Law. 

LAWS,  BRITISH.  The  British  laws  of  earliest  date  were  translated  into  the 
Saxon,  in  a.  d.  590.  The  Saxon  laws  of  Ina  were  published  in  709.  Alfred's 
code  of  laws,  which  is  the  foundation  of  the  common  law  of  England,  was 
compiled  in  887,  but  in  use  previously.  Edward  the  Confessor  promulgated 
his  laws,  in  1065.  Stephen's  charter  of  genei-al  liberties,  1136;  Henry  II. 's 
confirmation  of  it,  1154  and  1175.  The  maritime  laws  of  Richard  I.,  1194. 
See  article  Oleron.  Magna  Charta,  by  king  John,  1215.  Its  confirmation 
by  Henry  III.,  1216,  ei  scq.  See  Magna  Charta  and  Forests,  Charter  of  the. 
Celebrated  declaration  made  by  the  lord  chief  justice  of  the  King's  Bench, 
"That  no  fiction  of  law  shall  ever  so  far  prevail  against  the  real  truth  of  the' 
fact  as  to  prevent  the  execution  of  justice,"  May  21, 1784. — Lord  Mansfield. 

LAW'S  BUBBLE.  The  most  ruinous  speculation  of  modern  times.  The  pro- 
jector, John  Law,  of  Edinburgh,  raised  himself  to  the  dignity  of  comptroller- 
general  of  the  finances  of  France,  upon  the  strength  of  a  scheme  for  esta- 
blishing a  bank,  an  East  India,  and  a  Mississippi  company,  by  the  profits  of 
which  the  national  debt  of  France  was  to  be  paid  off".  He  first  offered  his 
plan  to  Victor  Amadeus,  king  of  Sardinia,  who  told  him  he  was  not  powerful 
enough  to  ruin  himself  The  French  ministry  accepted  it  in  1710 ;  and  in 
1716,  he  opened  a  bank  in  his  own  name,  under  the  protection  of  the  duke 
of  Orleans,  regent  of  France ;  and  most  of  the  people  of  property  of  every 
rank  in  that  kingdom,  seduced  by  the  i)rospect  of  immense  gains,  subscribed 
both  in  the  bank  and  the  companies.  In  1718  Law's  was  declared  a  Royal 
bank,  and  the  shares  rose  to  upwards  of  twenty-fold  the  original  value,  so 
that  in  1719,  they  were  worth  more  than  eighty  times  the  amount  of  all  the 
current  specie  in  France.  But  the  following  year  this  great  fabric  of  false 
credit  fell  to  the  ground,  and  almost  overthrew  the  French  government, 
ruining  tens  of  thousands  of  families.  It  is  remarkable  that  the  same  des- 
perate game  Avas  played  by  the  South  Sea  directors  in  England,  in  the  same 
fatal  year,  1720. — Hist,  of  France,  Nouv.  Diet. 

liAWYERS.  The  pleaders  of  the  bar,  called  barristers,  are  said  to  have  been 
first  appointed  by  Edward  I.  or  in  his  reign,  1291.  Serjeants,  the  highest- 
members  of  the  bar,  are  alone  permitted  to  plead  in  the  court  of  Common 
Pleas.  The  first  king's  counsel  luxler  the  degree  of  serjeant  was  sir  Francis 
Bacon,  in  1604.  There  are  about  1200  barristers  in  England:  and  the  num- 
ber of  lawyers  in  England  and  Wales,  counting  London  and  country  attor- 
neys, solicitors,  &c.,  is  about  14,000.  A  list  of  19,527  practising  lawyers  in 
the  United  States,  was  published  in  NcAv-York,  1850. 


392  THE  world's  puogkess.  [lea 

LEAD.  Is  found  in  various  countries,  and  is  abundant  in  various  i^arts  of  Bri- 
tain, and  in  some  places  richlj^  mixed  with  silver  ore.  The  famous  Clydes- 
dale mines  were  discovered  in  1513.  The  lead  mines  of  Cumberland  lind 
Derbyshire  yield  about  15.000  tons  per  annum.  The  finest  sort  of  black  lead, 
that  most  fit  for  pencils,  is  produced  only  at  Borrowdale,  but  there  in  great 
quantities.  Leaden  pipes  for  the  convevance  of  water  were  brought  into  use 
in  1236. 

LEAGUES,  POLITICAL  and  RELIGIOUS.  The  League  of  the  Public  Good, 
was  one  between  the  dukes  of  Burgundy,  Brittany,  and  Bourbon,  and  other 
princes  against  Louis  XI.  of  France,  in  1464.  The  League  of  Cambray  was 
entered  into  in  1508.  The  Holy  League  against  Louis  XII.,  1510.  The 
League  of  Smalcald,  1529.  The  League  of  the  Beggars  (the  Protestants  so 
called,  though  Catholics  joined  the  league)  to  oppose  the  institution  of  the 
Inquisition  in  Flanders,  1560.  The  League,  so  denominated  by  way  of  emi- 
nence, to  prevent  the  accession  of  Henry  IV.  of  France,  Avho  was  then  of  the 
reformed  religion,  was  commenced  in  1576.  The  League  of  Wurtzburg, 
1610.  League  against  the  emperor,  1626.  Solemn  League  and  Covenant  in 
Scotland,  against  the  episcopal  government  of  the  church,  and  the  regal 
authority,  13  Charles  I.,  1638.    League  of  Augsburg,  1686. 

LEAP-YEAR,  or  BISSEXTILE.  The  Leap-year  originated  with  the  astrono- 
mers of  Julius  Cffisar,  45  b.  c.  They  fixed  the  solar  year  at  365  days  6  hours, 
comprising,  as  they  thought,  the  period  from  one  vernal  equinox  to  another ; 
the  six  hours  were  set  aside,  and  at  the  end  of  four  years,  forming  a  day,  the 
fourth  j'ear  was  made  to  consist  of  366  days.  The  day  thus  added  was 
called  intercalary,  and  was  added  to  February.  See  Bissextile.  This  almost 
perfect  arrangement  was  denominated  the  Julian  style,  and  prevailed  through- 
out the  Christian  world  till  the  time  of  pope  Gregory  XIIL,  in  1582,  when 
the  calendar  was  altered  to  its  present  state.  See  Calendar.  The  difference 
between  365  days  6  hours,  and  365  days  5  hours,  48  minutes,  51  seconds, 
and  6  decimals,  which  last  is  the  true  length  of  the  astronomical  year,  in 
the  course  of  years  caused  1700  and  1808  not  to  be  leap-years,  nor  will  1900 
be  a  leap-year;  but  the  year  2000  will  be  one.  See  Julian  Year.,  Gregorian 
CaleJidar,  (^-c. 

LEARNING  and  the  ARTS.  These  were  carried  to  their  height  among  the 
Greeks  during  the  fourth  century  b.  c.  ;  and  with  the  Romans  with  the  com- 
mencement of  the  Christian  era.  On  the  death  of  Augustus  they  declined 
until  the  refugees  from  Greece  caused  them  to  revive  in  Itaty,  about  a.  d. 
1250.  Learning  had  been  found  so  to  obstruct  the  tyranny  of  the  emperors, 
that  mathematicians  and  philosophers  were,  by  several  decrees,  banished  from 
Rome,  A.  D.  16,  and  89,  et  scq.  After  the  dark  ages,  came  Brunetto,  Latini, 
and  numerous  enlightened  men;  and  Leo  X.,  about  1513,  gave  vast  encou- 
ragement to  literature  and  the  arts. 

The  illustrisus  Medici  family  greatly  promoted  learning  in  Italy,  about  1550. 
— Fontana.  And  about  this  time  literature  began  to  flourish  in  France, 
Germany,  and  England.  The  reign  of  Anne  has  been  called  by  some  the 
"golden,"  by  others,  the  "Augustan age "  of  English hterature. 

LEATHER.  It  was  very  early  known  in  Egypt  and  Greece,  and  the  thongs  of 
manufactured  hides  were  used  for  ropes,  harness,  &c.,  by  all  ancient  nations. 
The  Gordian  knot  was  made  of  leather  thongs,  330  b.  c.  The  ancients  un- 
derstood the  art  of  tanning  leather,  and  it  was  practised  early  in  England, 
and  great  improvements  made  in  it  up  to  1795.  Leather  is  converted  into 
many  uses:  a  leathern  cannon  was  proved  at  Edinburgh,  fired  three  times, 
and  foimd  to  answer,  Oct.  23,  1788. — Phillips.  The  duty  on  leather  produced 
annually  in  England,  450,000Z.,  and  in  Ireland,  about  50,OOOZ.  It  was  abohsh- 
ed  in  both  countries.  May  29,  1830. 


LEP  j  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  393 

LEGHORN.  Livorno.  This  city  suffered  dreadfully  by  an  earthquake  in  1741, 
It  was  entered  by  the  French  army  in  the  revolutionary  war,  July  17,  1796, 
but  the  immense  amount  of  British  property  then  there  had  been  previously 
removed.  Leghorn  was  evacuated  by  the  French  in  1799,  and  was  retaken 
the  following  year.  It  was  unsuccessfully  attacked  by  the  British  and  Ital- 
ian allied  forces,  in  Dec.  1813. 

r^EGION.  The  Legio  was  a  corps  of  soldiers  in  the  Roman  armies,  and  was  first 
formed  by  Romulus,  under  whom  it  consisted  of  3000  foot  and  300  horse, 
about  750  b.  c.  When  Hannibal  was  in  Italy,  216  b.  c,  the  legion  consisted 
of  5000  soldiers ;  and  under  Marius,  in  88  b.  c.  it  was  6200  soldiers,  besides 
700  horse.  There  were  ten  and  sometimes  as  many  as  eighteen  legions  kept 
at  Rome.  Augustus  maintained  a  standing  army  of  twenty-five  legions, 
about  5  B.  c;  and  the  peace-establishment  of  Adrian  W3S  thirty  of  these 
formidable  brigades.  The  peace  of  Britain  was  protected  by  three  legions, 
A  legion  was  divided  into  10  cohorts,  and  every  cohort  into  6  centuries,  with 
a  vexillum,  or  standard  guarded  by  10  men. 

LEGION  OP  HONOR.  A  military  order  in  France,  embracing  all  distinctions 
in  the  army,  and  including  in  its  incorporation  civil  officers,  and  all  such 
individuals  as  have  eminently  distinguished  themselves  for  services  to  the 
state,  military  deeds,  and  for  public  virtue ;  instituted  by  Napoleon  Bona- 
parte, when  first  consul.  May  18,  1802.  On  the  restoration  of  the  Bourbon 
family,  Louis  XVIII.  confirmed  this  order,  April  1814. 

LEIPSIC.  Famous  for  its  university  and  its  fair.  Here  Gustavus  Adolphus, 
king  of  Sweden,  defeated  the  Imperialists,  Sept.  7, 1631.  The  siege  of  Leip- 
sic  was  sustained  in  1637.  Leipsic  was  taken  lay  the  Prussian  army,  1756.  In 
the  same  year,  the  Austrians  laid  siege  to  Liepsic  in  vain,  but  they  took  it 
two  years  afterwards,  though  they  did  not  retain  it  long.  In  the  late  wars 
it  has  frequently  fallen  into  adverse  hands.     See  next  article. 

LEIPSIC,  Battle  op.  One  of  the  greatest,  most  sanguinary,  and  decisive  of 
modern  times,  between  the  French  army,  commanded  by  Napoleon,  on  the 
one  side,  and  the  Austrian,  Russian,  and  Prussian  armies  on  the  other ;  the 
former  160,000,  and  the  latter  240,000  strong.  This  great  battle  was  lost 
by  the  French,  chiefly  owing  to  17  German  battalions,  their  Saxon  allies, 
turiung  upon  them  in  the  heat  of  the  engagement.  80,000  men  perished  in 
the  field,  of  whom  more  than  40,000  were  French,  who  also  lost  65  pieces  of 
artillery,  and  many  standards.  The  victory  of  the  allies  was  followed  by 
the  capture,  next  day,  of  Leipsic,  and  of  the  rear-guard  of  the  French  army. 
The  king  of  Saxonj'  and  his  family  were  also  made  prisoners ;  and  the  em- 
peror of  Austria  and  Russia,  the  king  of  Prussia,  and  crown  prince  of  Swe- 
den, entered  Leipsic  immediately  after  the  battle,  Oct.  16  and  18,  1813. 

LENT.  The  quadragesimal  fast  observed  in  the  Catholic  church,  from  Ash- 
Wednesday  {which  see)  to  Easter-day,  and  supposed  to  be  of  apostolic  institu- 
tion. The  primitive  Christains  did  not  commence  their  Lent  until  the  Sunday 
which  is  now  called  the  first  Sunday  of  Lent :  and  the  four  days  beginning 
were  added  by  pope  Felix  III.,  in  the  year  487,  in  order  that  the  number  of 
fasting  days  should  amount  to  forty.  Lent  was  first  observed  in  England 
by  command  of  Ercombcrt,  king  of  Kent,  in  640.     Baker's  Chron. 

LEPANTO,  Battle  of.  The  great  naval  engagement  between  the  combined 
fleets  of  Spain.  Venice,  and  Pius  V.,  and  the  whole  maritime  force  of  the 
Turks.  Don  John  of  Austria  commanded  the  Christian  fleet,  which  consist- 
ed of  206  galleys,  and  30,000  men,  while  the  Turks  had  250  galleys,  of 
which,  after  a  dreadful  conflict,  they  saved  but  100,  losing  30,000  men  in 
killed  and  prisoners ;  and  thus  was  prostrated  for  a  time  the  naval  power  of 
Turkey,  Oct.  7,  Ibll.—Voltain. 

17=^ 


394  THE   world's    iPROGRESS.  [  LEX 

LETTERS.  Those  of  the  alphabet  were  invented  by  Memnon,  the  Egyptian, 
1822  B.  c. —  Usher,  Blair.  The  first  letter  of  the  Phoenician  and  Hebrew 
alphabet  was  aleph,  called  by  the  Greeks  alpha,  and  abbreviated  by  other 
nations  to  A.  The  letters,  both  in  the  ancient  and  modern  languages,  so 
vary  in  number  and  sound,  that  a  volume  might  be  written  in  describing  the 
alphabets  which  are  known.    See  Alphabet. 

LETTERS  OP  MARQUE  and  REPRISAL.  These  are  licenses,  first  issued  in 
England  by  Edward  L,  for  the  seizure  of  the  enemy's  vessels,  and  for  repri- 
sal and  retaliation  upon  the  enemy  on  the  sea. — Rymer's  Fadera.  They  were 
first  granted  in  1295. — Baker^s  Chron.  They  are  usually  granted  in  time  of 
war  to  private  armed  ships,  and  do  great  mischief  to  the  commerce  of 
belligerent  nations. — Poioel. 

LETTERS  DE  CACHET.  These  instruments  of  oppression  were  so  much  in 
use  by  the  French  government  previously  to  the  Revolution,  that  one  of  the 
earliest  acts  of  the  National  Assembly  was  to  denounce  them,  and  decree 
their  abolition,  and  the  abolition  of  arbitrary  imprisonment,  Nov.  1,  1789. — 
Hist,  of  the  French  Revol. 

tiEUCTRA,  B.iTTLE  OF.  One  of  the  most  famous  of  ancient  history,  fought  at 
the  village  of  Leuctra,  between  Platsea  and  Thespia,  between  the  Thebans, 
under  Epaminondas,  and  the  superior  force  of  Cleombrotus,  king  of  Sparta, 
the  victory  being  with  the  former.     In  this  battle,  4000  Spartans,  with  their 

■  king,  were  slain,  and  not  more  than  300  Thebans ;  July  8,  371  b.  c.  From 
this  day  the  Spartans  lost  their  preponderance  in  Greece,  which  they  had 
maintained  for  about  500  years,  and  it  passed  to  the  Thebans. — Plutarch. 

LEVELLERS.  Men  whose  purpose  is  to  destroy  superiority,  and  bring  all 
things  to  a  level  or  equality. —  Collier.  There  were  various  associations  of 
this  kind.  The  most  extraordinary  was  that  of  which  Muncer  and  Storck 
were  the  chiefs.  These  two  began  by  pulling  down  all  the  images  in  the 
churches  which  Luther  had  left  standing ;  and  then,  finding  an  army  in  their 
followers,  they  became  levellers,  and  Muncer  openly  taught  that  all  distinc- 
tions of  rank  were  usurpations  on  the  rights  of  mankind.  At  the  head  of 
40,000  men,  he  wrote  to  the  sovereign  princes  in  Germany  and  to  the  ma- 
gistrates of  cities  to  resign  their  authority ;  and  on  his  march  to  enforce 
these  principles  of  equality  and  reformation,  his  followers  ravaged  the  coun- 
try. The  landgrave  of  Hesse  at  length  defeated  him ;  7000  of  the  enthusi- 
asts fell  in  battle,  and  the  rest,  with  their  leader,  fied ;  he  was  taken  and  be- 
headed at  Mulhausen,  in  1525. — Nouv.  Diet.  Hist.  At  the  period  of  the  French 
Revolution  some  knots  of  persons  styled  levellers  appeared  in  England. 

LEWES,  Battle  oi  .  Between  Henry  III.,  king  of  England,  and  Montfort, 
earl  of  Leicester,  and  the  rebellious  barons,  fought  May  14,  1264.  In  this 
battle  the  royal  army  was  overthrown,  and  the  king,  his  brother,  Richard 
king  of  the  Romans,  his  son,  and  prince  Edward,  afterwards  Edward  I., 
were  taken  prisoners.  One  division  of  four  of  Montfort's  army,  a  body  of 
Londoners,  gave  way  to  the  furious  attack  of  prince  Edward,  who  pursuing 
the  fugitives  too  far,  caused  the  battle  to  be  lost.  From  this  time  Montfort 
used  his  power  so  despotically  as  to  be  in  the  end  the  cause  of  his  own  de- 
struction.    See  Evesham. 

LEXICOGRAPHY.  Morrison  mentions  a  standard  dictionary  in  the  Chinese 
language  of  40,000  hieroglyphic  characters,  as  having  been  compiled  1100 
B.  c.  Numerous  dictionaries  appeared  in  Europe  about  the  close  of  the  fif- 
teenth and  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century.  Calipini's  dictionary  ap- 
peared about  A.  D.  1500.  The  Lexicon  Heptaglotton  was  published  in  1759. 
See  article,  Dlciionary. 

LEXINGTON,  Battle  of.  .This  battle  claims  distinction  as  being  the  first 
fought  between  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States  of  America,  in  the  war 


LIB  ] 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  395 


of  independence.  The  British  troops,  under  Major  Pitcairn,  sent  from  Bos- 
ton to  destroy  the  American  stores  at  Lexington,  were  attacked  by  the 
Americans  and  273  of  tliem  were  killed  and  wounded,  April  19,  1775. 

LEYDEN,  Siege  of.  A  memorable  siege  sustained  against  the  armies  of  Spain, 
and  during  which  6000  of  the  inhabitants  died  of  famine  and  pestilence,  a.  d, 
1574.  In  commemoration  of  this  long  siege,  a  university  was  founded,  ce- 
lebrated for  its  colleges  and  medicinal  garden,  and  valuable  library,  1575. 
The  university  was  almost  destroyed  by  the  catastrophe  of  a  vessel  laden 
with  10,000  lbs.  weight  of  gunpowder  blowing  up,  and  demolishing  a  large 
part  of  the  town,  and  killing  numbers  of  people,  Jan.  1807. 

LIBEL.  By  the  laws  of  Rome  (those  of  the  XII.  Tables),  libels  which  affected 
the  reputation  of  another,  were  made  capital  offences.  In  the  British  law, 
whatever  renders  a  man  ridiculous,  or  lowers  a  man  in  the  opinion  or  esteem 
of  the  world,  is  deemed  a  libel.  "The  greater  the  truth,  the  greater  the 
libel,"  the  well-known  law  maxim  of  a  high  authority,  is  now  disputed. 
Among  the  most  remarkable  cases  of  libel  were,  viz. :  Lord  George  Gor- 
don's libel  on  the  queen  of  France,  for  whicli  he  was  sentenced  to  imprison- 
ment for  five  years  and  fined  500^.,  Jan.  28,  1788.  The  Times'  libel  on 
the  prince  of  Wales,  afterwards  George  IV.,  Feb.  1790.  The  Morning  Post's 
libel  on  lady  Elizabeth  Lambert,  damages  4000^.  July  9, 1792.  Peltier's  libel 
on  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  in  L'Ambigu,  of  which  he  was  found  giiilty,  Feb. 
21,  1803.  Act  against  blasphemous  and  seditious  libels,  punishing  the  of- 
fender by  banishment  for  the  second  offence,  passed  in  England,  1820.  Act 
regulating  the  law  of  libel  in  England,  July  1830.  By  statute  in  New  York 
and  Massachusetts,  the  truth  may  be  a  justification,  if  the  publication  was 
made  with  good  motives  and  for  justifiable  ends. 

LIBERIA.  Colony  in  West  Africa,  founded  by  colored  people  sent  out  by 
American  Colonization  Society,  1822  ;  Jehudi  Ashmun  was  the  first  super- 
intendent of  the  colony ;  new  Constitution — Roberts  elected  president — 
Oct.  5,  1847 ;  ratification  of  a  treaty  of  commerce  with  Great  Britain,  Au- 
gust 1,  1849. 

LIBERTINES.  A  sect  distinguished  by  its  monstroiis  doctrines.  Its  heads 
were  persons  named  Quintin  and  Corin.  They  maintained  that  whatever 
was  done  by  men  was  done  by  the  Spirit  of  God,  and  that  there  was  no 
sin  but  to  those  who  thought  so ;  that  to  live  without  any  doubt  or  scruple 
was  to  return  to  the  state  of  innocency ;  that  the  soul  died  with  the  body ; 
that  heaven  was  a  dream,  and  hell  a  phantom ;  religion  a  mere  state  trick; 
with  many  other  monstrous  opinions.  This  sect  arose  in  a.  d.  1525 ;  and 
the  term  libertine  has  been  held  in  a  bad  sense  ever  since. 

LIBRARY.  The  first  public  library  of  Avhich  we  have  any  certain  account  in 
aistory  was  founded  at  Athens,  by  Pisistratus,  544  b.  c.  The  second  of  any 
note  Avas  founded  by  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  284  b.  c.  It  was  nearly  de- 
stroyed when  Julius  Caesar  set  fire  to  Alexandria,  47  b.  c.  400,000  valuable 
books  in  MS.  are  said  to  have  been  lost  by  this  catastrophe. — Blair.  The 
first  private  library  was  the  property  of  Aristotle,  834  b.  c. — Strabo.  The 
first  library  at  Rome  was  instituted  167  b.  c.  :  it  was  brought  from  Ma- 
cedonia. The  library  of  Apellicon  was  sent  to  Rome,  by  Sylla,  from  Athens, 
86  B.  c.  This  library  was  enriched  by  the  original  manuscripts  of  Aristotle's 
works.  A  library  was  founded  at  Constantinople  by  Constantine  the  Great, 
about  A.  D.  335 ;  it  was  destroyed  in  477.  A  second  library  was  formed 
from  the  remains  of  tlie  first,  at  Alexandria,  by  Ptolemy's  successors,  con- 
ststing  of  700,000  volumes,  whicli  was  totally  destroyed  by  the  Saracens,  who 
heated  the  water  of  their  baths  for  six  months,  by  burning  books  instead 
of  wood,  by  command  of  Omar,  caliph  of  the  Saracens,  in  642. — Nouv, 
Diet.  Hist.     Pope  Gregoiy  I.  ordered  that,  the   library  of  the   Palatine 


396 


THE    world's   progress. 


[  LIE 


Apollo  should  be  committed  to  the  flames,  under  the  notion  of  confining  the 
clergy  to  the  attention  of  the  Scriptures.  From  that  time,  all  ancient  learn- 
ing which  was  not  sanctioned  by  the  authority  of  the  church,  has  been 
emphatically  distinguished  as  profane  in  opposition  to  sacred.  The  early 
Chinese  literature  suffered  a  similar  misfortune  to  that  of  the  west  in  the 
destruction  of  the  Alexandrian  library ;  their  emperor,  Chee-whang-tee, 
ordered  all  writings  to  be  destroyed,  that  every  thing  might  begin  anew  as 
from  his  reign  ;  and  books  and  records  were  afterwards  recovered  by  suc- 
ceeding emperors  with  great  difficulty. 
LIBRARIES  IN  EUROPE.  There  are  in  Europe  883  public  libraries,  contain- 
ing over  10,000  volumes  each.  The  number  of  books  which  are  thus  pub- 
licly accessible  are  in  this  proportion,  viz. :  in  Saxony,  for  every  100  inhabit; 
ants,  there  are  417  books  ;  in  Denmark,  412 ;  in  Bavaria,  339 ;  in  Tuscany; 
261 ;  in  Prussia,  200 ;  in  Austria  167 ;  in  France,  129 ;  in  Belgium,  95 ;  in 
Great  Britain,  53.  The  first  public  library  in  Europe,  before  the  inventiop 
of  printing  is  said  to  have  been  founded  by  Richard  de  Bury,  chancellor  of 
England,  as  early  as  1341.  The  first  in  Italy  was  founded  by  Nicholas 
Niccoli,  one  of  the  great  restorers  of  learning ;  at  his  death  he  left  his  li- 
brary for  the  use  of  the  public,  a.  d.  1436.  It  was  enlarged  by  Cosmo  de 
Medici.  The  first  permanent  libraries  were,  Turin  Univ.,  1436 ;  Vienna, 
(imperial,)  1440;  Vatican,  1465;  &c.  See  table,  below. 
In  the  following  tables,  the  libraries  containing  less  than  10,000  volumes 
each  (of  which  there  are,  in  France  alone,  at  least  seventy  or  eighty,)  are 
not  taken  Into  the  accoiint: 

France    has  107  Public  Li- 
braries, containing  4,000,000  vols. 
Belgium  has  14  do.  '     538,000    " 
Prussia      "    44  do.  2,400,000    " 
Austria      "    48  do.  2,400,000    " 


Saxony    has    6  containing 
Bavaria      "    17  do. 
Denmark    "      5  do. 
Tuscany     "      9  do. 
G.  Britain  "    33  do. 


554.000  vols 

1,267,000    " 

645,000    " 

411,000    " 

1,771,493    " 


Taking  the  capital  cities  we  find  the  following  results  :- 


Paris     has     9    Public 

braries,  containing 
Brussels    has    2  do. 

2  do. 

3  do. 
2  do. 


Berlin 
Vienna 
Milan 


1,474,000  vols. 
143,500    " 
530,000    " 
453,000    " 
230,000    " 


Dresden      has  4  containing 
Munich  "  2  do.    ■ 

Copenhagen  "  3  do. 
Florence  "  6  do. 
London  "  4  do. 


340,500  vols. 
800,000    " 
557,000    " 
318,000    " 
490,500    " 


Arranging 
follows  :— 


these  libraries  according  to  their  extent,  they  would  stand  as 


Foiinded.    Vols. 
1595     824,000 


Paris  (1)  National  Lib., 

Munich,  Royal  Lib.,                1550  60O;0OO 

Petersburg  Imperial  Lib.,  446,000 

London,  British  Museum,        1753  435,000 

Copenhagen,  Royal  Lib.,         1550  412,000 

Berlin,  Royal  Lib.,                   1650  410,000 

Vienna,  Imperial  Lib.,             1440  313,000 

Dresden,  Royal  Lib.,                1656  300,000 

Madrid  National  Lib.,              1712  200,000 

Wolfenbuttel,  Ducal  Lib.,       1604  200,000 

Stuttgard,  Royal  Lib.,              1765  187,000 

Paris  (2)  Arsenal  Lib.,             1781  180,000 

The  chief  University  Libraries  may  be  ranked  in  the  followin. 
Founded.    Vo!s. 

Gottingen,  University  Lib.,     1736  360,000 
Breslau,  University  Lib.,         1811 
"         ■    ■      "■                  1597 
1562 


Milan,  Brerea  Lib., 
Paris  (3),  St.  Genevieve, 
Darmstadt,  Grand  Ducal, 
Florence,  Magliabecchian, 
Naples,  Royal  Lib., 
Brussels,  Royal  Lib., 
Rome  (1),  Casanate  Lib. 
Hague,  Royal  Lib., 
Paris  (4),  Mazarine  Lib., 
Rome  (2),  Vatican  Lib., 
Parma,  Ducal  Lib., 


Founded.    Vols. 
1797     170,000 


250,000 

Oxford,  Bodleian  Lib.,   '         1597  220,000 

Tubingen,  University  Lib.,     1562  200,000 

Munich,  University  Lib.,  200,000 

Heidelburg.  University  lib.,  1703  200,000 

Cambridge,' Public  Lib.,          1484  166,724 

Bologna,  University  Lib.,        1690  1.50,000 

Prague,  University  Lib.,         1777  130,000 


1624 
1760 
1714 

18.39 
1760 

1C61 
1465 
1760 

;  order: — 
Founded.    Vols. 
1777     115,000 


150,000 
1.50,000 
150,000 
150,000 
133,500 
120,000 
100,000 
100,000 
100,000 
100,000 


Vienna,  University  Lib., 

Leipsic,  University  Lib.,         1.544  il2,00t5 

Copenhagen,  University  Lib.,  1730  1 10,000 

Turin,  University  Lib.,            1436  110,000 

Louvaine  University  Lib. ,       1639  105,000 

Dublin,  Trinity  College  Lib.,  104,239 

Upsal,  University  Lib.,            1621  100,000 

Erlangen,  University  Lib.,       1743  100,000 

Edinburgh,  Univ.  Lib.,            1582  90,354 


LIB  J 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES. 


39r 


undec 

I.    Vols. 

Founded. 

1753 

435,000 

Royal  Institution,  London, 

1598 

220,000 

London  Institution, 

1484 

166,724 

London  Library, 

1682 

148,000 

Sion  College,  «&c. 

1601 

104,239 

The  largest  Libraries  in  Great  Britain  are  those  of  the 

Vol's 

1  British  Museum,  London, 

2  Bodleian,  Oxford, 

3  University,  Cambridge, 

4  Advocates,  Edinburgh, 

5  Trinity  College,  Dublin, 

LIBRARIES  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES.  The  number  of  volumes  in  the  chief 
public  and  college  libraries  of  the  United  States  ."n  1849,  was  stated  to  be 
1,294,000.  The  number  of  libraries  is  182.  Of  these,  43  contain  over 
10,000  volumes  each;  9  over  20,000;  and  only  2  over  50,000.  In  1849  the 
precedence  of  the  largest  as  to  numbers  stood  thus : 

Vols. 

1  Harvard  College,  including  Divin- 

ity and  Law  Schools         -  -  72,000 

2  Philadelphia  and  Loganian  Library  60,000 

3  Boston  Athenasum    -  -  -  50,000 

4  Library  of  Congress       -  -     -  50,000 

5  New  York  Society  Library  -  -  32,000 

The  Astor  Librarj^  is  scarcely  yet  opened,  and  the  building  is  not  yet  erected. 
The  Smithsonian  Institute  at  Washington  has  not  yet  commenced  collecting 
its  library.  The  number  of  volumes  in  the  School  District  libraries  of  the 
State  of  New  York,  in  1849,  was  1,338,848.  There  are  10,621  school  dis- 
tricts, and  1,785  incorporated  or  private  schools.  The  mercantile  libraries, 
chiefly  for  merchants'  clerks,  in  the  large  cities,  are  of  comparatively  recent 
date  and  of  great  utility.  That  in  New  York  was  founded  in  1820,  and 
contains  32,000  volumes ;  in  Boston,  founded  1820,  contains  7,637  volumes ; 
in  Philadelphia,  founded  1822,  contains  12  200  volumes.  There  are  similar 
ones  in  Baltimore,  Cincinnati,  St.  Louis,  Troy,  &c. 

The  public  libraries  containing  over  5000  volumes,  were  distributed  (accord- 
ing to  evidence  in  the  British  Museum  Report  in  1849)  thus : 

Vols. 


6  Mercantile  Library,  New  York 

7  Georgetown  College,  D.  C. 

8  Brovm  University 

9  New  Y'ork  State  Library   - 

10  Yale  College     - 

11  Astor  Library,  New  York - 


Vols. 
■  32,000 
-25,000 

-  24,000 

-  24,000 

-  21,000 

-  20,000 


1  Alabama,  has  1 

Public  Library, 

6,000 

2  Columbia,  Dist. 

of 

has 

2, 

53,000 

3  Connecticut. 

" 

6, 

81,449 

4  Georgia, 

" 

1, 

13,000 

5  Kentucky, 

" 

1. 

7,000 

6  Louisiana, 

" 

1, 

5,500 

7  Maine, 

3, 

38,860 

8  Maryland, 

" 

1, 

12,000 

D  Massachusetts, 

" 

14, 

200.000 

10  Missouri, 

" 

2, 

14;300 

11  New  Hampshire 

, 

" 

2, 

22,500 

Vols. 

Brought  up. 

34, 

454,366 

12  New  Jersey,                has     3. 

28,500 

13  New  Y^ork,                   ' 

12, 

157,411 

14  North  Carolina,            ' 

1, 

10,000 

15  Ohio,                             ' 

1, 

30,497 

16  Pennsylvania,               ' 

14, 

159,200 

17  Rhode  Island,                 ' 

3. 

37,185 

18  South  Carolina,            ' 

2, 

30,000 

19  Tennessee,                    ' 

2, 

16,000 

20  Vermont,                       ' 

2, 

16,254 

21  Virsinia,                       ' 

4, 

41,000 

34,       454,366  Total    -    -    -  81,        980,134 

The  above  estimate  is  perhaps  below  the  mark,  and  does  not  include  school, 
parish  and  town  libraries,  which  are  numerous,  but  of  moderate  extent. 
The  city  of  Paris  alone  has  1,474,000  volumes,  in  large  public  libraries ;  i.  e. 
half  as  many  again  as  the  whole  of  the  United  States.  See  Pari.  Rep.  Brit. 
Mus. ;  Prof.  Jeioett's  Rep.  Smithsonian  List. ;  G.  Livermorein  N.  Amer.  Rev., 
July  1850,  cf-c. 

LIEGE.  Formerly  called,  on  account  of  the  number  of  its  churches  and  con- 
vents, "  the  paradise  of  priests,  the  purgatory  of  men,  and  the  hell  of  wo- 
men." In  the  time  of  Louis  XI.  of  France,  a.  d.  1461,  Liege  was  a  large 
and  wealthy  place,  and  the  prince  bishop  was  a  prelate  of  almost  sovereign 
power.  Taken  by  the  English  under  the  duke  of  Marlborough,  in  1702  ; 
and  by  the  French  and  other  powers,  at  various  times,  up  to  1796,  when  it 
was  annexed  to  France.  Liee-e  was  incorporated  with  the  Netherlands,  in 
1814. 


398  THE    world's    progress.  I   LIS 

LIGHT-HOUSES.  They  were  erected  by  all  the  ancient  commercial  i)eople, 
and  called  Tors,  or  pillars,  as  those  of  Hercules,  near  Gibraltar ;  that  of 
Pharos,  at  Alexandria,  550  feet  high,  and  visible  forty-two  miles ;  the  Pharos 
of  Messina;  the  Colossus  of  Rhodes.  &.c.  There  are  forty-two  round  the 
coasts  of  England,  fifteen  on  the  east  coast,  thirteen  in  the  English  channel, 
and  fourteen  in  the  Irish  channel.  There  are  seventeen  on  the  Scottish 
coasts,  and  twenty-six  on  the  Irish  coasts. 

LIGURIAN  REPUBLIC.  Founded  in  June,  1802,  upon  the  ruins  of  that  of 
Genoa.  The  doge  of  this  new  republic  was  solemnlj^  invested  at  Geaoa, 
August  10,  1802.  The  Ligurian  repubUc  was  incorporated  with  France,  it 
having  demanded  a  union  with  the  latter  country,  May  25, 1805.  It  merged 
into  the  kingdom  of  Italy. 

LIMA.  See  America  and  Columbia.  In  1524,  Pizarro,  marching  through  Peru, 
was  struck  with  the  beauty  of  the  valley  of  Rimac,  and  there  he  founded  a 
city,  and  gave  it  the  name  of  Ciudad  de  los  Reyes,  or  City  of  the  Kings. 
This  Spanish  name  it  retains  in  all  legal  deeds,  but  it  is  better  known  as 
Lima.  Awful  earthquakes  occurred  here,  since  solemnly  commemorated  by 
annual  festivals,  a.  d.  1586,  1630,  1687,  and  October  28,  1746.  In  the  last  it 
was  almost  totally  destroyed,  as  well  as  Callao,  which  sec. 

LINEN.  A  fabric  of  very  remote  antiquity.  Pharaoh  arrayed  Joseph  in  ves- 
tures of  fine  linen. — Gen.  xli.  42.  This  article  was  first  manufactured  in 
England  by  Flemish  weavers,  under  the  protection  of  Henry  III.,  1253. 
Before  this  period  woollen  shirts  were  generally  worn.  A  company  of  linen 
weavers  established  itself  in  London,  in  1368 ;  and  the  art  of  staining  linen 
became  known  in  1579.  A  colony  of  Scots  in  the  reign  of  James  I.,  and 
other  Presbyterians  who  fled  from  persecution  in  that  country  in  the  suc- 
ceeding inglorious  reigns,  planted  themselves  in  the  northeast  part  of  Ire- 
land, and  there  established  the  linen  manufacture.  It  was  liberally  encou- 
raged by  the  lord  dej^uty  Wentworth,  in  1634.  Hemp,  flax,  linen,  thread, 
and  yarn,  from  Ireland,  were  permitted  to  be  exported  duty  free,  1696. 
This  law  gave  rise  to  the  subsequently  improved  state  of  the  manufacture 
there.  The  Irish  Linen  Board  was  established  in  1711 ;  the  Linen-hall,  Dub- 
lin, was  opened,  1728 ;  the  board  was  abolished  in  1828.  Dunfermline  in 
Fifeshire,  Dundee  in  Angusshire,  and  Barnsley  in  Yorkshire,  are,  in  Great 
Britain,  chief  seats  of  the  linen  manufacture. 

LINN^AN  SYSTEM.  The  system  of  Botany  of  the  eminent  Linne,  a  Swede, 
or,  as  his  name  is  Latinized,  Linnajus,  was  commenced  about  1725-30;  and 
his  first  great  work  was  a  dictionary  of  7300  plants  arranged  in  classes, 
orders  and  genera ;  he  classed  the  plants  according  to  the  number  and  situ- 
ation of  the  sexual  parts,  and  made  the  flower  and  fruit  the  test  of  his  vari- 
ous genera.  The  Linntean  Society  in  London  was  instituted  in  1788,  and 
was  incorporated  March  26,  1802. 

LISBON.  The  Moors  are  said  to  have  given  the  name  of  Lisboa  to  this  city 
when  they  conquered  it,  a.  d.  716.  It  was  made  the  capital  of  Portugal  by 
Emanuel,  1506.  Lisbon  was  almost  destroyed  by  an  earthquake,  November 
1,  1755.  See  Earthquakes.  It  became  a  point  of  the  late  war,  and  the  court 
fled  to  the  Brazils,  November,  1807,  in  which  month  (the  SOtli)  the  French 
army  under  Junot  entered  Lisbon,  and  held  possession  of  it  until  the  battle 
of  Vimeira,  in  which  they  wei'e  defeated  by  the  British,  under  sir  Arthur 
Wellesley,  August  21, 1808.  Insurrection  at  Lisbon,  August  21, 1831.  Mas- 
sacre at  Lisbon,  June  9,  1834.     See  Portugal. 

LISLE,  Siege  OF.  Lisle  was  besieged  by  the  duke  of  Marlborough  and  the 
allies ;  and  though  its  immense  fortifications  were  deemed  impregnable,  it 
was  taken  after  a  three  months'  siege,  in  1708.  It  was  restored  by  the  treaty 
of  Utrecht,  in  1713,  in  consideration  of  the  demolition  of  the  fortifications 


LIV  ]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  399 

of  Dunkirk :  this  siege  is  reckoned  one  of  the  most  famous  of  modern  his- 
tory. In  the  Revolutionary  war,  Lisle  sustained  a  severe  bombardment  from 
the  Austrians,  who  were  obliged  to  raise  the  siege,  Oct.  7,  1792. 

LITANIES.  They  were  first  used  in  processions  and  other  devotions,  about 
A.  D.  400.  Litanies  to  the  Virgin  Mary  were  first  introduced  by  pope  Greg- 
ory I.,  in  or  about  595. — Newton  on  the  Prophecies.  The  first  English  litany 
was  commanded  to  be  used  in  the  Reformed  Churches  by  Henry  VIII.,  in 
1543. —  Collier's  Ecc.  Hist. 

LITERARY  PROPERTY,  in  England.  See  Copyright.  The  statute  of  queen 
Anne,  1709-10,  securing  literary  property,  was  confirmed  by  a  memorable 
decision  at  the  bar  of  the  House  of  Lords,  and  the  claim  of  perpetual  copy- 
right was  overruled  Feb.  22,  1774.  The  statute  declared  the  author  to  have 
an  exclusive  right  for  14  years,  and  if  at  the  end  of  that  term  he  were  living, 
the  right  to  again  return  to  him  for  the  same  term  of  years.  The  later  acts 
extended  the  author's  right  to  28  years,  and  if  living  at  the  end  of  that  time, 
then  to  the  remainder  of  his  life.  By  the  5th  and  6th  of  Victoria,  the  right 
is  to  endure  for  the  life  of  the  author,  and  for  seven  years  after  his  death  ; 
but  if  that  time  expire  earlier  than  42  years,  the  right  is  still  to  endure  for 
42  years,  for  which  term  also  any  work  published  after  the  author's  death  is 
to  continue  the  property  of  the  owners  of  the  manuscript ;  act  passed  July 
1,  1842.  The  Dramatic  Authors'  Protection  act,  passed  June  10, 1833.  The 
International  Copyright  bill,  passed  July  81,  1888 ;  this  act  secures  protec- 
tion in  England  to  works  of  authors  of  auj''  country  which  concedes  the 
same  protection  to  English  authors. 

LITERARY  SOCIETIES,  CLUB,  FUND,  &c.  The  various  societies  connected 
with  litei-ature  in  London,  will  be  found  in  their  respective  places  through 
the  volume.  The  celebrated  Literary  Club  was  instituted  by  Dr.  Johnson, 
and  included  many  of  the  illustrious  men  in  literature  of  the  age,  1765. 
The  Literary  Fund,  in  Lincoln's-Inn  Fields,  Avas  founded  in  1790,  to  relieve 
authors  and  literary  men  who  by  age  or  infirmities  are  reduced  to  poverty  : 
this  society  was  incorporated  in  1818.  The  Royal  Society  of  Literature  was 
established  Sept.  15,  1825. 

LITHOGRAPHY.  The  invention  of  it  is  ascribed  to  Alois  Sennefelder,  whose 
first  essays  were  executed  about  1796  ;  and  shortly  afterwards  the  art  was 
announced  in  Germany,  and  was  known  as  polyautography.  It  became  par- 
tially known  in  England  in  1801  et  seq.,  but  its  general  introduction  may  be 
referred  to  Mr.  Ackermann,  of  London,  about  1817.  Sennefelder  died  in 
1841. 

LTTURGY.  In  the  ancient  Greek  and  Roman  churches  the  word  Liturgy  was 
restrained  to  signify  the  mass  only.  The  present  English  Liturgy  was  first 
composed,  and  was  approved  and  confirmed  by  parliament,  in  1547-8.  The 
ofiices  for  morning  and  evening  prayer  were  then  put  into  nearly  the  same 
form  in  which  we  now  have  them,  but  other  parts  were  difierent.  Upon  the 
solicitation  of  Calvin  and  others,  the  liturgy  was  reviewed  and  altered  to 
very  nearly  its  present  state,  1551.  It  was  first  read  in  Ireland,  in  the  Eng- 
lish language  in  1550.  and  in  Scotland,  where  it  occasioned  a  tumult,  in  1637. 
Again  altered  in  1661.  The  liturgy  was  revised  by  Whitehead,  formerly 
chaplain  to  Anna  Boleyn,  and  by  bishops  Parker,  Grindall,  Cox,  and  Pil- 
kington,  and  dean  May,  and  secretary  Smith. 

LIVERIES.  In  England  they  originated  with  our  ancestors,  who  clothed  their 
vassals  in  uniform,  thereby  to  distinguish  families  ;  they  were  originally  a 
single  article  of  dress,  or  a  particular  color  used  on  a  part  of  some  one  gar- 
ment ;  and  in  the  end  they  became  rich  suits  and  gaudy  trappings. — Ashe. 

LIVERPOOL.    This  town,  which  within  the  last  century  has,  by  a  progressivo 


400  THE    world's   PKOGRESS.  [  LOG 

increase  in  extent,  population,  and  commercial  importance,  obtained  the  first 
rank  after  the  metropolis,  in  England,  is  supposed  to  be  noticed  in  Domes- 
day-book under  the  name  Esmedune,  or,  Sniedune.  In  other  ancient  records 
its  various  appellations  are,  Lithcrpul,  and  Lq/rpul,  signifying  probably,  in  the 
ancient  dialect  of  the  county,  the  lower  pool ;  though  some  have  deduced 
its  etymology  from  a  pool  frequented  by  an  aquatic  fowl,  called  the  "Liver," 
or  from  a  sea-weed  of  that  name  ;  it  was  but  a  small  fishing  place,  until,  in 
1172,  its  favorable  situation,  and  the  convenience  of  its  port,  attracted  the 
notice  of  Henry  II.,  who  made  it  the  place  of  rendezvous  and  embarkation 
of  his  troops  for  the  conquest  of  Ireland.  In  1843,  the  number  of  ships 
which  entered  the  port  of  Liverpool  was  as  follows ;  British,  2,615,  of  the 
aggregate  burthen  of  691,707  tons;  foreign,  1,014,  burthen,  417,621  tons. 
The  amount  of  duties  paid  at  the  custom-house  for  the  year  ending  5th  Jan- 
uary, 1844,  was  £4,121,522.— Par/.  Ret. 

LLOYD'S,  London.  The  coffee-house  in  connection  with  the  Roj'-al  Exchange, 
and  held  previously  to  the  late  fire  (see  Exchange)  on  the  northern  side 
of  that  building.  Lloyd's  was  established  in  1772,  and  is  the  resort  of 
eminent  merchants,  underwriters,  insurance  brokers,  &c. ;  and  here  are 
effected  insurances  for  all  the  world  on  ships  and  merchandise.  The  books 
kei^t  here  contain  an  account  of  the  arrival  and  sailing  of  vessels,  and  are 
remarkable  for  their  early  intelligence  of  maritime  affairs. 

liOADSTONE.  One  of  the  most  wonderful  productions  of  the  earth.  Its 
virtues  were  but  indistinctly  known  to  the  ancients,  yet  its  attractive  qua- 
lity had  been  taken  notice  of  from  very  remote  times. —Stur7?iius.  Aristotle 
assures  us  that  Thales  made  mention  of  it,  and  Hippocrates  speaks  of  it 
under  the  name  of  stone  that  attracts  iron,  and  Pliny  was  struck  with  its 
attractive  power.  The  polar  attraction  of  the  loadstone  was,  it  is  said, 
known  in  France  before  a.  d.  1180 ;  but  this  honor  is  accorded  to  Roger 
Bacon  about  1267.  The  Italians  discovered  that  it  could  communicate  its 
virtues  to  steel  or  iron  ;  and  Flavio  Giojo  of  Amalfi,  was  the  inventor  of 
the  mariner's  compass.     See  Compass. 

LOANS.  Those  for  the  service  of  the  crown  of  England  were  generally  bor- 
rowed at  Antwerp  until  after  the  reign  of  Elizabeth.  In  155'J,  that  queen 
borrowed  200,000/.  of  the  city  of  Antwerp,  to  enable  her  to  reform  her  own 
coin,  and  sir  Thomas  Gresham  and  the  city  of  London  joined  in  the  secu- 
rit}^ — Rapi7i.  The  amount  of  the  English  loans,  during  four  late  memo- 
rable periods,  was,  viz  : 

Seven  years'  war from  1755  to  1763  -  -  jESS,  100,000 

American  y^x IVom  1776  to  1784  -  -    -     75.500,000 

French  revolutionary  war from  1793  to  1802  -  -   168,500,000 

War  against  Bonaparte "  from  1S03  to  1814  -  -    -   206,300,000 

Besides  the  property  tax.  In  1813,  were  raised  two  loans  of  twenty-one 
millions  and  twenty-two  millions ;  and  it  deserves  to  be  recorded  that  a 
subscription  loan  to  carry  on  the  war  against  France  was  filled  up  in  Lon- 
don in  fifteen  hours  and  twentj'  minutes,  to  the  amount  of  eighteen  mil- 
lions, Dec.  5,  1796. 
LOCHLEVEN  CASTLE,  Kinross.  Built  on  an  island  in  the  celebrated  lake 
of  Loch  Leven,  in  1257,  and  was  a  royal  residence  when  Alexander  III.  and 
his  queen  were  forcibly  taken  from  it  to  Stirling.  It  was  besieged  by  the 
English  in  1301,  and  again  in  1335.  Patrick  Graham,  first  archbishop  of 
St.  Andrew's,  was  imprisoned  and  died  within  its  walls,  1447.  The  earl 
of  Northumberland  was  confined  in  it  in  1569.  It  is,  however,  chiefly  re- 
markable as  the  place  of  the  unfortunate  qiieen  Mary's  imprisonment,  in 
1567,  and  of  her  escape,  on  Sunday,  May  2,  1568.  In  this  castle  Mary  was 
compelled  to  sign  her  abdication  of  the  throne  of  Scotland,  of  which  an 
interesting  account  is  given  by  sir  Walter  Scott,  in  Thr.  Abbot ;  and  of  which 


LOM  J  DICTIONARY    OF    DATliS.  401 

also,  some  new  and  affectiLg-  particiijars  ave  given  by  Mr.  Tytler,  in  the  7th 
vohime  of  his  History  of  ScoUand,  published  in  August,  1840. 

LOCKS.  Those  of  the  Egj'^ptians,  Greeks,  and  Romans,  were  clumsy  con- 
trivances. Denon  has  engraved  an  Egyptian  lock  of  wood.  Du  Cange 
mentions  locks  and  padlocks  as  early  as  a.  d.  1381.  The  French  are  ac- 
counted the  worst  locksmiths  in  Europe  and  the  English  the  best.  Bra- 
mah's  celebrated  patent  locks  Avere  registered  in  1784.  Locks  have  been 
made  at  Wolverhampton  in  suits  of  eight,  ten,  or  more,  of  exquisite  Avork- 
manship,  all  with  different  keys,  so  that  none  of  them  can  open  any  but  its 
own  lock,  yet  a  master  key  will  open  all.     Sec  Keys. 

LOCUSTS.  The  visits  of  these  animals  in  Eastern  countries  have  frequently 
superinduced  pestilence  and  death,  and  many  instances  are  recorded  of 
these  consequences.  Owing  to  the  putrefaction  of  vast  swarms  in  Egypt 
and  Lybia,  upwards  of  800,000  persons  perished,  128  b.  c.  The  country  of 
Palestine  was  infested  with  such  swarms  that  they  darkened  the  air,  and 
after  devouring  the  fruits  of  the  earth  thej^  died,  and  their  intolerable 
stench  caused  a  pestilential  fever,  a.  d.  406.  A  similar  catastrophe  occurred 
in  France  in  873.  A  remarkable  swarm  of  locusts  settled  upon  the  ground 
about  London,  and  consumed  the  vegetables ;  great  numbers  fell  in  the 
streets,  and  were  preserved  by  the  curious ;  they  resembled  grasshoppers, 
but  were  three  times  the  siz?,  and  their  colors  more  variegated,  Aug.  4, 
1748.  They  infested  Germany  in  1749,  Poland  in  1750,  and  Warsaw  in  June 
1816. 

LODI,  Battle  of  the  Bridge  of.  One  of  the  great  earlj^  achievements  in 
Italy  of  Bonaparte.  He  commanded  the  French  army,  which  was  opposed 
to  the  Austrians  commanded  by  general  Beaulieu,  and  obtained  a  brilliant 
and  decisive  victory  after  a  bloody  engagement  in  which  several  thousands 
of  the  Imperialists  perished  on  the  field,  and  many  thousands  were  made 
prisoners.  May  10,  1796.  The  conqueror  pursued  his  advantage  with  won- 
derful rapidity,  as  after  this  battle  all  Lombardy  lay  open  to  his  army,  and 
the  republican  flag  floated  in  Milan  a  few  days  afterwards. 

LOG-LINE,  used  in  navigation,  a.  d.  1570 ;  and  first  mentioned  by  Bourne 
in  1577.  The  log-line  is  divided  into  spaces  of  fifty  feet,  and  the  way  which 
the  ship  makes  is  measured  by  a  half-minute  sand  glass,  which  bears  nearly 
the  same  proportion  to  an  hour  that  fifty  feet  bear  to  a  mile  :  the  line  used 
in  the  royal  navy  is  forty-eight  feet. 

LOGARITHMS,  so  useful  in  mathematics,  are  the  indexes  of  the  ratio  of 
numbers  one  to  another.  They  were  invented  by  baron  Merchiston,  an 
eminent  Scotchman  (sir  John  Napier)  in  1614.  The  method  of  computing 
by  means  of  marked  pieces  of  ivory  was  discovered  about  the  same  time, 
and  hence  called  Napier^s  bones.  The  invention  was  afterwards  completed 
by  Mr.  Briggs,  at  Oxford. 

LOLLARDS.  The  name  given  to  the  first  reformers  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
religion  in  England,  and  a  reproachful  appellation  of  the  followers  of  Wick- 
liffe. — Chaucer.  The  original  sect  was  founded  by  Walter  Lollard  in  1315  ; 
he  was  burned  for  heresy' at  Cologne  in  1322.  After  his  death  the  disciples 
of  Wickliffe  were  called  Lollards.  The  first  martyr  in  England  on  account 
of  religious  opinions  was  William  Sawtree,  the  parish  ptriest  of  St.  Osith, 
London,  Feb.  19,  1401,  reign  of  Henry  IV.  The  Lollards  were  proscribed 
by  the  English  parliament  in  1416,  and  about  1414,  numbers  of  them,  or 
persons  to  whom  the  name  was  given,  were  burnt  alive. — Moreri;  Carte. 

LOMBARD  MERCHANTS.  In  England  they  were  understood  to  be  com- 
posed of  natives  of  some  one  of  the  four  republics  of  Genoa,  Lucca,  Florence, 
or  Venice. — Anderson  on  Commerce.     Lombard  usurers  were  sent  to  England 


402  THE    world's    PllOGR,ESS.  [  LOC 

by  pope  Gregory  IX.  to  lend  money  to  convents,  communities,  and  private 
persons,  Avho  were  not  able  to  pay  down  the  tenths  which  were  collected 
throughout  the  kingdom  with  great  rigor  that  year,  13  Henry  III.,  1229. 
They  had  offices  in  Lombard-street,  which  great  banking  street  is  called 
after  them  to  this  day.  Their  usurious  transactions  caused  their  expulsion 
from  the  kingdom  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth. 
LOMBARDY.  The  Lombards  were  a  detachment  of  Alemanni  from  the 
marches  of  Brandenburgh,  famous  for  their  braverj'.  They  were  invited 
into  Italy  by  Justinian,  to  serve  against  the  Goths.  To  reward  their  ser- 
vices, the  emperor  gave  them  part  of  Upper  Pannonia,  a.  d.  548.  The] 
passed  into  Italy,  and  their  chief  was  proclaimed  king  by  his  army  at  Milan, 
in  570.  The  kingdom  of  Lombardy  supported  itself  and  iiade  considerable 
conquests  till  772,  when  Charlemagne  took  Desiderius,  the  last  king,  ami 
annexed  his  territories  to  the  German  empire. — La  Combe.     See  Milan,  &c. 

LONDON.  The  greatest  and  richest  city  in  the  world.  Some  will  have  it  that 
a  city  existed  on  the  spot  1107  j'cars  before  the  birth  of  Christ,  and  351 
years  before  the  foundation  of  Rome.  It  was  the  capital  of  the  Trinobantes 
54  B.  c.  and  long  previously  the  royal  seat  of  their  kings.  In  a.d.  61,  it 
was  known  to  the  Romans  as  Lundiuium.  Lundinium  or  Colonia  Augusta 
was  the  chief  residence  of  merchants  at  that  period,  and  the  great  mart  of 
trade  and  commerce,  though  not  dignified  with  the  name  of  a  colony. — 
Tacitus.  It  is  said,  but  not  trulj^,  to  have  derived  its  name  from  Lud,  an 
old  British  king,  who  was  buried  near  where  Ludgate  formerl}^  stood  ;  but 
its  name  is  from  Llijn-Din,  the  -'town  on  the  lake."    See  Fires,  Plague,  &c. 

LONGEVITY.  In  Great  Britain  the  instances  of  it  are  remarkable,  thougli 
rare.  Golour  M'Crain,  of  the  Isle  of  Jura,  one  of  the  Hebrides,  is  said  to 
have  kept  180  Christmasses  in  his  own  house,  and  died  in  the  reign  of 
Charles  I.,  being  the  oldest  man  on  any  thing  approaching  to  authentic  re- 
cord for  upwards  of  3000  years. —  Grcig.  Thomas  Parr,  a  laboring  man  of 
Shropshire,  was  brought  to  London  by  the  earl  of  Arundel,  in  1635,  and 
considered  the  wonder  of  his  time,  being  then  in  his  153d  year,  and  in  per- 
fect health ;  but  the  journey  and  change  of  air  and  diet  killed  him,  Nov. 
15,  the  same  year.  Henry  Jenkins,  of  Yorkshire,  died  in  1670,  and  was 
buried  in  Bolton  chui'ch-j^ard,  Dec.  6,  in  that  year,  aged  169  years.  There 
are  some  extraordinary  instances  of  great  age  in  Russia ;  and  at  Dantzic  a 
man  is  said  to  have  died  at  184  ;  and  another  to  be  living  in  Wallachia,  aged 
186  years.  In  Holy  Writ,  Methuselah  is  stated  to  have  lived  969  years,  the 
greatest  age  of  any  on  record,  according  to  the  reckoning  before  the  Flood  ; 
but  the  length  of  the  years  of  that  time  is  not  ascertained  ;  hence  there  is 
no  fixed  principle  to  determine  the  real  ages  of  that  epoch. 

LONGITUDE,  determined  by  Hipparchus  at  Nice,  who  fixed  the  first  degree 
in  the  Canaries,  162  b.  c.  Harrison  made  a  time-keej^er  in  a.  d.  1759,  which 
in  two  voyages  was  found  to  correct  the  longitude  within  the  limits  required 
by  the  act  of  parliament,  12th  Anne,  1714  ;  and  in  1763,  he  applied  for  the 
reward  of  20,000Z.  offered  by  that  act,  which  he  received.  The  celebrated 
Le  Roi  of  Paris,  in  1776,  invented  a  watch  that  keeps  time  better;  and  the 
chronometers  of  Arnold,  Eai-nshaw,  and  Breguet  bring  the  longitude  al- 
most to  the  truth.  Philosophers  have  sought  the  longitude  in  vain ;  but 
Newton  has  said  it  will  yet  be  discovered  by  a  fool. 

LOOKING-GLASSES.  Made  only  at  Venice  in  1300.  They  were  made  in 
England,  by  Venetian  artists,  some  of  whom  took  up  their  abode  in  Lam- 
beth, in  1673. — Salmon.  The  French  excelled  in  their  manufacture  of  them 
in  the  last  century ;  but  the  English  have  brought  their  factories  to  great 
perfection  of  late  years,  and  now  make  looking-glasses  to  cover,  in  a  single 
plate,  the  -walls  of  large  rooms. 


LOT  I  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  403 

LOOM-ENGINE.  The  weaver's,  otherwise  called  the  Dutch  loom,  was  brought 
into  use  in  London  from  Holland,  in  or  about  the  year  1676,  since  when  the 
general  principal  of  the  loom  has  been  infinitely  varied  by  mechanical  in- 
genuity. There  are  about  250,000  hand-looms  in  Great  Britain,  and  75,000 
power-looms,  each  bBing  equal  to  three  hand  looms,  making  twenty-two 
yards  each  per  day.    The  steam-loom  was  introduced  in  1807. 

LORD.  In  the  Old  and  New  Testament,  Lord  is  a  particular  appellation  for 
the  supreme  majesty  of  God  and  Christ,  and  in  that  sense  cannot  be  ap- 
plied to  tiny  other  being.  With  us,  it  is  a  tei"m  of  nobility. — See  Lords  and 
Baron.  The  word  lord  is  abbreviated  from  two  syllables  :  it  was  originally 
Hlaford,  which,  by  dropping  the  aspirate  became  Laford,  and  afterwards  by 
contraction  Lord.  "The  etymology  of  this  word,"  a  writer  observes,  "is 
worth  observing,  for  it  was  composed  of  hlaf,  a  loaf  of  bread,  and/wrf,  to 
give  or  afford ;  so  that  Hlaford,  now  Lord,  implies  a  giver  of  bread ;  be- 
cause in  those  ages,  such  great  men  kept  extraordinary  houses,  and  fed  the 
poor  ;  for  which  reason  they  were  called  givers  of  bread." — See  Ladies.  The 
nickname  of  "  My  Lord,"  given  by  vulgar  people  to  hunchbacked  persons, 
is  from  the  Greek  word  lordos,  crooked. — Haydn. 

LORDS.  The  now  recognized  nobility  of  England  take  their  creation  from  the 
1st  of  William  the  Conqueror,  1066,  when  William  Fitzosborne,  the  first 
peer,  was  made  earl  of  Hereford ;  Walter  Devereux  made  earl  of  Salisbury ; 
Copsi,  earl  of  Northumberland;  Henry  de  Ferrei'S  made  earl  of  Derby,  and 
Gerbodus  (a  Fleming)  made  earl  of  Chester.  Twenty-two  other  peers  were 
made  in  this  sovereign's  reign.  Peers  of  England  are  free  from  all  arrests 
for  debts,  as  being  the  king's  hereditary  counsellors.  Therefoi'e  a  peer  can- 
not be  outlawed  in  any  civil  action,  and  no  attachment  lies  against  his  per- 
son; but  execution  may  be  taken  upon  his  lands  ^nd  goods.  For  the  same 
reason,  they  are  free  from  all  attendance  at  courts  leet  or  sheriff's  turns;  or, 
in  case  of  a  riot,  from  attending  the  posse  comitatus.  See  Baron;  Earl; 
Marquess,  &c. 

LORDS,  House  of.  The  peers  of  England  were  summoned  ad  consulenduvi,  to 
consult,  in  early  reigns,  and  were  summoned  by  writ  6  and  7  John,  1205. 
The  commons  did  not  form  a  part  of  the  great  council  of  the  nation  until 
some  ages  after  the  conquest. — Hume.  Deputies  from  certain  boroughs 
were  returned  to  meet  the  barons  and  the  clergy  in  1258. —  Goldsmith.  And 
writs  are  extant  of  the  date  of  Jan.  23, 1265 ;  but  several  historians  maintain 
that  the  first  regular  parliament  of  the  three  estates,  as  now  constituted,  was 
held  22  Edward  I.,  1293-4.  The  house  of  lords  includes  the  spiritual  as  well 
as  temporal  peers  of  England.  The  bishops  are  supposed  to  hold  cer- 
tain ancient  baroni'^s  under  the  king,  in  right  whereof  they  have  seats  in 
this  house.  The  teuij)oral  lords  consist  of  the  several  degrees  of  nobility : 
some  sit  bj^  descent,  as  do  all  ancient  peers ;  some  by  creation,  as  all  new- 
made  peers ;  and  others  by  election,  since  the  union  with  Scotland  in  1707, 
and  with  Ireland  in  1801.  Scotland  elects  16  representative  peers,  and  Ire- 
land 4  spiritual  lords  by  rotation  in  sessions,  and  28  temporal  peers  for  life. 
The  house  of  lords  now  consists  of  3  princes,  20  dukes,  21  marquesses,  115 
earls,  22  viscounts,  201  barons,  16  Scotch  lords,  28  Irish  lords,  26  English 
prelates,  and  4  Irish  bishops — in  all  456  peers. 

LOTTERY,  STATE.  The  first  mentioned  in  English  history  began  drawing  at 
the  western  door  of  St.  Paul's  cathedral,  January  11,  1569,  and  continued 
day  and  knight  until  May  6  following.  Its  profits  were  for  repairing  the 
fortifications  on  the  coast  of  England,  and  the  prizes  were  pieces  of  plate. 
The  first  lottery  mentioned  for  sums  of  money  took  place  in  1630.  Lotte- 
ries were  established  in  1693,  and  for  more  than  130  years  yielded  a  large 
annual  revenue  to  the  crown.    The  Irish  state  lottery  was  drawn  in  Dublia 


404  THE    AVOJtLU's    niOGRESS.  [  hVT 

in  1780.  All  lotteries  were  suppressed  in  France  bj^  a  decree  of  the  national 
convention,  Iv  ov.  15, 1793.  They  were  abolished  in  England,  1826 ;  and  an  act 
was  passed  imposing  a  penalty  of  501.  for  advertising'tbreign  or  any  lotteries 
in  the  British  newspapers,  1836.  Abolished  in  Bavaria  by  unanimous  vote 
of  the  deputies,  Oct.  19, 1847.  They  have  long  been  abolished  in  New  Eng- 
land ;  in  New  York  they  were  prohibited  about  1830.  In  nearly  all  the  states 
thei-e  is  a  penalty  against  lotteries  not  specially  authorized  by  the  legislatures. 

I/JUISIANA,  One  of  the  United  States.  First  explored  by  the  French,  and 
received  its  name  in  1682,  from  M.  La  Salle,  in  honor  of  Louis 'XIV.,  and  a 
settlement  was  attempted  in  1684,  but  failed.  In  1699,  a  more  successful 
attempt  was  made  by  M.  Iberville,  who  entered  the  Miss.,  and  founded  a 
colony.  His  efforts  were  folowed  up  by  one  Crozat,  a  man  of  wealth,  who 
held  the  exclusive  trade  of  the  country  for  a  number  of  years.  About  the 
year  1717,  he  transferred  his  interest  in  the  province  to  a  chartered  company, 
at  the  head  of  which  was  the  notorious  John  Law,  whose  national  bank  and 
Mississippi  speculation  involved  the  ruin  of  half  the  French  nobility.  In 
1731;  the  company  resigned  the  concern  to  the  crown,  who,  in  1762,  ceded 
the  whole  of  Louisiana  to  Spain.  In  1800,  Spain  reconveyed  the  province 
to  the  French,  of  whom  it  was  purchased  by  the  United  States,  in  1803,  for 
il5,000,000.  The  purchase  included  the  territory  of  the  United  States  ^Y.  of 
the  Mississippi.  In  1812,  the  present  State  of  Louisiana  formed  a  constitu- 
tion, and  was  admitted  into  the  Union.  Population  in  1810,  76.556 ;  in  1820, 
153,407;  in  1830,  215,575;  in  1840,  352,411,  including  168,452  slaves. 

LOUVRE.  This  renowned  edifice  in  Paris  was  a  roj^al  residence  in  the  reign 
of  Dagobert,  a.  d.  628 ;  but  Francis  I.  laid  the  foundation  of  what  is  now 
called  the  Old  Louvre,  1522.  Here  were  deposited  the  finest  collection  of 
paintings,  of  statues,  and  treasures  of  art  known  in  the  world.  The  chief 
of  them  were  brought  from  Italy  during  the  triumph  of  Bonaparte's  arms, 
but  most  of  them  have  since  been  restored  to  the  rightful  possessors. 

LUCCA,  The  Ddchy  of,  adjoining  Tuscan}^.  On  the  fall  of  the  Lombard, king- 
dom, A.  D.  774,  it  was  annexed  to  the  German  empire.  In  1815  it  was  occupied 
by  the  Austrians  and  granted  to  Maria  Louisa,  daughter  of  Charles  IV.  of 
Spain.  The  duke  retires  to  Massa,  but  returns  and  yields  to  his  people's 
demand  for  reforms,  Sept.  3,  1847  :  appointed  a  regency  and  again  fled, 
Sept.  15.  The  duchy  sold  by  the  duke  to  Tuscany  for  an  annuity  of  $215,- 
000,  until  he  should  succeed  to  the  duchy  of  Parma,  on  the  death  of  Maria 
Louisa,  j^resent  duchess,  Oct.  10,  1847. 

LUCIA,  St.  First  settled  by  the  French  in  1650.  Taken  by  the  British  several 
tirfies  in  the  subsequent  wars.  Memorable  insurrection  of  the  French 
ne^-roes,  April  1795.  In  this  year  Guadaloupe,  St.  Vincent,  Grenada,  Domi- 
nica, St.  Eustatia,  and  St.  Lucie,  wei-e  taken  by  the  British.  St.  Lucia  was 
restored  to  France  at  the  peace  of  1802 ;  but  was  again  siezed  on  by  Eng- 
land the  next  year,  and  confirmed  to  her  by  the  treaty  of  Paris  in  18l4. 
See  Colonies. 

LUNEVILLE,  Peace  of,  concluded  between  the  French  republic  and  the  em- 
peror of  Germany,  confirming  the  cessions  made  by  the  treaty  of  Campo 
Formio,  stipulating  that  the  Rhine,  to  the  Dutch  territories,  should  form 
the  boundary  of  France,  and  recognizing  the  independence  of  the  Batavian, 
Helvetic,  Ligurian,  and  Cisalpine  republics,  Feb.  9,  1801. 

LUSTRUM.  An  expiatory  sacrifice  made  for  the  whole  body  of  the  Roman 
people,  at  the  end  of  every  five  years,  after  the  census  had  been  taken,  572 
B.  c.  Every  five  years  were  called  a  lustrum ;  and  ten,  fifteen,  or  twenty 
years  were  commonly  expressed  by  two,  three,  or  four  lustra. 

LTJTHERANISM.  Sprung  up  in  Germany  in  1517,  in  which  year  Leo  X.  pub- 
lished his  indulgences  for  money ;  and  Iccelius,  a  Dominican  friar,  who  waa 


LYC  j  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  405 

deputed  with  others  of  his  order  to  collect  in  Saxony,  carried  his  zeal  to  such 
a  height  as  to  declare  his  commission  unbounded ;  that  no  crime  could  be 
committed  too  great  to  be  pardoned :  and  that  by  purchasing  indulgences, 
not  only  past  sins,  but  those  which  were  intended,  were  to  be  forgiven. 
Against  these  practices  Luther  openly  preached  Avith  wonderful  success,  and 
thus  began  the  Reformation  in  Germany. — Melchior  Adam,  in  Vita  Lutheri. 

LUTZEN,  Battle  of,  between  the  French  army  commanded  by  Napoleon  on 
the  one  side,  and  the  combined  armies  of  Russia  and  Prussia,  commanded 
by  general  Wittgenstein,  fought  Maj^  2, 1813.  This  sanguinary  battle  opened 
the  campaign  of  that  year ;  and  though  each  of  the  adversaries  claimed  the 
victorJ^  it  was  manifestly  on  the  side  of  France ;  but  in  this  engagement 
marshal  Duroc  was  mortally  wounded.  The  battles  of  Bautzen  and  Wurt- 
zen  immediately  followed  (May  20  and  26),  both  in  favor  of  Napoleon,  when 
the  allies  were  compelled  to  pass  the  Oder,  and  an  armistice  was  agreed  to, 
and  afterwards  prolonged,  but  unfortunately  for  the  French  emperor  it  did 
not  produce  peace. 

LUTZENGEN,  or  LUTZEN,  Battle  op  ;  Gustavus  Adolphus,  king  of  Sweden, 
against  the  emperor.  In  this  sanguinary  and  memorable  battle,  Gustavus, 
the  most  illustrious  hero  of  his  time,  and  the  chief  support  of  the  Protest- 
ant religion  in  Germany,  and  in  alliance  with  Charles  L  of  England,  was 
foully  killed  in  the  moment  of  victory,  Nov.  6, 1632.  This  is  also  called  the 
battle  of  Lippstadt. 

LUXEMBURG.  Considered  the  strongest  fortress  in  the  world.  It  was  taken 
and  pillaged  by  the  French  in  1543 ;  was  taken  by  the  Spaniards  in  1544 ; 
by  the  French  in  1684  ;  and  restored  to  Spain  in  1697.  It  was  again  taken 
by  the  French  in  1701 ;  and  afterwards  given  to  the  Dutch  as  a  barrier  town, 
and  ceded  to  the  emperor  at  the  peace  in  1713.  These  are  among  the  chief 
occurrences.  Luxemburg  withstood  several  sieges  in  the  last  century ;  it 
surrendered  to  the  French  after  a  long  and  memorable  siege,  June  7,  1795. 
The  garrison,  on  their  capitulation,  took  an  oath  not  to  serve  against  the  re- 
public of  France  until  exchanged,  and  were  conducted  to  the  right  side  of 
the  Rhine  immediately  after. 

LUXURY.  The  instances  of  extravagance  and  luxirry  are  numerous  in  the  his- 
tory of  almost  all  countries,  ancient  and  modern,  and  many  laws  have  been 
enforced  to  repress  them.  Horace  mentions  fowls  dressed  in  Falernian  wine, 
muscles  and  oysters  from  the  Lucrine  lake  and  Circean  promontory,  and 
black  game  from  the  Umbrian  forests. — Lardner.  Lucullus,  at  Rome,  was 
distinguished  for  the  immoderate  expenses  of  his  meals ;  his  halls  were 
named  from  the  different  gods ;  and  when  Cicero  and  Porapey  attempted  to 
surprise  him,  they  were  amazed  by  the  costliness  of  a  supper  which  had  been 
prepared  upon  the  word  of  Lucullus,  who  merely  ordered  his  attendants  to 
serve  it  in  the  hall  of  Apollo :  this  feast  for  three  persons  casually  met, 
would  have  sufficed  for  three  hundred  nobles  specially  invited.  In  England, 
luxurj^  was  restricted  by  a  law  wherein  the  prelates  and  nobility  were  con- 
fined to  two  courses  every  meal,  and  two  kinds  of  food  in  every  course, 
except  on  gi-eat  festivals.  The  law  also  prohibited  all  who  did  not  enjoy  a 
free  estate  of  lOOZ.  per  annmn,  from  wearing  furs  (see  Furs),  skins,  or  siik : 
and  the  use  of  foreign  cloth  was  confined  to  the  royal  family  alone ;  to  all 
others  it  was  prohibited,  a.  d.  1337.  An  edict  was  issued  by  Charles  VI.  o[ 
France,  Avhich  said,  "  Let  no  man  presume  to  treat  with  more  than  a  soup 
and  two  dishes,"  1340. 

LYCEUM  The  Lyceum  took  its  name  from  its  having  been  originally  a  tem- 
ple of  Apollo  Lyceus ;  or  rather,  a  portico,  or  gallery,  built  by  Lyceus,  son 
of  Apollo.  The  Lyceum  was  a  celebrated  spot  near  the  banks  of  the  llis- 
sus  in  Attica  where  Aristotle  taught  philosophy ;  anrl  as  he  generally  tauglit 


406 


THE    world's    progress. 


[lyr 


his  pupils  while  he  walked,  hence  they  were  called  peripatetics,  and  his  phi- 
losophy was  called  from  this  place,  the  philosophy  of  the  Lyceum,  342  b.  c. 
— Stanley. 

LYDIA.  A  very  ancient  kingdom  under  a  long  dynasty  of  kings,  the  last  of 
whom  was  Croesus,  whose  riches  became  a  proverb :  he  was  conquered  by 
Cyrus,  548  b.  c.  The  coinage  of  money  of  gold  and  silver  (together  with 
many  other  useful  inventions,  and  the  encouragement  of  commerce)  is  as- 
cribed to  the  Lydians.  A  number  of  illustrious  men  flourished  here. — Hero- 
dotus. 


Argon,  a  descendant  of  Hercules,  reigns 
in  Lydia. — Herod.  -  b.  c.  1223 

The  kingdom  of  Lydia,  properly  so 
called,  begins  under  Ardysus  L — 
Blair 797 

Alyattes  reigns   ....    761 

Meles  commences  his  rule  -  -      -    747 

Reign  of  Candaules        .  -  -    735 

Gyges,  first  of  the  race  called  Mermna- 
dse,  J3uts  Candaules  to  death,  marries 
his  queen,  usurps  ihe  throne,  and 
makes  great  conquests 

Ardysus  II.  reigns ;  the  Cimbri  besiege 
Sardis,  the  capital  of  Lydia 

The  Milesian  war  commenced  under 
Gyges,  is  continued  by  Sadyattes,  who 
reigns  .... 

Reign  of  Alyattes  n. 

Battle  upon  the  river  Halys  between  the 
Lydians  and  Medes,  intercepted  by  an 
almost  toial  eclipse  of  the  sun,  which 
superstitiously  occasions  a  conclu- 
sion of  the  war. — Blair     -    May  2S, 

[This  eclipse  had  been  predicted  many 
years  before  by  Thales,  of  Miletus. — 


718 


585 


CrcEsus,  son  of  Alyattes,  succeeds  to  the 
throne,  and  becomes  celebrated  for  his 
victories  and  conquests  -    b.  c.    562 

Ephesus  falls  into  his  hands ;  the  loni- 
ans,  Cohans,  and  other  parts  of  Asia 
Minor  are  subjected  to  his  dominion  -    551 

All  the  nations  west  of  the  Halys  are 
conquered,  and  that  river  becomes 
the  boundary  of  the  kingdom.Blair  ■   550 

Crcesus,  dreading  the  power  of  Cyrus, 
whose  conquests  had  reached  to  the 
borders  of  I^ydia,  crosses  the  Halys 
to  attack  the  Medes,  with  an  army  of 
420,000  men  and  60,000  horse  .   548 

He  is  defeated  by  Cyrus,  pursued,  be- 
sieged in  his  capital,  and  taken       -    548 

The  conqueror  orders  Crossus  to  be 
bui'ned  alive,  and  the  pile  is  already 
on  fire,  when  he  calls  on  the  name  of 
Solon  in  agony  of  mindj  and  Cyrus 
hearing  him  pronounce  it,  spares  his 
life  - 548 

Lydia,  the  kingdom  of  the  "richest  of 
mankind,"  is  made  a  province  of  the 
Persian  empire  .  .  -    548 


Blair.] 

.^sop,  the  Phrygian  fabulist,  Alcman,  the  first  Greek  poet  who  wrote  in  a 
style  of  gallantry,  Thales  of  Miletus,  Anaximenes,  Xenophanes,  Anacreon  of 
Teos,  Heraclitus  of  Ephesus,  &c.,  flourished  in  Lydia.  The  country  remain- 
ed subject  to  the  Persian  empire  until  the  latter  was  conquered  by  Alexan- 
der, about  330  b.  c.  It  next  became  part  of  the  new  kingdom  of  Pergamus, 
founded  by  Philasterus,  the  eunuch  ;  Attains  afterwards  bequeathed  it  to  the 
Romans,  and  finally  the  Turks  conquered  it  from  the  Eastern  Empire,  a.  d. 
132Q.— Priestley. 

LYONS.  Founded  by  L.  Plancus,  43  b.  c.  The  city  was  reduced  to  ashes  in  a 
single  night  by  lightning,  and  was  rebuilt  in  the  reign  of  Nero.  Two  gen- 
eral councils  were  held  here  in  the  13th  and  14th  ci-ntiiries.  The  silk  man- 
ufacture commenced  in  tlie  reign  of  Francis  I.,  1515.  Lyons  was  besieged 
in  1793  by  the  convention  army  of  GO  000  men,  and  surrendered  Oct.  7, 
when  awful  scenes  of  blood  and  rapine  followed.  The  National  Convention 
decreed  the  deiuolition  of  the  city,  Oct.  12,  same  year.  It  capitulated  to  the 
Austrians,  March  1814,  and  July  1815.  An  insurrection  among  the  artisans, 
which  led  to  great  popular  excesses  for  many  days,  broke  out,  Nov.  21, 1831. 
Dreadful  riots,  April  15,  1834.  A  dreadful  inundation  occurred  at  Lyons, 
Nov  4,  1840.     See  Itiundatio7is. 

i-YRE.  Its  invention  is  ascribed  to  the  Grecian  Mercury,  who,  according  to 
Homer,  gave  it  to  Apollo,  the  first  that  played  upon  it  with  method,  and 
accompanied  it  with  poetry.  The  invention  of  the  primitive  lyre  with  three 
strings,  is  due  to  the  first  Egyptian  Hermes.  Terpander  added  several 
strings  to  the  lyre,  making  the  number  seven,  673  b.  c.  Phrynis,  a  musician 
of  Mitylene,  added  two  more  making  nine,  438  b.  c. 


MAC  ] 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES. 


407 


M. 


MACEDON.  The  first  kingdom  was  founded  by  Caramis,  about  814  e.  c.  It 
was  an  inconsiderable  country,  sometimes  under  the  protection  of  Athens, 
sometimes  of  Thebes,  and  sometimes  of  Sparta,  until  the  reign  of  Philip, 
the  father  of  Alexander  the  Great,  who  by  his  wisdom  as  a  politician,  and 
exploits  as  a  general,  made  it  a  powerful  kingdom,  and  paved  the  way  to  his 
son's  greatness.  Macedon  had  twenty-one  kings,  from  Caranus  to  Alexan- 
der inclusive:  after  the  conqueror's  death,  when  his  dominions  were  divid- 
ed among  his  generals,  Cassander  seized  Macedon,  and  established  a  new 
kingdom.     See  Tabular  Views,  p.  15  to  p.  37. 


Reign  of  Caranus         -  -        B.C. 

Reign  of  Perdiccas  I.         •  •        • 

Reign  of  Argaeus  I.         •  -  - 

Reign  of  Pliilip  I      -  -  -      - 

Reign  of  .3Eropas ;  he  conquers  the  lUy- 

rians      -  -  .  -  - 

Reign  of  Amyntas    -  •  -      - 

Reign  of  Alexander  I.    - 

Reign  of  Perdiccas  II.         -  -      - 

Archelaus,  natural  son  of  Perdiccas, 

murders  the  legitimate  heirs  of  his 

father,  and  seizes  the  throne   - 

He  is  surnamed  the  "  Patron  of  Learn- 


602 

547 
497 
454 


413 


-    411 


399 
399 
398 

397 


392 
390 
371 
370 
366 
360 

360 


He  is  mvtrdered  by  a  favorite  to  whom 
he  promised  liis  daughter  in  marriage, 
yet  gave  her  to  another 
Reign  of  Amyntas  II.  -  -      - 

He  is  driven  from  the  throne     - 
Recovers  his  crown,  and  puts  Pausanias 

to  death  .... 

The  lUyrians  enter  l\Iacedonia,  expsl 

Amyntas,  and  put  Argseus,  brother  of 

Pausanias,  on  the  throne 
Amyntas  again  recovers  his  kingdom  - 
Reign  of  Alexander  II.   - 
He  is  assassinated     -  •  -      - 

Reign  of  Perdiccas  111.   - 
He  IS  killed  in  battle 
Reign  of  Philip  II.  and  institution  of  the 

Macedonian  phalanx  - 
Philip  gains  the  battle  of  Methon  over 

the  Athenians  -  .  -  - 

He  defeats  the  Illyrians  in  a  desperate 

engagement  -  -  ■      • 

He  takes  Amphipolis,  and  receives  an 

arrow  in  his  right  eye.    See  Archery  358 
He  conquers  Thrace  and  Illyria  -    356 

Birth  of  Alexander  the  Great  -  •  356 
Philip  adds  to  his  conquests      -  -    348 

Close  of  the  first  sacred  war  -      -    348 

lUyricum  overrun  by  the  army  of  Philip  344 
Thrace  made  tributary  to  Macedon  -  343 
Aristotle  appointed  tutor  to  the  young 

prince  Alexander        -  -  ■    343 

War  against  the  Athenians  -      -    341 

Philip  besieges  Byzantium        -  -   341 

Battle  of  Chaeronea;  Philip  conquers. 

See  Chai'onea       -  -  -     .    338 

Philip  is  assassinated  by  Pausanias,  at 

Egffia,  during  the  celebration  of  games 

in  honor  of  his  daughter's  nuptials    - 
Alexander  III.,  surnamed  the  Great, 

succeeds  his  father 
He  enters  Greece      -  -  -      - 

The  Greeks  appoint  him  general  of  iheir 

armies  against  the  Persians   - 
Tlie  Thebans  revolt ;  he  levels  Thebe.-: 


814  1  to  the  ground ;  the  house  of  Pindar  is 
729  I  alone  left  standing 
678  I  The  Almighty  iavors  Alexander  with  a 
640  vision,  in  which  the  high-priest  of  the 
Jews  appears  to  him,  exhorting  him 
to  pass  into  Asia.     See  Jeuis 

He  passes  into  Asia,  and  gains  his  first 
battle  over  Dariu;.  See  Granicus, 
Battle  of  ■  ■  -  - 

Sardis  surrenders  to  the  conqueror ;  Ha- 
licarnassus  is  taken,  and  numerous 
cities  in  Asia  Minor    . 

Memnon  ravages  the  Cyclades ;  Darius 
takes  the  field  with  460,000  infantry 
and  100,000  cavalry     - 

Battle  of  Issus  {lohich  see)  - 

Alexander,  in  liis  way  to  Egypt,  lays 
siege  to  Tyre,  which  is  destroyed  after 
seven  months   .... 

Damascus  is  taken,  and  the  vast  trea- 
sures of  Darius  come  into  the  posses- 
sion of  the  victor 

Gaza  surrenders       -  -  -      - 

Alexander  enters  Jerusalem  ;  and 
Egypt  conquered 

Alexandria  founded  -  •  -      • 

Great  battle  of  Arbela,  the  third  and 
last  between  Alexander  and  Darius  ; 
the  Persian  army  totally  defeated. 
See  Arbela       .... 

Alexander  proclaimed  master  of  Asia ; 
he  enters  Babylon  in  triumph 


360 
3.59 


336 


135 


335 


334 


333 
333 


332 


332 
332 


332 
332 


GEBCIAN  OR  MACEDONIAN  EMPIRE. 

.Alexander  sits  on  the  throne  of  Darius, 
at  Susa  -       .    - 

Parthia  and  Hyrcania  are  overrun  by 
Alexander  -  -  -  -      - 

Thalestris,  queen  of  the  Amazons,  visits 
him,  attended  by  a  retinue  of  300  wo^ 
men.     See  Amazons' - 

He  puts  his  i'riend  Parmenio  to  death, 
on  a  charge  of  conspiracy,  supposed 
to  be  false         .... 

Alexander  makes  more  conquests 

His  expedition  to  India ;  Porus,  king  uf 
India,  is  defeated  and  taken ;  and  the 
country  as  far  as  the  Ganges  is  over- 
run       ..... 

Calisihenes  is  put  to  the  torture  for  re- 
fusing to  render  divine  homage  to 
Alexander  -  -  -  -      - 

Subjection  of  the  Cosseans 

Death  of  Alexander 

His  conquests  are  divided  among  his 
generals  .  .  .  . 

His  remains  are  transported  to  Alexan- 
dria, and  buried  by  Ptolemy 


331 
331 

330 
329 

-   329 


329 
328 


32i 


326 
326 
323 


32W 


40)8  THE    world's    TROGRESS.  [  MAD 


MACEDON,  continued. 

The  Greeks  defeated  by  sea  and  land 

near  Cranon  (lohich  see)  -  b.  c.  322 

Thebes  rebuilt  by  Cassander    -  -  315 

Seleucus  recovers  Babylon  -      -  312 

Cassander  puts  Roxana  and  her  son  to 

death,  and  usurps  the  throne  -  311 

Battle  of  Ipsus  (which  see)  -  -      -  301 

New  division  of  the  empire       -  -  301 


Reign  of  Antigonus  Gonatus     -     B.C.  277 
Pyrrhus  invades  Macedon,  defeats  An- 

tigonus,  and  is  proclaimed  king  -  274 

Pyrrhus  slain ;  Antisonus  restored  -  272 

Antigonus  takes  Athens  -           -  -  268 

The  Gauls  again  invade  Macedon  -  268 

Revolt  of  the  Parthians           -  -  250 

Reign  of  Demetrius  II.        -           -  -  242 

Reign  of  Philip,  his  son  "        -  -  2-32 

His  Vf-Ax  against  the  Rhodians       -  -  202 

Philip  is  defeated  by  the  Romans  -  198 

He  is  totally  subdued          -           -  -  196 

The  reign  of  Perseus      -           -  -  179 

Perseus  defeated  by  the  Romans  -  171 


MACEDON  II. 

Death  of  Cassander  -  -  -      -  298 

Reign  of  Alexander  and  Antipater       -  298 
Demetrius   mi;rders    Alexander,    and 

seizes  the  erown  of  Macedon  -  -  294 

Irruption  of  the  Gauls         -  -      -  279 

The  consul  ^inilius  Paulu,s  enters  Macedon,  and  pronounces  it  a  Roman 
province.  Perseus  and  liis  sons  are  made  prisoners,  168  b.  c,  and  next  year 
walk  in  chains  before  the  chariot  of  Emilias  in  his  triumph  for  the  conquest 
of  Macedon.  The  country  is  finally  conquered  \>y  the  Turks  under  Amuratli 
II.  iu  A.  D.  1429.     Pnestley. 

MACHIAVELIAN  PRINCIPLES.  These  are  principles  laid  down  by  Nicho- 
las Machiavel,  of  Florence,  in  his  Practice  of  Politics,  and  The  Prince.  By 
some  they  are  stigmatized  as  "  the  most  pernicious  maxims  of  government, 
founded  on  the  vilest  policy  ;"  and  bj'  others  as  "  sound  doctrines,  notwith- 
standing the  prejudice  erroneousl.v  raised  against  them."  The  work  appeared 
in  1517  ;  and  was  translated  into  English  in  1761.* 

MADAGASCAR.  One  of  the  largest  islands  iu  the  world,  discovered  by  Lo- 
renzo Almeida  A.  d.  1506.  In  the  centre  of  the  island  is  said  to  exist  a  race 
of  dwarfs,  with  a  strange  peculiaritj'  of  form ;  but  this  rests  on  the  unsup- 
ported statement  of  a  French  traveller  who  was  in  possession  of  a  preserved 
pigmy  which  he  had  brought  from  Madagascar.  A  paper  describing  the 
pigmy  was  presented  to  the  Royal  Society  by  an  eminent  physician,  in  1809. 

MADEIRA.  So  called  on  account  of  its  woods ;  it  was  discovered,  it  is  said, 
by  Mr.  Macham,  an  English  gentleman,  or  mariner,  who  fled  from  England 
for  an  illicit  amor.  He  was  driven  here  by  a  storm,  and  his  mistress,  a  French 
lady,  dying,  lie  made  a  canoe,  and  carried  the  news  of  his  discovery  to 
Pedro,  king  of  Arragon,  which  occasioned  the  report  that  the  island  was 
discovered  by  a  Portuguese,  a.  d.  1345.  But  it  is  maintained  that  the  Por- 
tuguese did  not  visit  this  island  until  1419,  nor  did  they  colonize  it  until  1431. 
It  was  taken  possession  of  by  the  British  in  July  1801.  And  again,  by  admi- 
ral Hood  and  general  (now  viscount)  Beresford,  Dec.  24,  1807,  and  retained 
in  trust  for  the  royal  family  of  Portugal,  which  had  just  then  emigrated  to 
the    Brazils.       It  was  subsequently  restored  to  the  Portuguese  crown. 

MADRAS.  Colonized  by  the  English  and  Fort  George  built  by  permission  of 
the  king  of  Golconda,  17  James  I.,  1620.  Madras  was  taken  by  the  French 
in  1746.  and  was  restored  in  1749,  immediately  after  the  peace  of  Aix-la- 
Chapelle. 

MADRID.  Mentioned  in  history  as  a  castle  belonging  to  the  Moors.  It  was 
sacked  a.  d.  1109.  It  was  made  the  seat  of  the  Spanish  court  in  1516.  The 
Escurial  was  built  in  1557,  et  seq.  The  old  palace  was  burnt  down  in  1734. 
The  French  took  possession  of  this  city  in  March  1808,  after  the  royal  family 
had  retired  into  France ;  and  on  May  2,  the  citizens  rose  up  in  arms  to 

*  Tlie  writings  of  this  celebrated  politician  countenanced  (another  commentator  sa)|s)  "the  doing 
of  any  act  to  compass  or  bring  about  those  things  which  are  neither  honorable  nor  just,  whereby 
ambitious  sovereigns  or  evil  "ministers  may  accomplish  what  their  extravagant  desires  proiT  pt 
ihem  t'l,  :ii  iho  expense  oftheir  subjects'  peace,  or  their  rnimti-y's  safely."— jF'erg-wsow. 


mag]  dictionary  of  dates.  409 

expel  them,  when  a  dreadful  conflict  and  carnage  took  place.  Joseph  Bona- 
parte entered  Madrid  as  king  of  Spain,  July  20,  1808;  but  soon  retired. 
Retaken  by  the  French  Dec.  2,  same  year ;  and  retained  till  Aug.  12,  1812, 
jvhen  Madrid  was  entered  bjs  the  British  army.  Ferdinand  VII.  was  restored 
May  14,  1814.  Madrid  was  the  scene  of  various  occurrences  during  the 
late  civil  war,  for  which  see  Spain. 

MAESTRICHT.  This  city  revolted  from  Spain  1570,  and  was  taken  by  the 
prince  of  Parma  in  1579.  In  1632,  the  prince  of  Orange  reduced  it  after  a 
memorable  siege,  and  it  was  confirmed  to  the  Dutch  in  1648.  Lewis  XIV. 
took  it  in  1673 ;  Wilham  prince  of  Orange  invested  it  in  vain,  in  1676 ;  but, 
in  1678,  it  was  restored  to  the  Dutch.  In  1748,  it  was  besieged  by  the  French, 
who  were  permitted  to  take  possession  of  the  city  on  condition  of  its  being 
restored  at  the  peace  then  negotiating.  At  the  commencement  of  1793,  Maes- 
tricht  was  unsuccessfully  attacked  by  the  French,  but  they  became  masters 
of  it  toward  the  end  of  the  following  year.  In  1814,  it  was  delivered  up  to  the 
allied  forces. 

MAGDALENS  and  MAGDALENETI^S.  Communities  of  nuns  and  women, 
the  latter  class  consisting  chiefly  ot  penitent  courtesans.  The  convent  of 
N9,ples  was  endowed  by  queen  Sancha  a.  d.  1324.  That  at  Metz  was  institu- 
ted in  1452.  At  Paris,  1492.  The  Magdalen  at  Rome  was  endowed  by 
pope  Leo  X.,  in  1515;  and  Clement  VIII.  settled  a  revenue  on  the  nuns,  and 
further  ordained  that  the  effects  of  all  public  prostitutes  who  died  without 
will  should  fall  to  them,  and  that  those  who  made  wills  should  not  have 
their  bequests  sanctioned  by  the  law  unless  thej'  bequeathed  a  part  of  their 
effects  to  the  Magdalen  institution,  which  part  was  to  be  at  least  one-fifth, 
1594.  The  Magdalen  hospital,  London,  was  founded  in  1758,  principally 
under  the  direction  of  Dr.  Dodd.  In  New- York  a  similar  institution  called 
"a  Home  for  the  friendless,"  was  founded,  1846. 

MAGELLAN,  Straits  of.  'They  were  passed  by  Ferdinand  Magellan  (Fer- 
nando de  Magelhaens)  a  Portuguese,  with  a  fleet  of  discovery  fitted  out  by 
the  emperor  Charles  V.,  in  1519.  The  first  voyage  round  the  world  was 
undertaken  by  this  illustrious  navigator ;  and  his  vessel  performed  the  en- 
terprise although  the  commander  perished.  The  Spaniards  had  a  fort  here, 
since  called  cape  Famine,  because  the  garrison  had  all  perished  for  want 
of  food. 

MAGI,  OR  WORSHIPPERS  OF  FIRE.  The  prime  object  of  the  adoration  of 
the  Persians  was  the  invisible  and  incomprehensible  God,  whom,  not  know- 
ing, they  worshipped  as  the  principle  of  all  good,  and  they  paid  particular 
homage  to  fire,  as  the  emblem  of  his  power  and  purity.  They  built  no  altars 
nor  temples,  as  they  deemed  it  absurd  to  pretend  to  confine  an  omnipresent 
■  God  within  walls ;  accordingly  their  sacred  fires  blazed  in  the  open  air,  and 
their  offerings  were  made  upon  the  earth.  The  Magi  were  their  priests,  and 
their  skill  in  astronomy  rendered  the  secrets  of  nature  familiar  to  them,  so 
that  the  term  Magi  was  at  length  applied  to  all  learned  men,  till  they  were 
finally  confounded  with  the  magicians.  Zoroaster,  king  of  Bactria,  was  the 
reformer  of  the  sect  of  the  Magi :  he  flourished  1080  b.  c. — Dio  F'resnoij. 

MAGIC  LANTERN.  This  was  the  invention  of  the  illustrious  Roger  Bacon. 
England's  great  philosopher,  about  a.  d.  1260.  Bacon  first  invented  the  con- 
vex magnifying  glasses  in  1252 ;  and  he  afterwards,  in  his  many  experiments, 
applied  them  to  this  use. 

MAGNA  CHARTA.  The  great  charter  of  English  liberty  may  be  said  to  have 
been  derived  from  Edward  the  Confessor,  continued  by  Henry  I.  and  his 
successors,  Stephen,  Henry  II..  and  John.  But  the  Charter  more  particiilarly 
meant,  was  a  body  of  laws,  the  great  cliarter  of  our  rights  granted  by  John. 

18 


410  THE  world's  progress.  ■  [maJ 

and  signed  at  Runnymede,  near  Windsor,  June  15,  1215.  The  barons  took 
arms  to  enforce  this  sacred  possession,  which  was  many  times  confirmed, 
and  as  frequently  violated,  by  Henry  III.  This  last  king's  grand  charter 
was  granted  in  the  9th  year  of  his  reign,  1224,  and  was  assured  by  Edward 
I.  It  is  remarked,  that  when  Henry  III.  granted  it,  he  swore  on  the  word 
and  faith  of  a  king,  a  Christian,  and  a  knight,  to  observe  it.  For  tliis  grant 
a  fifteenth  of  all  moveable  goods  were  given  to  the  king,  whether  they  were 
temporals  or  spirituals ;  yet  sir  Edward  Coke  says  tliat  even  in  his  days  it 
liad  been  confirmed  above  thirty  times. 

MAGNET.  Sturmius,  in  his  Epistola,  dated  at  Altorf,  1682,  observes  that  the 
attractive  qiiality  of  the  magnet  has  been  taken  notice  of  from  time  im- 
memorial ;  but,  that  it  was  our  coimtrjonan,  Roger  Bacon,  of  Ilchester,  in 
Somersetsliire  (he  died  the  17th  June,  1294),  who  first  discovered  its  pro- 
perty of  pointing  to  the  north  pole.  The  Italians  discovered  that  it  could 
communicate  its  virtue  to  steel  or  iron.  The  variation  not  being  always  the 
same  was  taken  notice  of  by  Hevelius,  Petil,  and  others.  Flavio  Gioja,  of 
Naples,  invented  or  improved  the  mariner's  compass,  in  1302.  The  impor- 
tant discovery  of  the  inclination  or  dip  of  the  magnetic  needle  was  made 
about  1576  (published  1580)  by  Robert  Norman,  of  London.  Dr.  Gilbert's 
experiment  was  made  in  1600.  Artificial  magnets  were  invented,  or  rather 
improved,  in  1751.  A  magnetic  clock,  invented  by  Dr.  Locke,  of  Ohio,  an- 
nounced at  Washington,  Jan.  5,  1849. 

MAHOMETISM.  See  Alcoran  and  Koran.  The  creed  of  Mahomet  was  pro- 
mulgated A.  D.  604,  by  Mahomet,  styled  by  some  writers  as  a  renowned 
general  and  politician ;  and  by  others  as  a  successful  impostor  and  tyrant. 
Mahomet  asserted  that  the  Koran  was  revealed  to  him  by  the  angel  Gabriel 
during  a  period  of  twenty-three  years.  It  was  Avritten  in  the  Koreish  Ara- 
bic, which  he  asserted  was  the  language  of  Paradise,  and  it  is  considered 
as  possessing  every  fine  qualitj''  of  a  language.  It  has  1000  terms  for  sword, 
500  for  lion,  200  for  serpent,  and  80  for  honey.  It  is  spoken  and  wi'itten  in 
various  parts  of  Asia  and  Africa.  Mahomet  died  in  631,  of  the  effects,  it  is 
said,  of  a  slow  poison,  given  to  him  in  a  piece  of  mutton  three  years  before, 
by  a  Jew,  who  took  this  method  to  discover  if  he  was  a  true  prophet,  and 
immortal,  as  he  had  declared  himself  to  be. — Prideatix. 

MAIL-COACHES  in  ENGLAND.  Were  first  set  up  at  Bristol  in  1784;  and 
were  extended  to  other  routes  in  1785,  at  the  end  of  which  year  they  be- 
came general  in  England.  This  plan  for  the  conveyance  of  letters  was  the 
invention  of  Mr.  Palmer  of  Bath  ;  the  mails  had  been  previously  conveyed 
l)y  carts  with  a  single  horse,  or  by  boys  on  horseback. 

MAINE,  cue  of  the  United  States;  first  permanent  settlement  in,  at  Bu'stol. 
The  district  was  granted  in  1635  to  sir  Ferdinand  Gorges,  who  appointed  a 
governor  and  counciV  It  was  purchased  of  the  heirs  of  Gorges  in  1652  by 
the  State  of  Massachusetts,  for  $5,334  ;  annexed  to  Massachusetts,  under 
charter  from  William  &  Mary,  in  1691 :  became  a  separate  State  in  1820. 
Population  in  1790  was  96,540 ;  in  1810,  228,705  ;  in  1840,  501,793. 

MAJESTY.  Among  the  Romans,  the  emjDeror  and  imperial  family  were  ad- 
dressed by  this  title,  which  was  previously  given  to  their  great  officers  of 
state.  Popes  also  had  the  title  of  majesty.  The  emperors  of  Germany 
took  the  title,  and  endeavored  to  keep  it  and  the  closed  crown  to  themselves. 
It  was  first  given  to  Louis  XL  of  France,  in  1461. —  Voltaire.  Upon  Charles 
V.  being  chosen  emperor  of  Germany  in  1519,  the  kings  of  Spain  took  the 
style  of  Majesty.  Francis  I.  of  France,  at  the  interview  with  Henry  VIII.  of 
England  on  the  Field  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold,  addressed  the  latter  as  Your 
Majesty,  1520. — See  Field  of  the  Cloth  of  Gold.  James  I.  coupled  this  titlo 
with  the  term  ''  Sacred,"  and  "  Most  Excellent  Majesty."    See  Titles. 


man]  dictionary  of  dates.  41 'i 

MAJORCA  AND  MINORCA.  For  occurrences  relating  to  these  islands,  see 
Minorca. 

MALPLAQUET,  Battle  of.  The  allies  under  the  duke  of  Marlborough  and 
prince  Eugene,  against  the  arms  of  France  commanded  by  marshal  Villars. 
The  armies  consisted  on  each  side  of  nearly  120,000  choice  soldiers,  and  the 
victory  was  with  the  allies  ;  but  this  action  was  attended  with  great  slaugh- 
ter on  both  sides,  the  allies  losing  18,000  men,  which  loss  was  but  ill  repaid 
by  the  capture  of  Mons ;  fought  Sept.  11,  1709. 

MALTA,  Knights  of.  A  military-religious  order,  called  also  Hospitallers  of 
St.  John  of  Jerusalem,  Knights  of  St.  John,  and  Knights  of  Rhodes.  Some 
merchants  of  Melphis,  trading  to  the  Levant,  obtained  leave  of  the  caliph 
of  Egypt  to  build  a  house  for  those  who  came  on  pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem, 
and  whom  they  received  with  zeal  and  charity,  a.  d.  1048.  They  afterwards 
founded  a  hospital  for  the  sick,  from  whence  they  were  called  Hospitallers. 
This  foundation  v/as  laid  in  a.  d.  1104,  in  the  reign  of  Baldwin,  and  they 
now  became  a  military  order  in  1118,  into  which  many  persons  of  quality 
entered,  and  changed  their  name  into  knights.  After  the  Christians  had 
lost  their  interest  in  the  East,  and  Jerusalem  was  taken,  the  knights  retired 
to  Margett,  and  then  to  Acre,  which  they  defended  valiantly  in  1290  ;  then 
they  followed  John,  king  of  Cyprus,  who  gave  them  Limisson  in  his  domi- 
nions, where  they  staid  till  1310,  and  that  same  year  they  took  Rhodes, 
under  the  grand  master  Foulques  de  Vallaret,  and  next  year  defended  it 
under  the  duke  of  Savoy,  against  an  army  of  Saracens ;  since  when,  his 
successors  have  used  F.  E.  R.  T.  for  their  device,  that  is,  Fortitudo  ejus 
Rhodum  tenuit,  or,  he  kept  Rhodes  by  his  valor ;  from  this  they  were  called 
knights  of  Rhodes  ;  but  Rhodes  being  taken  by  Solyman  in  1522,  they  re- 
tired into  Candia,  thence  into  Sicily.  Pope  Adrian  VI.  granted  them  the 
city  of  Viterbo  for  their  retreat;  and  in  1530,  the  emperor  Charles  V.  gave 
them  the  isle  of  Malta.  The  emperor  Paul  of  Russia  declared  himself 
grand-master  of  the  order  in  June,  1799. 

MALTA.  The  memorable  siege  by  the  Turks,  who  were  obliged  to  abandon 
the  enterprise  after  the  loss  of  30,000  men,  1566.  The  island  was  taken  by 
general  Bonaparte  in  the  outset  of  his  expedition  to  Egypt,  June  12,  1798. 
He  found  in  it  1200  cannons,  200.000  lbs.  of  powder,  two  ships  of  the  line, 
a  frigate,  four  galleys,  and  40.000  muskets  :  besides  an  immense  treasure 
collected  by  superstition ;  and  4500  Turkish  prisoners,  whom  he  set  at  li- 
berty. Malta  was  blockaded  by  the  British  from  the  autumn  of  1798,  and 
was  taken  by  major-general  Pigot,  Sept.  5,  1800 ;  but,  at  the  peace  of 
Amiens,  it  was  stipulated  that  it  should  be  restored  to  the  knights.  The 
British,  however,  retained  possession,  and  the  war  recommenced  between 
the  two  nations  :  but  by  the  treaty  of  Paris,  in  1814,  the  island  was  gua- 
ranteed to  Great  Britain. 

MAMELUKES.  The  name  of  a  dynasty  which  reigned  a  considerable  time  in 
Egypt.  They  were  originally  Turkish  and  Circassian  slaves,  and  were  es- 
tablished by  the  sultan"  Saladin  as  a  kind  of  bodj^-guard,  a.  d.  1246.  They 
advanced  one  of  their  own  corps  to  the  throne,  and  continued  to  do  so  until 
Egypt  became  a  Turkish  province  in  1517,  when  the  beys  took  them  into 
pay,  and  filled  up  their  ranks  with  renegades  from  various  countries.  On 
the  conquest  of  EgJT)t  by  Bonaparte,  in  1798,  they  retreated  into  Nubia. 
Assisted  by  the  Arnauts,  who  were  introduced  into  the  country  in  the  way, 
the  Mamelukes  once  more  wrested  Egypt  from  the  Turkish  government 
In  1811  they  were  decoyed  into  the  power  of  the  Turkish  pacha,  and  slain 

MANNHEIM.  First  built  in  a.  d.  1606  ;  and  became  the  court  residence  in 
1719;  but  the  extinction  of  the  palatinate  family  in  1777  causcl  the  re- 


412  THE  WOKLD's   PROGRESS.  ["  MAK 

moval  of  the  court  to  Municli.  Battle  of  Mannheim,  between  the  armies 
of  the  allies  and  the  French,  fought  May  30,  1793.  Mannheim  surrendered 
to  the  French,  under  command  of  general  Pichegru,  Sept.  20,  1795.  On  the 
25th  of  the  same  month,  the  Austrians  under  general  Wurmser,  de- 
feated the  French  near  the  city.  Several  battles  were  fought  with  va- 
rious success  in  the  neighborhood  during  the  late  wars.  Kotzebue,  the 
popular  dramatist,  was  assassinated  at  Mannheim,  by  a  student  of  Wurtz- 
burg,  named  Sandt,  April  2,  1819. 

MANICHEANS.  An  ancient  sect,  founded  by  Manes,  which  began  to  infest 
the  East,  about  a.  d.  277.  It  spread  into  Egypt,  Arabia,  and  Africa,  and 
particularly  into  Persia.  A  rich  widow,  whose  servant  Manes  had  been, 
ieft  him  a  store  of  wealth,  after  which  he  assumed  the  title  of  apostle,  or 
envoy  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  announced  that  he  was  the  paraclete  or  cum- 
forter  that  Christ  had  promised  to  send.  He  maintained  two  principles,  the 
one  good,  and  the  other  bad ;  the  first  he  called  light,  which  did  nothing 
but  good,  and  the  second  he  called  darkness,  which  did  nothing  but  evil. 
Several  other  sects  sprung  from  the  Manicheans.  Manes  was  put  to  death 
by  Sapor,  king  of  Pei\«ia,  in  290.  His  otFence  against  this  prince  was,  his 
having  dismissed  tlie  physicians  of  the  court,  pretending  he  could  cui-e  one 
of  the  royal  family  by  his  prayers,  instead  of  which  the  patient  died  in  his 
arms. — Nouv.  Diet.  Hist. 

MANILLA.  Capital  of  the  Philippine  Isles ;  a  great  mart  of  Spanish  com- 
merce. 3000  persons  perished  here  by  an  earthquake  in  1645.  Manilla  was 
taken  by  the  English  in  1757  ;  and  again  in  Oct.  17G2,  by  storm.  The  cap- 
tors humanely  suflered  the  archbishop  to  ransom  it  for  about  a  million  ster- 
ling ;  but  gi'eat  part  of  the  ransom  never  was  paid.  Since  the  establish- 
ment of  a  free  trade  in  the  Spanish  colonies,  which  took  place  in  1788,  tho 
usual  Acapulco  ships  and  other  government  traders  have  been  discontinued  ; 
and  the  commerce  to  the  Manillas  and  other  j^arts,  is  carried  on  in  private 
bottoms  by  free  companies  of  merchants. — Butler. 

MANTINEA,  Battle  op,  between  Eparainondas,  at  the  head  of  the  Thebans, 
and  the  combined  forces  of  Lacedfemon,  Achaia,  Elis,  Athens,  and  Arcadia. 
The  Theban  general  was  killed  in  the  engagement,  and  from  that  time 
Tliebes  lost  its  power  and  consequence  among  the  Grecian  states,  363  e.  c. 
— Sirabo. 

MANTUA.  Virgil  was  born  at  a  village  near  this  city.  Mantua  surrendered 
to  the  French,  Jan  7,  1797,  after  a  siege  of  eight  months  ;  and  it  was  at- 
tacked by  the  Austrian  and  Russian  army,  July  30,  1799,  to  which  it  sur- 
rendered after  a  short  siege.  In  1800,  after  the  battle  of  Marengo,  the 
French  again  obtained  possession  of  it;  but  thej' delivered  it  up  to  the 
Austrians  in  1814. 

MAPS  AND  CHARTS.  They  were  invented  by  Anaximander,  the  Milesian 
philosopher,  a  disciple  of  Thales,  and  the  earliest  philosophical  astronomer 
on  record,  5"'0  b.  c.  He  was  also  the  first  who  constructed  spheres.  A  ce- 
lestial chart  was,  it  is  said,  constructed  in  China,  in  the  sixth  century. — 
Freret.  And  sea-charts  were  first  brought  to  England,  by  Bartholomew 
Columbus,  to  illustrate  his  brother's  theory  respecting  a  westei'n  continent, 
A.  D.  1489.  The  earliest  map  of  England  was  drawn  by  George  Lily  in  1520. 
Mercator's  chart,  in  which  the  world  was  taken  as  a  plane,  was  invented  in 
1556.  A  map  of  the  moon's  surface  was  first  drawn  at  Dantzic,  in  1647. 
See  Charts. 

MARATHON,  Battle  of.  One  of  the  most  extraordinary  in  ancient  history. 
The  Greeks  were  only  10,000  strong,  and  the  Persians  amounted  to  500,000. 
The  former  were  commanded  by  Miltiades,  Aristides,  and  Themistocles, 
who  defeated  the  Persians,  leaving  200,000  dead  upon  the  field.     Among  the 


MAR  ]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  413 

number  of  the  slain  was  Hippias,  the  instigator  of  the  war ;  the  remainder 
of  the  Persian  army  were  forced  to  re-embark  for  Asia,  Sept.  28,  490  b.  c. 

MARBLE.  Dipsenus  and  Scyllis,  statuaries  of  Crete,  were  the  first  artists  who 
sculptured  marble,  and  polished  their  works ;  all  statues  previously  to  their 
time  being  of  wood,  568  b.  c. — Pliny.  Marble  afterwards  came  into  use  for 
statues,  and  the  columns  and  .  ornaments  of  fine  buildings,  and  the  edifices 
and  monuments  of  Rome,  Avere  constructed  of,  or  ornamented  with,  fine  " 
marble.  The  ruins  of  Palmyra  prove  that  its  magnificent  structures,  which 
were  chiefly  of  white  marble,  were  far  more  extensive  and  splendid  than 
those  of  even  Rome  itself.  These  latter  v/ere  discovered  by  some  English 
travellers  from  Aleppo,  a.  d.  1678.    See  Palmyra. 

MARCH.  This  was  the  first  month  of  the  year,  imtil  Numa  added  January 
and  Februarj",  713  b.  c.  Romulus,  who  divided  the  j'ear  into  months,  gave 
to  this  month  the  name  of  his  supposed  father  Mars  ;  though  Ovid  observes, 
that  the  people  of  Italy  had  the  month  of  March  before  the  time  of  Romu- 
lus, but  that  they  placed  it  \e.vY  diflferently  in  the  calendar.  The  year  for- 
merly commenced  on  the  25th  day  of  this  month.     See  Year. 

MARENGO,  Battle  of.  In  this  ever-memorable  engagement  the  French  army 
was  commanded  by  Bonaparte,  against  the  Austrians,  and  after  prodigies 
of  valbr,  his  arm}'  was  retreating,  when  the  timely  arrival  of  general  Dessaix 
(who  was  afterwards  mortally  Avounded  in  this  battle)  turned  the  fortunes 
of  the  day.  The  slaughter  on  both  sides  was  dreadful:  the  Austrians  lost 
6000  in  killed,  12,000  in  prisoners,  and  45  pieces  of  cannon;  and  though  the 
French  boasted  tliat  the  loss  on  their  side  did  not  much  exceed  3000  men, 
it  was  afterwards  known  to  be  vastly  more,  June  14,  1800.  By  a  treaty  be- 
tween the  Austrian  general  Melas  and  the  conqueror,  Bonaparte,  signed  on 
the  next  day,  twelve  of  the  strongest  fortresses  in  Italy  were  put  into  pos- 
session of  the  latter:  and  he  became,  in  fact,  the  master  of  Italy. 

MARESCHAL,  or  MARSHAL.  In  France,  marshals  were  the  ancient  esquires 
of  the  king ;  and  by  their  first  institution  they  had  the  command  of  the  van- 
guard, to  observe  the  enemy,  and  to  choose  proper  places  for  its  encamp- 
ment. Till  the  time  of  Francis  I.,  in  a.  d.  1515,  there  were  but  two  French 
marshals,  who  had  500  livres  per  annum  in  war,  but  no  stipend  in  time  of 
peace.  The  rank  afterwards  became  of  the  highest  military  importance, 
the  number  was  without  limit,  and  the  command  supreme.  During  the  em- 
pire of  Napoleon,  the  marshals  of  France  filled  the  world  with  their  renown. 
See  Marshal,  Field. 

MARIGNAN,  Battle  of,  near  Milan,  in  Italy,  one  of  the  most  furious  engage- 
ments of  modern  times.  In  this  sanguinary  conflict,  which  happened  be- 
tween the  heroic  Swiss  and  the  French  under  Francis  the  First,  upwards  of 
twenty  thousand  men  were  slain ;  the  former,  after  losing  all  their  bravest 
troops,  were  compelled  to  retire,  September  13,  1515. 

MARINER'S  COMPASS.  The  Chinese  ascribe  the  invention  of  the  compass  to 
their  emperor  Hong-Ti,  who  they  say  was  a  grandson  of  Noah  ;  and  some  of  . 
their  historians  refer  the  invention  of  it  to  a  later  date,  1115  b.  c.  See  Com- 
pass.  The  honor  of  its  discovery,  though  much  disputed,  is  generally  given 
to  Flavio  de  Gioja,  or  Giovia,  a  native  of  Amalfi,  an  ancient  commercial  city 
of  Naples,  a.  d.  1302.  The  variation  of  the  needle  was  first  discovered  by 
Columbus  in  his  voyages  of  discovery,  1492  ;  and  it  was  observed  in  London 
in  1580.  The  dipping-needle  was  invented  by  Robert  Norman,  a  compass- 
maker  of  Ratcliffe,  in  that  year. 

MARQUE,  Letters  of.  Instruments  authorizing  the  subjects  of  one  prince  to 
make  i-eprisals  upon,  and  capture  the  ships,  property,  and  subjects  of  another 
prince  or  country.    Some  such  instruments  are  said  to  have  been  first  used 


414  THE    world's    progress.  [  UAh 

by  the  Venetian  government.  The  first  letters  of  marque  granted  in  Eng- 
land were  in  the  reign  of  Edward  I.,  against  the  Portuguese,  a.  d.  1295. — 
Rymer's  Fcedera. 

MARQUESS.  This  dignity,  called  by  the  Saxons  Markin-Reve,  and  by  the 
Germans  Markgrave,  took  its  original  from  Mark  or  March,  which,  in  the 
language  of  the  northern  nations,  is  a  limit  or  bound,  and  their  office  was 
to  guard  or  govern  the  frontiers  of  a  province.  It  has  the  next  place  of 
honor  to  a  duke,  and  was  introduced  several  years  after  that  title  had  been 
established,  in  England.  The  first  on  whom  it  was  conferred,  was  the  great 
favorite  of  king  Richard  II.,  Robert  de  Vere,  earl  of  Oxford,  who  was  created 
marquess  of  Dublin,  and  by  him  placed  in  parliament  between  the  dukes  and 
earls,  a.  d.  1385.  Alexander  Stewart,  second  son  of  James  HI.  of  Scotland, 
was  made  marquess  of  that  kingdom,  as  marquess  of  Ormond,  in  1480. 

MARRIAGE.  The  first  institution  of  this  union  between  man  and  woman  for 
life,  with  certain  ceremonies  of  a  binding  and  solemn  nature,  is  ascribed  to 
Cecrops,  king  of  Athens,  1554  b.  c. — Eusebiiis  Pref.  to  Chron.  The  prevail- 
ing ceremony  in  most  countries  was  that  of  a  man  leading  home  his  bride, 
after  a  solemn  contract  with  her  friends.  To  render  this  contract  the  more 
sacred,  it  was  made  the  work  of  the  priest,  instead  of  being  that  of  a  civil 
magistrate  adopted  by  several  civilized  nations.  The  celebration  of  mar- 
riage in  churches  was  ordained  by  pope  Innocent  III.,  about  a.  d.  1199. 
Marriage  was  forbidden  in  Lent,  a.  d.  364.  It  was  forbidden  to  bishops  in 
692,  and  to  priests  in  1015;  and  these  latter  were  obliged  to  take  the  vow 
of  celibacy  in  1073.  Marriages  were  solemnized  by  justices  of  the  peace 
under  an  act  of  the  Commons  in  Oliver  Cromwell's  administration,  1658.  A 
tax  was  laid  on  marriages,  viz. :  on  the  marriage  of  a  duke  50Z.,  of  a  com- 
mon person  2s.  6(^.,  the  8th  of  William  III.,  1695.  Marriages  were  again 
taxed  in  1784. 

MARRIAGES  BY  SALE.  Among  the  Babylonians  at  a  cei'tain  time  every  year, 
the  marriageable  females  were  assembled,  and  disposed  of  to  the  best  bid- 
der, by  the  public  crier.  The  richest  citizens  purchased  such  as  pleased 
them  at  a  high  price  ;  and  the  money  thus  obtained  was  used  to  portion  off 
those  females  to  whom  nature  had  been  less  liberal  of  personal  charms. 
When  the  beauties  were  disposed  of,  the  crier  put  iq)  the  more  ordinary  lots, 
beginning  with  the  most  ill-favored  among  those  that  remained,  announcing 
a  premium  to  the  purchaser  of  each  :  the  bidders  were  to  name  a  sum  below 
the  given  premium,  at  which  they  would  be  willing  to  take  the  maid  ;  and 
he  who  bid  lowest  was  declared  the  purchaser.  By  these  means  every  female 
was  provided  for.  This  custom  originated  with  Atossa,  daughter  of  Belo- 
chus,  about  1433  b.  c. 

MARSEILLES.  Is  supposed  to  have  been  founded  by  the  Phoceans,  about 
600  B.  c. —  Univ.  Hist.  Cicero  styled  it  the  Athens  of  Gaul.  It  was  taken 
by  Julius  Caesar  after  a  long  and  terrible  siege  ;  and  it  was  sacked  by  the 
Saracens,  a.  d.  473.  Marseilles  became  a  republic  in  1214.  It  was  subjected 
to  the  counts  of  Provence  in  1251 ;  and  was  again  united  to  the  crown  of 
France  in  1482.  In  1649  the  plague  raged  with  great  violence  in  Marseilles, 
and  with  still  greater  in  1720,  M'hen  it  carried  off  50,000  of  the  inhabitants. 

MARSHALS,  FIELD,  in  the  British  army.  The  rank  is  of  modern  date,  and 
was  preceded  by  that  of  cajitain-general,  and  that  also  of  commander-in- 
chief  The  duke  of  Marlborough  was  captain-general,  1702.  The  first  mil- 
itary chiefs  bearing  the  rank  of  marshal  were  those  of  France.  George  II. 
first  conferred  the  rank  upon  John,  duke  of  Argyle,  and  George,  earl  of  Ork- 
ney in  1736.     See  Mareschal. 

MARSTON  MOOR,  Battle  of.  This  battle  was  the  beginning  of  the  misfor- 
tunes and  disgrace  of  the  unfortunate  Charles  I.  of  England.    The  Scots  and 


mar] 


DICTIONARY  OF  DATES.  415 


parliamentarian  army  had  joined,  and  were  besieging  Yorlc,  when  prince  Ru- 
pert, joined  by  the  marquis  of  Newcastle,  determined  to  raise  the  siege. 
Both  sides  drew  up  on  Marston  Moor,  to  the  number  of  fifty  thousand,  and 
the  victory  seemed  long  undecided  between  them.  Rupert,  who  command- 
ed the  right  wing  of  the  royalists,  was  opposed  by  Oliver  Cromwell,  who 
now  first  came  into  notice,  at  the  head  of  a  body  of  troops  whom  he  had 
taken  care  to  levy  and  discipline.  Cromwell  was  victorious ;  he  pushed  his 
opponents  off  the  field,  followed  the  vanquished,  returned  to  a  second  en- 
gagement and  a  second  victory.  The  prince's  whole  train  of  artillery  was 
taken,  and  the  royalists  never  afterwards  recovered  the  blow;  fought  July 
3,  1644. 

MARTINIQUE.  This  and  the  adjacent  isles  of  St.  Lucia  and  St.  Vincent,  ami 
the  Grenadines,  were  taken  by  the  British  from  the  French  in  February 
1762.  They  were  restored  to  France  at  the  peace  of  the  following  year. 
They  were  again  taken  March  16,  1794;  were  restored  at  the  peace  of 
Amiens  in  1802 ;  and  were  again  captured  February  23, 1809.  A  revolution 
took  place  in  this  island  in  favor  of  Napoleon,  but  it  was  finally  suppressed 
by  the  British,  June  1,  1815 ;  and  Martinique  reverted  to  its  French  masters 
at  the  late  general  peace,  1815. 

MARTYRS.  The  Christian  Church,  Catholic  and  Protestant,  has  abounded  in 
martyrs,  and  history  is  filled  with  accounts  of  their  wonderful  constancy  to 
their  faith.  The  festivals  of  the  martyrs  are,  many  of  them,  of  very  ancient 
date,  and  took  their  rise  about  the  time  of  Polycarp,  who  suffered  martyr- 
dom A.  D.  168.  England  has  had  its  Christian  martyrs  ;  and  the  accounts  of 
those  who  sufifered  for  their  adherence  to  the  Protestant  religion  would  fill 
volumes.  The  following  documents  in  connection  with  the  fate  of  Cranmer, 
Latimer,  and  Ridley,  are  of  melancholy  interest.  They  are  taken  from  a 
*'  Book  of  the  Joint  Diet,  Dinner,  and  Sitpper,  and  the  charge  thereof,  for  Cran- 
nv.r,  Latimer,  and  Ridley,"  kept  by  the  bailiffs  of  Oxford,  while  they  were 
In  the  custody  of  those  officers,  previously  to  their  being  burnt  alive  : — 

1st.  octoeek,  1.554— DtKNER.  Item,  a  post  -  -           -           -  £0   1    4 

Bread  and  ale           -           -           -  .£0  0   2  Item,  2  chains    -           -           -     -     0   3   4 

Oysters   -           -           -           -     -     0  0    1  Item,  2  staples         -           -           -     0   0   6 

Butter           -           -           -           -     0  0   2  Item,  4  laborers             -           -     -     0   2   8 

Eggs 0  0   2                                                                  

Lyng-          .,----008  JB I   5   8 

A  piece  of  fresh  Saltnon          -     -     0  0  10  [They  were  burnt  on  October  the  16tli,  1555.] 

Wme            -           -           -           -     0  0   3 

Cheese  ajid  pears           -           -     -     0  0   2  charge  for  the  burning  of  the  body 

OP  CRANMER. 

The  three  dinners     -  -  j£0   2  6     For  100  of  woodfasgotsfor  theiire 

For  100  and  >^  of  furze 
TO  BURN  LATIMER  AND  RIDLEY.  For  the  Carriage  of  them 

For  3  load  of  wood  faggots  to  burn  For  two  laborers 

Latimer  and  Ridley        -  -     0 12  0 

Item,  1  load  of  furze  faggots    -     -     0   3  4  jBO  12  8 

Item,  for  the  carriage  of  these  4  He  was  burnt  on  March  the  21st,  in  1556.] 

loads 0  2  6 

MARTYRS,  Era  of .  This  is  also  called  the  era  of  Diocletian,  and  was  used 
by  the  writers  of  ecclesiastical  history  until  the  Christian  era  was  introduced 
in  the  sixth  century ;  and  it  still  continued  to  be  the  era  of  some  nations, 
particularly  the  Abyssinians  and  Copts.  It  commences  from  the  day  upon 
which  Diocletian  was  proclaimed  emperor,  August  29,  a.  d.  284 ;  and  the 
persecutions  of  the  Christians  in  his  reign  caused  it  to  be  so  called. 

MARYLAND,  one  of  the  middle  United  States,  was  originally  included  in  the  pa- 
tent of  Virginia,  granted  imder  charter  to  Calvert,  lord  Baltimore,  in  1632  ; 
named  in  honor  of  Henrietta  Maria,  queen  of  Charles  I. ;  first  colony  were 
Catholics  who  settled  at  St.  Mary's,  on  the  Potomac,  1634 ;  free  toleration 
of  all  religions  and  creeds  granted  b^''  lord  Baltimore  ;  Constitution  settled 


416  TJ!E    world's    PROGREbS.  [MAS 

in  1650,  and  again  in  1776 ;  the  State  bore  an  active  part  in  the  revolution ; 
adopted  the  Federal  Constitution  April  28,  1788,  by  63  to  12.  Population 
in  1790  was  819,728 ;  in  1810,  380,546;  in  1840,  469,232,  including  89,485 
slaves.  Maryland  resumed  the  payment  of  interest  on  her  debt,  March, 
1847. 

MASKS.  Poppsea,  the  wife  of  Nero,  is  said  to  have  invented  the  mask  to 
guard  her  complexion  from  the  sun.  But  theatrical  masks  were  in  use 
among  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  Horace  attributes  them  to  ^schylus  ;  yet 
Aristotle  says  the  real  inventor  and  time  of  their  introduction  were  un- 
known. Modern  masks  and  muffs,  fans,  and  false  hair  for  the  women,  were 
devised  by  the  harlots  of  Italy,  and  brought  to  England  from  France  in 
1572. — Stowe's  Chron. 

MASQUERADES.  They  were  in  fashion  in  the  court  of  Edward  III.  1340; 
and  in  the  reign  of  Charles,  1660,  masquerades  were  frequent  among  the 
citizens.  The  bishops  preached  against  them,  and  made  such  representa- 
tions as  occasioned  their  suppression,  9  George  I.  1723.  [No  less  than  six 
masquerades  were  subscribed  for  in  a  month  at  this  time.]  They  were  re- 
vived, and  carried  to  shameful  excess  by  connivance  of  the  government, 
and  in  direct  violation  of  the  laws,  and  tickets  of  admission  to  a  masque- 
rade at  Ranelagh  were  on  some  occasions  subscribed  for  at  twenty-tive 
guineas  each,  1776. — Mortimer. 

MASS.  In  the  Romish  church,  mass  is  the  ofSce  or  prayers  used  at  the  cele- 
bration of  the  eucharist,  and  is  in  general  believed  to  be  a  representation  of 
the  passion  of  our  Saviour.  Hence  every  part  of  the  service  is  supposed  to 
allude  to  the  particular  circumstances  of  his  passion  and  death.  The  ge- 
neral division  of  masses  consists  in  high  and  low :  tlie  first  is  that  sung  by 
the  choristers,  and  celebrated  with  the  assistance  of  a  deacon  and  sub- 
deacon  ;  low  masses  are  those  in  which  the  prayers  are  barely  rehearsed 
without  singing.  Mass  was  iSrst  celebrated  in  Latin,  about  a.  d.  894.  Its 
celebration  was  lirst  introduced  into  Englaud  in  the  seventh  century.  Pros- 
tration was  enjoined  at  the  elevation  of  the  host  in  1201. 

MASSACHUSETTS,  one  of  the  United  States.  First  settled  at  Plymouth  by  a 
colony  of  EngUsh  Puritans  from  Holland,  who  landed  Dec.  22,  1620.  This 
Avas  called  the  Plymouth  colony.  The  Massachusetts  colony  at  Salem  and 
Charlestown,  in  1628,  and  Boston,  1630.  These  colonies  united  in  1692. 
The  American  revolution  originated  here,  at  Boston  and  vicinity,  and  this 
State  bore  an  important  and  honorable  part  in  the  contest.  See  Boston, 
Bunker  Hill,  Lexington,  tf-c.  Present  State  Constitution  formed  in  1780 ; 
revised  and  altered  in  1820 ;  slavery  abolished  in  1783 ;  Shay's  rebellion  in 
this  State  in  1786  ;  Federal  Constitution  adopted  Feb.  6,  1788,  by  187 
against  168.  Population  in  1721, 94,000  ;  in  1790,  388,727  ;  in  1810,  472,040  ; 
in  1820,  523,287 ;  in  1840,  737,699. 

MASSACRES.  Ancient  and  modern  history  abound  with  events  which  class 
under  this  head  ;  and  perhaps  the  most  frightful  and  unprovoked  enormities 
of  this  kind  have  been  perpetrated  by  opposing  Christian  sects,  one  upon 
another,  in  vindication  of  the  Christian  religion  !  The  following  are  among 
the  most  remarkable  massacres  recorded  by  various  authors  : — 

BEFORE  CHRIST.  A  dreadful  slaughter  of  the  Teutonos  and 

Of  all  the  Carthagenians  in  Sicily,  which  ;      Ambrones,  near  Aix,  by  Marius,  the  Re- 
took place  397  b.  o.  man  general,  200,000  being  left  dead  on 


2000  Tyrians  crucified,  and  8000  put  to  the  \      the  spot,  102,  b.  c. 


sword  for  not  surrendering  Tyre  to  Alex- 
ander, 331  B.  c. 
The  Jews  of  Antioch  fall  upon  the  other  in- 
habitants, and  massacre  1(X),000  of  them, 
for  refusing  to  surrender  their  arms  to  De- 


The  Romans,  throughout  Asia,  women  and 
children  not  excepted,  cruelly  massacred 
in  one  day,  by  order  of  Mithridates,  king 
of  Pontus,  SSb.  c. 

A  great  number  of  Roman  senators  massa- 


metriusNicanor,  tyrant  of  Syria,  1.54  B.C.         cred   by  Cinna,  Marius,  and   Sertorius. 


MAS  ] 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATEb. 


417 


MASSACRES,  conlimicd. 

Many  patricians  dispatch  themselves  to 
avoid  their  horrid  butcheries,  86  b.  c. 

Again,  under  Sylla,  and  Catiline,  his  minis- 
ter of  vengeance,  82  and  79  b.  c. 

At  Prseneste,  Octavianus  Ccesar  ordered  300 
Roman  senators  and  other  persons  of  dis- 
tinction, to  he  sacrificed  to  the  manes  of 
Julius  Caesar,  41  b.  c. 

AFTER   CHRIST. 

At  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  1,100,000  of 
Jews  were  put  to  the  sword,  A.  d.  70. 

The  Jews,  headed  by  one  Andrae,  put  to 
death  100,000  Greeks  and  Romans,  m  and 
near  Cyrene,  a.d.  11.5. 

Cassius,  a  Roman  general  under  the  empe- 
ror M.  Aurelius,  put  to  death  400,000  of 
the  inhabitants  of  Seleucia,  a.  d.  167. 

At  Alexandria,  many  thousands  of  citizens 
are  massacred,  by  an  order  of  Antoninus, 
A.  D.  213. 

The  emperor  Probus  put  to  death  700,000 
of  the  inhabitants  upon  his  reduction  of 
Gaul,  A.  D.  277. 

Of  eighty  Christian  fathers,  by  order  of  the 
emperor  Gratian,  at  Nicomedia  ;  they 
were  put  into  a  ship  which  was  set  on 
fire,  and  then  driven  out  to  sea,  a.  d.  370. 

Of  Tliessalonica,  when  7000  persons,  invited 
into  the  circus,  were  put  to  the  sword,  by 
order  of  Theodosius,  a.  d.  390. 

Belisarius  put  to  death  above  30,000  citizens 
of  Constantinople  for  a  revolt,  to  which 
they  were  impelled  by  the  tyranny  and  ex- 
actions of  two  rapacious  ministers  set  over 
them,  A.D.  552. 

Massacre  of  the  Latins  at  Constantinople,  by 
order  of  Andronicus,  a.  d.  1184. 

Of  the  Albigenses  and  VValdenses,  com- 
menced of  ^\ailoui5e,  A.  D.  1209.  Tens  of 
thousands  perished  by  means  of  the 
sword  and  gibbet. 

The  Sicilians  massacre  the  French  through- 
out the  whole  island  of  Sicily,  without 
distinction  of  sex  or  age,  on  Easter-day, 
the  first  bell  for  vespers  being  the  signal. 
This  horrid  affair  is  known  in  history  by 
the  name  of  the  Sicilian  vespers,  a.  d. 
1282. — Du  Fresnoy. 

A  general  massacre  of  the  Jews  at  Verdun, 
iy  the  peasants,  who,  from  a  pretended 
prophecy,  conceived  the  Holy  Land  was 
to  be  recovered  from  the  infidels  by  them. 
500  of  these  Jews  took  shelter  in  a  castle, 
and  defended  themselves  to  the  last  ex- 
tremity, when,  for  want  of  weapons,  they 
threw  their  cliillren  at  the  enemy,-and 
then  killed  each  oiher,  a.  d.  1317. 

At  Paris,  of  several  thousand  persons,  at  the 
instance  of  John,  duke  of  Burgundy,  a.  d. 
1418. 

Of  the  Swedish  nobility,  at  a  feast,  by  order 
of  Christian  IL,  a.  d.  1520. 

Of  70,000  Huguenots,  or  French  Protestants 
throughout  the  kingdom  of  France,  attend- 
ed with  circumstances  of  the  most  horrid 
treachery  and  cruelty.  It  began  at  Paris, 
m  the  night  of  the  festival  of  St.  Bartholo- 
mew, Aug  24,  1572,  by  secret  orders  from 
Charles  IX.,  king  of  France,  at  the  insti- 
gation of  tlie  queen  dowager,  Catherine  de 

18* 


Medicis,  his  mother.  It  is  styled  in  his- 
tory,  the  Massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew. 

Of  the  Christians  in  Croatia,  by  the  Turks, 
when  65,000  were  slain,  a.  d.  1592. 

Of  Protestants,  at  Thorn,  put  to  death  under 
a  pretended  legal  sentence  of  the  chancel- 
lor of  Poland,  for  being  concerned  in  a 
tumult  occasioned  by  a  Roman  Catholic 
procession,  a.  d.  1724.  All  the  Protestant 
powers  in  Europe  interceded  to  have  this 
unjust  sentence  revoked,  but  una^'ailingly. 

At  Batavia,  12,000  Chinese  were  massacred 
by  the  natives,  October  1740,  under  the 
pretext  of  an  intended  irsurrection. 

At  the  taking  of  Ismael  "ly  the  Russians, 
30,000  old  and  young  were  slain,  Decem- 
ber, 1790. — See  Ismael. 

In  St.  Domingo,  where  Dessalines  made 
proclamation  for  the  massacre  of  all  the 
whites,  March  29,  1804,  and  many  thou- 
sands perished. 

Insurrection  at  Madrid,  and  massacre  of  the 
French,  May  2, 1808. 

Massacre  of  the  Mamelukes,  in  the  citadel 
of  Cairo,  March  1,  1811. 

Massacre  at  Nismes,  perpetrated  by  the 
Catholics,  May  1815. 

Massacre  of  vast  numbers  of  the  inhabitants 
of  Cadiz,  by  the  soldiery,  whose  ferocious 
disorders  continue  for  some  days,  March 
6,  1820. 

MASSACRES  IN  BRITISH  HISTORY. 

Of  300  English  nobles  on  Salisbury  Plain. 
May  1,  A.  D.  474. 

Of  the  monks  of  Bangor,  to  the  number  of 
1200,  by  Ethelfrid,  king  of  Northumber- 
land, A.  D.  580. 

Of  the  Danes  in  the  southern  counties  of 
England,  in  the  night  of  November  13, 
1002,  and  the  23d  Etlielred  II.  At  London 
it  was  most  bloody,  the  churches  being  nc 
sanctuary.  Amongst  the  rest  was  Gunildc., 
sister  of  Swein,  king  of  Denmark,  left  in 
hostage  for  the  performance  of  a  treaty  but 
newly  concluded. — Baker's  Chronicle. 

Of  the  Jews  in  England.  Some  few  press- 
ing into  Westminster  Hall  at  Richard  I.'s 
coronation,  were  put  to  death  by  the  peo- 
ple ;  and  a  false  alarm  being  given  that 
the  king  had  ordered  a  general  massacre 
of  them,  the  people  in  many  parts  of  Eng- 
land, from  an  aversion  to  them,  slew  all 
they  met.  In  York,  500,  who  had  taken 
shelter  in  the  castle,  killed  themselves, 
rather  than  tall  into  the  hands  of  the  mul- 
titude, A.  D.  1189. 

Of  the  Bristol  colonists,  at  Cullen's  Wood, 
Ireland  (see  Cullen's  Wood),  A.  D.  1209. 

Of  the  English  factory  at  Amboyna,  in  order 
to  dispossess  its  members  of  the  Spice  Is- 
lands, A.  D.  1623. 

Massacre  of  the  Protestants  in  Ireland,  in 
O'Neill's  rebellion,  Oct.  23,  l(i41.  Up- 
wards of  30,000  British  were  killed  in  the 
commencement  of  t/iis  rebellion.  —  Sir 
William  Petty.  In  the  first  two  or  three 
days  of  it,  forty  or  fifty  thousand  of  the 
Protestants  were  destroyed. — Lord  Clar- 
endon.   Before  the  rebellion  was  enl  ifely 


418  THE  world's  progress.  [mai 


death  by  pikes,  perpetrated  by  the  iiisur- 
gent  Irish,  at  the  barn  of  Scullabogue,  Ire- 
land, in  1798. — Sir  Richard  Musgrave. 
Massacre  of  64  American  prisoners  at  Dart- 
moor, England,  (disowned  by  British  Gov- 
ernment.) April  6, 1815. 


MASSACRES,  coniiimea. 

suppressed,  154,000  Protestants  were  mas- 
sacred.— Sir  W.  Temple. 

Of  the  unoflending  ftlacdonalds  of  Glencoe, 
May  9,  1691.— See  Gle?icoe. 

Of  184  men,  women,  and  children,  chiefly 
Protestants,    burnt,    shot,  or   pierced  to 

MASTER  OP  THE  CEREMONIES.  An  ofHcer  in  several  of  the  principal 
courts  of  Europe.  Following  the  usage  in  other  countries,  a  master  of 
the  ceremonies  was  instituted  in  England  for  the  more  honorable  reception 
of  the  ambassadors  and  persons  of  qualitj^  at  court,  1  James  I.  1603.— 
JBakej-. 

MASTER  IN  CHANCERY.  Owing  to  the  extreme  ignorance  of  Sir  Christo- 
pher Hatton,  lord  Chancellor  of  England,  the  first  reference  in  i.  cause  was 
made  to  a  master,  a.  d.  1588 ;  and  the  masters  have  been  since  chosen  from 
among  the  most  learned  equity  members  of  the  bar. 

!y[ASTER  OP  THE  ROLLS  in  ENGLAND.  An  equity  judge,  so  called  from 
his  having  the  custody  of  all  charters,  patents,  commissions,  deeds,  and 
recognizances,  ^vhich  being  made  into  rolls  of  parchment,  gave  occasion  for 
that  name. 

.MATHEMATICS.  With  the  ancients  they  meant  all  sorts  of  learning  and 
discipline ;  but  even  then,  as  now,  in  a  more  particular  manner,  mathema- 
tics were  restrained  to  those  arts  that  more  immediately  related  to  num- 
bers and  quantity.  They  were  first  taught  to  the  Jews,  and  by  them  to  ths 
Egyptians,  so  early  as  1950  b.  c. — Josephus  de  Antiq.  Jwd. 

MATINS.  The  service  or  prayers  first  performed  in  the  morning  or  beginning 
of  the  day  in  the  Catholic  church.  Emphatically,  the  French  Matins  im- 
ply the  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew,  August  24,  1572.  The  Matins  of 
Moscoiv,  the  massacre  of  prince  Demetrius,  and  all  the  Poles  his  adherents, 
at  sis  o'clock  in  the  morning  of  May  27,  1600. 

MAURITIUS.  The  Isle  of  France  was  discovered  by  the  Portuguese,  a.  d. 
1500 ;  but  the  Dutch  were  the  first  settlers  in  1598.  They  called  it  after 
prince  Maurice,  their  stadtholder,  but  on  their  acquisition  of  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope  they  deserted  it ;  and  it  continued  unsettled  until  the  French 
landed,  and  gave  it  the  name  of  one  of  the  finest  provinces  in  France.  This 
island  was  taken  by  the  British  in  1810,  and  confirmed  to  them  by  the  treaty 
of  Paris  in  1814. 

MAUSOLEUJM.  Artemisia,  sister  and  wife  of  Mausolus,  married  her  own  bro- 
ther, famous  for  his  personal  beauty.  She  was  so  fond  of  her  husband,  that 
at  his  death  she  drank  in  her  liquor  his  ashes  after  his  body  had  been  burned, 
and  erected  to  his  memory  a  monument,  which,  for  its  grandeur  and  mag- 
nificence, was  called  one  of  the  seven  wonders  of  the  world.  This  monu- 
ment she  called  Mausoleum,  a  name  which  has  been  given  to  all  monuments 
of  unusual  splendor.  She  invited  all  the  literary  men  of  her  age,  and  pro- 
posed rewards  to  him  who  composed  the  best  elegiac  panegyric  upon  her 
husband.     The  prize  was  adjudged  to  Theopompus,  357  b,  c. 

MAY.  The  fifth  month  of  the  year,  and  the  confine  of  spring  and  summer, 
received  its  name,  say  some,  from  Romulus,  who  gave  it  this  appellation  in 
respect  to  the  senators  and  nobles  of  his  city,  who  were  denominated  ma- 
jores;  though  others  supposed  ii,  was  so  called  from  Maia,  the  mother  of 
Mercury,  to  whom  they  offered  sacrifices  on  the  first  day  of  it.  Numa 
Pompili'us,  by  adding  January  and  February  to  the  year,  made  this  month 
the  fifth,  wliich  before  was  the  third,  713  b.  c. 

MAY-DAY.  The  ancient  Romans  used  to  go  in  procession  to  the  grotto  of 
Egeria  on  May-day.     May-day  has  also  been  inimemorially  observed  in 


MEC  J  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  419 

England  as  a  rural  festival ;  and  high  poles,  denominated  May-poles,  are  in 
many  places  i^rofusely  decorated  with  garlands  wreathed  in  honor  of  the 
day.  The  late  benevolent  Mrs.  Montague  gave,  for  many  years,  on  May- 
day, an  entertainment  at  her  house  in  Portman-square,  to  that  unfortunate 
class  the  chimney-sweepers  of  London.  They  were  regaled  with  the  good 
English  fare  of  roast-beef  and  jjlum-pudding,  and  a  dance  succeeded. 
Upon  their  departure,  each  guest  received  the  donation  of  a  shilling  from 
the  mistress  of  the  feast. 

MAYNOOTH  COLLEGE,  Ireland.  Founded  by  act  of  parliament,  and  en- 
dowed by  a  yearly  grant  voted  for  its  support,  and  the  education  of  stu- 
dents who  are  designed  for  the  priesthood  of  the  Roman  Catholic  church 
in  Ireland,  35  Geo.  III.,  1795.  It  contains  500  students.  Permanent  endow- 
ment of  this  college,  at  the  instance  of  government,  to  which  30,000^.  for 
the  enlargement  of  the  buildings,  and  26,000Z.  annually,  were  granted  by 
parliament,  June,  1845.  This  endowment  occasioned  much  excitement  and 
controversy  in  England. 

MAYOR.  The  office  of  mayor  arose  out  of  the  immunities  granted  to  free 
cities  by  the  emperors,  and  in  some  towns  they  had  considerable  power. 
Maj'or  of  the  palace  was  a  high  office  in  France.  In  this  quality  Charles 
Martel  ruled  with  despotic  sway,  a.  d.  735,  et  seq.,  imder  the  last  kings  of 
the  Merovingian  dynasty ;  his  father  had  previously  held  this  office,  and 
had  it  made  hereditary  in  his  family.  Mayors  are  the  chief  magistrates  of 
corporate  towns,  before  whose  institution  in  England,  towns  were  generally 
governed  by  portreeves.  The  office  of  mayor  may  be  properlj^  said  to  date 
from  the  reign  of  Richard  I. 

MEASURES  AND  WEIGHTS.  They  were  invented  by  Phidion  of  Argos,  869 
B.  c. — Arund.  Marbles.  They  became  general  in  most  countries  soon  after- 
wards ;  and  were  very  early  known  in  England.  Standards  of  weights  and 
measures  were  provided  for  the  whole  kingdom  by  the  sheriffs  of  London, 
8  Richard  L,  a.  d.  1197.  Standards  were  again  fixed  in  England,  1257. 
They  were  equalized  for  the  United  Kingdom  in  1825. 

MECCA.  This  city  is  famous  as  being  the  birthplace  of  Mahomet,  a.  d.  571. 
The  temple  is  a  gorgeous  structure,  much  visited  by  pilgrims.  On  one 
of  the  neighboring  hills  is  a  cave,  where  it  is  pretended  Mahomet  usually 
retired  to  perform  his  devotions  ;  and  where  the  greatest  part  of  the  Koran 
was  brought  to  him  by  the  angel  Gabriel,  a.  d.  604.  Two  miles  from 
the  town  is  the  hill  where  they  say  Abraham  went  to  offer  up  Isaac, 
1871  B.  c. 

MECHANICS.  The  time  when  the  simple  mechanical  powers  were  first  in- 
troduced is  so  uncertain,  and  perhaps  so  little  known,  that  they  have  been 
ascribed  to  the  Grecian  and  other  deities  of  the  heathen  mythology — for 
instance,  the  axe,  the  wedge,  wimble,  &c.,  are  said  to  be  the  invention  of 
Daedalus.  We  know  nothing  of  the  machinery  by  which  the  immense 
masses  of  stone  which  are  found  in  some  of  the  ancient  edifices  were  moved 
and  elevated. 


The  first  writing  on  mechanics,  was  by 
Aristotle,  about         -  -        b.  c. 

The  Statera  Romana  invented 

The  fundamental  property  of  the  lever 
and  other  inptvuments  was  demon- 
strated by  Archimedes 

The  iiand-mill,  or  quern,  was  very  early 
in  use ;  the  Romans  Ibuiid  one  in 
Yorkshire         .  .  .  . 

Cattle  mills,  inolcz  jumentaricB,  were 
also  ill  use  by  the  Romans,  and  in 
parts  of  Europe 


The  water-mill  was  probably  invented 
in  Asia ;  the  first  that  was  described 
was  near  one  of  the  dwellings  of 
Mithridates  -  -  b.  c.     70 

A  water-mill  is  said  to  have  been  erect- 
ed on  the  river  Tiber,  at  Rome         -     50 

Floating  mills  on  the  Tiber    -        a.  d.    536 

Tide-mills  were,  many  of  them,  in  use 
in  Venice  about  -  -  -  1078 

Wind-mills  were  in  very  general  use  in 
the  twelfth  century  -  -      •    *  * 


420 


THE    WORLD  S    PROGRESS. 


[men 


Application  of  mechani  cs  to  astronomy,     . 
parallelogism  of  forces,  laws  of  mo- 
tion, &c.,  Newton       -  -  -  1679 

Problem  of  the  catenary  with  tlie  ana- 
lysis, Dr.  Gregory  -  -      - 1697 

Spirit  level  (and  many  other  inven- 
tions), by  Dr.  Hooke,  from  1660  to    - 1702 

The  Mechanics'  Institute  in  London  was 
formed  in         -  -  -  - 1823 

Mechanics'    Institute   in   New    York 
formed       -  -  -  -      - 1833 


MECHANICS,  contimted. 

Saw-mills  are  said  to  have  been  in  use 
at  Augsburg  -  -       -   A.  D.  1332 

Theory  of  the  inclined  plane  investi- 
gated by  Cardan,  about  -  - 1540 

Work  on  statics,  by  Stevinus         -      - 1586 

Theory  of  falling  bodies,  Galileo         - 1638 

Theory  of  oscillation,  Huygens  •  1647 

Laws  of  collision,  Wallis,  Wren  - 1662 

Epicycloidal  form  of  the  teeth  of  wheels, 
Roemer  ....  1675 

Percussion  and  animal  mechanics,  Bo- 
relli ;  he  died        -  -  -      -  1679 

Mechanics'  institutions  are  now  very  numerous  in  the  United  States  and  in 
England. 
MEDIA.  In  ancient  times  Media  was  a  province  of  the  Assyrian  empire.  It 
revolted  from  Arbaces  820  b.  c,  and  afterwards  became  an  independent 
kingdom,  and  conquered  Persia ;  but  Cyrus  having  vanquished  Darius  the 
Mede,  536  b.  c,  Media  was  from  that  time  united  to  the  Persian  empire, 
and  shared  its  fate. — Blair;  Priestley. 

Revolt  of  the  Medes—B/air       -    B.C.    820     Cyrus  made  king  of  Persia        -    B.C.    559 
The  country  was  subjected  to  the  As-  Astyages  deposed  by  Cyrus  -      -    550 

-  -      -   766 


647 
625 


585 
585 


Cyrus  made  king  of  Persia        -    B.C. 

Astyages  deposed  by  Cyrus 

Croisus  king  of  Lydia  defeated,  and  his 
throne  seized  by  Cyrus 

Cyrus  takes  Babylon ;  puts  Belshazzar 
to  death;  and  makes  Astyages  (or 
Darius,  the  Mede)  viceroy 

By  the  death  of  Astyages,  Cj'rus  be- 
comes master  of  all  Persia ;  and  this 
era  is  properly  the  commencement 
of  the  Persian  empire. — Lenglet 


48 


533 


357 


Syrians. — Idem 

Phraortes  reigns ;  he  conquers  Persia, 
Armenia,  and  other  countries 

Battle  of  Rages  ;  the  Assyrians  defeat 
the  Medes. — Blair 

War  with  the  Lydians ;  the  hostile  ar- 
mies meet;  but  an  eclipse  of  the  sun 
so  alarms  them,  they  conclude  peace 
without  striking  a  blow   - 

The  reign  of  Astyages. — Blair- 

The  Medes  were  a  brave  people,  but  they  degenerated,  and  introduced  lux- 
ury into  Persia.  They  admitted  polygamy,  and  a  man  was  deemed  infamous 
who  had  less  than  seven  wives,  as  was  also  a  woman  who  could  not  boast 
of  at  least  five  husbands. — Aspin. 

MEDICAL  LITERATURE  in  the  UNITED  STATES.  The  Medical  Repo- 
sitory, commenced  at  New  York,  1797,  was  the  first  work  of  the  kind.  It 
was  conducted  by  Dr.  S.  L.  Mitchill. 

MEDICINE.  The  art  of  preparing  simples  was  brought  into  Europe  from  the 
East,  about  a.  d.  1150.  In  the  early  stages  of  the  r)ractice,  the  preparation 
was  principally  confined  to  ecclesiastics  in  Europe  generally,  until  the  close  of 
the  fifteenth  century,  or  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth.  The  practice  of  me- 
dicine is  now  one  of  the  highest  sciences,  and  in  most  countries  is  in  the 
hands  of  the  most  learned  and  distinguished  men ;  and  various  statutes 
have  been  enacted  to  discourage  pretenders  to  the  healing  art. 

MEDINA,  IN  Arabia  Deserta,  famous  for  the  tomb  of  Mahomet,  contained 
in  a  large  mosque,  closed  with  rich  curtains  and  lighted  by  a  vast  number 
of  rich  lamps.  Medina  was  called  the  City  of  the  Prophet,  because  here 
Mahomet  was  protected  when  he  fled  from  Mecca,  July  16,  a.  d.  622.  This 
flight  gave  rise  to  the  remarkable  epocha  in  chronology  called  the  Hegira, 
a  word  that,  in  Arabic,  denotes,  to  flee,  or  quit  one's  country  or  friends. 

MEMORY.  That  faculty  of  the  mind  or  soul  whereby  past  things  are  repre- 
sented to  us  as  if  they  were  present. — Pardon.  Simonides,  grandson  of 
Simonides  the  elder,  of  Cos,  poet  and  historian,  obtained  a  prize  at  Olympia, 
for  teaching  artificial  memory,  of  which  he  was  the  inventor,  477  b.  c. — 
Arundelian  Marbles.  The  science  of  mnemonics  was  made  known  in  Ger- 
many in  1.807.     Sec  Mnemonics. 

MENDICANT  FRIARS.     The  term  was  applied  to  several  orders  of  religious 


RIES  ]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  421. 

who  commenced  their  ahiis-begging  in  the  thirteenth  century,  in  the  ponti- 
ficate of  Innocent  III.  They  were  confined  by  a  general  council,  held  by 
Gregory  X.  at  Lj^ons,  in  1272,  to  the  following  four  orders — Dominicans, 
Franciscans,  Carmelites,  and  Augustines.  The  Capuchins  and  other  orders 
subsequently  branched  from  them. 

MENSURATION.  The  art  of  measuring  geometrical  superficies  and  solids  is 
of  very  early  date.  The  various  properties  of  conic  sections  were  dis- 
covered by  Archimedes,  to  whom  the  chief  advancement  in  mensuration 
may  be  attributed.  He  also  determined  the  ratio  of  spheres,  spheroids,  &c., 
about  218  B.  c. 

MERCATOR'S  CHARTS.  The  true  inventor  of  these  charts  is  said  to  have 
been  a  Mr.  Wright,  who  made  several  voyages ;  and  in  his  absence  Merca- 
tor  j)ublished  the  charts  in  his  own  name,  1556. — Pardon.  They  are,  how- 
ever, now  confidently  ascribed  to  Mercator's  own  ingenuity.  In  these 
charts  the  meridians  and  parallels  of  latitude  cut  each  other  at  right  an- 
gles, and  are  both  represented  by  straight  lines,  enlarging  the  degrees  of 
latitude  as  they  recede  from  the  equator. 

MERCHANT — from  mercans.  The  name  given  to  high  commercial  citizens  who 
trade  abroad.  The  merchants  of  London  and  Amsterdam  were  accounted 
the  most  enterprising  and  richest  in  the  Avorld.  An  attempt  was  made  by 
queen  Anne's  ministry  to  exclude  merchants  from  sitting  in  the  House  of 
Commons,  in  1711 ;  but  it  failed.  The  Merchant  Adventurer's  society  (see 
Adventurers.  Merchant)  was  established  by  the  duke  of  Brabant,  in  1296  ;  it 
extended  to  England  in  Edward  III.'s  reign ;  and  was  formed  into  an  En- 
glish corporation  in  1564. — Haydn. 

MERCURY.  This  substance  was  known  to  the  ancients,  and  has  been  found 
in  vast  qantities  in  various  countries.  The  mines  in  Carniola  in  Germany 
are  the  most  productive  in  Europe,  and  have  yielded  in  some  years  1200 
tons  ;  they  were  discovered  by  accident  in  1497.  The  anti-venereal  virtues 
of  mercury  were  found  by  James  Carpus,  an  Italian  surgeon,  a.  d.  1512. — 
Noiov.  Diet.  The  compound  termed  calomel  was  first  mentioned  by  Crol- 
lius  early  in  the  seventeenth  century;  the  first  directions  for  its  preparation 
were  given  by  Beguin,  1608.  It  was  given  to  patients  under  inoculation 
for  the  small-pox  in  1745.  Pallas  congealed  mercury  by  artificial  cold  in 
1762.    Its  malleable  qualities  were  discovered  by  M.  Orbelin,  of  Vienna,  1785, 

MERRY  ANDREW.  The  name  was  first  given  to  a  droll  and  eccentric  phy- 
sician, wlrose  name  was  Andrew  Borde,  who  lived  in  the  reign  of  Henry 
VIIL,  and  who,  on  some  occasions,  on  account  of  his  facetious  manners  and 
good  humor,  appeared  at  court,  1547.  He  used  to  attend  markets  and  fairs, 
and  harangue  the  people,  by  whom  he  was  called  Merry  Andrew.  The 
name  is  now  given  to  a  buffoon,  a  zany,  or  jack-pudding. — L' Estrange. 
Johnson. 

MESSALTANS.  A  sect  whose  religious  error  consisted  in  adhering  to  the  letter 
of  the  gospel,  interpreting  the  words  to  justify  and  excuse  their  worst  pro- 
pensities and  vices.  Amongst  other  absurdities  they  refused  to  work,  quoting 
this  passage,  "Labor  not  ibr  the  food  that  perisheth;"  about  a.  d.  310.— 
Baronius,  Annal. 

MESSENIA,  now  Maura-Matra,  a  country  of  the  Peloponnesus.  This  kingdom 
was  commenced  by  Pohcaon,  1499  b.  c.  It  is  celebrated  for  its  long  and  san- 
guinary wars  against  Sparta  {sqq  next  article),  and  once  contained  a  hundred 
cities,  most  of  whose  names  even  are  now  unlmown.  Messenia  joined  the 
Achaean  league  216  b.  c. 

MESSENIAN  WARS,  The  celebrated  wars  between  Lacedemon  and  Messenia. 
The  first  began  748  b.  c,  and  was  occasioned  by  violence  having  been  offered 


422  THE   world's   progress.  [  MET 

to  some  Spartan  women  who  had  assembled  in  a  temple  of  deTotion  common 
to  both  nations;  the  king  of  Sparta  being  killed  in  his  efforts  to  defend  the 
females.  This  dreadful  war  raged  for  nineteen  years,  and  at  one  period  made 
so  great  a  carnage,  that  the  Spartan  army  sent  orders  home  for  all  the  un- 
married women  to  prostitute  themselves  to  recruit  the  population.  In  the 
end  Ithome  was  taken,  and  the  Messenians  became  slaves  to  the  conquerors. 
The  second  war  was  commenced  685  b.  c.  to  throw  off  the  galling  Spartan 
yoke,  and  lasted  fourteen  years,  ending  in  the  defeat  of  the  Messenians  Avho 
fled  to  Sicily.  The  third  took  place  465  e.  c,  it  endured  ten  years,  when 
the  whole  nation  abandoned  the  Peloponnesus. 

MESSINA,  IN  Sicily.  So  named  by  the  Messinese,  who  seized  this  city,  then 
called  Zancle,  671  b.  c.  It  belonged  for  many  ages  to  the  Roman  empire, 
but  fell  to  the  Saracens  a.  d.  829. — Priestley.  In  the  eleventh  century  Roger 
the  Norman  took  it  by  surprise,  and  delivered  it  from  the  Mahometan  op- 
pression. Great  Messinian  conspiracy,  1282.  The  memorable  revolt  took 
place  1672.  Almost  ruined  by  an  earthquake  1693;  and  nearly  depopulated 
by  a  plague  in  1743.  In  1780  Messina  suffered  much  by  an  earthquake ;  and 
in  Feb.  and  March,  1783,  Avas  half  destroyed  by  the  same  calamity;  since 
which  it  has  been  handsomely  rebuilt. 

METALLURGY.  In  the  fourth  chapter  of  Genesis,  Tubal  Cain  is  mentioned 
as  "  an  instructor  of  every  artificer  in  brass  and  iron."  The  seven  metals 
are  mentioned  by  Moses  and  Homer.  Virgil  mentions  the  melting  of  steel 
in  furnaces.  The  Phoenicians  had  an  extraordinary  skill  in  working  me- 
tals. 

METAPHYSICS.  This  term,  literally  denoting  "after  physics,"  originated 
with  Aristotle.  What  may  be  denoted  the  modern  metaphysics,  cannot  be 
traced  farther  back  tJian  the  fifteenth  century — the  iieriod  when  an  extraor- 
dinary impulse  was- given  in  Europe  to  the  human  mind,  and  commonly 
called  the  revival  of  learning. 

METEMPSYCHOSIS.  A  doctrine  supposing  the  transmigration  of  the  soul  from 
one  body  to  another.  The  first  belief  in  it  is  ascribed  to  the  Egyptians,  who 
would  eat  no  animal  food,  lest  they  should  devour  the  body  into  which 
the  soul  of  a  deceased  friend  had  passed.  They  had  also  an  idea,  that  so 
long  as  the  body  of  the  deceased  was  kept  entire,  the  soul  would  not  trans- 
migrate ;  which  accounts  for  the  extraordinary  pains  they  were  at  in  em- 
balming the  dead ;  a  doctrine  of  Pythagoras,  528  b.  c. 

METHODISTS.  A  large  and  increasing  body  of  religionists,  whose  tenets,  dis- 
cipline, and  designs,  are  often  misunderstood,  and  of  course  misrepresented. 
"Our  end,"  says  Mr.  Benson,  in  his  Apology,  "  is  not  to  form  a  sect,  or  to 
bring  people  to  this  or  the  other  speculative  opinion,  mode  of  worship,  or 
form  of  church-government,  but  simply  to  make  them  Christians — Christians 
in  heart  and  life,  in  temper,  word,  and  Avork — such  as  lived  in  the  early  days 
of  Christianity,  and  such  as  we  conceive  may  still  live."  The  methodists 
may  be  said  to  have  appeared  formally,  if  not  originally  at  Oxford  a.  d. 
1729 ;  the  reverend  John  Wesley  being  the  first  who  there  introduced  me- 
thodism.  John  and  Charles  Wesley,  and  Mr.  Whitfield,  commenced  their 
career  by  teaching  in  1734.  The  term  appears  to  have  been  brought  forward 
in  the  days  of  Puritanism,  being  suggested  by  the  Latin  appellative  Metho- 
dist(E,  given  to  a  college  of  physicians  in  ancient  Rome,  in  consequence  ot 
the  strict  regimen  under  which  they  placed  their  patients.  The  methodist 
missions  were  commenced  and  superintended  by  Mr.  Wesley  and  Dr.  Coke 
in  1769,  when  two  missionaries  were  sent  out  to  North  America.  But  these 
missions  were  not  reduced  to  a  sj'stem,  nor  were  societies  regularly  organiz- 
ed for  their  support,  until  1817. 


MID  ]  '  DICTIONARY    OF    DaTES.  423 

MEXICO.  Discov<;red  in  a.  d.  1518.  It  was  conquered  by  the  Spaniards  under 
Cortes,  M'hose  name  is  infamous  on  account  of  his  cruelties  to  the  vanquished, 
A.  D.  1521.  The  mint  of  Mexico,  tlie  richest  in  the*  world,  was  begun  in 
1535.  This  country,  like  other  states  in  the  new  world,  has  recovered  its  in- 
dependence. Iturbide  made  emperor.  May,  1822.  Mexican  constitution 
proclaimed  by  the  president  Vittoria,  Oct.  1823.  Iturbide  shot  July  19, 
1824.  Treaty  of  commerce  with  Great  Britain  ratified,  April  1825.  Titles 
suppressed.  May  1826.  The  expulsion  of  the  Spaniards  decreed,  March, 
1829.  Spanish  expedition  against  Mexico  surrendered,  Sept.  26,  same  year. 
Mexican  revolution ;  the  president  Guerrero  deposed  Dec.  23,  same  year. 
The  independence  of  Mexico,  previously  recognized  by  the  great  European 
powers,  also  recognized  by  the  emperor  of  Brazil,  June  1830.  Civil  war 
between  Bustamente  and  Santa  Anna,  1832.  Santa  Anna  elected  president, 
March  1834.  Declaration  of  war  against  France,  Nov.  30,  1838.  Castle  of 
San  Juan  de  Ulloa  taken  by  the  French,  Nov.  27,  1838.  This  war  terminated, 
March  9, 1839.  Civil  war  with  change  of  leaders  at  various  times.  Santa 
Anna  displaced  Bustamente  again,  Oct.  6, 1841.  Insurrection  of  general  Pa- 
redes  against  Santa  Anna,  Nov.  5,  1844,  succeeds  without  bloodshed,  and 
Herrera  made  president,  Dec,  1844.  Paredes  overturns  Herrera,  Dec.  1845. 
War  with  the  United  States,  1846 :  Mexicans  defeated  at  Palo  Alto, 
May  8,  1846 ;  and  subsequently  at  Matamoras.  Santa  Fe  captured,  Aug.  23, 
and  Monterey,  Sept.  24,  1846.  Mexican  congress  authorized  their  govern- 
ment to  raise  $15,000,000  for  the  war  against  the  United  States,  upon  the 
mortgage  or  sale  of  church  property,  Jan.  8,  1847.  Battle  of  Buena  Vista, 
Feb.  22,  1847.  Vera  Cruz  surrendered  to  general  Scott,  March  29,  1847. 
Battle  of  Cerro  Gordo,  Api'il  18.  General  Paredes  landed  at  Vera  Cruz  in 
disguise,  Aug.  14,  1847.  Battles  of  Contreras  and  Churubusco,  Aug.  20, 
1847 ;  of  Chepultepec,  Sept.  12.  Surrender  of  city  of  Mexico  to  American 
general  Scott,  Sept.  14,  1847.  Treaty  of  peace  with  the  United  States,  rati- 
fied at  Queretaro,  May  30,  1848.  Paredes  excites  a  revolt  at  Guanaxuato, 
June  15.  Mexico  evacuated  by  the  American  troops.  June  12.  Herrera  be- 
comes president,  July  6.  Bustamente  defeats  Paredes,  July  18.  Vera  Cruz 
surrendered  by  the  United  States,  Aug.  1.  See  War  of  the  United  States  and 
Mexico.  Signor  de  la  Rosa  first  Mexican  minister  to  the  United  States  after 
the  war,  presented  his  credentials,  Dec.  2, 1848. 

MEZZOTINTO.  A  peculiar  manner  of  engraving  representing  figures  on  cop- 
per, received  its  name  from  its  resemblance  to  painting.  The  invention  of  it 
is  generally  ascribed  to  prince  Rupert,  a.  d.  1648;  but  baron  Heinikin  states 
that  colonel  de  Siegen  engraved  a  large  and  admirable  print  of  Amelia  Eliza- 
beth of  Hesse  in  mezzotinto  in  1643.     See  Engraving. 

MICHIGAN,  one  of  the  United  States,  first  settled  by  the  French  at  Detroit 
in  1647.  Many  of  the  Hurons,  a  native  tribe  in  this  region,  were  converted 
to  the  Catholic  faith  by  the  Jesuits.  The  territorry  ceded  to  England  by 
the  peace  of  1763;  made  a  separate  territory  of  the  United  States,  in  1805; 
admitted  into  the  Union  as  a  State  in  1836.  During  the  war  of  1812-13  the 
territory  was  gained  for  a  time  bv  the  British,  but  it  was  recovered  by  gen- 
eral Harrison.  Population  in  1810',  was  4.528 ;  in  1820,  9,048 ;  in  1830,  81,639; 
in  1840,  212,267. 

MICROSCOPES.  Invented  neai-ly  at  the  same  time  in  Italy  and  Holland,  a.  d 
1621.  Those  with  double  glasses  were  made  at  the  period  when  the  law  of  re- 
fraction was  discovered,  about  1624.  The  honor  of  this  invention  is  awarded 
to  Drebel  and  Torricelli.  Solar  microscopes  were  invented  by  Dr.  Hooke.  In 
Eng;lajid,  great  improvements  were  made  in  the  microscope  by  Henry  Baker, 
F.  R.  S..  who  wrote  two  treatises  upon  it,  about  1763. — fiiog.  Diet. 

MIDWIFERY.    Women  were  the  only  practitioners  of  this  art  among  the  He- 


424  THE  would's  progress.    "  [Mil 

brews  and  Egyptians.  Hippocrates,  who  practised  medicine  in  Greece,  460 
B.  c.  is  styled  by  some  the  father  of  midwifery,  as  well  as  of  physic*  ]t  ad- 
vanced under  Celsus,  who  flourished  a.  d.  37,  and  of  Galen,  who  lived  a.  d, 
131.  In  England  midwifery  became  a  science  about  the  period  of  the  insti- 
tution of  the  College  of  Physicians,  K)  Henry  VII.,  1518.  The  celebrated 
Dr.  Harvey  personally  engaged  in  the  practice  of  it,  about  1603 ;  and  after 
his  example  the  calling  in  of  men  in  all  difficult  cases  followed.  Astruc 
affirms  that  the  epoch  of  the  employment  of  men-midwives  goes  no  farther 
back  than  the  first  lying-in  of  Madame  de  la  Vallifere,  mistress  of  Louis  XIV., 
1663.  She  sent  for  Julian  Clement,  an  eminent  surgeon,  who  was  conducted 
with  great  secrecy  to  the  house.  The  same  surgeon  was  employed  in  the 
subsequent  labors  of  this  lady,  and  he  being  very  successful,  men-midwives 
after  came  into  repute,  the  name  of  accoucheur  being  given  to  them. 

MILAN.  The  capital  of  this  celebrated  dukedom,  the  ancient  Liguria,  is  re- 
puted to  have  been  built  by  the  Gauls  about  408  b.  c.  It  submitted  to  the 
Romans  222  b.  c.  ;  was  formed  into  a  republic  a.  d.  1221 ;  and  lastly  was 
governed  by  dukes  from  a.  d.  1395,  imtil  1505,  when  it  was  conquered  by 
Louis  XII.  John  Galeazzo  was  the  first  who  took  the  title  of  duke  of  Milan, 
about  1390.  The  French  were  expelled  from  Milan,  by  Charles  V.  of  Ger- 
many, about  1525  ;  and  this  emperor  gave  it  to  his  son,  Philip  II.  Milan 
was  given  to  Austria,  upon  Naples  and  Sicily  being  ceded  to  Spain,  1748. 
Seized  by  the  French,  June  30,  1796.  Retaken  by  the  Austrians  in  1799 ; 
but  regained  by  the  French  Maj^  31^  the  next  year.  This  city  was  made  the 
capital  of  the  late  kingdom  of  Italy,  and  Napoleon  Bonaparte  was  crowned 
with  the  Iron  cro^\m  at  Milan,  May  26,  1805.  The  celebrated  Milan  decree 
of  Napoleon  against  all  Continental  intercourse  with  England,  declaring 
England  in  a  state  of  blockade,  was  issued  from  this  city,  Dec.  17,  1807. 
Put  under  military  occupation  in  consequence  of  disturbances,  Sept.  8, 1847. 
Collision  of  the  Milanese  with  the  Austrian  soldiers,  Jan.  1,  1848 ;  followed 
by  conciliations.  Martial  law  i^roclaimed  in  Lombardy,  Feb.  1848 ;  the  gov- 
ernment threatens  the  jDcople  with  the  fate  of  the  Poles.  The  people  revolt- 
ed and  expelled  the  Austrians,  and  Charles  Albert  of  Sardinia  entered 
Milan  in  the  popular  cause,  March  23, 1848.  A  vote  taken  in  Lombardy  on 
proposed  union  with  Piedmont: — 561,002  in  favor  of  it;  681  for  postponing 
it  till  the  end  of  the  war,  June  9,  1848.  Vicenza  surrenders  to  the  Austri- 
ans under  Radetsky,  June  10.  The  duke  of  Genoa  repulses  the  Austrians 
at  Rivoli,  July  1.    Milan  capitulates  to  the  Austrians,  Aug.  4,  1848. 

MILITARY  OR  MARTIAL  LAW.  This  is  a  law  built  on  no  settled  principle, 
but  entirely  arbitrarj'.  and  in  truth,  no  law;  but  sometimes  indulged,  rather 
than  allowed,  as  law. — Su-  MaU/iew  Hale.  Martial  law  was  several  times 
proclaimed  in  Great  Britain  during  rebellions.  It  was  almost  general  through- 
out Ireland  in  1798.  The  last  proclamation  of  martial  law  was  in  that  coun- 
try, July  26,  1803.  Paris  was  under  martial  law  for  several  weeks  after  the 
insurrection  of  June,  1848. 

MILITIA.  The  standing  national  militia  of  Great  Britain  is  traced  by  most 
historians  to  king  Alfred,  who,  by  his  prudent  discipline,  made  all  his  sub- 
jects soldiers,  a.  d.  872  to  901.  The  feudal  niilitary  tenures  became  involved 
in  this  force.  The  first  commission  of  arraj''  to  raise  a  militia  in  England 
was  in  1422.     In  the  United  States  the  laws  relating  to  the  militia  and  the 


*  Agnodice,  an  Athenian  virgin,  disguised  her  sex  to  learn  medicine.  She  was  taught  by  HierO' 
pholus,  her  lather,  the  art  of  Midwifery,  and  when  employed,  always  discovered  her  sex  to  hei 
patients.  This  brought  her  into  so  much  practice,  that  the  males  of  her  profession,  who  were  now 
out  of  employment,  accused  her,  before  tlie  Areopagu.?,  of  corruption.  She  confessed  her  se.-c  to  the 
judges,  and  a  law  was  made  to  empower  all  free-born  women  to  leam  midwifery. — Hyg.fa.  274. 


MIN  ]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  425 

appointment  of  officers  are  different  in  the  different  States.  See  Encyclo- 
pedia Americana.  Tlie  aggregate  militia  force  of  the  United  States,  as  re- 
ported in  1848,  was  1,888.538,  but  as  the  returns  in  some  instances  were 
for  former  years,  the  number  jirobably  reached,  in  1850,  at  least  to 
2,100,000.  As  the  regular  army  has  always  been  small  (in  time  of  peace 
about  8000)  the  republic  has  relied  chiefly  on  the  militia  in  time  of  war. 

MILKY  WAY.  Ancient  poets  and  philosophers  speak  of  the  galaxy  as  the 
road  by  which  heroes  went  to  heaven.  The  Greeks  supposed  that  Juno  ac- 
cidentally gave  suck  to  Mercury  when  an  infant,  or  to  the  infant  Hercules, 
who,  while  she  slept,  was  laid  by  her  side ;  but  perceiving  who  he  was,  she 
threw  him  from  her,  and  the  heavens  were  thus  marked  by  the  wasted  milk. 
Democritus  was  the  first  who  taught  that  the  via  lactea  was  occasioned  by  a 
confused  multitude  of  stars,  about  428  b.  c. 

MILLENNIUM.  This  doctrine  supposed  that  the' world  would  end  at  the  ex- 
piration of  the  seven  thousandth  year  from  the  creation ;  and  that  during 
the  last  thousand  years  Christ  and  the  saints  would  reign  upon  earth.  It 
was  generally  inculcated  as  early  as  the  second  and  third  centuries.  It  was 
propagated  by  Papias,  Justin-Martyr,  and  many  others.  The  Millennium 
was  grounded  upon  a  doubtful  text  in  the  Apocalypse,  to  the  effect  that  our 
blessed  Saviour  should  reign  with  the  faithful  upon  earth  after  the  resurrec- 
tion, before  the  final  completion  of  beatitude. — Burnet. 

MILLINER.  Defined  bj'  Shakspeare  and  Johnson  as  a  seller  of  ribands  and 
dresses  for  women,  a  very  ancient  occupation ;  the  term  is  supposed  to  be 
derived  from  Milan.  There  are  men-milliners  in  England,  and  the  adoption 
of  such  a  trade  by  the  male  sex  has  been  strongly  and  justlj"  censured.  In 
1810,  men-milliners  and  other  classes  of  an  epicene  character  were  very 
strongly  censured  in  the  Society  of  Arts.  Young  females  are  employed  at 
all  seasons,  and  in  all  weathers,  to  carry  bandboxes  through  the  streets,  ex- 
posed to  the  insolence  of  libertines,  and  the  perils  of  vicious  example,  while 
the  perfumed  coxcomb  ["  He  was  perfumed  like  a  milliner." — Shakspeare.'] 
measures  ribands  safely  at  home,  or  folds  gauzes,  and  lisps  the  while  in  lady 
phrases  to  females  of  distinction.* — Butler. 

MILLS.  The  earliest  instrument  for  grinding  manna  and  corn,  was  the  mortar. 
Moses  forbade  them  to  be  taken  in  pawn,  because  that,  he  says,  would  be 
like  taking  a  man's  life  to  pledge.  The  hand-mill  was  in  use  among  the 
Britons  previously  to  the  conquest  by  the  Romans.  The  Romans  introduced 
the  water-mill.     See  article  Mechanics. 

MINES.  Those  of  Great  Britain  are  very  numerous,  rich,  and  of  various  kinds. 
Strabo  and  Tacitus  enumerate  gold  and  silver  as  among  the  products  of  Eng- 
land. The  earliest  instance  of  a  claim  to  a  mine  royal  being  enforced, 
occurs  4*7  Henry  III.,  1262. — Ending.  It  related  to  mines  containing  gold, 
together  with  copper,  in  Devonshire.  In  the  United  States,  iron,  coal,  lime, 
and  salt  exist  in  great  abundance,  in  various  States :  lead  mines  in  Mis- 
souri are  very  productive.  Gold  mines  have  been  found  in  Virginia,  North 
Carolina,  and  Georgia,  but  their  supply  is  but  moderate.  See  Coal,  Cop- 
per, Tin,  Gold,  c^c. 

MINNESOTA.  A  territory  of  the  United  States  lying  between  40°  80'  north 
lat..  and  between  91°  10'  and  102°  west  long.,  inhabited  chiefly  by  the  Sioux. 
Indians.  First  explored  by  the  French ;  began  to  be  settled  by  emigrants 
from  the  United  States  about  1845-6. 

*  I  look  upon  a  man-milliner  not  only  as  one  of  the  most  unworthy  members  of  society,  but  as 
one  of  the  most  injurious.  When  I  hear  one  of  these  persons  haransumg  upon  the  merits  of  muslin, 
or  the  becoming  color  of  a  riband,  anger  will  mingle  itself  with  tlie  leeUng  of  contempt ;  for  the 
employment  that  degrades  this  man  might  have  preserved  a  woman  from  prostitution. — Dr. 
SoiUhey. 


426  THE    world's    progress.  [  MIS 

MINORCA.  This  island  and  Majorca  were  called  by  the  Greeks,  Balearides. 
Minorca  was  captured  by  lieutenant-general  Stanhope  and  sir  John  Leake  in 
August  1708,  and  was  confirmed  to  the  British  bj-  the  treaty  of  Utrecht  in 
1713.  It  was  retaken  by  the  Spanish  and  French  in  June  1756.  Admiral 
Byng  fell  a  victim  to  the  exasperation  of  the  public  mind,  and  to  the  safety 
of  ministers,  for  not  relieving  it  with  a  force  greatly  inferior  to  that  of  the 
enemy.  See  Byng.  It  was  restored  to  the  British  at  the  peace  in  1763. 
Besieged  by  the  Spaniards,  and  taken,  Feb.  5,  1782.  It  was  again  captured 
by  the  British,  without  the  loss  of  a  man,  Nov.  15, 1798  ;  but  was  given  up 
at  the  peace  of  1802. 

MINSTRELS.  They  were  originally  pipers  appointed  by  lords  of  manors  to 
divert  their  copyholders  while  at  work.  They  owed  their  origin  to  the  glee- 
men  or  harpers  of  the  Saxons,  and  continued  till  about  a.  d.  1560.  John  of 
Gaunt  erected  a  court  of  minstrels  at  Tutbury  in  1380.  So  late  as  the  reign 
of  Henry  VIII.  they  intruded  Avithout  ceremony  into  all  companies,  even  at 
the  houses  of  the  nobilit}^  In  Elizabeth's  reign  they  had,  however,  sunk 
into  neglect. 

MINT  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  established  at  Philadelphia,  1792.  Branch  at 
New  Orleans,  1838 ;  at  Charlotte,  N.C.,  1837;  atDahlonega,  1838.  SeeCoining. 

MIRRORS,  In  ancient  times  mirrors  were  made  of  metal ;  and  from  a  passage 
in  the  Mosaic  writings  we  learn  tliat  the  mirrors  used  by  the  Jewish  women 
were  made  of  brass.  Mirrors  in  silver  were  introduced  bj^  Praxiteles,  328 
B.  c.     See  Looking  Glasses. 

MISS.  In  the  seventeenth  century,  the  epithet  Miss  applied  to  females  was 
considered  a  term  of  reproach.  Miss  Cross  who  is  i^articularly  noticed  in 
Hayne's  epilogue  to  Farquhar's  Love  in  a  Bottle,  about  1782,  was  the  first 
actress  announced  as  Miss. —  GaWs  Lives  of  the  Players. 

MISSIONS.  Among  the  Romanists,  the  religious  orders  of  St.  Dominick,  St. 
Francis,  St.  Augustin,  &c.,  had  missions  to  the  Levant  and  to  America. 
The  Jesuits  had  missions  to  China  {ivhich  see),  and  to  most  other  parts  of 
the  world.  Among  the  Protestants,  an  early  undertaking  of  this  kind  was 
a  Danish  mission,  planned  by  Frederick  IV.,  in  1706.  But  the  Moravian 
Brethren  may  be  said  to  have  led  the  way  to  the  new  Christian  missions, 
about  1732.  The  London  Missionary  Society  held  their  first  meeting,  Nov. 
4,  1794 ;  and  it  has  since  been  the  parent  of  many  benevolent  institutions. 
The  American  Board  of  Commissioners  for  Foreign  Missions,  formed  1810 ; 
first  mission  at  Bombay,  1813 ;  at  Ceylon,  1816 ;  to  Choctaws,  1817 ;  Che- 
rokees,  1820.  The  Board  has  an  annual  income  from  voluntary  contribu- 
tions of  about  S200,000.  The  statistics  of  its  operations  in  various  parts 
of  the  world  are  given  in  its  annual  reports.  The  contributions  of  this 
Board  and  its  missionaries  to  the  fund  of  geographical  and  ethnographical 
science,  to  say  nothing  of  religion  and  civilization,  have  been  very  important. 
The  missions  of  the  Baptists.  Episcopalians,  Methodists,  &c.,  are  also  nu- 
merous. American  Baptist  Board  of  Missions,  founded  1814.  Board  of 
Missions  of  General  Assembly  (Presbyterian),  1818.  Methodist  Mission- 
ary Society,  1819.  American  Home  Missionary  Society,  1826.  See  Benevo- 
lent Societies. 

MISSISSIPPI,  one  of  the  United  States.  First  settled  by  the  French  at  Nat- 
chez, and  claimed  as  part  of  Louisiana,  1716.  Colony  destroyed  by  the 
Indians.  The  country  ceded  to  Great  Britain  by  the  peace  of  1753.  Part 
of  it  belonged  to  Georgia,  and  the  southern  part  to  Florida.  The  territory, 
together  with  Alabama,  constituted  the  ■■  Mississippi  Territory"  until  1817, 
when  it  was  admitted  into  the  Union  as  a  State.  Population  in  1816,  45,929  : 
in  1830,  136,806;  in  1840,  375.651,  including  195,211  slaves. 


MOG  ]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  427 

MISSOURI,  one  of  the  United  States.  Was  included  wdth  Louisiana  in  the 
purchase  from  the  French  in  1803.  Town  of  St.  Louis  settled  by  the  French 
in  1764:,  but  was  little  more  than  a  trading  post  until  1804,  when  the  terri- 
torial government  was  formed.  Missouri  admitted  into  the  Union  as  a  State 
in  1821,  after  a  long  debate  on  slavery,  ending  in  the  Missouri  Compromise, 
which  prohibits  slavery  north  and  west  of  Arkansas,  but  tolerates  it  in  Mis- 
souri. Population  in  1810, 19,833  ;  in  1830, 140,074 ;  in  1840,  383,702,  includ- 
ing 58,240  slaves. 

MISSISSIPPI  TRADE.  This  trade  was  begun  in  November,  1716.  The  cele- 
brated Mississippi  scheme  or  bubble  in  France,  which  was  commenced 
about  that  period,  exploded  in  1720 ;  at  which  time,  the  nominal  capital  is 
said  to  have  amounted  to  100,000,000^.    See  Law's  Bubble. 

MITHRIDATE.  A  physical  preparation  in  the  form  of  an  electuary,  supposed 
to  be  the  oldest  compound  kno^vn  to  us  at  the  present  day.  It  was  invented 
by  Mithridates  II.  the  king  of  Pontus,  about  70  b.  c.  It  was  formerly 
thought  to  be  a  great  antidote  against  poison ;  but  though  it  is  now  out 
of  date  for  that  purpose,  it  is  still  used  as  an  opiate,  and  is  one  of  the 
capital  medicines  of  our  shops. 

MITHRIDATIC  WAR.  Caused  by  the  massacre  of  100.000  Romans,  86  b.  c. 
and  remarkable  for  its  duration,  its  many  battles,  the  devastation  of  human 
life  it  occasioned,  and  the  cruelties  of  its  commanders.  Mithridates  having 
taken  the  consul  Aquilius,  made  him  ride  on  an  ass  through  a  great  part  of 
Asia,  crying  out  as  he  rode,  "  I  am  Aquilius,  consul  of  the  Romans."  He 
ultimately  dispatched  him,  by  ordering  melted  gold  to  be  poured  down  his 
throat,  which  was  done  in  derision  of  his  avarice,  85  b.  c. — Lenglet. 

MITRE.  The  cleft  cap  or  mitre  is  of  very  ancient  use,  having  been  worn  by 
the  high-priest  among  the  Jews.  Among  the  primitive  Christians,  young 
women  who  professed  a  state  of  virginity,  and  solemnly  consecrated  thereto, 
wore  a  purple  or  golden  mitre.  The  pope  has  four  mitres,  which  according 
to  the  solemnity  to  be  performed,  or  festival  day  it  is  worn  on,  is  more  or  less 
magnificent.  Anciently  the  cardinals  wore  mitres,  but  at  the  council  of 
Lyons,  in  1245,  they  were  appointed  to  Avear  hats,  which  remains  to  this  day. 

MNEMONICS.  Artificial  memory  had  its  professors  in  the  ancient  world. 
The  art  of  assisting  memory,  by  getting  by  heart,  was  introduced  by  Simon- 
ides  the  younger,  477  b.  c. — Arund.  Marbles.  In  modern  times,  mnemonics 
have  been  elaborately  treated ;  and  the  Memoria  Teclmica  of  Dr.  Grey  is  an 
esteemed  work  on  the  subject.  The  science  of  mnemonics,  as  we  now  have 
it,  was  announced  in  Germany,  in  1806-7  ;  but  it  had  been  previously  no- 
ticed in  the  London  monthly  periodicals. 

MODENA.  Erected  into  a  duchy  in  1451.  The  duke  was  expelled  by  the 
French,  1796.  By  the  treaty  of  Campo  Formio,  the  Modenese  possessions 
were  incorporated  with  the  Cisalpine  republic,  1797.  The  archduke  Fran- 
cis of  Este  was  restored  in  1814.  Insurrection  here,  Feb.  5,  1831.  The 
archduke  escaped ;  but  the  Austrian  troops  soon  afterwards  entered  and 
restored  the  deposed  authorities.  The  people  revolt  and  imprison  the  duke, 
March  20, 1848.  The  troops  of  Tuscany  occupy  Modena,  March  24 ;  Provi- 
sional government  appointed,  April  9,  1848. 

MOGULS.  They  deduce  their  origin  from  Japhet,  son  of  Noah.  His  son, 
Turk,  they  say,  was  the  first  king  or  khan  of  those  nations  afterwards 
known  as  Turks,  Tartars,  and  Moguls.  The  first  conqueror  of  the  Mogul 
empire  was  Jenghis  Khan,  a  Tartarian  prince,  who  died  a.  d.  1236.  Timour 
Beg  became  Great  Mogul  by  conquest,  1399.  Khouli  Khan,  the  famous 
sophi  of  Persia,  considerably  diminished  the  power  of  the  moguls,  carried 
away  immense  treasures  from  Delhi,  and  since  that  event  many  of  the 
nabobs  have  made  themselves  independent.    See  India. 


428  THE    world's    PROGilESS.  [  MO^ 

MONARCHY.  The  most  ancient  was  that  of  the  Assj-rians,  founded  soon 
after  the  Deluge.  See  Assyria.  Historians  reckon  four  grand,  or  ahnost 
universal  raonarchies, — the  Assj^rian,  Persian,  Grecian,  and  Roman.     Set 

them  respectively. 

MONASTERIES.  The  first  founded  was,  according  to  some  authorities,  in  a. 
D.  270 ;  and  according  to  others,  in  a.  d.  305.  The  suppression  of  monastic 
houses  has  been  frequent,  even  in  Catholic  countries  ;  and  many  religious 
communities  have  bowed  to  the  variable  notions  of  mankind  regarding  re- 
ligion, and  to  the  altered  state  of  the  world.  Constantine  IV.,  among 
other  persecutors,  commanded  a  vast  number  of  friars  and  nuns  to  appear 
at  Ephesus :  he  there  ordered  them  to  change  their  black  habits  for  white, 
and  to  destroy  their  images.  They  explained  that  this,  on  account  of  the 
vows  they  had  taken,  was  impossible ;  whereupon  he  directed  that  their 
eyes  should  be  put  out,  and  that  they  should  be  banished,  forfeiting  their 
various  monasteries,  which  he  sold  for  the  uses  of  the  state.  When  St. 
Austin  arrived  in  England  a.  d.  596,  Ethelbert  of  Kent  pave  him  an  idol 
temple  without  the  walls  of  his  capital,  as  a  burial-place  for  him  and  his 
successors,  which  Avas  converted  into  the  first  monastery.  Various  monastic 
houses  were  suppressed  in  England  in  various  reigns ;  and  a  vast  number  in 
1515.  But  the  general  dissolution  took  place  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VHI. 
1534-9.  The  abbey  lands  were  afterwards  granted  to  numerous  courtiers, 
whose  descendants  enjoy  them  to  this  day. 

MONEY.  It  is  mentioned  as  a  medium  of  commerce  in  the  23d  chapter  of  Ge- 
nesis, when  Abraljam  purchased  a  field  as  a  sepulchre  for  Sarah,  in  the  year 
of  the  world  2139.  In  profane  historJ^  the  coinage  of  money  is  ascribed  to 
the  Lydians.  Moneta  was  the  name  given  to  their  silver  by  the  Romans,  it 
having  been  coined  in  the  temple  of  Juno-Moneta,  269  b.  c.  Money  was 
made  of  diflerent  ores,  and  even  of  leather  and  other  articles,  both  in  an- 
cient and  modern  times.  It  was  made  of  pasteboard,  by  the  Hollanders  so 
late  as  1574.  Silver  has  increased  more  than  thirty  times  its  value  since 
the  Norman  conquest,  viz.  a  pound  in  that  age  was  three  times  the  quantity" 
that  it  is  at  present,  and  twelve  times  its  value  in  purchasing  any  commo- 
dity.    See  articles,  Coin ;  Gold ;  Silver ;  Copper ;  Mint,  (^c. 

MONK.  The  first  is^aid  to  have  been  Paul  of  Thebais,  who  fled  into  the  de- 
serts to  avoid  the  Decian  persecution  about  a.  d.  250.  St.  Anthony  is  sup- 
posed by  other  authorities  to  have  been  the  first  example  of  a  regular 
luonastic  life,  a.  d.  305,  soon  after  which  time  monks  began  to  associate. 
St.  Athanasius  introduced  the  monastic  life  into  Rome  in  341.     See  Abbeys. 

MONMOUTH'S  REBELLION.  James,  duke  of  Monmouth,  a  natural  son 
of  Charles  II.  was  banished  England  for  a  conspiracy  in  1683.  He  invaded 
England  at  Lyme,  June  11,  1685.  He  was  proclaimed  king  at  Taunton  on 
the  20th  of  the  same  month.  Was  defeated  at  Bridgewater,  July  5  ;  and 
was  beheaded  on  Tower-hill,  July  15,  1685.  The  county  of  Monmouth, 
from  which  he  was  named,  was  made  an  English  county  by  Henry  VIII. 
about  1535. 

MONOPOLIES.  Commercial  monopolies  reached  to  such  a  height  in  England, 
that  parliament  petitioned  against  them,  and  they  were  in  consequence 
mostly  abolished  about  the  close  of  Elizabeth's  reign,  1602.  They  were 
further  suppressed,  as  being  contrary  to  law,  19  James  I.;^  1622  ;  and  were 
totally  abolished,  and  it  was  decreed  that  none  should  be  in  future  created, 
as  was  previously  the  custom,  by  royal  patent,  16  Charles  I.,  1G40. — Ander- 
son's History  of  Commerce. 

MONTANISTS.     A  sect  founded  by  Montanus,  of  Ardaba,  in  Mysia,  an  extra- 


MOR  J  DICTIONARY    OF   DATES.  429 

ordinary  enthusiast,  about  a.  d.  171.  He  was  reputed  to  have  the  gift  of 
prophecy,  and  proclaimed  himself  the  comforter  promised  by  Christ,  con- 
demned second  marriages  as  fornication,  permitted  the  dissolution  of  mar- 
riage, forbade  to  avoid  martyrdom,  and  ordered  a  severe  fast  of  three 
lents  ;  he  hanged  himself  with  Maximilla,  one  of  his  women-scholars,  be- 
fore the  close  of  the  second  century. — Cave's  Hist.  Lit. 

MONTREAL.  Surrendered  to  the  English  by  the  French  in  1760.  It  was 
taken  by  the  Provincials  in  the  American  war  of  Independence,  November 
12,  1775,  and  was  retaken  by  the  British,  June  15,  1776.  The  church,  Je- 
suits' college,  prison,  and  many  buildings  burnt  down,  June  6,  1803.  Great 
military  aftray,  Sept.  29,  1833.  Riot  about  the  "  Rebellion  Losses  "  Act ; 
the  parliament  house  burnt  by  the  mob,  1819. 

MOON.  The  full  moon  was  held  favorable  .for  any  undertaking  by  the  Spar- 
tans, and  the  Greeks  generally  looked  upon  full  moons,  or  the  times  of 
conjunction  of  the  sun  or  moon,  as  seasons  most  favorable  to  marriage. 
Opacity  of  the  moon,  and  true  causes  of  lunar  eclipses,  was  taught  by 
Thales,  640  b.  c.  Posidonius  accounted  for  the  tides  from  the  motion  of  the 
moon,  79  b.  c. — Diog.  Laert.  A  map  of  the  moon  was  first  taken  at  Dant- 
zic,  A.  D.  1647.  The  strength  of  moon-light  at  the  full  moon  is  90,000  times 
less  than  the  light  of  the  sun. — Dr.  Smith.  It  is  300,000  times  less. — 
Bouguer. 

MOORS.  They  first  invaded  Spain,  a.d.  173. —  Univ.  Hist.  The  Saracens  in 
Spain  beset  by  the  Christians,  called  in  the  assistance  of  the  Moors,  who 
seized  the  dominions  they  came  to  protect,  and  subdued  the  Saracens,  a.  d. 
1091.  Alphonsus  I.  of  Nav.srre,  defeated  them  in  many  battles,  1118,  et  seq. 
The  Moors  began  the  kingdom  of  Granada,  being  their  last  refuge  from  the 
power  of  the  Christians,  1238.  Alphonsus  XI.  of  Leon  and  Castile,  slew 
200,000  Moors  in  one  battle  ;  three  leagues  roimd  the  country  was  covered 
with  the  dead,  1327.  The  power  of  this  people  was  overthrown  by  Ferdi- 
nand v.,  who  conquered  Granada,  1492.  Philip  III.  banished  them  to  the 
number  of  900,000,  confiscating  their  property,  1610. — Priestleij. 

MORAL  PHILOSOPHY.  The  knowledge  of  our  duty  and  felicity,  the  science 
of  ethics,  or  art  of  being  virtuous  and  happy.  Socrates  is  universally  re- 
gai'ded  as  the  fother  of  moral  philosophy,  about  430  b.  c.  And  Grotius  is 
esteemed  by  many  writers  as  the  father  of  moral  philosophy  in  modern 
times,  about  a.  d.  1023. — Bate,  i^c. 

MORAVIANS.  United  Brethren.  A  sect  which  took  its  rise  in  Moravia,  in, 
it  is  said,  the  fifteenth  centur}^,  which  some  doubt ;  while  the  Brethren  say 
that  their  sect  is  derived  from  the  Greek  church  in  the  ninth  century.  They 
appeared  in  England  about  1737,  introduced  by  count  Zinzendorf,  "who  died 
at  Chelsea,  in  June  1760.  They  settled  at  Bethlehem,  Penn.,  1741.  In  order 
to  the  conversion  of  the  heathen  world,  these  persevering  brethren  formed 
settlements  also  in  Greenland,  the  Cape,  East  and  West  Indies,  and 
other  climes.  The  Moravians  led  the  way  to  the  Scriptural  missions  now 
so  general. 

MORGARTEN,  Battle  or,  the  most  memorable,  as  well  as  extraordinary  and 
glorious  in  the  annals  of  Switzerland;  1300  Swiss  engaged  20,000  Austrian.-f. 
commanded  by  the  duke  Leopold,  whom  they  completely  defeated.  They 
seized  upon  the  heights  of  Morgarten,  Avhich  overlooked  the  defile  througli 
which  the  enemy  Vv'as  to  enter  their  territory  from  Zug,  and  thus  achie\-e(l 
their  victory,  Nov.  15,  1315. 

MORMONS.  Tlie  pretended  revelation  of  the  Mormon  Scriptures  to  ",Ioe 
Smith  "  is  said  to  have  been  made  in  the  state  of  New  York,  about  1835. 
Surrender  of  :i  body  of  700  Mormons  xmder  arms,  with    their   leaders  Joe 


430  THE  world's  PROGRES-S.  [  Mxn» 

Smith,  Rigdon,  &c.,  to  the  Missouri  miUtia,  under  Gen.  Atchinson,  Oct.  28, 
1838.  Joe  Smith  and  his  brother  murdered  in  jail  by  a  mob,  June  27, 1844. 
The  Mormon  temple  at  Nauvoo,  Illinois,  sold  to  the  Icarians,  or  Socialists, 
and  the  Mormons  emigrated  to  Desseret  and  California,  1348-9. 

AIOROCCO.  Anciently  Mauritania.  From  its  early  possession  by  the  RomaniJ 
it  underwent  various  revolutions.  About  a.  d.  1116,  AbdalJah,  a  leader 
of  a  sect  of  Mahometans,  founded  a  dynasty  which  ended  in  the  last 
sovereign's  defeat  in  Spain.  About  this  pei'iod,  1202,  Fez  and  other  provinces 
shook  off  their  dependence;  but  the  descendants  of  Mahomet,  about  1650, 
subdaed  them,  and  formed  the  empire  of  Morocco.  Hostilities  with  France 
provoked  by  Abdel-Kader,  the  heroic  and  indomitable  ameer  of  Algiers, 
commence  May,  1844;  Tangier  bombarded,  Aug.  6, 1844;  peace  concluded, 
and  the  French  forces  evacuate  Mogador,  Sept.  16, 1844.  Abdel-Kader  taken 
prisoner  by  the  French  and  carried  to  France,  1846. 

MORTARS,  A  short  gun  with  an  extraordinary  large  bore,  and  close  chamber, 
used  for  throwing  bombs,  first  made  in  England  in  1543.  The  celebrated 
mortar  left  by  Soult  in  Spain,  was  fixed  in  St.  James's  park  in  August,  1816. 

MOSCOW.  One  of  the  largest  cities  in  Europe.  It  was  founded  in  1156 ;  was 
taken  by  Tamerlane  1382 ;  and  subsequently  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
Tartars,  whose  last  attack  upon  it  was  in  1571,  when  they  set  it  on  fire.  This 
city  was  entered  by  the  French,  Sept,  14,  1812,  and  the  Russian  governor, 
Rostochin,  ordered  that  it  should  be  set  on  fire  in  five  hundred  places  at 
once.  In  this  memorable  conflagration,  11,840  houses  wei-e  biirnt  to  the 
ground,  besides  palaces  and  churches.  The  French,  thus  deprived  of  quar- 
ters, evacuated  Moscow  Oct  19,  and  it  was  re-entered  by  the  Russians  Oct. 
22,  following.     This  city  has  been  since  rebuilt. 

MOSKWA,  Battle  op,  between  the  French  and  Russians.    See  Borodino. 

MOSS-TROOPERS.  These  \vere  a  desperate  sort  of  plunderers,  secreting 
themselves  in  the  mosses  on  the  borders  of  Scotland,  defiling  women,  and 
perpetrating  the  most  savage  euormities,  as  well  as  minor  mischiefs,  extirpa- 
ted A.  D.  1609. 

MOST  CHRISTIAN  KING.  The  title  given  to  Louis  XI.  by  pope  Paul  II., 
1469.  It  has  been  justlj'  remarked,  that  never  was  the  title  or  name  of 
Christian  given  to  a  prince  more  unworthily  bestowed,  or  less  deserved. 

MOTTOES,  ROYAL.  Dicu  ct  man  Droit  was  first  used  by  Richard  I.,  a.  d.  1193. 
The  Bohemian  crest,  viz.  three  ostrich  feathers,  and  the  motto  Ich  Men,  "I 
serve,"  was  adopted  by  Edward  the  Black  Prince,  at  the  battle  of  Cressy, 
the  king  of  Bohemia  being  slain  in  the  battle,  1346.  Honi  soit  qui  mat  y 
jiense,  was  made  the  motto  of  the  Garter.  1349-50.  Je  mainticndrai,  "I  will 
maintain,'"  was  adopted  by  William  III.,  1688.  And  Semper  cadcm  was  or- 
dered by  queen  Anne  to  be  used  as  her  motto. 

MOURNING  FOR  THE  DEAD.  The  practice  of  the  Israelites  was,  neither  to 
wash  nor  anoint  themselves  during  the  time  of  mourning.  The  exhibition 
of  grief  for  a  friend  lasted  for  seven  days ;  and  upon  extraordinary  occasion? 
it  lasted  a  month.  The  Greeks  and  Romans  also  exhibited  their  grief  for 
the  dead  by  many  public  abstinences.  The  ordinary  color  for  mourning  in 
Europe  is  black ;  in  China  it  is  white ;  in  Turkey,  violet ;  in  Ethiopia,  brown ; 
and  it  was  white  in  Spain,  until  a.  d.  1498. — Herrera. 

MUNSTER,  Treaty  op,  between  France,  the  Emperor,  and  Sweden;  Spstin 
continuing  the  w^ar  against  the  former  kingdom.  By  this  peace,  the  principle 
of  a  balance  of  power  in  Europe  was  first  recognized.  Signed  at  Munster. 
Oct.  24,  1648. 


Mas  J  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  43'I 

MURDER.  The  highest  offence  against  the  law  of  nature.  A  court  of  Ephetse 
was  estabHshed  by  Demophoon  for  the  trial  of  murder,  1179  b.  c.  The  Per- 
sians did  not  punish  the  first  offence.  In  England,  during  a  period  of  the 
Heptarchy,  murder  was  punished  by  fines  only.  So  late  as  Henry  VIH.'s 
time,  the  crime  was  compounded  for  in  Wales.  Murderers  were  allowed 
benefit  of  clergy  in  1503.  Aggravated  murder,  or  petit  treason,  vaay  happen 
in  three  ways ;  by  a  servant  killing  his  master ;  a  wife  her  husband ;  and 
an  ecclesiastical  person  his  superior,  statute  25  Edward  111.,  1350.  The 
enactments  relating  to  this  crime  are  very  numerous,  and  its  wilful  com- 
mission has  been  excepted  from  mercy  by  our  sovereigns  in  every  instance 
The  act  whereby  the  murderer  should  be  executed  on  the  day  next  but  one 
after  his  conviction,  was  repealed  7  William  IV.,  July  1836. — Haydn. 

MUSEUM.  Originally  a  quarter  of  the  palace  of  Alexandria,  like  the  Pryta- 
neum  of  Athens,  where  learned  men  of  extraordinary  merit  were  maintained 
by  the  public,  because  of  their  considerable  services  to  the  commonwealth. 
The  foundation  of  this  establishment  is  attributed  to  Ptolemy  Philadelphus. 
who  here  placed  his  library,  about  284  b.  c.     See  British  Museum,  ^c. 

MUSIC.  Luci'etius  ascribes  its  invention  to  the  whistling  of  the  winds,  in 
hollow  reeds.  Franckinus  to  the  various  sounds  produced  by  the  hammers 
of  Tubal  Cain.  Cameleon  Pontique  and  others  to  the  singing  of  birds.  And 
Zarlino  to  the  sound  of  water.  It  is,  however,  agreed  .that  music  was  first 
reduced  to  rules  by  Jubal,  1800  b.  c.  The  flute,  and  harmony  or  concord  in 
music  was  invented  by  Hyagnis,  1506. — Arnold.  Marbles,  Vocal  choruses  of 
men  are  first  mentioned  556  b.  c. — Du  Fresnoy.  Pythagoras  maintained  that 
the  motions  of  tlie  twelve  spheres  miist  produce  delightful  sounds  inaudible 
to  mortal  ears,  which  he  called  "  the  music  of  the  spheres."  St.  Cecilia,  a 
Roman  lady,  is  said  to  have  excelled  so  eminently  in  music,  that  an  angel 
was  enticed  from  the  celestial  regions  by  the  fascinating  charms  of  her 
melody :  and  this  hyperbolical  tradition  has  been  deemed  suflicient  author- 
ity to  make  her  the  patroness  of  music  and  musicians.  She  died  in  the  third 
century. 

F.USIC  AL  NOTES.  The  first  six  are  said  to  have  been  invented  by  Guide  Aretin, 
a  Benedictine  monk  of  Arezzo.  a.  d.  1025. — Blair.  The  notes  at  present 
used  were  perfected  in  1338.  Counterpoint  was  brought  to  perfection  by 
Palestrina  about  1515.  Gaffurius  of  Lodi  read  lectures  on  musical  composi- 
tion in  the  sixteenth  century,  and  they  effected  great  improvement  in  the 
science.  The  Itahan  style  of  composition  was  introduced  into  these  countries 
about  1616. 

MUSICAL  INSTITUTIONS,  England.  The  Ancient  Academy  of  Music  was  in- 
stituted in  1710.  It  originated  with  numerous  eminent  performers  and  gen- 
tlemen to  promote  the  study  of  vocal  harmony.  The  Madrigal  Society  was 
established  in  1741.  and  o|her  musical  societies  followed.  The  Royal  Society 
of  Music  arose  from  the  principal  nobility  and  gentry  uniting  to  promote  the 
performance  of  operas  composed  by  Handel,  1785.  Royal  Academy  of  Mu- 
sic established  1822. 

MUSKETS.  They  were  first  used  at  the  siege  of  Arras  in  1414.  The  Spanish 
historians  state  that  Spain  was  the  first  power  that  armed  the  foot-soldier 
with  these  weapons.  They  were  used  at  the  siege  of  Rhegen  in  1521.  In- 
troduced generally  into  the  English  army,  and  bows  and  arrows  laid  aside, 
12  Henry  VIII.  1521.— C«rfc.  It  was  the  duke  of  Alva  Avho  first  brought  the 
musket  into  use  in  the  Low  countries,  1569. — Branstone. 

MUSLIN.  A  fine  cloth,  made  wholly  of  cotton.  According  to  some,  it  is  so 
called  as  not  being  bare  but  having  a  downy  nap  on  its  surface  resembling 
moss,  which  the  French  call  mous.se.    According  to  others,  it  was  first  brought 


432  THE  world's  progress.  [myt 

from  Mousol,  in  India,  whence  the  name.  Muslins  were  first  worn  in  Eng- 
land in  1670. — Anderson.  They  were  manufactured  in  great  perfection  in 
England  in  1778. 

MUTE.  A  prisoner  is  said  to  stand  mute  when,  being  arraigned  for  treason  or 
felony,  he  either  makes  no  answer,  or  answers  foreign  to  the  purpose.  An- 
ciently, a  mute  was  taken  back  to  prison,  placed  in  a  dark  dungeon,  naked, 
on  his  back,  on  the  bare  ground,  and  a  great  weight  of  iron  placed  upon 
his  body ;  in  this  situation  he  was  fed  with  three  morsels  of  bad  bread  one 
day,  and  three  draughts  of  stagnant  water  the  next,  and  so  on  alternately 
until  he  died.  For  a  very  memorable  instance  of  this  punishment  in  a.  d. 
1605,  see  article  Pressing  to  Death.  By  statute  12  George  III.  judgment  is 
awarded  against  mutes,  in  the  same  manner  as  if  they  were  convicted  or 
confessed.  A  man  refusing  to  plead  was  condemned  and  executed  at  the 
Old  Bailey  on  a  charge  of  murder,  1778.  Another  on  a  charge  of  burglary, 
at  Wells,  1792.  At  Shrewsbury  a  man  tried  and  convicted  notwithstanding, 
Aug.  21,  1^0\.— Phillips. 

MUTINY  ON  BOARD  U.  S.  Brig  SOMERS,  commander  A.  S.  Mackenzie:  mid- 
shipman Spencer  and  two  seamen  hung,  Dec.  1.  1842. 

MUTINY  or  the  BOUNTY,  April  28,  1789.     For  particulars  see  Bounty. 

MYCALE,  Battle  op,  fought  September  22,  479  b.  c,  between  the  Greeks  and 
Persians ;  being  the  identical  day  on  which  Mardonius  was  defeated  and 
slain  at  Platea.  The  Persians  consisted  of  about  100,000  men,  who  had  just 
returned  from  an  unsuccessful  expedition  of  Xerxes  in  Greece.  They  were 
completely  defeated,  some  thousands  of  them  slaughtered,  their  camp  burnt, 
and  the  Greeks  triumphantly  embarked  their  troops  and  sailed  back  to  Sa- 
mos  with  an  immense  bootJ^ 

MYCENAE.  A  division  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Argives.  It  stood  about  fifty 
stadia  from  Argos,  and  flourished  till  the  invasion  of  the  Heraclidse.  Perseus 
removes  from  Argos  to  Mycenas,  and  reigns,  1313  b.  c.  Mycense  destroyed 
by  the  Argives,  568  b.  c. 

MYSTERIES.  They  originated  in  Egypt,  the  land  of  idolatry,  and  were  an  in- 
stitution of  the  priesthood  to  extend  their  own  influence  ;  so  that  all  max- 
ims in  morality,  tenets  in  theology,  and  dogmas  in  philosophy,  were  wrapt 
up  in  a  veil  of  allegory  and  mystery.  From  the  Egyptian  mysteries  of  Isis 
and  Osiris  sprung  those  of  Bacchus  and  Ceres  among  the  Greeks.  The 
Eleusinian  mysteries  were  introduced  at  Athens  by  Eumolpus,  1356  b.  c. 
The  laws  were — 1.  To  honor  parents ;  2.  To  honor  the  gods  with  the  fruits 
of  the  earth ;  3.  Not  to  treat  brutes  with  cruelty.  Cicero  makes  the  civil- 
ization of  mankind  one  of  the  beneficial  effects  of  the  Eleusinian  mysteries. 
They  were  abolished  by  the  emperor  Theodosius,  a.  d.  389. 

MYTHOLOGY.  Fable  usurped  the  place  of  historical  truth  as  soon  as  the 
authentic  tradition  concerning  the  Creation  had  been  lost  or  adulterated ; 
and  persons  who  had  rendered  themselves  renowned  as  kings  or  leaders  in 
this  life,  and  whose  achievements  had  dazzled  the  benighted  understanding 
of  men  living  in  a  state  of  nature,  were  sxipposed  to  be  more  than  mortal, 
and  therefore  after  death  the  multitude  were  easily  taught  to  reverence  them 
with  divine  honors.  The  Egyptians  and  Babylonians,  after  forgetting  the  in- 
visible and  true  God,  worshipped  positive  objects,  as  the  sun  and  moon ;  and 
then  transferred  their  adoration  to  the  operations  of  nature  and  the  passions 
of  their  own  minds,  which  they  embodied  under  s.ymbolical  representations, 
and  ultimately  worshipped  the  symbols  themselves.  Thoth  is  supposed  to 
have  introduced  mythology  among  the  Egyptians,  1521  b.  c.  ;  and  Cadmus, 
the  worship  of  tlie  Egyptian  and  Phosnician  deities,  among  the  Greeks,  1493 


nap] 


DICTIONARY   OF    DATES. 


433 


N. 


NAEONASSER,  Era  of.  This  era  received  its  name  from  the  celebrated  prince 
of  Babylon,  and  began  Feb.  26,  747  b.  c.  To  find  the  Julian  year  on  which 
the  year  of  Nabonasser  begins,  subtract  the  year,  if  before  Christ,  from  747; 
if  after  Christ,  add  to  it  748. 

NAMES.  Originally  every  person  had  but  one  name.  Plato  recommended  it 
to  parents  to  give  happy  names  to  their  children ;  and  the  Pythagoreans 
taught  that  the  minds,  actions,  and  successes  of  men  were  according  to  their 
names,  genius,  and  fate.  The  popes  changed  their  names  at  their  exalta- 
tion to  the  pontificate,  ,"  a  custom  introduced  by  pope  Sergius,  whose  name 
till  then  was  Swine-snout,  a.  d.  687." — Platina.  Onuphrius  refers  it  to  John 
Xn.,  956 ;  and  gives  as  a  reason,  that  it  was  done  in  imitation  of  Sts.  Peter 
and  Paul,  who  were  first  called  Simon  and  Saul.  In  France  it  was  usual  to 
change  the  name  given  at  baptism,  as  was  done  in  the  case  of  two  sons  of 
Henry  II.  of  France.  The}'^  were  christened  Alexander  and  Hercules ;  but 
at  their  confirmation,  these  names  were  changed  to  Henry  and  Francis.  It 
is  usual  for  the  religious  at  their  entrance  into  monasteries  to  assume  new 
names,  to  show  they  are  about  to  lead  a  new  life,  and  have  renounced  the 
world,  their  family,  and  themselves.     See  Surnames. 

NAJVIUR.  Ceded  to  the  house  of  Austria  by  the  peace  of  Utrecht.  It  was 
garrisoned  by  the  Dutch  as  a  barrier  town  to  the  United  Provinces  in  1715. 
Namur  M'as  taken  by  the  French  in  1746,  but  was  restored  in  1748.  In  1781, 
the  emperor  Joseph  expelled  the  Dutch  garrison.  In  1792,  it  was  again  taken 
by  the  French,  who  were  compelled  to  evacuate  it  the  following  year ;  but 
they  regained  possession  of  it  in  1794.  The  French,  however,  delivered  it 
up  to  the  Allies,  in  1814. 

NANTES,  Edict  of.     See  Edict. 

NAPLES  The  continental  division  of  the  kingdom  of  the  two  Sicilies.  Naples 
was  a  part  of  the  Roman  territory  at  a  very  early  period.  In  the  fifth  cen- 
tury it  became  a  prey  to  the  Goths,  and  afterwards  to  the  Lombards ;  and 
the  Saracens,  Normans,  and  French,  also  successively  had  possession  of  this 
country. 


The  Goths  having  become  masters  of         I 
Naples  and  of  Sicily,  are  expelled  by 
Belisarius,  general  of  the  Eastern 
empire  -  -  -        a.  d.    537 ; 

The  Lombards  next  get  possession  of 
Naples,  and  are  dispossessed  by  Char- 
lemagne ....    800 

Charles  of  Anjou,  brother  of  St.  Louis, 
king  of  France,  obtains  the  crown 
from  the  pope,  to  the  exclusion  of  the 
rightful  heir,  Conradin,  who  is  be- 
headed, aged  sixteen  years        -        -  1266 

The  French  becoming  hated  by  the  Si- 
cilians, a  general  massacre  of  the  in- 
vaders takes  place,  one  Frenchman 
only  escaping.    See  Sicilian  Vespers 

March  30,  1282 

Peter  of  Arragon  reigns       -  -    -   1282 

The  two  crowns  disjoined  -  -  1303 

Charles  Durazzo,  becoming  king  of 
Hungary,  is  murdered  there  by  order 
of  the  queen  regent,  in  her  presence  -  1386 

For  this  murder  she  is  taken  out  of  her 
carriage,  and  drowned  in  the  river 
Boseth  -  -  -  -  .  1386 

Sicily  again  unhed  to  Naples,  and  the  i 

kings  ever  sinro  called  kins  of  the  I 

Two  Sicilies     .  .  ~:  -  U42 ' 

19 


Taken  from  the  French  and  annexed  to 
SiJain 1504 

The  tyranny  of  the  Spaniards  leads  to 
an  insurrection,  excited  by  Masaniello, 
a  fisherman,  who  in  fifteen  days  raises 
an  army  of  200,000  men  -  -1647 

This  insurrection  subsides,  and  Masa- 
niello is  murdered  -  -      -  1647 

Attempt  of  the  duke  of  Guise  to  possess 
the  crown         -  -  -  1647 

The  kingdom  completely  conquered  by 
prince  Eugene  -  -  -  1707 

Discovery  of  the  ruins  of  Herculaneum. 
See  Hercidcmewn       -  -  -  1711 

Naples  ceded  to  the  emperor  by  the 
treat);  of  Radstadt,  1714 ;  Sicily        -  1720 

Both  kingdoms  are  recovered  by  the 
crown  of  Spain  -  -  -  1734 

And  Charles,  the  son  of  Philip  of  Spain, 
reigns         -  -  -  -      -  1735 

Reign  of  Ferdinand  IV.  -  -  -  1759 

His  flight  on  the  approach  of  the  French 
republicans  -  -       Jan.  14,  1799 

Nelson  appears,  Naples  is  retaken,  and 
the  king  restored       -  -  July  13,  1799 

It  is  again  taken  by  the  French,  April  7,  1801 

Dreadful  earthquake    felt  throughout 


434 


THE   WORLD'S   PROGRESS. 


[NAT 


NAPLES,  continued. 

the  kingdom,  and  thousands  perish 

July  26,  1805 
Treaty  oifensive  and  defensive  between 

France  and  Naples         -  Oct.  8, 1805 

Ferdinand  is  again  driven  from  Naples, 

and  Joseph   Bonaparte  is  crowned 

king  -  -  -        Feb.  6, 1806 

Jcseph  abdicates  for  the  crown  of  Spain 

June  1,  1808 
The  crown  is  transferred  to  Joachim 

Murat         -  -  -       July  1,  iSOS 

Naples  is  surrendered  to  a  British  fleet, 

and  Ferdinand  re-enters  -  June  17,  1815 
Execution  of  Joachim  Murat  -  Oct.  15,  1815 
Revolutionary  movement,  headed  by 

general  Pepe  -  -    July  15,  1820 

Suppression  of  the  Carbonari  Sept  16, 1820 
Reign  of  Francis  I.         -  -  -1826 

And  of  Ferdinand  11.  -        Nov.  8,  1830 

Commencement  of  the  dispute  relative 

to  the  sulphur  monopoly  (which  is 

afterwards  amicably  adjusted) 

March  15, 1S40 


Demonstration  in  favor  of  Pius  IX.  and 
reform,  iired  upon  at  Naples,  and  ar- 
rests made  -  -       Dec.  15, 1847 

Sanguinary  disorders  at  Messina  Jan.  4, 1848 

Rebellion  at  Palermo,  &c.    -    Jan.  12,  1848 

Palermo  bombarded       -      Jan.  13-19, 1848 

The  king  signed  a  constiti.i:ion  Jan.  28, 1848 

Rlessina  expelled  the  Neapohtan  gar- 
rison   -  -  -  -Feb.  22, 1&18 

The  parliament  of  Sicily  declares  that 
island  independent ;  Messina  bom- 
barded by  the  Neapolitan  fleet  Ap.  3, 1848 

The  national  guard  raises  barricades  at 
Naples       -  -  -      May  14, 1848 

The  people  put  down  by  the  king's 
troops ;  144(3  killed         -        May  15, 1845 

The  Sicilian  parliament  elects  the  duke 
of  Genoa  as  king  of  Sicily  -  July  10,  1848 

Messina  bombarded  and  taken  by  the 
Neapolitan  troops  -        Sept.  2,  1848 

New  constitution  conceded  to  Sicily 

March  6, 1849 

Cataniabombarded  and  reduced  Apr.  5, 1849 


iVARVA,  Battle  of,  in  which  Peter  the  Great  of  Russia  was  totally  defeated 
by  the  renowned  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden,  then  in  his  nineteenth  year.    The 
army  of  Peter  is  said  to  have  amounted  to  100,000  men,  while  the  Swedish 
army  did  not  much  exceed  20,000 :  fought  Nov.  30,  1700. 
NASEBY,  Battle  op,  between  Charles  I.  and  the  parliament  army  under  Fair- 
fax and  Cromwell.    The  main  body  of  the  royal  army  was  commanded  by 
lord  Astley ;  prince  Rupert  led  the  right  wing,  sir  Marmaduke  Langdale 
the  left,  and  the  king  himself  headed  the  body  of  reserve.    The  victory 
was  with  the  parliament  forces,  and  was  decisive  of  the  fate  of  the  unfortu- 
nate Charles,  who  was  obliged  to  abandon  the  field  to  his  enemies,  losing  all 
his  cannon  and  baggage,  and  5000  of  his  army  were  made  prisoners,  June 
14,  1645. 
NATIONAL  DEBT  op  ENGLAND.    The  first  mention  of  parliamentary  secu- 
rity for  a  debt  of  the  nation,  occurs  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VI.    The  present 
national  debt  commenced  in  the  reign  of  William  III.    It  had  amounted,  in 
the  year  1697,  to  about  five  millions  sterling,  and  the  debt  was  then  thought 
to  be  of  alarming  magnitude. 
In  1702,  On  the  accession  of  queen 
Anne,  the  debt  amounted 
to      -        -        -        -    ^14,000,000 
In  1714,  On  the  accession  of  Geo. 

I.  it  amounted  to         -    54,000,000 
In  1749,  Geo.  II. ;  after  the  Spa- 

nist  war,  it  amounted  to  78,000,000 
In  1763,  George  HI.  :  end  of  the  7 
years'  war,  it  amounted 
to        .        .        -        -    139,000,000 
In  1786,  Three  years  after  the  Ame- 
rican war,  it  amounted  to  268,000,000 
In  1798,  The  civil  and  foreign  war, 

it  amounted  to      -        ■  462,000,000 

NATIONAL  DEBT  op  the  UNITED  STATES,  at  different  times. 

In  1791  the  debt  was  -  -  -  $75,463,476  In  1830  the  debt  was  -  -  S4S,565'406 
In  1800  "  "  -  ■  -  -  82,976,294  In  1835  "  "  -  -  -  .37,733 
In  1810  "  "  -  .  -  53,173,217  In  1839  »  «  .  .  11,983,733 
In  1815  "  "  -  -  -  •  99.833,660  In  1845  "  ■'  -  -  -  16.801,647 
In  1816  "  "  -  -  -  127,334,934  In  1848  "  "  ,-  -  65,804,450 
In  1820   "   "  -   -   -  -  91,015,566 

NATURALIZATION.    It  is  defined  to  be  "  the  making  a  foreigner  or  alien  a 
denizen  or  freeman  of  any  kingdom  or  city,  and  so  becoming,  as  it  were, 


In  1802,  Close  of  the  French  Re- 
volutionary wax-,  it  a- 
mounted  to         -        .£571,000,000 

In  1814,  Close  of  the  war  against 

Bonaparte    -        -        -  865,000,000 

In  1817,  When  the  Irish  and  Eng- 
lish exchequers  were 
consolidated         -        -  848  282,477 

In  1830,  Total  amount  of  the 
funded  and  unfunded 
debt      -        .        -        -  840,184,022 

Li  1840.  Total  amount  of  ditto   -  789,578,000 

In  1845;  Funded  debt  -        -        -  768,789,241 


NAV  j 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  43i 


both  a  subject  and  a  native  of  a  king  or  countrj'^,  that  by  nature  he  did  not 
belong  to."  The  first  act  of  naturalization  in  England  passed  in  1437 ;  and 
various  similar  enactments  were  made  in  most  of  the  reigns  from  that  time, 
several  of  them  special  acts  relating  to  individuals.  An  act  for  the  natural- 
ization of  the  Jews  passed  in  1753,  but  it  was  repealed  in  the  following  year, 
on  the  petition  of  all  the  cities  in  England.    See  United  States. 

NATIONAL  ASSEMBLY  of  FRANCE.  Upon  the  proposition  of  the  abbe 
Si^yes,  the  states  of  France  constituted  themselves  into  the  National  Assem- 
bly, June  16,  1789.  On  the  20th,  the  hall  of  this  new  assembly  was  shut  by 
order  of  the  king ;  upon  which  the  deputies  of  the  Tiers  Etat  repaired  to 
the  Jeit  de  Paume,  or  Tennis-court,  and  swore  not  to  dissolve  until  they  had 
digested  a  constitution  for  France.  On  the  2d  they  met  at  the  church  of 
St.  Louis.    This  assembly  dissolved  itself,  Sept.  21,  1792.    See  next  article. 

NATIONAL  CONVENTION  of  FRANCE.  Constituted  in  the  hall  of  the 
Tuileries,  Sept.  17,  and  formally  opened,  Sept.  21,  1792,  when  M.  Gr^oire, 
at  the  head  of  the  National  Assembly,  repaired  thither  and  announced  that 
that  assembly  had  ceased  its  functions.  It  was  then  decreed,  "That  the 
citizens  named  by  the  French  people  to  form  the  National  Convention,  being 
met  to  the  number  of  371,  after  having  verified  their  powers,  declare,  that 
the  National  Convention  is  constituted."  This  convention  continued  until  a 
a  new  constitution  was  organized,  and  the  Executive  Directory  was  installed 
at  the  Little  Luxembourg,  Nov.  1,  1795.     See  Directory. 

NATIONAL  GALLERY,  London.  The  foundation  of  this  great  institution 
was  the  purchase,  by  the  British  government,  for  the  public  service;  of  the 
Angerstein  collection  of  pictures,  whose  number  did  not  much  exceed  forty. 
They  were  purchased  of  Mr.  Angerstein's  executors,  in  Jan.  1822  ;  and  the 
first  exhibition  of  them  took  place  in  Pall  Mall,  in  May  1824.  Sir  G.  Beau- 
mont, Mr.  Howell  Carr,  and  many  other  gentlemen,  as  well  as  the  British 
Institution,  contributed  many  fine  pictures ;  and  the  collection  has  been 
augmented  by  numerous  later  gifts,  and  recent  purchases.  The  present  edi- 
fice in  Trafalgar-square  was  designed  by  Mr.  Wilkins,  and  was  completed 
and  opened  in  1837. 

NAVAL  BATTLES.  The  Argonautic  expedition  undertaken  by  Jason  is  the 
first  upon  record,  1263  b.  c. — Dio  Frcsnoy.  The  first  sea-fight  on  record  is 
that  between  the  Corinthians  and  Corcyreans,  664  b.  c. — Blair.  The  fol- 
lowing are  among  the  most  celebrated  naval  engagements  to  be  found  on  the 
page  of  history. 

at  Cnidos ;  Pisander,  the  Athenian 
admiral,  is  killed ;  and  the  maritime 
power  of  the  Lacedemonians  de- 
stroyed.—  Tliucydides  -  -  394 
The  Roman  fleet  employed  in  the  siege 
of  Lilybasum,  burned  by  the  Cartha- 
ginians -----  249 
The  Carthaginian  fleet  destroyed  by  tlie 

consul  Lutatius  -  -  -    2-12 

The  Roman  fleets  vanciuished  by  Han- 
nibal, the  Carthasinian  general ;  800 
galleys  taken,  an9  16,00U  prisoners; 
second  Punic  war  -  -      -    209 

At  Actium,  between  the  fleets  of  Octa- 
viantis  Cassar  and  Marc  Antony.  This 
battle  decides  the  fate  of  the  latter, 
300  of  his  galleys  going  over  to  Caasar, 
by  which  he  is  totally  defeated         -     31 


BEFORE    CHRIST. 

First  sea-fight  on  record,  in  which  the 
Corinthians  conquer  the  Corcyreans    064 

The  Athenian  fleet  under  Themistocles, 
with  380  sail,  defeat  the  Persian,  con- 
sisting of  2000,  at  the  straits  of  Sa- 
lamis 480 

Again,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Eury- 
medon ;  Cymon,  the  Athenian  admi- 
ral, vanquishes  the  Persian  fleet  and 
army,  in  one  day. — Ilerodolus  -    470 

The  Lacedemonian  fleet  taken  by  Alci- 
biades,  the  Athenian   -  -  -    410 

The  Spartan  general,  Lysander,  totally 
defeats  the  Athenian  fleet  under  Co- 
non ;  by  this  victoiy  he  puts  an  end 
to  the  maritime  power  of  Athens      -    407 

The  Persians  engage  Conon  to  com- 
mand their  fleet,  with  which  he  en- 
tirely vanquishes  the  Lacedemonian 
fleet,  and  takes  fifty  sail  out  of  ninety    400 

The  Persian  fleet  conquer  the  Spartan 


ANNO   DOMINI. 

The  emperor,  Claudius  II.  defeats  the 
Goths,  and  sinks  2000  of  their  ships. — 
Da  Fresnoij    ...  -    IJfiS 


436 


THE   world's   progress 


[nav 


NAVAL  BATTLES,  continued. 

The  fleets  belonging  to  Spain,  Venice, 
and  Pius  V.  defeat  the  Turkish  fleet 
in  the  Gulf  of  Lepanto.  The  Chris- 
tian fleet  consisted  of  206  galleys,  and 
30,000  men.    The  Turks,  out  of  250 

§  alleys,  saved  only  100;  and  lost 
0,000  men  in  killed  and  prisoners. — 
Voltaire  .  .  .  .  157  x 

Bay  of  Gibraltar;  Dutch  and  Spani- 
ards. This  was  a  bloody  conflict  and 
decisive  victory,  and  settled  for  a  time 
the  superiority  of  the  Dutch,  Apr.  25,  1607 

NAVAL  ENGAGEMENTS  IN  BRITISH  HISTORY. 

Alfred,  with  10  galleys,  defeated  300  sail 
of  Danish  pirates  on  the  Dorset  and 
Hampsliire  coast. — Asset's  Life  of 
Alfred  -  -  ■  -         '-    897 

Near  Sluys ;  Edward  III.  defeated  the 
French  fleet  of  400  sail,  which  were 
all  sunk.  30,000  French  were  killed 
in  this  engagement  -  -      -  1340 

The  English  and  Flemings ;  the  latter 
signally  defeated  -  -  -  1371 

English  and  French,  in  which  the  latter 
power  loses  80  ships        -  -      - 1389 

Near  Milford  Haven ;  the  English  take 
14,  and  destroy  15  French  ships       -  1405 

Off  Barfleur ;  the  duke  of  Bedford  takes 
500  French  ships         -  -  -  1416 

In  the  Downs ;  the  French  fleet  caj)- 
tured  by  the  earl  of  Warwick  -  1459 

Bay  of  Biscay ;  Enfrlish  and  French, 
the  latter  defeated'  -  -      -  1512 

Sir  Edward  Howard  defeats  the  French 
under  Prejeant  -  -  - 1513 

In  the  Channel ;  the  British  defeat  the 
French  fleet  with  great  loss         -      -  1545 

The  Spanish  Armada  driven  from  the 
English  Channel  to  the  road  of  Calais, 
by  a  running  fight,  the  Spaniards  los- 
mg  15  ships  and  5000  men  ;  they  are 
again  defeated,  and  obliged  to  bear 
away  for  Scotland  and  Ireland,  when 
their  fleet  is  dispersed  in  a  storm,  and 
they  lose  17  more  ships,  and  5000 
more  men.     See  Armada  -  July  19,  1588 

Dover  Straits;  between  the  Dutch  ad- 
miral, Van  Tromp,  and  admiral 
Blake.  The  Dutch  surprise  the  Eng- 
lish in  the  Downs,  SO  sail  engaging 
40  English,  six  of  which  are  taTvenor 
destroyed ;  and  the  Dutch  admiral 
'sails  in  triumph  through  the  channel, 
with  a  broom  at  his  mast-head,  to  de- 
note that  he  had  swept  the  English 
from  the  seas  -  -  June  29,  1652 

In  the  Downs;  same  admirals,  and 
nearly  same  loss 

Sept.  23,  Oct.  28,  and  Nov.  29, 1652 

The  English  gain  a  victory  over  the 
Dutch  fleet  off  Portsmouth,  taking 
and  destroying  11  men  of  war  and  30 
merchantmen.  Van  Tromp  was  the 
Dutch,  and  Blake  the  Enslish  admiral 

Feb.  10,  1653 

Again,  near  Portland,  between  the  Eng- 
lish and  Dutch ;  the  latter  defeated 

Feb.  18,  1653 

Again,  off  the  North  Foreland.  The 
Dutch  and  English  fleets  consisted  of 
near  100    men-of-war    each.      Van 


Tromp  commanded  the  Dutch:  Blake, 
Monk,  and  Deane,  the  English     Six  ' 
Dutch  ships  were  taken ;  11  were 
sunk,  and  the  rest  ran  into  Calais 
road  -  -  -       June  2,  1653 

Again,  on  the  coast  of  Holland;  the 
Dutch  lost  30  men-of-war,  and  ad- 
miral Tromp  was  killed   -    July  31,  1653 

At  Cadiz,  when  two  galleons,  worth 
2,000,000  pieces  of  eight,  were  taken 
by  the  English  -  -      Sept.  1656 

The  Spanish  fleet  vanquished,  and  then 
burnt  in  the  harbor  of  Santa  Cruz,  by 
Blake  -  -  -        April,  1657 

English  and  French ;  130  of  the  Bor- 
deaux fleet  destroyed  by  the  duke  of 
York  -  -  -       r>ec.  4, 1664 

The  duke  of  York,  (afterwards  James 
II.)  defeats  the  Dutch  fleet  off  Har- 
wich ;  the  Dutch  admiral  blown  up 
with  all  his  crew :  18  capital  ships 
taken,  14  destroyed  -       June  3,  1665 

The  earl  of  Sandwich  took  12  men  of 
war  and  2  India  ships  Sept.  4,  1665 

A  contest  between  the  Dutch  and  En- 
glish fleets  lor  victory,  maintained 
lor  lour  days.  The  English  lose  9, 
and  the  Dutch  15  ships,  June  I  to  4, 166G 

Decisive  engagement  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Thames,  when  the  English  gain 
a  glorious  victory,  the  Dutch  lose  24 
men-of-war,  4  admirals  killed,  and 
4000  officers  and  seamen.     Fought 

July  26, 1666 

The  English  fleet  of  16  sail,  defeat  the 
French  of  30,  near  Martinico  -  -  1667 

Coast  of  Holland  ;  by  Prince  Rupert, 
May  28,  June  4,  and  Aug.  11,  D'Etrees 
and  Ruyter  defeated    -  -  - 1673 

Several  actions  to  the  disadvantage  of 
the  Dutch.  They  agree  lo  strike  to 
the  English  colors  in  the  British  seas, 
25  Charles  11.    -  -  -  -  1673 

Off  Tangiers,  battle  between  the  En- 
glish and  Moors,  which  lasted  11 
days 1679 

Off  Beachy-head ;  the  English  and 
Dutch  are  defeated  by  the  French, 

June  30,  1690 

The  English  and  Dutch  combined  fleets 
gain  a  signal  victory  over  the  French 
fleet,  near  Cape  La  Hogue  ;  21  of  their 
largest  men-of-war  were  destroyed. — 
See  La  Hogue  -  May  19,  1692 

Off  St.  Vincent ;  the  English  and  Dutch 
squadrons,  under  admiral  Rooke,  de- 
feated by  the  French  -  June  16,  1693 

Off  Carthagena,  between  admiral  Ben- 
bow  and  the  French  fleet,  command- 
ed by  admiral  Du  Casse,  fought 

Aug.  19,  1702 

The  English  and  Dutch  fleets,  under 
sir  George  Rooke,  defeat  the  French 
fleet  (having  the  Spanish  galleons  in 
convoy)  in  the  port  of  Vigo.  They 
take  9  out  of  13  galleons,  laden  chief- 
ly with  silver,  and  six  men-of-war ; 
the  other  4  galleons,  and  14  men-of- 
war,  destroyed,  fought  Oct.  12,  1702 

Off  the  Lizard,  when  the  English  fleet 
was  defeated     -  -  Oct.  9,  1707 


NAV] 


DICTIONARY   OF   DATES. 


437 


NAVAL  BATTLES,  continued. 

In  the  Mediterranean,  admiral  Leake 
took  sixty  French  vessels  laden  with 
provisions         -  -  May  2i,  IT^OS 

The  Spanish  fleet  of  27  sail  totally  de- 
feated by  sir  George  Byng,  in  the  Faro 
of  Messina        -  -  Aug.  II,  1718 

Bloody  battle  off  Toulon ;  Matthews 
and  Lestock  against  the  fleets  of 
France  and  Spain.  Here  the  brave 
captain  Cornwall  fell ;  and  the  vic- 
tory was  lost  by  a  misunderstanding 
between  the  English  admirals. — Na- 
val Hist.  ....  1744 

Off  Cape  Finistere,  the  French  fleet 
taken  by  admiral  Anson  May  3,  1747 

Li  the  East  Indies  ;  the  French  retired 
to  Pondicherry  -  -  -  1747 

Off  Ushant,  when  admiral  Hawke  took 
seven  men-of-war  of  the  French 

Oct.  14,  1747 

Admiral  Hawke  defeats  the  French 
fleet  commanded  by  Conflans,  in 
Uuiberon  Bay ;  and  thus  prevents  a 
projected  invasion  of  England,  fought 

Nov.  20,  1759 

Keppel  took  3  French  frigates,  and  a 
fleet  of  merchantmen  -  -  Oct.  9,  1762 

Near  Cape  St.  Vincent,  between  admi- 
ral Rodney  and  admiral  Don  Lan- 
gara,  the  latter  defeated  and  taken 
prisoner,  losing  8  ships  Jan.  8,  1780 

At  St.  Jago ;  Mons.  Suflrein  defeated  by 
commodore  Johnston  April  lb,  1781 

Admiral  Rodney  defeated  the  French 

■  going  to  attack  Jamaica,  took  10  ships 
of  the  line,  (1  sunk,  and  3  blown  up) 
and  sent  the  French  admiral,  count 
de  Grasse,  prisoner  to  England 

April  12, 1782 

The  British  totally  defeated  the  fleets 
of  France  and  Spain,  in  the  bay  of 
Gibraltar.— See  Gibraltar    Sept.  13,  1782 

Cape  St.  Vincent ;  the  Spanish  fleet  de- 
feated by  Sir  J.  Jervis,  and  4  line  of 
battle  ships  taken        -  Feb.  14,  1797 

Unsuccessful  attempt  on  Santa  Cruz ; 
admiral  Nelson  loses  his  right  arm ; 

July  24, 1797 

Camperdown;  the  Dutch  signally  de- 
feated by  admiral  Duncan,  and  15 
ships  of  war,  with  the  admiral  (De 
Wmter),  taken  -  Oct.  1 1,  1797 

Nile  ;  Toulon  fleet  defeated  by  sir  Ho- 
ratio Nelson,  at  Aboukir ;  9  ships  of 

NAVAL  BATTLES  of  the  UNITED  STATES. 


the  line  taken ,  2  burnt,  2  escaped, 

Aug.  1,  1798 

Gibraltar  bay  ;  engagement  between 
the  French  and  British  fleets  ;  the 
Hannibal  of  7i  guns  \ost         July  6,  1801 

Ofl'Cadiz ;  sir  James  Saumarez  obtains 
a  victory  over  the  French  and  Span- 
ish fleets;    1  ship  captuied,  fought 

July  12, 1801 

Sir  Robert  Calder  with  15  sail,  takes  2 
ships  (both  Spanish)  out  of  20  sail  of 
the  French  and  Spanish  combined 
fleets,  off  FeiTol  -  July  22,  1805 

Off  Trafalgar;  memorable  battle,  in 
which  lord  Nelson  defeated  the  fleets 
of  France  and  Spain,  and  in  which 
lie  received  his  mortal  wound. — (See 
Trafalgar)       -  •  Oct.  21,  1805 

Sir  R.  Strachan,  with  4  sail  of  British, 
captures  4  French  ships  of  the  line, 
off  Cape  Ortegal  -  Nov.  4,  1805 

In  the  West  Indies ;  the  French  defeat- 
ed by  sir  T.  Duckworth ;  3  sail  of 
the  Ime  taken,  2  driven  on  shore 

Feb.  6,  1806 

Sir  John  Borlase  Warren  captures  the 
French  fleet  under  command  of  ad- 
miral Linois     -  -       March  13,  1806 

Admiral  Duckworth  effects  the  passage 
of  the  Dardanelles.   See  Dardanelles., 

Feb.  19,  1807 

Copenhagen  fleet  of  18  ships  of  the  line, 
15  frigates,  and  31  other  vessels,  sur- 
renders to  lord  Cathcart  and  admiral 
Gambler.   (See  Copenhagen)  Sept  7, 1807 

The  Russian  fleet  of  several  sail,  in  the 
Tagus,    surrenders   to   the    British, 

Sept.  3,  180S 

Algiers  bombarded  by  lord  Exmouth. 
See  Algiers      -  -  Aug.  27, 1816 

Navarino ;  the  British,  French,  and 
Russian  squadrons,  defeat  and  anni- 
hilate the  Turkish  navy.  See  Nava- 
rino      -  -  -  Oct.  20,  1827 

Action  between  the  British  ships  Vol- 
age  and  Hyacinth,  and  29  (Jhinese 
war  junks,  wltich  were  defeated 

Nov.  3,  1839 

Bombardment  and  fall  of  Acre.  The 
British  stjuadron  under  admiral  Stop- 
ford  achieved  this  triumph  with  tri- 
fling loss,  while  the  Egyptians  lost 
2000  killed  and  wounded,  and  3000 
prisoners.    See  Syria     •       Nov.  3,  1810 


Paul  Jones,  in  the  Providence  priva- 
teer, takes  16  prizes  -  -      -  1776 

His  descent  on  Whitehaven        -  April  1778 

He  captures  the  British  frigate  Serapis 

Sept.  23,  1779 

Frigate  Philadelphia  taken  by  the  Tri- 
politans  ....  ]803 

— recaptured  by  Decatur  -         -  Feb.  1,  1804 

Tripoli  bombarded  by  commodore  Pre- 
ble        -  -  -  -    Aug.  1804 

Frigate  Chesapeake  fired  upon  by  the 
British  ship  Leopard,  for  refusing  to 
be  searched       ....  lg07 

Frigate  President,  vs.  British  sloop 
IJttle  Belt         -  -  May  16,  1811  I 


Constitution  captures  British  frigate 
Guerrriere        -  ■  Aug.  13, 18i2 

Captain  Elliott  captures  two  British 
frigates  on  lake  Erie    -  -  Oct.  8,  1812 

Sloop  Wasp  captures  British  sloop  Fro- 
lic, Oct.  18 ;  both  vessels  captured  by 
British  74,  Poictiers    -  Oct.  20, 1812 

Frigate  United  States,  captain  Decatur, 
captures  British  frigate  Macedonian  1312 

Constitution,  captain  Bainbridge,  cap- 
tures British  frigate  Java       Oct.  29,  1812 

Hornet,  captain  Lawrence,  captures 
British  ship  Peacock,  captain  Peake, 

Feb.  23, 1813 


438 


THE    world's    progress. 


[nav 


NAVAL  BATTLES,  U.  S.  continued. 

[Delaware  and  Cliesapeake  bays  block- 
aded by  British.] 

Frigate  Chesapeake  surrendered  to  the 
Britifh  frigate  Shannon  June  1,  1813 

Sloop  Argus,  captured  by  British  sloop 
Pelican  -  -  -  Aug.  14,  1813 

Bng  E.';terprise  captures  the  British 
brig  Boxer        -  -  -    Aug.  1813 

Fleet  on  lake  Erie,  commodore  Perry, 
captures  the  British  fleet      Sept.  10,  1813 

jjiOtiUa,  commodore  Chauncey,  cap- 
tuies  British  flotilla  on  lake  Ontario, 

Oct.  5,  1813 

Frigate  Essex,  commodore  Porter,  cap- 
tured by  frigate  Phrebe  and  sloop 
Cherub  -  -  •        March  28,  1S14 

Sloop  Frolic,  commodore  Bainbridge, 
surrendered  to  British  frigate  Or- 
pheus   -  -  -         April  21, 1814 


Sloop  Peacock,  captain  Warrington, 
captures  British  brig  Epervier 

April  29, 1§14 

Sloop  Wasp,  captain  Blakeley,  cap- 
tures British  brig  Reindeer,  June  28,  1814 

Flotilla,  commodore  Macdonough,  vic- 
torious over  the  British  on  lake  Cham- 
plain     -  -  -  Sept.  11, 1814 

Frigate  President,  surrendered  to  the 
British  frigate  Endymion       Jan.  15, 1815 

Frigate  Constitution  captures  British 
brigs  Cyane  and  Levant,  ofl"  Maderia 

Feb.  1815 

Sloop  Hornet,  commodore  Biddle,  cap- 
tures British  brig  Penguin,  off  Brazil, 

Feb.  23,  18 .5 

U.  S.  naval  force  under  commodore 
Conner  bombards  Vera  Cruz  (jointly 
with  the  land  force  under  general 
Scott) 1847 


NAVARINO,  Battle  op,  between  the  combined  fleets  of  England,  France,  and 
Russia,  under  command  of  admiral  Codrington,  and  the  Turkish  navy,  in 
which  the  latter  was  almost  wholly  annihilated.  More  than  thirty  ships, 
many  of  them  four-deckers,  were  blown  up  or  burnt,  chiefly  by  the  Turks 
themselves,  to  prevent  their  falling  into  the  hands  of  their  enemies,  Oct.  20, 
1827.  The  species  of  policy  which  led  to  this  attack  upon  Turkey,  was  that 
of  Mr.  Canning's  administration.  This  destruction  of  the  Turkish  naval 
power  was  characterized,  bj^  the  illustrious  duke  of  Wellington,  as  being  an 
"untoward  event,"  a  memorable  phrase,  applied  to  it  to  this  day. 

NAVIGATION.  It  owes  its  origin  to  the  Phoenicians,  about  1500  b.  c.  The 
first  laws  of  navigation  originated  with  the  Rhodians,  916  b.  c.  The  first 
account  we  have  of  any  considerable  voyage  is  that  of  the  Phoenicians  sailing 
round  Africa,  604  b.  c. — Blair.  On  the  destruction  of  Thebes  by  Alexander 
the  Great,  335  b.  c,  its  commerce  passed  to  Alexandria,  and  subsequently 
the  Romans  became  the  chief  masters  of  commerce.  It  passed  successively 
from  the  Venetians,  Genoese,  and  Hanse  Towns,  to  the  Portuguese  and  Span- 
iards ;  and  from  these  to  the  English  and  Dutch. 


Plane  charts  and  mariner's  compass 

used  about       -  -  -     a.  d.  1420 

Variation  of  the  compass  discovered 

by  Columbus         -  -  -     - 1492 

That  the  oblique  rhumb  lines  are  spi- 
rals, discovered  by  Nonius  -  -  1537 
First  treatise  on  navigation  -  -  -  1545 
The  log  first  mentioned  by  Bourne  -  1577 
Mercator's  chart  -  -  -  -  1599 
Davis's  quadrant,  or  backstaff,  for 
measuring  angles,  about        -  - 1600 


Logarithmic  tables  applied  to  naviga- 
tion by  Gunter  -  -     a.  d.  1620 
Middle  latitude  sailing  introduced  -     -  1623 
Mensuration  of  a  degree,  Norwood      - 1631 
Hadley's  quadrant          -  -  -  1731 
Harrison's  time-keeper  used           -     -  1764 
Nautical  almanac  first  published         -  1767 
Barlow's  theory  of  the  deviation  of  the 
compass      -           -           -           -     -  1820 
See  Compass,  Latitude,  Longitude,  S^c. 


NAVIGATION,  INLAND,  of  the  United  States.  An  oflacial  report  of  TJ.  S. 
Engineers  in  1842  states  the  number  of  miles  of  the  rivers  west  of  the  Alle- 
ghanies,  navigable  for  steamboats,  16,674  miles  ;  entire  length  of  lake  coast, 
of  which  2000  belong  to  British  possessions,  5000  miles.  The  steamboat 
tonnage  of  the  western  rivers  in  1846  was  249.055  tons.  Aggregate  value  of 
commerce  on  the  western  rivers,  $183,609,725.  Estimated  amount  of  lake 
tonnage,  ^61,914,910.  [For  tonnage  of  ocean  shipping  at  diifFerent  periods, 
see  Shipping.'] 

NAVIGATION,  INLAND,  op  Great  Britain.  Mr.  Nimmo.  in  his  evidence  be- 
fore the  Committee  on  the  state  of  Ireland,  in  1824,  said,  "we  have  more 
inland  navigation  in  Britain  than  in  all  the  rest  of  the  world  put  together." 
The  total  length  of  the  inland  navigation  of  England,  including  as  well  tho 


NAV] 


DICTIONARY    OF   DATES. 


439 


navigable  rivers  as  canals,  is  5300  miles.  See  Canals. — Haydn.  This  state- 
ment scarcely  agrees  with  the  preceding. 

NAVIGATION  LAWS.  The  laws  of  Oleron  were  decreed,  6  Richard  I.,  1194. 
See  Oleron.  The  first  navigation  act  was  passed  in  1381.  Another  and  more 
extensive  act  was  passed  in  1541.  Act  relatmg  to  the  trade  of  the  colonies 
passed  in  1646 ;  and  several  acts  followed  relating  to  navigation.  The  act 
regulating  the  navigation  of  the  river  Thames  was  passed  in  1786.  Naviga- 
tion Act,  for  the  encouragement  of  British  ships  and  seamen,  passed  4  Wil- 
liam IV.,  August  1833.    British  and  American  navigation  laws  repealed,  1849. 

NAVY  OP  THE  UNITED  STATES.  The  first  ship  of  war  of  the  United  States 
was  huilt  under  the  superintendence  of  the  celebrated  John  Paul  Jones,  at 
Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  1781;  but  the  regular  navy  was  commenced  by  Act  of 
Congress,  authorizing  the  building  of  six  frigates,  March  30,  1794.  The 
Constitution  launched  at  Boston,  Constellation  at  Baltimore,  1797.  [See 
Naval  Battles.} 

NAVIES  OF  EUROPE  and  AMERICA. 


COMPARATIVE 

VIEW   OP   THE   NAVAL  FORCES    OP   THE   POWERS   OP  EUROPE 

AND 

AMERICA,   1846. 

Relative  naval 
power  of  each  nation. 

In  commission. 

Building,  ordina- 
ry, &c. 

Total. 

1 
o 

d 

6  S 

Vessels. 

Guns. 

Vessels. 

Guns. 

Vessels. 

Guns. 

:2; 

grtC 

Great  Britain, 

332 

4,583 

304 

13,098 

§636 

17,681 

40,000 

141 

France, 

215 

4,293 

131 

4,635 

346 

8,928 

27,554 

68 

Russia,  - 

179 

5,896 

179 

5,896 

59,000 

;•« 

Turkey,     - 

62 

2,636 

4 

24 

66 

2,660 

26,820 

9 

United  States, 

47 

1,155 

30 

1,190 

77 

2,345 

8,724 

5 

Egypt, 

35 

1,148 

3 

312 

38 

1,760 

1 

Holland, 

48 

302 

86 

1,344 

134 

1,646 

4 

Sweden,    - 

330 

660 

50 

1,196 

380 

1,856 

2 

Denmark, 

95 

344 

12 

732 

108 

1,076 

Austria,     - 

74 

686 

74 

686 

Brazil,   - 

31 

450 

11 

325 

42 

775 

8 

Sardinia,   - 

11 

226 

4 

220 

15 

■     446 

2 

Spain,    - 

21 

348 

21 

348 

4 

Two  Sicilies, 

17 

338 

17 

338 

. 

Portugal, 

59 

Mexico 

23 

42 

--     1 

23 

42 

■■ 

COMPARATIVE  VIEW   OP  THE   COMMERCIAL  IMPORTANCE   OP  DIFFERENT   NATIONS. 


Nations,  in  the  order  of  their  commercial 
importance. 


United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain, 
United  States  .... 

France, 

Norway  and  Sweden     - 

Holland, 

Russia,  

Two  Sicilies,      .... 

Austria, 

Turkey, 

Sardinia. 

Denmark,  .... 

Portugal, 

Spain, 

Brazil,  

Mexico, 


No.  of  vessels 
in  commerce 
and  fisheries. 


23,898 

19,666 

13,782 

5,450 

1,528 

Not  known. 

9,174 

6,199 

2,220 

3,502 

3,036 

798 

2,700 

Unknown. 

Unknown. 


Tonnage. 


3,007,581 

2,416,999 

839,608 

471,772 

241,676 

239,000 

213,198 

208,551 

182,000 

167,360 

153,408 

80,525 

80,000 

Unknown. 

Unknown. 


No.  of  guns  to 
each  100,000 
tons  of  com- 
merce. 


97 

1.063 

'224 

6a3 

2,466 

158 

321 

1,461 

265 

709 


440 


THE  WORLD'S   PROGRESS. 


r  NEM 


NAVY  OF  ENGLAND.  Tlie  first  fleet  of  galleys,  like  those  of  the  Danes, 
was  built  by  Alfred,  a.  d.  897.  The  number  of  galleys  had  increased  under 
Edgar  to  350,  about  a.  d.  965.  A  formidable  fleet  was  equipped  by  the  pub- 
lic contribution  of  every  town  in  England,  in  the  reign  of  Ethelred  II.,  1007, 
et  seq.,  Avhen  it  rendezvoused  at  Sandwich  to  be  ready  to  oppose  the  Danes. 
From  this  period  fleets  were  occasionally  furnished  by  the  maritime  towns, 
and  the  Cinque  ports,  and  were  usually  commanded  by  the  king,  or  an  ad- 
miral under  him :  such  was  the  fleet  of  Edward  III.  at  the  siege  of  Calais  in 
1347  ;  it  consisted  of  40  ships,  badly  equipped,  under  no  public  fixed  regu- 
lations. The  date  of  the  commencement  of  the  Royal  or  British  navy,  may 
therefore  be  placed  4  Henry  VIII.  1512,  when  the  first  Navy-oflQce  was  ap- 
pointed, with  commissioners  to  manage  naval  afiairs,  and  a  number  of  stout 
ships  of  war  began  to  be  permanently  kept  on  foot  by  the  crown. — Gibson'' s 
Camden.  In  the  time  of  Henry  VIII.  the  navy  consisted  of  1  ship  of  1200 
tons,  2  of  800  tons,  and  six  or  seven  smaller ;  the  largest  was  called  the 
Great  Harry.  Elizabeth's  fleet  at  the  time  of  the  Spanish  Armada,  in  1588, 
consisted  of  only  28  vessels,  none  larger  than  frigates.  James  I.  added  «lO 
ships  of  1400  tons  each,  and  64  guns,  the  largest  then  ever  buii.*;. — Gibson's 
Continuation  of  Camden. 

ACCOUNT    OP   THE   PROGRESSIVE    INCREASE   OP   THE    ROYAL    NAVY   OP  ENGLAND,    PROM    HENRY 
VIU'S   REIGN   TO   THE    CLOSE   OP   THE  LAST   WAR,  1814. 


Yr. 

Ships. 

Tons. 

Men  voted 

Navy  estim. 

Yr. 

Ships. 

Tons. 

Men  voted 

Navy  estim. 

1521 

16 

7,260 

no  account. 

1760 

412 

321,134 

70,000 

.£3,227,143 

1578 

21 

10,506 

6,700 

no  account. 

1793 

498 

433,226 

45,000 

5,525,331 

1603 

42 

17,055 

8,346 

no  account. 

1800 

767 

668,744 

135,000 

12,422,837 

1658 

157 

57,000 

21,910 

no  account. 

1808 

869 

892,800 

143,800 

17,496,047 

1638 

173 

101,892 

42,000 

no  account. 

1814 

901 

966,000 

146,000 

18,786,509 

[1702 

272 

159,020 

40,000 

il, 056,9 15 

In  1814,  Great  Britairi  had  901  ships,  of  which  177  were  of  the  line  ;  and  in 
1830,  she  had  621  ships,  some  of  140  guns  each,  and  down  to  surveying  ves- 
sels of  2  guns  only.  Of  these  148  sail  were  employed  on  foreign  and  home 
service.  On  Jan.  1,  1841,  the  total  number  of  ships  of  all  sizes  in  commis- 
sion was  183. 

NAVY  OF  FRANCE.  It  is  first  mentioned  in  history  a.  d.  728,  when,  like  that 
of  England  at  an  early  period,  it  consisted  of  Galleys ;  in  this  year  the 
French  defeated  the  Frison  fleet.  It  was  considerably  improved  under 
Louis  XIV.  at  the  instance  of  his  minister  Colbert,  about  1697.  The  French 
navy  was  in  perhaps  its  highest  splendor  about  1781 ;  but  it  became  gr&atly 
reduced  in  the  late  wars  against  England. 

NEBRASKA.  A  territory  of  the  United  States  as  yet  (1850)  unorganized,  oc- 
cupying 400,000  square  miles,  the  entire  space  between  the  Missouri  and 
White  Earth  Rivers  on  the  east,  the  Rocky  Mountains  on  the  west,  the  49th 
parallel  lat.  on  the  north,  and  the  Kansas  and  Arkansas  rivers  on  the  south. 
First  traversed  by  Lewis  and  Clarke's  expedition,  in  1805,  and  partly  ex- 
plored by  Fremont,  on  his  way  to  Oregon,  in  1842. 

NEEDLES.  They  make  a  considerable  article  of  commerce,  as  weU  as  of  home 
trade  in  England,  German  and  Hungarian  steel  is  of  most  repute  for  nee- 
dles. The  first  that  were  made  in  England  were  fabricated  in  Cheapside, 
London,  in  the  time  of  the  sanguinary  Mary,  by  a  negro  from  Spain ;  but, 
as  he  would  not  impart  the  secret,  it  was  lost  at  his  death,  and  not  recovered 
again  till  1566,  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  when  Elias  Growse,  a  German, 
taught  the  art  to  the  English,  who  have  since  brought  it  to  the  highest 
degree  of  perfection. — Stoioe.  The  family  of  the  Greenings,  ancestors  of 
lord  Dorchester,  established  a  needle  manufactory  in  Bucks,  about  this 
time. — Anderson. 

NEMEAN   GAMES.      So  called  from  Nemsea,  where  they  were  celebrated. 


new]  dictionary  of  dates.  441 

They  were  originally  instituted  by  the  Argives  in  honor  of  Archemorus, 
who  died  by  the  bite  of  a  serpent,  and  Hercules  some  time  after  renewed 
them.  They  were  one  of  the  four  great  and  solemn  games  which  were 
obsei-yed  in  Greece.  The  Argives,  Corinthians,  and  the  inhabitants  of  Cle- 
onaa,  generally  presided  by  turns  at  the  celebration,  in  which  were  exhibited 
foot  and  horse-races,  chariot-races,  boxing,  -svi-estling,  and  contests  of  every 
kind,  both  gymnical  and  equestrian.  The  conqueror  was  rewarded  with  a 
crown  of  olives,  afterwards  of  green  parsley,  in  memory  of  the  adventure 
of  Archemorus.  whom  his  nurse  laid  down  on  a  sprig  of  that  plant.  They 
were  celebrated  every  third,  or  according  to  others,  every  fifth  year,  or 
more  properly  on  the  first  and  third  year  of  every  Olympiad,  1226  b.  c- 
He?-odotus. 
NEPTUNE.    The  new  planet  predicted  by  Le  Verrier ;  discovered  by  Dr.  Galle 

of  Berlin,  Sept.  23,  1846. 
NESTORIANS.    A  sect  of  Christians,  the  followers  of  Nestorius,  some  time 
^  bishop  of  Constantinople,  who,  by  the  general  strain  of  church  historians, 
*  is  represented  as  a  heretic,  for  maintaining  that  though  the  Virgin  Mary  was 
-the  mother  of  Jesus  Christ  as  man,  yet  she  was  not  the  mother  of  God,  for 
that  no  human  creature  could  participate  that  to  another,  which  she  had  not 
herself;  that  God  was  united  to  Christ  under  one  person,  but  remained  as 
distinct  in  nature  and  essence  as  though  he  had  never  been  united  at  all ; 
that  such  union  made  no  alteration  in  the  human  nature,  but  that  he  was 
subject  to  the  same  passions  of  love  and  hatred,  pleasure  and  pain,  &c.,  as 
other  men  have,  only  that  they  were  better  regulated,  and  more  properly 
applied  than  in  ordinary  men.     The  generality  of  Christians  in  the  Levant 
go  under  this  name ;   they  administer  the  sacrament  with  leavened  bread, 
and  in  both  kinds,  permit  their  priests  to  marry,  and  iise  neither  confirma- 
tion nor  auricular  confession,  &c.    Nestorius  died  a.  d.  439. — Du  Pin. 

NETHERLANDS.  They  were  attached  to  the  Roman  Empire  under  the  name 
of  Belgia,  until  its  decline  in  the  fifth  century.  For  several  ages  this  coun- 
try formed  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Austrasia.  In  the  twelfth  century  it  was 
governed  by  its  own  counts  and  earls ;  and  afterwards  fell  to  the  dukes  of 
Burgundy,  and  next  to  the  house  of  Austria.  The  seventeen  provinces  were 
united  into  one  state,  in  1549.  For  the  late  history  of  the  Netherlands  see 
Holland  and  Belgium. 

NEVIS.  An  English  colony,  first  planted  by  the  English  in  1628.  This  island 
was  taken  by  the  French,  Feb.  14,  1782,  but  was  restored  to  the  Enghsh  at 
the  general  "peace  in  the  next  year.  The  capital  of  this  island  (one  of  the 
Caribbees)  is  Charleston.     See  Colonies. 

NEW  ENGLAND.  The  confederation  of  the  northeastern  colonies  of  America 
under  this  name,  for  mutual  defence,  1643.  Sir  E.  Andros,  the  tyrannical  go- 
vernor of  New  England,  1686.  The  New  England  States  are  Maine,  New 
Hampshire,  Massachusetts,  Vermont,  Connecticut,  and  Rhode  Island.  See 
these  resj^ectively. 

NEW  HAMPSHIRE.  One  of  the  United  States  ;  was  first  granted  to  Ferdi- 
nando  Gorges  in  1662 ;  first  settled  at  Dover  and  Portsmouth  in  1623.  It 
came  voluntarily  under  the  jurisdiction  of  Massachusetts  in  1641 ;  but  was 
made  a  separate  province  by  an  act  of  Charles  I.  in  1679.  It  was  several 
times  afterwards  connected  with  Massachusetts  until  1741,  since  which  it 
has  remained  a  separate  State.  Constitution  formed  in  1784,  and  amended, 
1792.  Population  in  1790  was  141,885  ;  in  1800,  138,858 ;  in  1830,  269,328 ; 
in  1840,  284,574. 

NEW  HOLLAND.  The  largest  known  land  that  does  not  bear  the  name  of  a 
continent.  When  this  vast  island  was  first  discovered  is  uncertain.  In  the 
beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century  the  north  and  west  coasts  were  tracer^ 

19* 


442  THE  world's  progress.  [  kew 

by  the  Dutcli ;  and  what  was  deemed,  till  lately,  the  south  extremity,  waa 
discovered  by  Tasman,  in  1642.  Captain  Cook,  in  1770,  explored  the  east 
and  north-east  from  38°  south,  and  ascertained  its  separation  from  New 
Guinea ;  and,  in  1773,  captain  Furneaux,  by  connecting  Tasman's  discove- 
ries with  Cook's,  completed  the  circuit.  But  the  supposed  south  extremity, 
which  Tasman  distinguished  by  the  name  of  Van  Diemen's  Land,  was  found, 
in  1798,  to  be  an  island,  separated  from  New  Holland  by  a  channel  forty 
leagues  wide,  named  from  the  discoverer,  Bass  Strait.  Diflerent  parts  of 
the  coast  have  been  called  by  the  names  of  the  discoverers,  &c.  The  east- 
ern coast,  called  New  South  Wales,  Avas  taken  possession  of  in  the  name  of 
George  III.  of  England,  by  captain  Cook,  and  now  forms  a  part  of  the  Bri- 
tish dominions.     See  Neio  South  Wales. 

sJ'EW  JERSEY.  One  of  the  United  States ;  first  settled  by  the  Dutch  from 
New  York,  at  Bergen,  1614-20.  A  colony  of  Swedes  and  Finns,  on  the  De- 
laware, 1627.  The  province  included  with  New  York  in  the  grant  by 
Charles  II.  to  the  duke  of  York  in  1664;  granted  by  the  duke  to  lord  Berkley 
and  sir  George  Cartaret,  who  established  a  government  in  1695.  Subdued 
by  the  Dutch  in  1672,  but  surrendered  bj^  them,  1674 ;  purchased  by  a 
company  of  English  emigrants,  who  formed  the  first  English  settlement  at 
Salem,  1674 ;  government  surrendered  to  the  crown  (in  consequence  of  difli- 
culty  about  titles,  &c.)  and  accepted  by  queen  Anne,  1702  ;  continued  under 
royal  instead  of  proprietary  government  iintil  1776.  This  State  sufifered 
much  in  the  revolution,  and  acted  an  important  part.  Adopted  the  Federal 
Constitution  by  unanimous  vote  in  1787.  Population  in  1732,  47,000;  in 
1790,  184,189  ;  in  1830,  320,779  ;  in  1840,  373,306. 

NEW  MEXICO,  according  to  Spanish  and  Mexican  authorities,  extends  from 
about  32°  to  42°,  N.  latitude,  and  from  23°  to  about  33°  long.  W.  of  Wash- 
ington—an  area  of  about  200,000  squai'e  miles.  The  country  taken  posses- 
sion of  for  Spain,  by  Juan  de  Onate,  sent  by  count  de  Monterey,  viceroy  of 
Mexico,  in  1594.  A  great  massacre  of  the  Spaniards  in  their  pueblos  or 
fort,  by  the  Indians,  1680,  when  the  governor  retreated  from  Santa  F6,  and 
founded  Paso  del  Norte.  The  whole  country  reconqxiered  by  the  Spaniards 
after  a  war  of  ten  years ;  but  a  deadly  hatred  has  since  continued  between 
the  races.  New  Mexico  ceded  to  the  United  States  by  the  treaty  with 
Mexico,  1848.  A  large  part  of  it  is  claimed  by  Texas,  and  the  boundary  is 
yet  (July  1850)  undecided. 

NEW  SOUTH  WALES.  See  New  Holland.  The  eastern  coast  of  New  Hol- 
land was  explored  and  taken  possession  of  by  captain  Cook,  for  England, 
in  1770.  It  was  at  the  recommendation  of  this  illustrious  navigator  that 
the  design  of  a  convict  colony  here  was  first  formed.  Governor  Phillips,  the 
first  governor,  arrived  at  Botany  Bay  with  800  convicts,  January  20,  1788  : 
but  he  subsequently  preferred  Sydney,  about  seven  miles  distant  from  the 
head  of  Port  Jackson,  as  a  more  eligible  situation  for  the  capital. 

NEW  STYLE.  Ordered  to  be  used  in  England  in  1751 ;  and  the  next  year 
eleven  days  were  left  out  of  the  calendar — the  third  of  September,  1752, 
being  reckoned  as  the  fourteenth — so  as  to  make  it  agree  with  the  Grego- 
rian Calendar,  ■whick  see,  and  also  article  Calendar.  In  the  year  a.  d.  200, 
there  was  no  difference  of  styles ;  but  there  had  arisen  a  difference  of  ele- 
ven days  between  the  old  and  the  new  style,  the  latter  being  so  much  be- 
forehand with  the  former ;  so  that  when  a  person  using  the  old  style  dates 
the  1st  of  May,  those  who  employ  the  new,  reckon  the  12th.  From  this 
variation  in  the  computation  of  time,  we  may  easily  account  for  the  differ- 
ence of  many  dates  concerning  historical  fiicts  and  biographical  notices. 

NEW  YEAR'S  DAY.  Its  institution  as  a  feast,  or  day  of  rejoicing,  is  the 
oldest  on  authentic  record  transmitted  doAvn  to  our  times,  and  still  observed. 


NEW 


DICTIONARY    OF   DATES.  443 


The  feast  was  instituted  by  Numa,  and  was  dedicated  to  Janus  (who  pre- 
sided over  the  new  year),  January  1,  713  b.  c.  On  this  day,  the  Romans 
sacrificed  to  Janus  a  cake  of  new  sifted  meal,  with  salt,  incense,  and  wine  ; 
and  all  the  mechanics  began  something  of  their  art  or  trade  ;  the  men  of 
letters  did  the  same  as  to  books,  poems,  &c. ;  and  the  consuls,  though  cho- 
sen before,  took  the  chair  and  entered  upon  their  office  this  day.  After  the 
government  was  in  the  hands  of  the  emperors,  the  consuls  marched  on 
New-year's  day  to  the  capitol,  attended  by  a  crowd,  all  in  new  clothes,  when 
two  white  bulls  never  yoked  were  sacrificed  to  Jupiter  Capitolinus.  A  great 
deal  of  incense  and  other  perfumes  were  spent  in  the  temple ;  the  flamens, 
together  with  the  consuls,  during  this  religious  solemnity  (offered  their  vows 
for  the  prosperity  of  the  empire  and  the  emperor,  after  having  taken  an 
oath  of  allegiance,  and  confirmed  all  public  acts  done  by  him  the  preceding 
year.  On  this  day  the  Romans  laid  aside  all  old  grudges  and  ill  humor, 
and  took  care  not  to  speak  so  much  as  one  ominous  or  untoward  word. 
The  first  of  January  is  more  observed  as  a  feast-day  in  Scotland  than  it  is 
in  England.  In  many  parts  of  the  United  States,  but  chiefly  in  New  York, 
this  is  observed  as  a  holiday,  the  ladies  receiving  complimentary  visits  from 
the  other  sex.  This  custom  is  derived  from  the  Dutch ;  but  is  also  observed 
in  Paris. 

NEW-YEAR'S  GIFTS.  Nonius  Marcellus  refers  the  origin  of  New- Year's  gifts 
among  the  Romans  to  Titus  Tatius,  king  of  the  Sabines,  who  having  consi- 
dered as  a  good  omen  a  present  of  some  branches  cut  in  a  wood  consecrated 
to  Strenia,  the  goddess  of  strength,  which  he  received  on  the  first  day  of 
the  new  year,  authorized  the  custom  afterwards,  and  gave  these  gifts  the 
name  of  Strense,  747  b.  c.  In  the  reign  of  Augustus,  the  populace,  gentry, 
and  senators  used  to  send  him  new-year's  gifts,  and  if  he  was  not  in  town, 
they  carried  them  to  the  capitol.  From  the  Romans  this  custom  went  to 
the  Greeks,  and  from  the  heathens  to  the  Christians,  who  very  early  came 
into  the  practice  of  making  presents  to  the  magistrates.  Some  of  the  fa- 
thers wrote  verj'  strenuously  against  the  practice,  upon  accoimt  of  the  immo- 
ralities committed  under  that  cover  and  ijrotection  ;  but  since  the  govern- 
ments of  the  several  nations  in  Europe  became  Christian,  the  ciistom  is 
still  retained  as  a  token  of  friendship,  love,  and  respect.  It  is  well  observed 
in  the  United  States. 

NEW  YORK.  One  of  the  United  States.  The  river  Hudson  and  the  island  of 
Manhattan,  Avliere  New  York  city  now  stands,  were  discovered  by  Henry 
Hudson,  an  Englishman,  in  the  service  of  the  Dutch,  1609.  First  permanently 
settled  on  Manhattan  island  by  the  Dutch  in  1621 ;  surrendered  to  the  En- 
glish, under  Ricliavd  Nichols,  for  the  duke  of  York,  in  1664  ;  confirmed  to 
England  bj''  the  peace  of  Breda,  1667  ;  retaken  by  a  Dutch  expedition  in 
1673  ;  restored  to  the  duke  of  York  with  a  new  patent,  1674  ;  fii'st  legisla- 
tive assembly,  1683 ;  Jacob  Leisler's  revolution,  1689 ;  episcopacy  esta- 
blished by  law,  1693 ;  negro  conspiracy,  1741 ;  colony  took  an  active  part  in 
French  war,  1756,  and  the  Avar  of  Independence  ;  city  captured  by  English, 
1776 ;  who  evacuated  it  Nov.  25, 1783  ;  State  adopted  the  Federal  Constitution 
by  80  to  35,  1788;  adopted  new  State  Constitution,  1846.  Population  in 
1732,  65,000  ;  in  1790,  340,820  ;  in  1810,  959,049 ;  in  1820, 1,372.812  ;  in  1840, 
2,428,921. 

F'EW  YORK.  City  op.  Founded  by  the  Dutch,  1614 ;  fort  built  by  them  at 
S.  point  of  the  island,  1623 ;  surrendered  to  the  English,  1664 ;  assessed 
value  of  all  the  property  in  the  town  in  1668,  Avas  i;78,231 ;  city  taken  by 
the  British,  1776  ;  eA'acuated,  Nov.  25,  1783 ;  meeting  of  first  United  States 
Congress  here,  1785;  Washington  inaugurated  President  of  the  United 
States,  at  the  City  Hall  in  Wall-street.  April  30,  1789 ;  yellow  fever  pre- 
vailed here  in  1795  and  1805  ;  cholera  in  1832,  1834,  and  1849.    Great  fire  in 


444  THE    world's   progress.  [  NEW 

the  business  part  of  the  city,  swept  over  40  acres,  and  destroyed  property 
valued  at  about  $20,000,000,  Dec.  16,  1835 ;  another  in  same  neighborhood, 
1845 ;  the  wliole  district  rebuilt  and  improved  shortly  after ;  celebration 
of  the  completion  of  Croton  Aqueduct,  Oct.  14,  1842.  Population  in  1790, 
83,131 ;  in  1810,  96,373 ;  in  1830,  202,589  ;  in  1840,  312,710. 

NEW  ORLEANS,  City  op.  Founded  by  the  French  in  1717 ;  conveyed  to 
the  Spanish,  1762 ;  recovered  by  the  French,  1800 ;  purchased  by  the 
United  States  in  the  purchase  of  Louisiana,  1803.  The  battle  of,  between 
the  Americans  under  Gen.  Jackson,  and  the  British  under  Packenham,  in 
which  the  latter  were  defeated  with  loss  of  3,000  killed  and  wounded,  the 
Americans  losing  only  7  killed  and  6  wounded,  Jan.  8,  1815.  Population 
in  1810,  was  17,242;  in  1830,  46,310;  in  1840,  102,193,  including  23,448 
slaves. 

NEWCASTLE,  ENGLAND.  The  first  coal  port  in  the  world.  The  coal-mines 
were  discovered  here  about  a.  d.  1234.  The  first  charter  which  was  granted 
to  the  townsmen  for  digging  coal  was  by  Henry  III.  in  1289 ;  but  in  1306, 
the  use  of  coal  for  fuel  was  prohibited  in  London,  by  royal  proclamation, 
chiefly  because  it  injured  the  sale  of  wood  for  fuel,  great  quantities  of  which 
were  then  growing  about  that  city ;  but  this  interdiction  did  not  long  conti- 
nue, and  we  may  consider  coal  as  having  been  dug  and  exported  from  this 
place  for  more  than  500  years. 

NEWFOUNDLAND,  discovered  by  Sebastian  Cabot,  who  called  it  Privia  Vista. 
June  24,  a.  d.  1494.  It  was  formally  taken  possession  of  by  sir  Henry  Gilbert, 
1583.  In  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  other  nations  had  the  advantage  of  the 
English  in  the  fishery.  There  were  100  fishing  vessels  from  Spain,  50  from 
Portugal,  150  fi'om  France,  and  only  15,  but  of  larger  size,  from  England,  in 
1577. — Hackluyt.  But  the  English  fishery  in  some  years  afterwards  had  in- 
creased so  much  that  the  ports  of  Devonshire  alone  employed  150  ships,  and 
sold  their  fish  in  Spain,  Portugal,  and  Italy,  1625.  Nearly  1000  English  fa- 
milies reside  here  all  the  year ;  and  in  the  iishing  season,  beginning  in  May 
and  ending  in  September,  more  than  15,000  persons  resort  to  Newfoundland, 
which  may  be  esteemed  as  one  of  our  finest  nurseries  for  seamen.  New- 
foundland has  recently  obtained  the  privilege  of  a  colonial  legislation.  A 
bishopric  was  established  here  in  1839.  Appalling  fire  at  St.  John's ;  a  great 
portion  of  the  town  destroyed;  the  loss  estimated  at  £1,000.000  sterling, 
June  9,  1846. 

NEWS.  The  origin  of  this  word  has  been  variously  defined.  News  is  a  fresh 
accoiint  of  any  thing. — Sidney.  It  is  something  not  heard  before. — L' Es- 
trange. News  is  an  account  of  the  transactions  of  the  present  time.s. — Addi- 
son. The  word  "news"  is  not,  as  many  imagine,  derived  from  the  adjective 
new.  In  former  times  (between  the  years  1595  and  1730)  it  was  a  prevalent 
practice  to  put  over  the  periodical  publications  of  the  day  the  initial  letters 
of  the  cardinal  points  of  the  compass,  thus ; — 


importing  that  these  papers  contained  intelligence  from  the  four  quarters 
of  the  globe ;  and  from  this  practice  is  derived  the  term  Newspaper. 
NEWSPAPERS.  The  first  published  in  England,  which  might  truly  be  consi- 
dered as  a  vehicle  of  general  information,  was  established  by  sir  Roger 
L'Estrange,  in  1663 ;  it  was  entitled  the  Public  Intelligencer,  and  continued 
nearly  three  years,  when  it  ceased  on  the  appearance  of  the  Gazette.  A 
publication,  with  few  claims  however  to  the  character  of  a  newspaper,  had 


NEW  J  DICTIONARY  OF  DATES.  445 

previously  appeared;  it  was  called  the  English  Mermry*  and  came  out  un- 
der the  authority  of  queen  Elizabeth,  so  early  as  1588,  the  period  of  the 
Spanish  armada.  An  early  copy  of  this  paper  is  dated  July  23,  in  that  year. 
In  the  reign  of  James  I.,  1622,  appeared  the  London  Weekly  Courant,  and 
in  the  year  1643  (the  period  of  the  civil  war)  were  printed  a  variety  of  pub- 
lications, certainly  in  no  respect  entitled  to  the  name  of  newspapers,  of  which 
the  following  were  the  titles : — 

The  Parliament's  Scout's  Discovery,  or 
Certain  Information. 

The  Mercuriics  Civicus,  or  London's  In- 
telligencer. 

The  Country's  Complaint,  ^c. 


England's  Memorable  Accidents. 
The  Kingdom's  Intelligencer. 
The  Diurnal  of  Certain  Passages  in  Par- 
liament. 
T)ie  Mercurius  Aulicus. 
The  Scotch  Intelligencer. 
The  Parliament's  Scout. 


The  Weekly  Account. 
Mercurius  Britannicus. 


A  paper  called  the  London  Gazette  was  pubUshed  August  22,  1642.  The 
London  Gazette  of  the  existing  series,  was  published  first  at  Oxford,  the 
court  being  there  on  account  of  the  plague,  Nov.  7,  1665,  and  afterwards  at 
London,  Feb.  5,  1666.  See  Gazette.  The  printing  of  newspapers  and 
pamphlets  was  prohibited  31  Charles  I.,  1680. — Salmon's  Chron.  Newspa- 
pers were  first  stamped  in  1713.    No.  of  the  stamps  issued : — 

In  1753  -        -        -    7,411,757  1  In  1810      -        -    -  20,172,837 

In  1760   -   -  -  9,404,790  In  1820  -   -   -24,862,186 


In  1774  -   -   - 12,300,000  In  1825   -   -  -  26,950,693 
Li  1790   -   -  - 14,035,639  In  1830  -   -   -  30,158,741 


InlS35  ■   •  -32,874,652 

In  1840  -  .   -  49,033,384 

In  1843  •   -  -  56,443,977 

In  1849  -  .   -  76,569,335 


In  1800  -  -  -  16,084,905  i 
The  total  number  of  newspapers  published  in  the  United  Kingdom  in  1849 
was  603,  viz :  160  in  London,  232  in  the  English  provinces,  117  in  Ireland, 
and  94  in  Scotland.  The  number  of  advertisements  inserted  in  the  London 
newspapers  in  1849  was  886,108,  paying  a  gross  duty  of  i;66,458  25. ;  in  the 
English  provincial  newspapers,  834,729,  yielding  to  the  crown  a  revenue  of 
^62,604  13s.  6rf. ;  in  the  Irish  papers,  220,524,  paying  ^11,026  4s.,  and  in  the 
Scotch  papers,  2,40911,  paying  in  duty  ^18,075  16s.  %d. 

NEWSPAPERS,  &c.  in  the  United  States.  The  first  was  the  "  Boston  News 
Letter"  in  1704,  which  was  continued  till  1774 ;  the  second  was  the  Boston 
Gazette,  1719;  the  third  the  American  Weekly  Mercury,  at  Philadelphia, 
started  one  day  after  the  last.  First  New  York  Gazette,  in  1725 ;  first 
newspaper  in  the  Carolinas  at  Charle'ston,  1731-2 ;  first  Rhode  Island  Ga- 
zette, at  Newport,  1732 ;  first  Virginia  Gazette,  at  Williamsburgh,  in  1736. 
In  1775.  there  were  in  all  the  colonies  37  newspapers ;  in  1810,  in  the  United 
States,  356 ;  in  1828,  802 ;  in  1839,  1555.     See  Periodical  Lit. 

NEWSPAPERS  IN  France.  The  first  was  the  Gazette  de  Prance,  established 
by  Renaudot,  in  1631,  and  continued  with  few  interruptions  till  1827-,  when 
it  ceased  and  another  paper  assumed  its  name.  The  Moniteur,  commenced 
1789,  has  been  since  1800  the  ofiicial  journal  of  the  Government.  The  Con- 
stitutionelle  and  the  Journal  des  Debats  have  long  had  the  largest  circula- 
tion. There  were  374  newspapers  published  in  France  in  1832.  See  Peri- 
odical Lit. 

NEWSPAPERS,  Irish.  The  first  Irish  newspaper  was  Pue's  Occurrences,  pub- 
lished in  1700 :  Faulknefs  Journal  was  established  by  George  Faulkner,  "  a 
man  celebrated  for  the  goodness  of  his  heart,  and  the  weakness  of  his  head," 
1728. — Supplement  to  Swift.    The  oldest  of  the  existing  Dublin  newspapers, 

,  *  The  full  title  is,  "  No.  !)0,  The  English  Mercurie,  published  by  authoritie,  for  the  preveu^ica 
of  false  reports,  imprinted  by  Christopher  Barker,  her  highness's  printer,  No.  50."  It  describes 
the  armament  called  the  Spanish  Armada,  giving  "  A  journal!  of  what  passed  since  the  21st  of  liua 
month,  between  her  Majestie's  fleet  and  thai  of  Spayne,  transmitted  by  the  Lord  Highe  Admirall  to 
the  Lordes  of  council." 

I  It  is  said  by  Mr.  Watts  of  the  British  Museum  (1850),  that  this  paper  was  a  forgery,  and  trjat 
>s  first  English  paper  was  the  Weekley  Newes,  published  by  Nathaniel  Butler  in  1622.] 


446  THE    world's   PE.0GRES».  [  NIT 

is  the  Freeman^s  Journal,  founded  by  the  patriot.  Dr.  Lucas,  about  the  year 
1755. —  Westminster  Review,  Jan.  1830.  The  Limerick  Chronicle,  the  oldest 
of  the  provincial  prints,  was  established  in  1768. — Idem. 

NEY,  MARSHAL,  his  Execution.  Ney  was  the  duke  of  Elchingen,  and  prince 
of  the  Moskwa,  and  one  of  the  most  valiant  and  skilful  of  the  marshals  of 
France.  After  the  abdication  of  Napoleon,  5th  April,  1814,  he  took  the  oath 
of  allegiance  to  the  king,  Louis  XVIII.  On  Napoleon's  return  to  France 
from  Elba,  he  marched  against  him  ;  but  his  troops  deserting,  he  regarded 
the  cause  of  the  Bourbons  as  lost,  and  opened  the  invader's  way  to  Paris. 
March  13,  1815.  Ney  led  the  attack  of  the  French  at  Waterloo,  where  he 
fought  in  the  midst  of  the  slain,  his  clothes  filled  with  bullet-holes,  and  five 
horses  having  been  shot  under  him,  until  night  and  defeat  obliged  him  to 
fly.  But  though  he  was  included  in  the  decree  of  July  24, 1816,  which  guar- 
anteed the  safety  of  all  Frenchmen,  he  was  afterwards  sought  out,  and  taken 
in  the  castle  of  a  friend  at  Urillac,  where  he  lay  concealed,  and  brought  to 
trial  before  the  Chamber  of  Peers.  The  12th  article  of  the  capitulation  of 
Paris,  fixing  a  general  amnesty,  was  quoted  in  his  favor,  yet  he  was  sentenced 
to  death,  and  met  his  fate  with  the  fortitude  which  such  a  hero  could  hardly 
fail  to  evince,  Aug.  16,  1815. 

NICENE  CREED.  A  summary  of  the  Christian  faith,  composed  at  Nice  by 
the  first  general  council  held  there  in  the  palace  of  Constantino  the  Great. 
In  this  celebrated  council,  which  assembled  a.  d.  325,  the  Arians  were  con- 
demned. It  was  attended  by  318  bishops  from  divers  parts,  who  both  set- 
tled the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  and  the  time  for  observing  Easter. 

NILE,  Battle  op  the.  One  of  the  greatest  in  British  naval  history,  between 
the  Toulon  and  British  fleets,  the  latter  commanded  by  lord,  then  sir  Hora- 
tio Nelson.  This  engagement  took  place  near  Rosetta,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
celebrated  river  Nile ;  nine  of  the  French  line-of-battle  ships  were  taken, 
two  were  burnt,  and  two  escaped,  August  1, 1798.  This  is  sometimes  called 
the  battle  of  Aboukir  ;  it  obtained  the  conqueror  a  peerage,  by  the  title  of 
baron  Nelson  of  the  Nile ;  his  exclamation  upon  commencing  the  battle  was, 
"  Victory  or  Westminster-abbey  !" 

NILE.  SOURCE  of  the.  This  great  river  rises  in  the  Mountains  of  the  Moon, 
in  about  ten  degrees  of  N.  lat.,  and  in  a  known  course  of  1250  miles  receives 
no  tributary  streams.  The  travels  of  Bruce  were  undertaken  to  discover  the 
source  of  the  Nile ;  he  set  out  from  England  in  June,  1768  ;  on  the  14th  of 
Nov.  1770,  he  obtained  the  great  object  of  his  wishes,  and  returned  home  in 
1773.  This  river  c'erflows  regularly  every  year,  from  the  15th  of  June  to 
the  17th  of  September,  when  it  begins  to  decrease,  having  given  fertility  to 
the  land ;  and  it  must  rise  16  cubits  to  insure  that  fertility.  In  1829,  the 
inundation  of  the  Nile  rose  to  26  instead  of  22,  by  which  80,000  people  were 
drowned,  and  immense  property  lost. 

NIMEGUEN,  Treaty  of.  This  was  the  celebrated  treaty  of  peace  between 
France  and  the  United  Provinces,  1678.  Nimeguen  is  distinguished  in  his- 
tory for  other  treaties  of  peace.  The  French  were  successful  against  the 
British  under  the  duke  of  York,  before  Nimeguen,  Oct.  28,  1794 :  but  were 
defeated  by  the  British,  with  the  loss  of  500  killed,  Nov.  8,  following. 

NITRIC  ACID,  formerly  called  aquafortis,  first  obtained  in  a  separate  state  by 
Raymond  Lully,  an  alchemist,  about  a.  d.  1287  ;  but  we  are  indebted  to  Cav- 
endish, Priestley,  and  Lavoisier,  for  our  present  knowledge  of  its  properties. 
Mr.  Cavendish  demonstrated  the  nature  of  this  acid,  in  1785.  Nitrous  acid, 
neai'ly  similar  to  nitric,  was  discovered  by  Scheele,  in  1771.  Nitrous  gas 
Avas  accidentally  discovered  by  Dr.  Hales.  Nitrous  Oxide  Gas  was  discov- 
ered by  Dr.  Priestley,  in  1776. 


nor]  dictionary  of  dates.  447 

NOBILITY.  The  origin  of  nobility  is  referred  to  the  Goths,  who,  after  they 
had  seized  a  part  of  Europe,  rewarded  their  heroes  with  titles  of  honor,  to 
distinguish  them  from  the  common  people.  The  right  of  peerage  seems  to 
have  been  at  first  territorial.  Patents  to  persons  having  no  estates  were  first 
granted  to  Philip  the  Fair  of  France,  a.  d.  1095.  George  Neville,  duke  of 
Bedford  (son  of  John,  marquess  of  Montague),  ennobled  in  1470,  was  de- 
graded from  the  peerage  by  parliament,  on  account  of  his  irtter  want  of 
property,  19  Edward  IV.  1478.  Noblemen's  privileges  were  restrained  in 
June  1773.  See  the  various  orders  of  nobility  through  the  volume;  see  also 
Peerage. 

NOBILITY  OF  FRANCE.  The  French  nobility  preceded  that  of  England,  and 
continued  through  a  long  line,  and  various  races  of  kings,  until  the  period 
of  the  memorable  revolution.  The  National  Assembly  decreed  that  hered- 
itary nobility  could  not  exist  in  a  free  state ;  that  the  titles  of  dukes,  counts, 
niarquisses,  knights,  barons,  excellencies,  abbots,  and  others,  be  abolished ; 
that  all  citizens  take  tlieir  family  names ;  liveries,  and  armorial  bearings, 
shall  also  be  abolished,  June  18, 1790.  The  records  of  the  nobility,  600  vol- 
umes, were  burned  at  the  foot  of  the  statue  of  Louis  XIV.,  June  25, 1792.  A 
new  nobility  was  created  by  the  emperor  Napoleon,  1808.  The  hereditary 
peerage  was  abolished  in  that  kingdom,  December  27,  1831.     See  Prance 

NON-CONFORMISTS.  The  Protestants  in  England  are  divided  into  confon/i- 
ists  and  non-conformists ;  or,  as  they  are  commonly  denominated,  churchmen 
and  dissenters.  The  former  are  those  who  conform  to  that  mode  of  worshij:) 
and  form  of  church-government  which  are  established  and  supported  by  the 
state ;  the  latter  are  those  who  meet  for  divine  worship  in  places  of  their 
own.  The  first  place  of  meeting  of  the  latter,  in  England,  was  established 
at  Wandsworth,  near  London,  November  20,  1572.  The  name  of  non-con- 
formists was  taken  by  the  Puritans,  after  the  Act  of  Uniformity  had  passed, 
August  24,  A.  D.  1662,  when  2000  ministers  of  the  established  religion  re- 
signed, not  choosing  to  conform  to  the  Thirty-nine  Articles. 

NON-JURORS,  IN  ENGLAND.  Persons  who  suppose  that  James  II.  was  un- 
justly deposed,  and  who,  upon  that  account,  refused  to  swear  allegiance  to 
the  familj^  that  succeeded  him.  Among  this  class  of  persons  were  several 
of  the  bishops,  who  were  deprived  in,  1690.  Non-jurors  were  subjected  to  a 
double  taxation,  and  were  obliged  to  register  their  estates.  May  1723. 

NOOTKA  SOUND.  Discovered  by  captain  Cook  in  1778.  It  was  settled  by 
the  British  in  1786,  when  a  few  British  merchants  in  the  East  Indies  formed 
a  settlement  to  supply  the  Chinese  market  with  furs ;  but  the  Spaniards,  in 
1789,  captured  two  English  vessels,  and  took  possession  of  the  settlement. 
The  British  ministry  made  their  demand  for  reparation,  and  the  affair  was 
amicably  terminated  by  a  convention,  and  a  free  commerce  was  confirmed  to 
England  in  1790. 

NORFOLK  ISLAND.  A  penal  colony  of  England.  It  was  discovered  in  1774, 
by  captain  Cook,  who  found  it  uninhabited,  except  by  birds.  The  settle- 
ment was  made  by  a  detachment  from  Port  Jackson,  in  1788,  in  Sydney  bay, 
on  the  south  side  of  the  island.  This  has  latterly  been  made  the  severest 
penal  colony  of  Great  Britain. 

NORMANDY.  Anciently  Neustria.  From  the  beginning  of  the  ninth  cen- 
tury this  countrj'  was  continually  devastated  by  the  Scandinavians,  called 
Northmen  or  Normans,  to  purchase  repose  from  whose  irruptions  Charles 
the  Simple  of  France  -ceded  the  duchy  to  their  leader  Rollo,  a.  d.  905  to  912, 
and  from  its  conquerors  it  received  its  present  name.  Rollo  was  the  first 
duke,  and  held  it  as  a  fief  of  the  crowm  of  France,  and  several  of  his  suc- 
cessors after  him,  till  William,  the  seventh  duke,  conquered  England,  in 


448 


THE    world's    progress. 


[nob 


1066,  from  which  time  it  became  a  province  of  England,  till  it  was  lost  in 
the  reign  of  king  John,  1204,  and  reunited  to  the  crown  of  France.  The 
English,  however,  still  keep  possession  of  the  islands  on  the  coast,  of  which 
Jersey  and  Guernsey  are  the  principal. 

NORTH-WEST  PASSAGE.  The  attempt  to  discover  a  northwest  passage  was 
made  by  a  Portuguese  named  Cortereal,  about  a.  d.  1500.  It  was  attempted 
by  the  English  in  1553 ;  and  the  project  was  greatly  encouraged  by  queen 
Elizabeth,  in  1585,  in  which  year  a  company  was  associated  in  London,  and 
was  called  the  "  Fellowship  for  the  Discovery  of  the  Northwest  Passage." 
The  following  voyages  with  this  design,  were  undertaken,  under  British 
navigators,  in  the  years  respectively  stated  : — 


Sir  Hugh  Willoughby's  expedition  to 
find  a  north- west  passage  to  China, 
sailed  from  the  Thames*        May  20, 1553 
Sir  Martin  Frobisher's  attempt  to  find 

a  north-west  passage  to  China  -  1576 

Captain  Davis's  expedition  to  find  a 

north-west  passage      -  -  -  1585 

Barentz's  expedition  -  -     -  1594 

Weymouih  and  Knight's  -  -  1602 

Hudson's  voyages ;  the  last  undertalien 

(See  Hudson's  Bay.")-  -  -  1610 

Sir  Thomas  Button's  -  -     -  1612 

Baffin's. — See  Baffin's  Bay      ■  -  1616 

Foxe's  expedition     -  -  -      -  1631 

[A  number  of  enterprises  undertaken 

by  various  countries,  followed.] 
Middletoii's  expedition  -  -  -  1742 

Moore's  and  Smith's  -  -  -     -  1746 

Heame's  land  expedition  -  -  1769 

Captain  Phipps,  afterwards  lord  Mul- 

grave,  his  expedition  -  -  -  1773 

Captain  Cook  in  the  Resolution  and 

Discovery        -  •  ■     July  1776 

Mackenzie's  expedition        -  -     -  1789 

Captain  Duncan's  voyage  -  -  1790 

The  Discovery,  captain  Vancouver,  re- 
turned from  a  voyage  of  survey  and 
discovery  on  the  north-west  coast  of 
America  -  -  Sept.  24, 1795 

Lieut.  Kotzebue's  expedition    -     Oct.  1815 
Captain  Buchan's  and  lieut.  Franklin's 

expedition  in  the  Dorothea  and  Trent  1818 
Captain  Ross  and  lieut.  Parry,  in  the 

Isabella  and  Alexander         -  -  1818 

Lieuts.  Parry  and  Liddon  in  the  Hecla 

and  Griper      -  -  May  4,  1819 

They  return  to  Leith  -       Nov.  3,  1820 

Capts.  Parry  and  Lyon,  in  the  Fury 

and  Hecla  -  -  -       May  8,  1821 

Capt.  Parry's  third  expedition  with  the 

Hecla  -  -  -       May  8,  1824 

Capts.  Franklin  and  Lyon,  after  having 
attempted  a  land  expedition,  again 
sail  from  Liverpool     -  Feb.  16,  1825 


Captain  Parry,  again  in  the  Hecla, 
sails  from  Deptford     -        March  25,  1827 

And  returns    -  -  -       Oct.  6, 1827 

Capt.  Ross  arrived  at  Hull,  on  his  re- 
turn from  his  arctic  expediti  ""n,  after 
an  absence  of  "bur  years,  arid  when 
all  hope  of  las  return  had  been  near- 
ly abandoned    -  -  Oct.  18,  1833 

Capt.  Back  and  his  companions  arrived 
at  Liverpool  from  then-  perilous  Arc- 
tic Land  Expedition,  after  having 
visited  the  Great  Fish  River,  and  ex- 
amined its  course  to  the  Polar  Seas 

Sept.  8,  1835 

Captain  Back  sailed  from  Chatham  in 
command  of  His  Majesty's  ship  Ter- 
ror, on  an  exploring  adventure  to 
Wager  River.  [Captain  Back,  in 
the  month  of  Dec.  1835,  was  award- 
ed, by  the  Geographical  Society,  the 
king's  annual  premium  for  his  polar 
discoveries  and  enterprise     June  21,  1836 

Dease  and  Simpson  traverse  the  inter- 
vening space  between  the  discover- 
ies of  Ross  and  Parry,  and  establish 
that  there  is  a  north-west  passage 

Oct.  1839 

Sir  John  Franklin  and  capt.  Crozier  in 
the  Erebus  and  Terror  leave  Eng- 
land      -  -  -  May  24,  1845 

Capt.  Ross  returned  from  an  unsuccess- 
ful expedition  in  search  of  Franklin  1819 

Another  expedition  (one  sent  out  by 
lady  Franklin)  in  search  of  sir  John 
Franklin,  consisting  of  two  vessels, 
sailed  froin  England,         April-May  185C 

Still  another,  consisting  of  two  vessels, 
tlie  Advance  and  Rescue,  liberally 
purchased  for  the  purpose  by  Henry 
Grinnell,  a  New  York  merchant,  and 
manned  at  Government  cost  from  the 
U.  S.  navy,  under  command  of  lieut. 
de  Haven,  sailed  from  New  York 

May  1850 


NORTH  CAROLINA,  one  of  the  UNITED  STATES.     First  permanent  settle- 
ment at  Albemarle,  by  emigrants  from  Virginia,  who  fled  from  religious  per- 


*  The  gallant  sir  Hugh  Willoughby  took  his  departure  from  Radcliife,  on  his  fatal  voyage  for 
discovering  the  north-east  passage  to  China.  "Re.  sailed  with  great  pomp  by  Greenwich,  where  the 
court  then  resided.  Mutual  honors  were  paid  on  both  sides.  The  council  and  courtiers  appeared 
at  the  windows,  ana  the  people  covered  the  shores.  The  young  king,  Edward  VI.,  alone  lost  the 
noble  and  novel  sight,  for  he  then  lay  on  his  deatli-bed ;  so  that  the  principal  object  of  the  parade 
was  disappointed.  Sir  Hugh  Willoughby  was  unfortunately  entangled  in  the  ice,  and  frozen  to 
death,  on  the  coast  oi  hwp\a.nA.  —  Hackluyt. 


nul] 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  449: 


secution,  about  1660.  The  district  granted  to  loTd  Clarendon,  who  induced, 
the  celebrated  John  Locke  to  prepare  a  constitution  for  it,  1663.  The  chief 
magistrate  was  called  the  palatine,  and  there  was  an  hereditary  nobility. 
This  constitution  abolished,  as  defective,  1693.  The  two  Carolinas  purchas- 
ed by  the  crown  for  £17,500,  and  divided  into  North  and  South,  in  1720. 

NORWAY.  Until  the  ninth  century,  Norway  was  divided  into  petty  principali- 
ties, and  was  little  known  to  the  rest  of  Europe  except  by  the  piratical  ex- 
cursions of  its  natives.  It  was  converted  to  Christianity  in  a.  d.  1000.  The 
city  of  Bergen  was  founded  in  1069.  The  kingdom  was  united  to  Denmark 
in  1378 ;  and  the  three  kingdoms  of  Norway,  Denmark  and  Sweden  -^vere 
united,  in  1439.  Pomerania  and  Rugen  were  annexed  to  Denmark  in  ex- 
change for  Norway,  in  1814,  and  on  Nov.  4,  in  that  year,  Charles  XIII.  was 
proclaimed  king  by  the  National  Diet  assembled  at  Christiana.  The  two 
countries  of  Sweden  and  Norway  have  since  then  been  termed  the  Scandi- 
navian Peninsula,  of  which  Bernadotte  was  crowned  king  by  the  title  of 
Charles  XIV.,  Feb.  5,  1818.     See  Sweden. 

NOTABLES  of  FRANCE.  An  assembly  of  the  notable^  of  France  was  con- 
vened by  Calonne,  the  minister  of  Louis  XVI. ,  in  1788.  The  deranged  state 
of  the  king's  finances  induced  him  to  convoke  the  notables,  who  assembled 
Nov.  6,  when  Calonne  opened  his  plan,  but  any  reform  militated  too  much 
against  private  interest  to  be  adopted.  Calonne  not  being  able  to  do  any 
good,  was  dismissed,  and  soon  after  retired  to  England :  and  Louis,  having 
lost  his  confidential  minister,  Mons.  de  Vergennes,  by  death,  called  Mons. 
de  Brienne,  an  ecclesiastic,  to  his  councils.  In  the  end,  the  States  General 
were  called,  and  from  this  assembly  sprang  the  National  Assembly,  which 
see.  The  notables  were  dismissed  by  the  king,  Dec.  12,  1788.  The  Spanish 
notables  assembled  and  met  Napoleon  (conformably  with  a  decree  issued  by 
him  commanding  their  attendance,)  at  Bayonne,  May  25,  1808.    See  Spain. 

NOTARIES  PUBLIC.  They  were  first  appointed  by  the  primitive  fathers  of  the 
Christian  church,  to  collect  the  acts  or  memoirs  of  the  lives  of  the  martyrs, 
in  the  first  century. — Du  Fresno)/.  This  oflice  was  afterwards  changed  to  a 
commercial  employment,  to  attest  deeds  and  writings,  so  as  to  establish  their 
authenticity  in  any  other  country. 

NOVA  SCOTIA.  Settled  in  a.  d.  1622,  by  the  Scotch,  under  sir  William  Alex- 
ander, in  the  reign  of  James  I.  of  England,  from  whom  it  received  the  name 
of  Nova  Scotia.  Since  its  first  settlement  it  has  more  than  once  changed 
rulers  and  proprietors,  nor  was  it  confirmed  to  England  till  the  peace  of 
Utrecht,  in  1713.  It  was  taken  in  1745,  and  1758 ;  but  was  again  confirmed 
to  England  in  1760.  Nova  Scotia  was  divided  into  two  provinces,  in  1784 ; 
and  was  erected  into  a  bishopric  in  August,  1787.    See  Baronets. 

NOVEMBER.  This  was  ancienly  the  ninth  month  of  the  year  (whence  its 
name),  but  when  Numa  added  the  months  of  January  and  February,  713 
B.  c,  the  Romans  had  it  for  the  eleventh,  as  it  is  now.  The  Roman  senators 
(for  whose  mean  servilities  even  Tiberius,  it  is  said,  often  blushed)  wished 
to  call  this  month  in  which  he  was  born,  hj  his  name,  in  imitation  of  Julius 
C^sar,  and  Augustus ;  but  this  the  emperor  absolutely  refused,  saying, 
"  What  will  you  do,  conscript  fathers,  if  you  have  thirteen  Csesars  1 " 

NOVI,  Battle  of,  in  which  the  French  army  commanded  bj'  Joubert  was  de- 
feated by  the  Russians  under  Suwarrow,  with  immense  loss,  Aug.  15,  1799. 
Among  10,000  of  the  French  slain  was  their  leader,  Joubert,  and  several 
other  distinguished  oflScers.  A  second  battle  fought  here  between  the  Aus- 
trian and  French  armies,  when  the  latter  were  signally  defeated,  January  8, 
1800. 

NULLIFICATION  of  the  LAWS  op  the  UNITED   STATES.     The  right 


450  THK   world's    progress.  [  OAT 

.  claimed  by  South  Carolina,  and  various  threats  held  out  by  the  legislature 
of  that  State,  in  1832.  Proclamation  of  president  Jackson  against  the 
Nullifiers,  Dec.  10.  A  "State  Rights"  convention  at  Columbia,  S.  C, 
same  day.  Calhoun  resigned  the  office  of  vice-president  of  the  United 
States,  Dec.  28, 1832.  Nullification  nullified  by  South  Co-rolina  convention  in 
consequence  of  Mr.  Clay's  compromise  tariif,  March  11,  1834. 

NUMANTINE  WAR,  and  SIEGE.  The  celebrated  war  of  Numantia  with  the 
Romans  was  commenced  solely  on  account  of  the  latter  having  given  refuge 
to  the  Sigidians,  their  own  allies,  who  had  been  defeated  by  the  Romans, 
141  B.  c. — Liinj.  It  continued  for  fourteen  years ;  and  though  Numantia 
was  unprotected  by  walls  or  towers,  it  bravely  withstood  the  siege.  The 
inhabitants  obtained  some  advantages  over  the  Roman  forces  till  Scipio  Af- 
ricanus  was  empowered  to  finish  the  war,  and  to  see  the  destruction  of  Nu- 
mantia. He  began  the  siege  with  an  army  of  60,000  men,  and  was  bravely 
opposed  by  the  besieged,  who  were  not  more  than  4000  men  able  to  bear 
arms.  Both  armies  behaved  with  uncommon  valor,  and  the  courage  of  the 
Numantines  was  soon  changed  into  despair  and  fury.  Their  provisions  be- 
gan to  fail,  and  they  fed  uj^on  the  flesh  of  their  horses,  and  afterwards  on 
that  of  their  dead  companions,  and  at  last  were  obliged  to  draw  lots  to  kill 
and  devour  one  another ;  and  at  length  they  set  fire  to  their  houses,  and  all 
destroyed  themselves,  b.  c.  133,  so  that  not  even  one  remained  to  adorn  the 
triumph  of  the  conqueror. 

NUNCIO.  A  spiritual  envoy  from  the  pope  of  Rome  to  Catholic  states.  In 
early  times  they  and  legates  ruled  the  courts  of  several  of  the  sovereigns  of 
Germany,  France,  and  even  England.  The  pope  deputed  a  nuncio  to  the 
Irish  rebels  in  1645.  The  arrival  in  London  of  a  nuncio,  and  his  admission 
to  an  audience  by  James  IL,  1687,  is  stated  to  have  hastened  the  Revolu- 
tion. 

NUNNERY.  The  first  founded  is  said  to  have  been  that  to  which  the  sister  of 
St.  Anthony  retired  at  the  close  of  the  third  century.  The  first  founded  in 
France,  near  Poitiers,  by  St.  Marcellina,  sister  to  St.  Martin,  a.  d.  360. — Du 
Fresnoy.  The  first  in  England  was  at  Folkstoue,  in  Kent,  by  Eardbald, 
king  of  Kent,  630. — Dugdale's  Monasticon  Anglicanum.  See  articles  Abbeys 
and  Monasteries.  The  liuns  were  expelled  from  their  convents  in  Germany, 
in  Julv,  1785.  They  were  driven  out  of  their  convents  in  France,  in  Jan., 
1790. " 

0. 

GATES  TITUS,  his  PLOT.  This  Oates  was  a  wicked  man,  at  one  time  chap- 
lain of  a  ship  of  war.  Being  dismissed  the  service  for  his  immoral  conduct, 
he  became  a  lecturer  in  London ;  and,  in  conjunction  with  Dr.  Tongue,  in- 
vented a  pretended  plot  to  assassinate  Charles  II.,  of  which  several  persons, 
Catholics,  were  accused,  and  upon  false  testimony,  convicted  and  executed, 
A.  D.  1678.  Oates  was  afterwards  tried  for  perjury,  (in  the  reign  of  James 
II.)  and  being  found  guilty,  he  was  fined,  put  in  the  pillory,  publicly  whip- 
ped from  Newgate  to  Tyburn,  and  sentenced  to  imprisonment  for  life,  1685 ; 
but  was  pardoned,  and  a  pension  granted  him,  1689. 

OATHS.  The  administration  of  an  oath  in  judicial  proceedings  was  introduced 
by  the  Saxons  into  England,  a.  d.  600. — Rapin.  That  administered  to  a 
judge  was  settled  1344.  Of  supremacy,  first  administered  to  British  sub- 
jects, and  ratified  by  parliament,  26  Heniy  VIII.,  1535.  Of  allegiance,  first 
framed  and  administered  3  James  I.,  1605. — Stowe's  Chron.  Of  abjuration, 
being  an  obligation  to  maintain  the  government  of  king,  lords,  and  com- 
mons, the  Church  of  England,  and  toleration  of  Protestant  dissenters,  and 


OGY  ]  DICTIONAKY    OF    DATES.  4S1 

abjuring  all  Roman  Catholic  pretenders  to  the  crown,  13  William  III.  1701. 
Oaths  were  taken  on  the  Gospels  so  early  as  a.  d.  528 ;  and  the  words  "  So 
help  me  God  and  all  saints,"  concluded  an  oath  until  1550. 
OATHS,  Ancient.  The  Greeks  and  Romans  looked  upon  the  infringement  of 
an  oath  with  still  greater  abhorrence  than  Christians  ;  they  permitted  oaths 
to  be  taken  upon  every  object  in  which  the  person  who  swore  had  a 
decided  and  sincere  belief,  upon  all  kinds  of  animals,  fruits,  and  vegetables, 
the  stars,  the  sun,  the  moon,  and  other  things,  without  rendering  the  oaths 
less  binding  than  if  they  had  been  sworn  by  Jupiter.  Jaques  Lydius  has 
left  us  a  long  catalogue  of  the  numerous  objects  by  which  the  ancients 
swore.  It  was  usual  with  them  to  swear  by  what  they  held  most  dear ;  as, 
for  instance,  by  their  own  heads,  by  that  of  their  friend,  or  by  those  per- 
sons whom  they  loved  most  tenderly.  The  most  sacred  oath  far  above 
any  other  was  by  the  eyes  of  their  mistress,  by  her  kisses,  by  her  hair. — 
Ovid,  (^'C. 
OBELISK.  The  first  mentioned  in  history  Avas  that  of  Rameses,  king  of 
Egypt,  about  1485  b.  c.  The  Arabians  call  them  Pharaoh's  needles,  and 
the  Egyptian  priests  the  lingers  of  the  sun ;  they  differed  very  much  as  to 
their  costliness,  magnitude  and  magnificence.  Several  were  erected  at  Rome ; 
one  was  erected  by  the  emperor  Augustus  in  the  Campus  Martins,  on  the 
pavement  of  which  was  a  horizontal  dial,  that  marked  the  hour,  about 
14  B.  c. 
OBSERVATORIES.  The  first  is  supposed  to  have  been  on  the  top  of  the 
temple  of  Belus  at  Babylon.  On  the  tomb  of  Osymandias,  in  Egypt,  was 
another,  and  it  contained  a  golden  circle  200  feet  in  diameter:  that  at 
Benares  was  at  least  as  ancient  as  these.  The  first  in  authentic  history  was 
at  Alexandria,  about  300  b.  c.  The  first  in  modei-n  times  was  at  Cassel, 
1561.  The  Roj'al  Observatory  at  Greenwich  was  founded  by  Charles  11.  a.  d. 
1675 ;  and  from  the  meridian  of  Greenwich  all  English  astronomers  make 
their  calculations. 

First  modem  meridional  instrument, 
by  Copernicus-  -  -     A.  D.  1540 

First  observatory  at  Cassel  -  -      -  1561 

Tycho  Brahe's,  at  Uranibourg  -  -  1576 

Astronomical  tower  at  Copenhagen     -  1657 

Royal  (French)    ...  -  1667 

Royal  Observatory  at  Greenwich  -     - 1675 

Observatory  at  Nuremberg       -  -  1678 

At  Uu-echt 1690 

OCTOBER.  The  eighth  month  in  the  year  of  Romulus,  as  its  name  imports, 
and  the  tentL  in  the  year  of  Numa,  713  b.  c.  From  this  time  October  has 
still  retained  its  first  name,  in  spite  of  all  the  different  appellations  which 
the  senate  and  Roman  emperors  would  have  given  it.  The  senate  ordered 
it  to  be  called  Fmist'mus,  in  honor  of  Faustina,  wife  of  Antoninus  the 
emperor ;  Commodus  would  have  had  it  called  Jiwicius ;  and  Domitian 
Do'initianus.    October  was  sacred  to  Mars. 

ODES  are  nearly  as  old  as  the  lyre ;  they  were  at  first  extempore  compositions 
accompanying  this  instrument,  and  sung  in  honor  of  the  gods.  Perha,ps 
the  most  beautiful  and  sublime  odes  ever  written,  as  well  as  the  oldest,  are 
those  of  the  royal  prophet  Isaiah,  on  the  fall  of  Babylon,  composed  about 
"  757  B.  c.  The  celebrated  odes  of  Anacreon  were  composed  about  532  b.  c.  ; 
and  from  his  time  this  species  of  writing  became  usual,  Anciently  odes 
were  divided  into  Strophe,  Antistrophe,  and  Epode.  This  species  of  writing 
is  that  of  our  court  poets  at  this  day, 

OGYGES,  DELUGE  of.  The  Deluge  so  called,  from  which  Attica  lay  waste 
200  years,  occurred  1764  b.  c.    Many  authorities  suppose  this  to  be  no  other 


Berlin,  erected  under  Leibnitz's  direc 

tion        .... 

1711 

At  Bologna     .... 

1714 

At  Petersburg 

1725 

Oxford,  Dr.  Radcliffe 

1772 

Dublin,  Dr.  Andrews    ■ 

1783 

Cambridge,  England 

1824 

Cambridge,  Mass. 

New  Haven   .           .           -           - 

Cincinnati 

452  THE  wokld's  TROGCESS.  [  OMU 

than  the  universal  deluge ;  but  accoi'ding  to  some  writers,  if  it  at  aU  oc- 
curred, it  arose  in  the  overflowing  of  one  of  the  great  rivers  of  the  country. 
See  Deluge. 

OHIO.  One  of  the  United  States.  First  permanently  settled  at  Marietta, 
April  1788 ;  second  settlement  was  Symmes's  purchase,  6  miles  below  Cincin- 
nati, 1789  ;  third  by  French  emigrants  at  GaUipolis,  1791 ;  fourth  by  New 
Englanders,  -at  Cleveland  and  Comeant,  1796.  First  territorial  legislature 
met  at  Cincinnati,  1799.  The  "Western  Reserve,  under  jurisdiction  of  Con- 
necticut, was  sold  by  that  State  for  the  benefit  of  her  "  School  fund  "  in 
1800.  Ohio  formed  her  State  Constitution  and  was  admitted  into  the  Union, 
1802.  Population  in  1790,  was  3,000;  in  1800,  45,365;  in  1810,  230,760;  in 
1830,  937,637;  in  1840,  1,519,467- 

OIL.  It  was  used  for  burning  in  lamps  as  early  as  the  epoch  of  Abraham, 
about  1921  B.  c.  It  was  the  staple  commodity  of  Attica,  and  a  jar  full  was 
the  prize  at  the  Panathenaean  games.  It  was  the  custom  of  the  Jews  to 
anoint  with  oil  persons  appointed  to  high  oflSces,  as  the  priests  and  kings, 
Psalm  cxxxiii.  2 ;  1  Sam.  x.  1 ;  xvi.  13.  The  anointing  with  this  liquid 
seems  also  to  have  been  reckoned  a  necessary  ingredient  in  a  festival  dress. 
Ruth  iii.  3.  The  fact  that  oil,  if  passed  through  red-hot  iron  pipes,  will  be 
resolved  into  a  combustible  gas,  was  long  known  to  chemists  ;  and  after  the 
process  of  lighting  by  coal-gas  was  made  apparent,  Messrs.  Taylor  and  Mar- 
tineau  contrived  apparatus  for  producing  oil-gas  on  a  large  scale. 

OLBERS.    The  asteroid  of  this  name  was  discovered  by  M.  Olbers,  in  1802. 

OLYMPIADS.  The  Greeks  computed  time  by  the  celebrated  era  of  the  Olym- 
piads, which  date  from  the  year  776  b.  c,  being  the  year  in  which  Coroebus 
was  successful  at  the  Olympic  games.  This  era  differed  from  all  others  in 
being  reckoned  by  periods  of  four  years  instead  of  single  years.  Each  pe- 
riod of  four  years  was  called  an  Olympiad,  and  in  marking  a  date,  the  year 
and  Olympiad  were  both  mentioned.  The  second  Olympiad  began  in 
772 ;  the  third,  in  768 ;  the  fourth,  in  764 ;  the  fifth,  in  760 ;  the  10th  in 
740,  &c. 

OLYMPIC  GAMES.  These  games,  so  famous  among  the  Greeks,  were  insti- 
tuted in  honor  of  Jupiter.  They  were  holden  at  the  beginning  of  every 
fifth  year,  on  the  banks  of  the  Alpheus,  near  Olympia,  in  the  Peloponnesus, 
now  the  Morea,  to  exercise  their  youth  in  five  kinds  of  combats.  Those 
who  were  conquerors  in  these  games  were  highly  honored  by  their  coun- 
trymen. The  prize  contended  for  was  a  crown  made  of  a  peculiar  kind  of 
wild  olive,  appropriated  to  this  use.  The  games  were  instituted  by  Pelops, 
1307  B.  c.  They  are  also  ascribed  to  an  ancient  Hercules;  and  were  revived 
by  Iphytus  among  the  Greeks,  884  b.  g. — Dufresnoy. 

OMENS.  See  Augury.  Amphictyon  was  the  first  who  is  recorded  as  having 
drawn  prognostications  from  omens,  1497  b.  c.  Alexander  the  Great  is  said 
to  have  had  these  superstitions ;  and  also  Mithridates  the  Great,  cele- 
brated for  his  wars  with  the  Romans,  his  victories,  his  conquest  of  twenty- 
four  nations,  and  his  misfortunes.  At  the  birth  of  this  latter  there  were 
seen,  for  seventy  days  together,  two  large  comets,  whose  splendor  eclipsed 
that  of  the  noonday  sun,  occupying  so  vast  a  space  as  the  fourth  pait  of 
the  heavens  ;  and  this  omen,  we  are  told,  directed  all  the  actions  of  Mithri- 
dates throughout  his  life,  so  much  had  superstition  combined  with  nature 
to  render  him  great,  135  b.  c. — Justin. 

OMNIBUSES.  These  vehicles,  of  which  there  are  nearly  4000  in  the  Londou 
circuit,  were  introduced  there  by  an  enterprising  coach  proprietor  named 
Shillibeer,  and  first  licensed  at  Somerset  house  in  July,  1829.  They  pro- 
bably originated  in  Paris,  where  they  are  now  also  very  numerous.     In  New 


OPT  ] 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES. 


45S 


York,  Boston,  &c.,  they  were  common  as  early  as  1830.  There  were  465 
licensed  in  New  York  in  1849. 

OPERA.  Octavio  Rinuccini,  of  Florence,  Avas  the  inventor  of  operas,  or  of 
the  custom  of  giving  musical  representations  of  coriiedy,  tragedy,  and  other 
dramatic  pieces.  Emelio  de  Cavalero,  however,  disputed  this  honor  with 
him,  A.  D.  1590. — Nouv.  Diet.  Hist.  Among  the  Venetians,  opera  was  the 
chief  glory  of  their  carnival.  About  the  year  1669,  the  abbot  Perrin  ob- 
tained a  grant  from  Louis  XIV.  to  set  up  an  opera  at  Paris,  where,  in  1672, 
was  acted  Pomona.  Sir  William  Davenant  introduced  a  species  of  opera  in 
London,  in  1684.  The  first  regularly  performed  opera  Avas  at  York-build- 
ings, in  1692.  The  first  at  Drury-lane  was  in  1705.  The  operas  of  Handel 
were  performed  in  1735,  and  they  became  general  in  several  of  the  theatres 
a  few  years  after.  Among  the  favorite  performances  of  this  kind  was  Gay's 
Beggar's  Opera,  first  performed  in  1727.  It  ran  for  sixty-three  successive 
nights,  but  so  often  offended  the  persons  in  power,  that  the  lord-chamberlain 
refused  to  license  for  performance  a  second  part  of  it,  entitled  "Polly." 
This  resentment  induced  Gay's  friends  to  come  forward  on  its  publication 
'  with  so  handsome  a  subscription,  that  his  profits  amounted  to  1200Z., 
whereas  the  Beggar's  Opera  had  gained  him  only  400Z. — Life  of  Gaij. 

OPORTO.  By  nature  one  of  the  most  impregnable  cities  in  Europe  ;  the  great 
mart  of  Portuguese  wine  known  as  "Port."  A  chartered  company  for  the 
regulation  of  the  Port-wine  trade  was  established  here  in  a.  d.  1756.  See 
article  Wines.  The  French  under  marshal  Soult  were  surprised  here  by 
lord  WelHngton.  and  defeated  in  an  action  fought  May  11,  1809.  The  Mi- 
guelites  attacked  Oporto,  and  were  repulsed  by  the  Pedroites,  with  conside- 
rable loss,  Sept.  19,  1832.     See  Portugal. 

OPTICS.  As  a  science,  optics  date  their  origin  a  little  prior  to  the  time  of 
Alhazen,  an  Arabian  philosopher,  who  flourished  early  in  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury. It  has  advanced  rapidly  since  the  time  of  Halley,  and  is  now  one  of 
our  most  flourishing  as  well  as  useful  sciences. 

lenses  known  at  Athens  at 

-     B.  c.    424 


Burnin 
least      -  -  -  -     B.  c. 

Two  of  the  leading  principles  known 
to  the  Platonists     -  -  -     -    300 

First  treatise  on,  by  Euclid,  ahout       -    280 

The  magnifying  power  of  convex  glass- 
es and  concave  mirrors, and  thepris- 
matic  colors  produced  by  angular 
glass,  mentioned  bySeneca,  aboutA.D.     50 

Treatise  on  Optics,  by  Ptolemy      •     -    120 

Greatly  improved  by  Alhazen  -  -  1108 

Hints  lor  spectacles  and  telescopes  giv- 
en by  Roger  Bacon  about  -     -  1280 

Spectacles  (said  to  have  been)  invented 
by  Salvinus  Armatus,  of  Pisa,  before  1300 

Camera  obscw'a  said  to  have  been  in- 
vented by  Baptista  Porta        -  -  1560 

Telescopes  invented  by  Leonard  Digges, 
about  -  -  -  •     -  1571 

Telescope  made  by  Jansen  (who  is  said 
also  to  have  invented  the  micro- 
scope), about   ...  -  1609 

[The  same  instrument  constructed  by 
Galileo,  without  using  the  produc- 
tion of  .lansen] 

Astronomical  telescope  suggested  by 
Kepler 1611 

Microscope,  according  to  Huygens,  in- 
vented by  Drebbel,  about       -  -  1621 


[.Tansen  and  Galileo  have  also  been 

stated  to  be  the  inventors.] 
Cassegrainian  reflector  -  -  - 1621 

Law  of  refraction  discovered  by  Snell- 

ius,  about   -  -  -  a.  d.  1624 

Reflecting  telescope,  .lames  Gregory   -  1663 

■  Newton    -  -  1666 

Motion  and  velocity  of  light  discovered 

by  Roemer,  and  after  him  by  Cassini  1667 
[Its  velocity  demonstrated  to  be  190 

millions  of  miles  in  sixteen  minutes.] 
Double  refraction  explained  by  Bartho- 

linus  -  •  -  ■     ■  1669 

Newton's  discoveries     -  -  -  1674 

Telescopes   with    a    single    lens,    by 

Tschirnhausen,  about       -  -     -  1690 

Polarization  of  light,  Huygens,  about  -  1692 
Structure  ol'the  eye  explained  by  Petit, 

about 1700 

Achromatic  telescope  constructed  by 

Mr.  Hall  (but  not  made  public)  in    -  1733 
Constructed  by  Dollond,   most  likely 

without  any  knowledge  of  Hall's      -  l/"";? 
Herschel's  great  reflecting  telescope. 

erected  at  Slough  -  -  -     -  17S0 

Camera  lucida  (Dr.  Wollaston)  -  1807 

Ramage's  reflecting  telescope  erected 

at  Greenwich         -  -  •     -  1820 


i.PTlC  NERVES.  The  discoverer  of  the  optic  nerves  is  reputed  to  have  been 
N.  Varole,  a  sureeon  and  physician  of  Bologna,  about  a.  d.  1588.— A'^okj; 
Did. 


454  THE  world's  progress.  [  ORD 

ORACLES.  The  most  ancient  oracle  was  that  of  Dodona ;  but  the  most  fa- 
mous was  the  oracle  of  Delphi,  1263  b.  c.  See  Delphi.  The  heathen  oracles 
were  always  delivered  in  such  dubious  expressions  or  terms,  that  let  what 
would  happen  to  the  inquirer,  it  might  be  accommodated  or  explained  to 
mean  the  event  that  came  to  pass.  Among  the  Jews  there  were  several 
sorts  of  oracles ;  as  firs*,  those  that  were  delivered  viva  voce,  as  when  God 
spoke  to  Moses ;  secondly,  prophetical  dreams,  as  those  of  Joseph  ;  thirdly, 
visions,  as  when  a  prophet  in  an  ecstasy,  being  properly  neither  asleep  nor 
awake,  had  supernatural  revelations ;  fourthly,  when  they  were  accompanied 
with  the  ephod  or  the  pectoral  worn  by  the  high  priest,  who  was  indued 
with  the  gift  of  foretelling  future  things,  upon  extraordinary  occasions ; 
fifthly,  by  consulting  the  prophets  or  messengers  sent  by  God.  At  the  be- 
ginning of  Christianity,  prophecy  appears  to  have  been  very  common ;  but 
it  immediately  afterwards  ceased. — Lempriere;  Pardon. 

ORANGE,  House  of.  This  illustrious  house  is  as  ancient  as  any  in  Europe, 
and  makes  a  most  distinguished  figure  in  history.  Otho  I.,  count  of  Nas- 
sau, received  the  provinces  of  Guelderland  and  Zutphen  with  his  two  wives, 
and  they  continued  several  hundred  years  in  the  family.  Otho  II.  count  of 
Nassau  Dilembourg,  who  died  in  1369,  got  a  great  accession  of  territories 
in  the  Low  Countries  by  his  wife  Abelais,  daughter  and  heiress  of  Godfrey 
count  of  Vianden ;  and  his  grandson  Gilbert,  having  married  Jane,  daughter 
and  heiress  of  Philip,  baron  of  Leek  and  Breda,  added  these  to  his  other 
domains  in  1404.  The  title  of  prince  of  Orange  came  first  into  the  Nassau 
family  by  the  marriage  of  Claude  de  Chalons  with  the  count  of  Nassau 
in  1530.  William  prince  of  Orange,  afterwards  William  III.  of  England, 
landed  at  Torbay,  with  an  army,  Nov.  5,  1688,  and  was  crowned  with  his 
queen,  the  princess  Mary,  daughter  of  James  II.,  April  11,  1689. 

ORATORIOS.  Their  origin  is  ascribed  to  St.  Philip  Neri.  The  first  oratorio 
in  London  was  performed  in  Lincoln's-Inn  theatre,  in  Portugal-street,  in 
1732. 

ORCHARDS.  As  objects  of  farming  or  field  culture,  orchards  do  not  appear 
to  have  been  adopted  until  about  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
although  they  had  doubtlessly  existed  in  Great  Britain  for  many  ages  pre- 
viously, as  appendages  to  wealthy  religious-  establishments. — Loudo7i. 

ORDEAL.  The  ordeal  was  known  among  the  Greeks.  With  us  it  is  a  term 
signifying  the  judiciary  determination  of  accusations  for  criminal  offences 
by  fire  and  water.  It  was  introduced  into  England  with  other  superstitions 
taken  from  the  codes  of  the  Germans.  That  by  fire  was  confined  to  the 
upper  classes  of  the  people,  that  of  Water,  to  bondsmen  and  rustics.  Hence 
the  expression  of  going  through  fire  and  water  to  serve  another.  Women 
accused  of  incontinency  formerlj'  rmderwent  the  ordeal,  to  prove  their  in- 
nocence. A  prisoner  who  pleaded  not  guilty,  might  choose  whether  he  would 
put  himself  for  trial  upon  God  and  his  country,  by  twelve  men,  as  at  this 
day,  or  upon  God  only ;  and  then  it  was  called  the  judgment  of  God,  pre- 
suming he  would  deliver  the  innocent.  The  accused  were  to  pass  bare- 
footed and  blindfold  over  nine  red-hot  ploughshares,  or  were  to  carry 
burning-irons  in  their  hands  ;  and  accordingly  as  they  escaped,  they  were 
judged  innocent  or  guilty,  acquitted  or  condemned.*  The  ordeal  was  used 
from  Edward  the   Confessor's  time  to   that  of  Henry  III.     It  was  abol- 


'  Tlie  water  ordeal  was  performetl  in  either  hot  or  cold :  in  cold  water,  the  parties  suspected 
were  adjudged  innocent,  if  their  bodies  were  home  up  by  the  water,  contrary  to  the  course  of 
nature  ;  in  hot  water,  they  were  to  put  their  bare  arms  or  less  into  scalding  water,  whicb  if  they 
brought  out  without  hurt,"  they  were  taken  to  be  innocent  of  the  crii  .e. 


ORR.  ]  DICTlOiMARY    OF    DATES.  45S 

ished  by  a  royal  proclamation,  46  Henry  III.,  1261. — Laiv  Diet.    Rymefs 
Fmdera. 

ORDINATION.  In  the  ancient  churcli  there  was  no  such  thing  as  a  vague  and 
absolute  ordination ;  but  every  one  ordained  had  a  church  whereof  he  was 
to  be  clerk  or  priest.  In  the  twelfth  century,  thej''  grew  more  remiss,  and 
ordained  without  any  title  or  benefice.  The  church  of  Rome  is  episcopal ; 
and  the  Church  of  England  so  far  acknowledges  the  validity  of  the  ordina- 
tion of  that  church,  that  a  Catholic  priest  is  only  required  to  abjui-e  its  pe- 
culiar distinctions,  and  he  can  officiate  without  re-ordination. 

OREGON.  Territory  of  the  United  States,  on  the  N.  W.  coast  of  America. 
First  visited  by  the  Spaniards  under  Juan  de  Fuca,  1592 ;  by  sir  Francis 
Drake,  1578 ;  by  Vancouver,  1792.  The  Columbia  river  discovered  and  en- 
tered hy  Capt.  Gray,  of  merchant  ship  Columbia,  of  Boston,  United  States, 
May  7, 1792 ;  overland  expedition  of  Lewis  and  Clarke,  sent  out  by  Jefferson, 
1804-5-6.  Missouri  Fur  Company  established  at  St.  Louis,  1808 ;  Pacific  Fur 
Company  (J.  J.  Astor)  at  New  York.  1810 ;  Astoria  founded  it  the  mouth  of 
the  Columbia,  by  Aster's  colony,  1811 :  sold  to  the  N.  W.  Company,  1813 : 
occupied  by  the  British  imtil  restored  by  treaty  of  Ghent,  1815 ;  operations  of 
the  Hudson's  Bay  Company  (English)  commenced  1821 ;  the  territory  divi- 
ded at  the  49th  parrallel  of  lat.,  leaving  all  north  of  that  line,  with  the  whole 
of  Vancouver's  island  to  Great  Britain,  remainder  to  the  United  States,  by  Mr. 
McLane's  treaty,  signed  at  London,  ratified  by  the  Senate,  41  to  14,  June  18, 
1846.  Population  at  that  time  about  20,000.  Territorial  government  esta- 
blished by  the  U.  S.  Congress,  Aug.  2-13,  1848. 

ORGANS.  The  invention  of  the  organ  is  attributed  to  Archimedes,  about 
220  B.  c. ;  but  the  fact  does  not  rest  on  sufficient  authority.  It  is  also  at- 
tributed to  one  Ctesibius,  a  barber  of  Alexandria,  about  100  b.  c.  The 
organ  was  brought  to  Europe  from  the  Greek  empire,  and  was  first  applied 
to  religious  devotions,  in  churches,  in  a.  d.  658. — Bcllannine.  Organs  were 
used  in  the  Western  churches  by  pope  Vitalianus,  in  658. — Ammcmius.  It 
is  affirmed  tliat  the  organ  was  known  in  France  in  the  time  of  Louis  I.,  815, 
when  one  was  constructed  by  an  Italian  priest.  St.  Jerome  mentions  an 
organ  with  twelve  pairs  of  bellows,  which  might  have  been  heard  a  mile 
ofl";  and  another  at  Jerusalem  which  might  have  been  heard  on  the  Mount 
of  Olives.  The  organ  at  Haerlem  is  one  of  the  largest  in  Europe ;  it  has  60 
stops,  and  8000  pipes.  At  Seville  is  one  with  100  stops,  and  5-300  pipes. 
The  organ  at  Amsterdam  has  a  set  of  pipes  that  imitate  a  chorus  of  human 
voices. 

ORGANS  IN  England.  That  at  York-minster  is  the  largest ;  and  the  organ  in  the 
Music-hall,  Bu-mingham,  the  next;  both  equal,  perhaps,  to  that  atHarlaem. 

ORKNEY  AND  SHETLAND  ISLES.  These  islands  were  ceded  by  Denmark 
to  Scotland  in  a.  d.  889,  and  were  confirmed  to  James  III.,  for  a  sum  of 
money,  in  1468.  The  Orkneys  were  the  ancient  Orcades ;  and  united  with 
Shetland,  they  now  form  one  of  the  Scotch  counties.  The  bishoj^ric  of 
Orkney  was  founded  by  St.  Servanus  early  in  the  fifth  century,  some  affirm 
by  St.  Colm.  It  ended  with  the  abolition  of  episcopacy  in  Scotland,  about 
1689. 

ORLEANS,  Siege  of,  by  the  English,  under  John  Talbot,  earl  of  Salisbury, 
Oct.  12,  1428.  The  city  was  bravelj'  defended  by  Gaucour,  the  more  so  as 
its  fall  would  have  ruined  the  cause  of  Charles  VI.,  king  of  France ;  and  it 
was  relieved  and  the  siege  raised,  by  the  intrepidity  and  heroism  of  Joan 
of  Arc,  afterwards  surnamed  the  Maid  of  Orleans,  April  29,  1429.  Siege 
of  Orleans,  when  the  duke  of  Guise  was  killed,  1563. 

ORRERY.     The  employment  of  jilanetary  machines  to  illustrate  and  explain 


456  THE  world's  progress.  [ov> 

the  motions  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  appears  to  have  been  coeval  with  the 
construction  of  the  clepsydrEe  and  other  horological  automata.  Ptolemy 
devised  the  circles  and  epicycles  that  distinguish  his  system  about  a.  d.  130. 
The  planetary  clock  of  Finee,  was  begun  a.  d.  1553.  The  planetarium  of 
De  Rheita  was  formed  about  1650.  The  Orrery,  so  called,  Avas  invented  by 
Charles,  earl  of  Orrery;  but  perhaps  with  more  justice  it  is  ascribed  to  Mr. 
Rowley  of  Lichfield,  whom  his  lordship  patronized,  1670.  This  Orrery  has 
been  greatly  improved  of  late  years. 

OSTEND.  This  town  is  famous  for  the  Icng  siege  it  sustained  against  the  Spa- 
niards, from  July  1601  to  September  1601,  when  it  surrendered  by  an  honor- 
able capitulation.  On  the  death  of  Charles  11.  of  Spain  the  French  .seized 
Ostend ;  but,  in  1706,  after  the  battle  of  Ramilies,  it  ivas  retaken  by  the 
allies.  It  was  again  taken  by  the  French  in  1745,  but  restored  in  1748.  In 
the  war  of  1756,  the  French  garrisoned  this  town  for  the  empress-queen 
Maria  Theresa.  In,  1792,  the  French  once  more  took  Ostend,  which  they 
evacuated  in  1793,  and  repossessed  in  1794. 

OSTRACISM.  From  the  Greek  word  Ostracon,  an  oyster ;  a  mode  of  proscrip- 
tion at  Athens,  where  a  plurality  of  ten  voices  condemned  to  ten  years' 
banishment  those  who  were  either  too  rich,  or  had  too  much  authority,  for 
fear  they  might  set  up  for  tyrants  over  their  native  country,  but  without 
any  confiscation  of  their  goods  or  estate.  This  custom  is  said  to  have  been 
first  introduced  by  the  tyrant  Hippias ;  by  others  it  is  ascribed  to  Clys- 
thenes,  about  510  b.  c.  The  people  wrote  the  names  of  those  whom  they 
most  suspected  upon  small  shells  ;  these  they  put  into  an  urn  or  box,  and 
presented  it  to  the  senate.  ■  Upon  a  scrutinj'',  he  whose  name  was  oftenest 
written  was  sentenced  by  the  council  to  be  banished,  ab  aris  etfocis.  But 
this  law  at  last  was  abused,  and  they  who  deserved  best  of  the  common- 
wealth fell  under  the  popular  resentment,  as  Aristides  noted  for  his  justice, 
"Miltiades  for  his  victories,  &c.  It  was  abolished  by  ironically  i^roscribing 
Hyperbolas,  a  mean  person. 

OTAHEITE,  OR  Tahiti.  Discovered  in  1767,  by  Wallis,  who  called  it  George  the 
Third  Island.  Captain  Cook  came  hither  in  1768,  to  observe  the  transit  of 
Venus ;  sailed  round  the  whole  island  in  a  boat,  and  staid  three  months  :  it 
was  visited  twice  afterward  by  that  celebrated  navigator.  See  Cook.  Omai, 
a  native  of  this  island,  was  brought  over  to  England  by  captain  Cook,  and 
carried  back  bj'  him,  in  his  last  voyage.  In  1799,  king  Pomare  ceded  the 
district  of  Mataivai  to  some  English  missionaries.  Queen  Pomare  com- 
pelled to  place  herself  imder  the  protection  of  France,  Sept.  9,  1843.  She 
retracts,  and  Otaheite  and  the  neighboring  island  are  taken  possession  of  by 
admiral  Dupetit-Thonars  in  the  name  of  the  French  king,  Nov.  1843.  Sei- 
zure of  Mr.  Pritchard,  the  English  consul,  March  5,  1844. 

OTTERBURN,  Battle  op,  fought  in  1388,  between  the  EngHsh  under  the  earl 
of  Northumberland  and  his  two  sons,  and  the  Scots  under  sir  William  Dou- 
glas, who  was  slain  by  Henry  Percy,  surnamed  Hotspur ;  but  the  Scots  ob- 
tained the  victory,  and  the  two  Percies  were  made  prisoners.  On  this  battle 
the  ballad  of  Chevy  Chase  is  founded. —  Wahiiighmn. 

O'lTOMAN  EMPIRE.  The  sovereignty  of  the  Turks,  founded  by  Othman  L 
on  the  ruin  of  the  empii-e  of  the  eastern  Greeks,  a.  d.  1293.     See  Turkey. 

OVATION.  An  inferior  triumph  which  the  Romans  allowed  the  generals  of 
their  army  whose  victories  were  not  considerable.  He  who  was  thus  re- 
warded, entered  the  city  with  a  myrtle  crown  upon  his  head,  that  tree  being 
consecrated  to  Venus ;  wherefore  when  Marcus  Crassus  was  decreed  the 
honor  of  an  ovation,  he  particularly  desired  it  as  a  favor  of  iha  senate  to  be 
allowed  a  laiirel  crown  instead  of  a  myrtle  one.  This  triumph  was  called 
ovation,  because  the  general  offered  a  sheep  when  he  came  ta  the  capitol, 


PAI  ] 


DICTIONARY   OF    DATES. 


4S7 


whereas  in   the    great  triumph  he  offered  a  bull.     Publius  Posthumius 
Tubertus  was  the  first  who  was  decreed  an  ovation,  503  b.  c. 

OWHYHEE  OR  HAWAII,  one  of  the  Sandwich  Islands.  Discovered  by 
captain  Cook  in  1778.  Here  this  illustrious  seaman  fell  a  victim  to  a  sudden 
resentment  of  the  natives.  A  boat  having  been  stolen  by  one  of  the  island- 
ers, the  captain  went  on  shore  to  seize  the  king,  and  keep  him  as  a  hostage 
till  the  boat  was  restored.  The  people,  however,  were  not  disposed  to  sub- 
mit to  this  insult ;  their  resistance  brought  on  hostilities,  and  captain  Cook 
and  some  of  his  companions  were  killed,  Feb.  14,  1779. 

OXFORD  UNIVERSITY.  This  university  is  supposed  by  some  to  have  been 
a  seminary  for  learning  before  the  time  of  Alfred,  and  that  it  owed  its  re-  ■ 
vival  and  consequence  to  his  liberal  patronage.  Others  state  that  though 
the  university  is  ascribed  to  Alfred,  yet  that  no  regular  institution  deserving 
the  name  existed  even  at  the  period  of  the  Norman  conquest. 

COLLEGES.  bishop  of  Winchester ;  first  called  St. 

All  Souls'  College,  founded  by  Henry  Mary  of  Winchester         -           -     - 1375 

Chichely,  abp.  of  Canterbury     A.  D.  1437  Oriel    College.      King   Edward   II. 
BJiol.    John  Baliol,  km.,  and  Deborah 


his  wife ;  he  was  father  to  Baliol  kin^ 

of  the  Scots      ...  -  1263 

Brazen-nose.    William  Smith,  bishop 

of  Lincoln,  and  Sir  Richard  Sutton  -  1509 
Christ  Church.  Cardinal  Wolsey,  1525 ; 

and  afterwards  by  Henry  VIII.  .  -  1532 
Corpus  Christi.    Richard  Fox,  bishop 

of  Winchester  ....  1516 
Exeter.    Walter  Stapleton,  earl  of  Ex. 

eter 1314 

Hertford  College ....  1312 
Jesus  College.    Dr.  Hugh  Price ;  queen 

Elizabeth 1571 

Lincoln    College.      Kichard  Fleming, 

1427 ;  finished  by  Rotheram,  bishop 

of  Lincoln  ....  1475 
Magdalen.    Way  nflete,  bishop  of  Win. 

Chester        -  -  .  .     .  1458 

Merton    College.    Walter  de  Merton, 

bishop  of  Rochester    -  .  -  1274 

New  College.     William  of  Wykeham, 


Adam  de  Brom,  archdeacon  of  Stow  1334 
Pembroke.    Thos.   Teesdale,    and  R. 

Whitwick,  clerk  -  -  .  1620 

Queen's  College.    Robert  Eglesfield, 

clerk,  confessor  to  queen  Philippa, 

consort  of  Edward  III.      .  .     .  1340 

St.  John's.    Sir  Thomas  White  .  1557 

Trinity.     Sir  Thomas  Pope  .     .  1554 

University.    Said  to  have  been  founded 

by  king  Alfred,  872;  founded  by  Wil. 

liam  of  Durham  -  -  .1172 

Wadham.      Nicholas   Wadham,   and 

Dorothy  his  wife  .  -  .     .  1612 

Worcester.     Sir  Thomas  Coke  of  Bent. 

ley  in  Worcestershire ;  it  was  orig- . 

inally  called  Gloucester  College       .  1714 

HALLS. 

St.  Albans  ....  1547 

St.  Edmund's  -  -  -     .  1269 

St.  MaiT's  ....  1616 

St.  Mary  Magdalen   -  -  -     -  1602 

New  Inn  Hall      ....  1392 


OXYGEN  AIR  or  GAS.  One  of  the  most  important  agents  in  the  chemical 
phenomena  of  nature,  and  the  processes  of  art,  discovered  by  Dr.  Priestley, 
Aug.  1774. 


PADLOCKS.  This  species  of  lock  was  invented  by  Bechar  at  Nuremberg  in 
A.  D.  1540. 

PAGANISM.  Pagans,  in  the  Scriptures  called  the  heathen,  idolaters  and  gen- 
tiles, are  worshippers  of  idols,  not  agreeing  in  any  set  form  or  points  of  be- 
lief, except  in  that  of  one  God  supreme,  in  which  point  all  travellers  assure 
us  they  concur,  and  their  having  gods  is  a  demonstrative  proof  of  that  be- 
lief Constantino  ordered  the  Pagan  temples  to  be  destroyed  throughout 
the  Roman  empire,  a.  d.  331 ;  and  Paganism  was  finally  overthrown  in  tlie 
reign  of  Theodosius  the  Younger,  about  890. —  Tillemont. 

PAINTING.  An  art,  according  to  Plato,  of  the  highest  antiquity  in  Egypt. 
Oaymandyas  (See  Egypt)  causes  his  exploits  to  be  represented  in  painting 
2100  B.  c. — Usher.  Pausias  of  Sicyon  was  the  inventor  of  the  encaustic,  a 
method  of  burning  the  colors  into  wood  or  ivory,  335  b.  g.  The  ancients 
considered  Sicyon  the  nursery  of  painters.  Antiphiles,  an  Egyptian,  is  said 
to  have  been  the  inventor  of  the  grotesque,  332  b.  c. — Pliny.    The  art  was 

20 


458  THE   world's    progress.  [  PAl 

introduced  at  Rome  from  Etruria.  by  Quintus  Fabius,  who  on  that  accomit 
was  styled  Pldor,  291  b.  c. — Livy*  The  first  excellent  pictures  were 
brought  from  Corinth  by  Mummius,  146  b.  c.  After  the  death  of  Augustus, 
not  a  single  painter  of  eminence  appeared  for  several  ages ;  Ludius,  who 
was  very  celebrated,  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  last,  about  a.  d.  14.  Paint, 
ing  on  canvas  seems  to  have  been  known  at  Rome  in  a.  d.  66.  Bede,  the 
Saxon  historian,  who  died  in  735,  knew  something  of  the  art.  It  revived 
about  the  close  of  the  13th  century,  and  Giovanni  Cimabuc,  of  Florence,  is 
awarded  the  honor  of  its  restoration.  It  was  at  once  encouraged  and  gen- 
erously patronized  in  Italy.  John  Van  Eyck,  of  Bruges,  and  his  brother 
Hubert,  are  regarded  as  the  founders  of  the  Fkmisii  school  of  painting  in 
oil,  1415. — Du  Fresnoy.  Paulo  Uccello  was  the  lirst  who  studied  perspec- 
tive. The  earliest  mention  of  the  art  in  England,  is  a.  d.  1523,  about  which 
time  Henry  VIII  patronized  Holbein,  and  invited  Titian  to  his  court. 

PAINTING  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES.  The  first  practising  artist  of  celebrity 
was  John  Watson  (born  in  Scotland,  1685),  who  commenced  painting  por- 
traits in  New  Jersey,  1715.  Nathaniel  Smybert,  of  Edinburgh,  began  in 
Boston,  1728.  Benjamin  West  was  the  first  native  American  artist ;  born  in 
Chester  County,  Pennsylvania,  1708 :  painted  his  first  portrait  in  Lancaster, 
Pa.,  1753.  John  Singleton  Copley,  born  in  Boston,  1738 ;  first  painted  in 
1760;  he  wastlie  father  of  lord  Lyndhurst,  lord  chancellor  of  Great  Britain. 
Chas.  W.  Peale  (born  in  Maryland,  1741),  Gilbert  Charles  Stuart  (Rhode 
Island,  1754),  John  Trumbull  (Connecticut,  1756),  William  Dunlap  (New 
Jersey,  1766),  E.  G.  Malbone  (Rhode  Island,  1777),  were  the  next  artists 
in  succession  in  the  United  States.     See  Dimlap's  Arts  of  Design,  &c. 

PALATINE.  A  German  dignity.  William  the  Conqueror  made  his  nephew, 
Hugh  D'Abrincis,  count  palatine  of  Chester,  with  the  title  of  earl,  1070. 
Edward  III.  created  the  palatine  of  Lancaster,  1376.  See  Lancaster,  Duchy 
of.    The  bishoprics  of  Ely  and  Durham  were  also  made  county  palatines. 

PALATINES  AND  SUABIANS.  About  7000  of  these  poor  Protestants,  from 
the  banks  of  the  Rhine,  driven  from  their  habitations  by  the  French,  arrived 
in  England,  and  were  encamped  on  Blackheath  and  Camberwell  common ;  a 
brief  was  granted  to  collect  alms  for  them.  500  families  went  under  the 
protection  of  the  government  to  Ireland,  and  settled  chiefly  about  Limerick, 
where  parliament  granted  them  24,000.^.  for  their  support.  3000  were  sent 
to  New  York  and  Hudson's  Baj^,  but  not  having  been  received  kindly  by  the 
inhabitants,  they  went  to  Pennsylvania,  and  being  there  greatly  encouraged 
bj^  the'  Quakers,  they  invited  over  some  thousands  of  German  and  Swiss 
Prote«?tants,  who  soon  made  this  colony  more  flourishing  than  any  other,  7 
Anne,  1709. — Ariderson. 

PALLADIUM.  The  statue  of  Pallas,  concerning  which  ancient  authors  disa- 
gree. Some  say  it  fell  from  heaven,  near  the  tent  of  Ilus,  as  he  was  build- 
ing Ilium  ;  but  on  its  preservation  depended  the  safety  of  Troy ;  which  the 
oracle  of  Apollo  declared  should  never  be  taken  so  long  as  the  palladium 
was  found  within  its  walls.  This  fatality  being  made  known  to  the  Greeks, 
they  contrived  to  steal  it  away  during  the  Trojan  war,  1184  b.  c,  though 
some  maintain,  that  it  was  only  a  statue  of  similar  size  and  shape,  and  that 
the  real  palladium  was  conveyed  from  Troy  to  Italy  by  .^Eneas,  il83  b.c, 


'  Parrhasius  of  Ephesus  and  Zeuxis  were  cotemporary  painters.  These  artists  once  contended 
for  pre-eminence  in  their  profession,  and  when  they  exhibited  their  respective  pieces,  the  birds 
came  to  peck  the  grapes  which  Zeuxis  had  painted.  Pari-has.ius  then  produced  his  piece,  and 
Zeuxis  said,  "Remove  the  curtain,  that  we  may  see  the  painting."  Tire  curtain  itself  was  tln! 
jiainting,  and  Zeuxis  acknowledged  himself  to  be  conquered,  exclaiming,  '•  Zeuxis  has  deceived 
ihe  birds;  but  Parrhasius  has  deceived  Zeuxis!"  Pari-hasius  dressed  in  a  purple  robe,  and  woru 
a  crown  of  gold,  calling  himself  king  of  painters,  415  e.  c. — Phiinrrh. 


PAP  ]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  45t 

and  preserved  by  the  Romans  with  the  greatest  secrecj'^  in  the  temple  ol 
Vesta,  and  esteemed  the  destiny  of  Rome. 
PALM  SUNDAY.  When  Christ  made  his  triumphal  entry  into  Jurusalem, 
multitudes  of  the  people  who  were  come  to  the  feast  of  the  Passover,  took 
branches  of  the  palm-tree,  and  went  forth  to  meet  him,  with  acclamations 
and  hosannas,  a.  d.  33.  In  memory  of  this  circumstance  it  is  usual,  in  popish 
countries,  to  carry  palms  on  the  Sunday  before  Easter ;  hence  called  Palm 
Sunday.  Conquerors  were  not  only  accustomed  to  carry  palm-trees  in  their 
hands ;  but  the  Romans,  moreover,  in  their  triumphs,  sometimes  wore  toga 
■palmata,  in  which  the  figures  of  the  palm-trees  were  interwoven. 

PALMYRA,  Ruins  op,  in  the  deserts  of  Syria,  discovered  by  some  English 
travellers  from  Aleppo,  a.  d.  1678.  The  ruins  of  Palmyra,  which  are  chiefly 
of  white  marble,  prove  it  to  have  been  more  extensive  and  splendid  than 
even  Rome  itself.  It  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  Tadmor  in  the  wilder- 
ness built  by  Solomon.  Zenobia,  the  queen  of  Palmyra,  resisted  the  Roman 
power  in  the  time  of  Aurelian,  who  having  made  himself  master  of  the 
place,  caused  all  the  inhabitants  to  be  destroyed,  and  gave  the  pillage  of  the 
city  to  the  soldiers.  The  stupenduous  ruins  of  this  city  were  visited,  in 
1751,  by  Mr.  Wood,  who  published  an  account  of  them  in  1753.  Mr.  Bruce, 
on  ascending  a  neighboring  mount,  was  struck  with  the  most  magnificent 
sight  which,  he  believes,  ever  mortal  saw :  the  immense  plains  below  were 
so  covered  with  the  grandest  buildings  (palaces  and  temj)les),  they  seemed 
to  touch  one  another. 

PALO-ALTO,  Battle  op.     See  Battles. 

PANDECTS.  A  digest  of  the  civil  law  made  by  order  of  Justinian,  about  a.  d. 
504.  These  pandects  were  accidentally  discovered  at  Amalfi,  a.  d.  1137 ; 
they  were  removed  from  Pisa  in  1416 ;  and  are  now  preserved  in  the  library 
of  Medici  at  Florence,  as  the  Pandectcz  Florentine. 

PANORAMA.  This  ingenious  and  useful  species  of  exhibition  is  the  invention 
of  Robert  Barker.  Panoramas  are  bird's-eye  views  painted  in  distemper 
roimd  the  wall  of  a  circular  building,  with  a  striking  resemblance  to  reality. 
In  1788,  Mr.  Barker  exhibited  at  Edinburgh  a  view  of  that  city,  being  the 
flrst  picture  of  the  kind.  He  then  commenced  similar  exhibitions  in  Lon- 
don, having  adopted  the  name  of  '  Panorama,''  to  attract  notice,  and  was 
ultimately  enabled  to  build  commodious  premises  in  Leicester-square  for 
that  purpose.  He  died  1806.  The  panorama  of  the  Mississippi,  by  Banvard, 
a  self-taught  American  artist,  was  a  gigantic  undertaking,  without  precedent 
in  dimensions,  completed  about  1846 ;  since  which  numerous  similar  works 
have  been  achieved. 

PANTHEON  AT  ROME.  A  temple  built  by  Augustus  Caesar,  some  say  by 
Agrippa,  his  son-in-law,  25  b.  c.  It  was  in  a  round  form,  having  niches  in 
the  wall,  waere  the  particular  image  or  representation  of  a  particular  god 
was  set  up ;  the  gates  were  of  brass,  and  beams  covered  with  gilt  brass,  and 
the  roof  covered  with  silver  plate.  Pope  Boniface  III.  dedicated  it  to  the 
Virgin  Marj^,  and  all  the  saints,  by  the  name  of  St.  Maiy  de  la  Rotunda. 

PANTOMIMES.  They  were  representations  by  gestures  and  attitudes  among 
the  ancients.  They  were  introduced  on  the  Roman  stage  by  Pylades  and 
Bathyllus,  22  b.  c.  ;  and  were  then  considered  as  the  most  expressive  part  of 
stage  performances. —  Usher.  Pantomime  dances  were  introduced  about  the 
same  time. — Idem.  Representation  by  gesture  and  action  only,  is  contem- 
poraneous Avith  our  stage. 

PAPER.  See  Papyrus.  Pa[)er  is  said  to  have  been  invented  in  China,  170 
B.C.  It  was  first  made  of  cotton,  about  a.  d.  1000;  and  of  rags  in  1319. 
White  coarse  paper  was  made  by  sir  John  Si^eilman,  a  German,  at  Dartford, 


460  THE  world's  progress.  [iab 

in  England,  33  Eliz.,  1590;  and  here  the  first  paper-mills  were  erected.— 
Stowe.  Paper  for  writing  and  printing,  manufactured  in  England,  and  an 
act  passed  to  encourage  it,  2  William  III.,  1690 ;  before  this  time  we  paid 
for  these  articles  to  France  and  Holland  100,000^.  annually.  The  French 
refugees  taught  our  people,  who  had  made  coarse  brown  paper  almost  ex- 
clusively, until  they  came  among  us.  White  paper  was  first  made  by  us  in 
1690. — Anderson.  Paper-making  by  a  machine  was  first  suggested  by  Louis 
Robert,  who  sold  his  model  to  the  celebrated  M.  Didot,  the  great  printer. 
The  latter  brought  it  to  England,  and  here,  conjointly  with  M.  Fourdrinier, 
he  perfected  the  machinery.  M.  Fourdrinier  obtained  a  patent  for  manufac- 
turing paper  of  an  indefinite  length,  in  1807  ;  it  had  previously  been  made 
tediously  by  the  hand.  A  sheet  of  paper  was  made  13,800  feet  long,  and 
four  feet  wide,  at  Whitehall-mills,  Derbyshire,  in  1830. 

PAPER-HANGINGS.  Stamped  paper  for  this  piirpose  was  first  made  in  Spain 
and  Holland,  about  a.  d.  1555.  Made  of  Velvet  and  floss  for  hanging  apart- 
ments, about  1620.  The  manufacture  of  this  kind  of  paper  rapidly  improved 
in  this  coimtry  from  early  in  the  eighteenth  century ;  and  it  has  now  been  . 
brought  to  such  perfection  that  rich  stained  paper  is  made  at  twelve  shil- 
lings for  one  yard,  and  the  common  kinds  a  dozen  yards  for  one  shilling. 

PAPYRUS,  the  reed  from  which  was  made  the  celebrated  paper  of  Egypt  and 
India,  used  for  writings  until  the  discoveiy  of  parchment  about  190  e.  c. 
Ptolemy  prohibited  the  exportation  of  it  from  Egypt,  lest  Eumenes  of  Per- 
gamus  should  make  a  library  equal  to  that  of  Alexandria.  A  manuscript 
of  the  Antiquities  of  Joscphus  on  papyrus  of  inestimable  value  was  among 
the  treasures  seized  by  Bonaparte  in  Italy,  and  sent  to  the  National  Library 
at  Paris ;  but  it  was  restored  in  1815. 

PARCHMENT.  Invented  for  writing  books  by  Eumenes  (some  say  by  Attains), 
of  Pergamus,  the  founder  of  the  celebrated  library  at  Pergamus,  formed  on 
the  model  of  the  Alexandrian,  about  190  b.  c.  Parchment-books  from  this 
time  became  those  most  used,  and  the  most  valuable  as  well  as  oldest  in  the 
world  are  written  on  the  skins  of  goats.  It  should  be  mentioned  that  the 
Persians,  and  others,  are  said  to  have  written  all  their  records  on  skins  long 
before  Eumenes's  time. 

PARDONS.  General  pardons  were  in-oclaimed  at  coronations  ;  first  by  Edward 
in.,  in  1327.  The  king's  power  of  pardoning  is  said  to  be  derived  a  lege 
suce  dignitatis ;  and  no  other  person  has  power  to  remit  treason  or  felonies, 
stat.  27  Henry  VIII.,  1535.  In  democracies  there  is  no  power  of  pardoning ; 
hence  Blackstone  mentions  this  prerogative  to  be  one  of  the  greatest  advan- 
tages of  a  monarchy  above  any  other  form  of  government.  But  the  king 
cannot  pardon  a  nuisance  to  prevent  its  being  abated ;  or  pardon  where  pri- 
vate justice  is  concerned. — Blackstone.  A  pardon  cannot  follow  an  impeach- 
ment ef  the  House  of  Commons. — Haydn.  In  the  United  States,  the  par- 
doning power  is  vested  in  the  governors  of  the  several  states — a  fractice 
which  upsets  Blackstone's  tlieory. 

PARIAN  MARBLES.  The  chronology  of  the  Parian  Marbles  was  composed 
264  B.  c.  The  Parian  Marbles  were  discovered  in  the  Isle  of  Paros,  a.  d. 
1610.  They  were  brought  to  England,  and  were  presented  to  the  university 
of  Oxford,  by  Thomas  Howard,  lord  Arundel,  whence  they  are  called  the 
Arundelian  Marbles,  which  see. 

PARIS.  At  the  time  of  the  Roman  invasion,  Paris  was  only  a  miserable  town- 
ship. It  began  to  be  called  the  city  of  the  Parisii,  a.  d.  380.  Clovis  fixed 
upon  it  as  the  capital  of  his  states  in  507.  This  city  was  several  times  ra- 
vaged by  the  Normans ;  and  in  1420  was  taken  by  the  English,  who  held  it 
fifteen  years.  More  than  50,000  persons  died  of  famine  and  plague  in  1438, 
when  the  hungry  wolves  entered  the  city  and  committed,  we  are  told,  great 


fAR  ]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  461 

devastation.    The  events  in  connection  witli  this  great  city  will  be  found 
under  their  respective  heads. 


The  Luxembourg,  by  Mary  of  Medicis  -  1594 

Hospital  of  Invalids        -           •  - 1595 

The  Hotel  Dieu  founded     -  -      -  1606 

The  Palais-Royal  built  -           -  -  1610 

The  Val-de-Grace     -            -  -      -  1645 

Arch  of  St.  Denis  erected          -  -1672 

The  Palace  of  the  Deputies  -      -  1722 

The  Militaiy  School       -           -  - 1751 

The  Pantheon ;  St.  Genevieve  -      -  1764 


St.  Denis  founded        -  -        a.  d.    613 

Rebuilt 1231 

Church  of  Notre  Dame  built    -  -  1270 

The  Louvre  built  (see  Louvre)  -  ■  1522 
Hotel  de  Ville  ....  1.533 
The  Boulevards  commenced  -      .  1536 

Fountain  of  the  Innocents  -  -1551 

The  Tuileries  built  (s&e  Tuileries)  ■  1564 
The  Pont  Neuf  begun         -        ,-      -1578 

Fortifications  of  Paris,  a  continuous  wall  embracing  both  banks  of  the  Seine, 
and  detached  forts,  with  an  enceinte  of  15  J  leagues,  were  commenced  in  Dec. 
1840.  and  completed  March.  1846,  at  an  expense  exceeding  £5,000,000  ster- 
ling.    See  France. 

PARK,  MUNGO,  his  Travels.  This  enterprising  traveller  set  sail  on  his  first 
voyage  to  Africa,  under  the  patronage  of  the  African  Society,  to  trace  the 
source  of  the  river  Niger,  May  22,  1795 ;  and  retiirned  Dec.  22,  1797,  after 
having  encountered  great  dangers,  without  his  journey  through  intertropi- 
cal regions  having  enabled  him  to  achieve  the  great  object  of  his  ambition. 
He  again  sailed  from  Portsmouth  on  his  second  voyage,  Jan.  30,  1804,  ap- 
pointed to  a  new  expedition  by  government;  but  never  returned.  The  ac- 
counts of  his  murder  on  th«  Niger  were  a  long  time  discredited ;  unhappily 
however,  thej^  were  at  length  too  well  authenticated  by  later  intelligence. 
It  appears  that  Park  and  his  party  were  attacked  by  the  natives  at  Boussa, 
■  and  all  killed,  with  the  exception  of  one  slave. 

PARKS.  The  Romans  attached  parks  to  their  villas.  Fulvius  Lupinus,  Pom- 
pey,  and  Hortensius,  among  others,  had  large  parks.  In  England,  the  first 
great  park  of  Avhich  particular  mention  is  made,  was  that  of  Woodstock, 
formed  by  Henry  I.,  1125.  The  parks  of  London  ai-e  in  a  high  degree  essen- 
tial to  the  health  of  its  immense  population,  St.  James's  Park  was  drained 
by  Henry  VIII.,  1537.  It  was  improved,  planted,  and  made  a  thoroughfare 
for  public,  use  1668.  The  Green  Park  forms  a  part  of  the  ground  inclosed  by 
Henry  VIII.  In  Hyde  Park,  the  sheet  of  water  called  the  Serpentine  River, 
although  in  the  form  of  a  parallelogram,  was  made  between  1730  and  1738, 
by  order  of  queen  Caroline,  consort  of  George  II.  This  queen  once  inquired 
of  the  first  Mr.  Pitt  (afterwards  the  earl  of  Chatham),  how  much  it  would 
cost  to  shut  up  the  parks  as  private  grounds.  He  replied,  ' '  Three  crowns, 
your  majesty."  She  took  the  hint,  and  the  design  was  never  afterwards  enter- 
tained. 

PARLIAMENT,  IMPERIAL,  of  GREAT  BRITAIN.  It  derives  its  origin 
from  the  Saxon  general  assemblies,  called  Wittenagemots ;  but  their  constitu- 
tion totally  differed,  as  well  as  the  title,  which  is  more  modern,  and  is  taken 
from  parler  la  ment,  which  in  the  Norman  law-style  signifies  to  speak  one's 
mind.  This  at  once  denotes  the  essence  of  British  parliaments.  The  name 
was  applied  to  the  general  assemblies  of  the  state  under  Louis  VII.  of  France, 
about  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century,  but  it  is  said  not  to  have  appeared 
in  our  law  till  its  mention  in  the  statute  of  Westminster  I.,  3  Edward  I.,  a.  d. 
1272;  and  yet  Coke  declared  in  his  Institutes,  and  spoke  to  the  same  effect, 
when  speaker  (a.  d.  1592),  that  this  name  was  used  even  in  the  time  of 
Edward  the  Confessor,  1041.  The  first  summons  by  writ  on  record  was  di- 
rected to  the  bishop  of  Salisbury,  7  John,  1205.  The  first  clear  account  we 
have  of  the  representatives  of  the  people  forming  a  house  of  commons,  was 
in  the  43rd  Henry  III.,  1258,  when  it  was  settled,  by  the  statutes  at  Oxford, 
that  twelve  persons  should  be  chosen  to  represent  the  commons  in  the  three 
parliaments,  which  by  the  sixth  statute,  were  to  be  held  yearly. — Burton's 
Annals.   The  general  representation  by  knights,  citizens,  and  burgesses,  took 


462  THE    WORLD'S    PROGilESS.  [  PAS 

place  49  Henry  III.,  1265. — Dugdale^s  Summonses  to  Parliament,  edit.  1685. 
The  power  and  jurisdiction  of  parliament  are  so  transcendent  and  absolute, 
that  it  cannot  be  confined,  either  for  causes  or  persons,  within  any  bounds. 
It  hath  sovereign  and  uncontrollable  authority  in  making  and  repealing 
laws.  It  can  regulate  or  new-model  the  succession  to  the  crown,  as  was  done 
in  the  reigns  of  Henry  VIII.  and  William  III.  It  can  alter  and  establish  the 
religion  of  the  country,  as  was  done  in  the  reigns  of  Henry  VIH.,  Edward 
VI.,  Mary,  and  Elizabeth. — Sir  Edivard  Coke. 
PARMA.  Formed  by  the  ancient  Etrurians.  It  was  made  a  duchy  (with  Pla- 
centia)  a.  d.  1545.  It  fell  to  Spain  by  Phillip  V.'s  marriage  with  Elizabeth 
Farnese,  1714.  The  duke  of  Parma  Avas  raised  to  the  throne  of  Tuscany, 
with  the  title  of  king  of  Etruria,  in  Feb.  1801.  Parma  was  afterwards  uni- 
ted to  France  (with  Placentia  and  Guastalla),  and  on  the  fall  of  Napoleon 
was  conferred  on  Maria  Louisa,  the  ex-empress,  by  the  treaty  of  Fontaine- 
bleau,  April  5,  1814.  Battle  of  Parma:  the  confederates,  England,  France, 
and  Spain,  agamst  the  emperor;  indecisive,  both  armies  claiming  the  victory, 
June  29,  1734.  Great  battle  of  Parma,  in  which  the  French,  tinder  Macdon- 
ald,  were  defeated  by  Suwarrow,  M'ith  the  loss  of  10,000  men,  and  four 
generals,  July  12,  1799.  Maria  Louisa  died  Dec.  17,  1847,  and  the  duke  of 
Lucca  succeeds  by  previous  compact.  The  new  duke  refuses  petitions  for 
reforms;  Parma  occupied  by  Austrian  soldiers,  Dec.  21,  1847.  The  people 
revolt;  barricades,  and  slaughter,  March  20.  The  duke  appoints  a  regency; 
flees;  is  brought  back;  the  duchy  proclaimed  to  be  annexed  to  Piedmont, 
March  20,  1848.  The  duke  promises  to  join  the  league  against  Austria  and 
is  then  liberated,  April  1,  1848,  but  is  deposed,  April  9. 

PARRICIDE.  There  was  no  law  against  it  in  ancient  Rome,  such  a  crime  not 
being  supposed  possible.  About  500  j'ears  after  Numa's  reign,  L.  Ostius 
having  killed  his  father,  the  Romans  first  scourged  the  parricide ;  then  sewed 
him  up  in  a  leathern  sack  made  air-tight,  with  a  live  dog,  a  cock,  a  viper,  and 
an  ape,  and  thus  cast  him  into  the  sea.  The  old  Egyptians  used  to  run  sharp 
reeds  into  every  part  of  the  bodies  of  parricides ;  and  after  having  thus 
wounded  them,  threw  them  upon  a  heap  of  thorns,  and  set  fire  to  them.  In 
France,  before  the  execution  of  the  criminal,  the  hand  was  cut  off. 

PARTHIA.  The  Parthians  were  originally  a  tribe  of  Scythians,  who,  being 
exiled,  as  their  name  implies,  from  their  own  country,  settled  near  Hyrcania. 
Arsases  laid  the  foundation  of  an  empire  which  ultimately  extended  over 
all  Asia,  250  b.  c;  and  at  one  time  the  Parthians  disputed  the  empire  of  the 
■ivorld  with  the  Romans,  and  could  never  be  wholly  subdued  by  that  nation, 
who  had  seen  no  other  people  upon  earth  unconquered  by  their  arms.  The 
last  king  was  Artabanus  V.,  who  being  killed  a.  d.  229,  his  tei-ritories  were 
annexed  to  the  new  kingdom  of  Persia,  under  Artaxerxes. 

PARTITION  TREATIES.  The  first  treaty  between  England  and  Holland, 
for  regulating  the  Spanish  succession,  was  signed  Oct.  11,  1698 ;  and  the 
second  (between  France,  England,  and  Holland,  declaring  the  archduke 
Charles  presumptive  heir  of  the  Spanish  monarchy,  Joseph  Ferdinand  hav- 
ing died  in  1699),  March  13,  1700.  Treaty  for  the  partition  of  Poland :  the 
first  was  a  secret  convention  between  Russia  and  Prussia,  Feb,  17, 1772 ;  the 
second,  between  the  same  powers  and  Austria,  Arig.  5,  same  year;  the  third 
was  between  Russia,  Austria,  and  Prussia,  Nov.  25,  1795.  There  were  other 
similar  treaties  relating  to  Poland,  but  not  under  this  name. 

PASQUINADES.  This  name,  which  is  given  to  humorous  libels,  originated  in 
this  way: — At  the  stall  of  a  cobbler  named  Pasquin,  at  Rome,  a  number  of 
idle  persons  used  to  assemble  to  listen  to  the  pleasant  sallies  of  Pasquin,  and 
to  relate  little  anecdotes  in  their  turn,  and  indulge  themselves  in  raillery  at 
the  expense  of  the  passers-by.    After  the  cobbler's  death  in  the  sixteenth 


PAV  ]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  463 

century,  the  statue  of  a  gladiator  was  found  near  his  stall,  to  which  the  peo- 
ple gave  his  name,  and  on  which  the  wits  of  the  time  affixed  their  lampoons 
upon  the  state,  and  their  satirical  effusions  on  their  neighbors,  secretly  at 
night.  Small  poems,  and  writings  of  a  similar  kind,  from  this  obtained  the 
name  of  Pasquinades,  about  a.  d.  1633. 

PASSOVER.  A  solemn  festival  of  the  Jews,  instituted  1491  b.  c,  in  commem- 
oration of  their  coming  out  of  Egypt ;  because  the  night  before  their  de- 
parture, the  destroying  angel,  who  put  to  death  the  flrst-born  of  the  Egyp- 
tians, passed  over  the  houses  of  the  Hebrews  without  entering  them :  they 
being  marked  with  the  blood  of  the  lamb  that  was  killed  the  evening  before. 
and  Avhich  for  this  reason  is  called  the  Paschal  Lamb.  It  was  celebrated  in 
the  new  Temple,  April  18,  515  b.  c. — Usher. 

PATAY,  Battle  op,  in  which  the  renowned  and  ill-fated  Joan  of  Arc  (the 
Maid  of  Orleans)  signally  defeated  the  English,  June  10,  1429.  Talbot  was 
taken  prisoner,  and  the  valiant  Fastolfe  was  forced  to  fly.  In  consequence 
of  this  victorj'',  Charles  of  France  entered  Rheims  in  triumph,  and  was 
crowned  July  17,  same  year,  Joan  of  Arc  assisting  in  the  ceremony  in  full 
armor,  and  holding  the  sword  of  state.    See  Joan  of  Arc. 

PATENTS.  Licenses  and  authorities  granted  by  the  king.  Patents  granted 
for  titles  of  nobility,  were  first  made  a.  d.  1344,  by  Edward  III.  They  were 
first  granted  for  the  exclusive  privilege  of  printing  books,  in  1591,  about 
which  time  the  property  and  right  of  inventors  in  arts  and  manufactures 
were  secured  by  letters  patent. 

PATRIARCHS.  Socrates  gives  this  title  to  the  chiefs  of  dioceses.  The  dignity 
among  the  Jews  is  referred  to  the  time  of  Nerva,  a.  d.  97.  In  the  Christian 
church  it  was  first  conferred  on  the  five  grand  sees  of  Rome,  Constanti- 
nople, Alexandria,  Antioch,  and  Jerusalem.  The  Latin  church  had  no  pa- 
triarchs till  the  7th  century. 

PAUL'S,  ST.,  CATHEDRAL,  London.  The  noblest  Protestant  church  in  the 
world.  The  best  authority  that  exists  illustrative  of  the  origin  of  this  church 
is  its  great  restorer,  sir  Christopher  Wren.  His  opinion,  that  there  had  been 
a  church  on  this  spot,  built  by  the  Christians  in  the  time  of  the  Romans, 
was  confirmed  when  he  searched  for  the  foundations  for  his  own  design.  He 
explodes  the  notion  of  there  having  been  a  temple  of  Diana.  The  first  church 
is  supposed  to  ha«ye  been  destroyed  during  the  Dioclesian  persecution,  and 
to  have  been  rebuilt  in  the  reign  of  Constantine.  This  was  demolished  by 
the  pagan  Saxons,  and  restored  by  Sebert  in  603.  It  was  destroyed  by  the 
great  conflagration  in  1086,  after  Avhich  Mauritius,  then  bishop  of  London, 
commenced  the  magnificent  edifice  which  immediately  preceded  the  present 
cathedral.  St.  Paul's  was  totally  destroyed  by  the  memorable  fire  of  1666 ; 
and  the  first  stone  of  the  present  edifice  was  laid  June  21,  1675,  and  the 
whole  was  completed  in  1710-11,  under  the  illustrious  architect  sir  Christo- 
pher Wren. 

Length  of  St.  Paul's,  ■within       -     500  feet.  [  Length  of  St.  Peter's,  Kome       -    669  feet. 
Its  greatest  breadth  -  -     22-3  Its  greatest  breadth  within     -      -    442 

Height  from  the  ground       -      -     340  |  Heiglit  from  tlie  ground    -  -    432 

PAVEMENT.  The  Carthaginians  are  said  to  have  been  the  first  who  paved 
their  towns  with  stones.  The  Romans  in  the  time  of  Augustus  had  pave- 
ment in  many  of  their  streets ;  but  the  Appian  Way  was  a  paved  road,  and 
was  constructed  312  b.  c.  In  England  there  were  few  paved  streets  before 
Henry  VII. 's  reign.  London  was  first  paved  about  the  year  1533.  Wood 
pavement  commenced  in  1839;  but  was  generally  disused  in  1847. 

PAVIA,  Battle  of,  between  the  French  and  Imperialists,  when  the  former 
were  defeated,  and  their  king,  Francis  I.,  after  fighting  with  heroic  valor, 


464  THE  world's   PROGRESS.  f  PET, 

and  killing  seven  men  with  his  own  hand,  vfas  at  last  obliged  to  surrender 
himself  prisoner.  Francis  wrote  to  his  mother,  Louisa  of  Savoy,  regent  of 
the  kingdom  in  his  absence,  the  melancholy  news  of  his  captivity,  conceived 
in  these  dignified  and  expressive  terms: — Tojit  est  perdu,  madame,  fors 
Vhonneur ;  Feb.  24,  1525.  Collision  between  the  students  and  the  Austrian 
soldiers,  10  killed  and  40  wounded,  Jan.  8,  1848. 

PAWNBROKERS.  The  origin  of  borrowing  money  by  means  of  pledges  de- 
posited with  lenders  is  referred,  as  a  regular  trade,  to  Perousa,  in  Italy,  about 
A.  D.  1458  ;  and  soon  afterwards  in  England.  The  business  of  pawnbrokers 
was  regulated  30  George  II.,  1756.  Licenses  were  issued  24  George  III., 
1783.  In  London  there  are  334  pawnbrokers  ;  and  in  England,  exclusively 
of  London,  1127. 

PEARLS.  The  formation  of  the  pearl  has  embarrassed  both  ancient  and  mo- 
dern naturalists  to  explain,  and  has  given  occasion  to  a  number  of  vain  and 
absurd  hypotheses.  M.  Reaumur,  in  1717,  alleged  that  pearls  are  formed 
like  other  stones  in  animals.  An  ancient  pearl  was  valued  by  Pliny  at 
80,000Z.  sterling.  One  which  was  brought,  in  1574,  to  Philip  II.  of  the  size 
of  a  pigeon's  &gg,  was  valued  at  14,400  ducats,  equal  to  13,996Z.  A  pearl 
spoken  of  by  Boetius,  named  the  Incomparable,  weighed  thirty  carats,  equal 
to  five  pennjnveights,  and  was  about  the  size  of  a  muscadine  pear.  The 
pearl  mentioned  by  Tavernier  as  being  in  possession  of  the  emperor  of 
Persia  was  purchased  of  an  Arab  in  1638,  and  is  valued  at  a  sum  equal  to 
110,400Z. 

PEERS.  The  first  of  the  present  order  created  in  England  was  "William  Fitz 
Osborn,  as  earl  of  Hereford,  by  William  the  Conqueror,  in  1066.  The  first 
peer  who  was  created  by  patent  was  lord  Beauchamp  of  Holt  Castle,  by 
Richard  H..  in  1887.  In  Scotland,  Gilchrist  was  created  earl  of  Angus  by 
Malcolm  III.,  1087.  In  Ireland,  sir  John  de  Courcy  was  created  baron  of 
Kinsale,  &c.,  in  1181 ;  the  first  peer  after  the  obtaining  of  that  kingdom  by 
Henry  II.     The  house  of  lords  consisted  of,  viz  : — 

At  the  death  of  Charless  11.  -    176  peers.  I  At  the  death  of  George  III.        -  339  peers. 

At  the  death  of  William  III.  -        192  |  At  the  death  of  George  IV.    -  396 

At  the  death  of  Anne       -  -    209  I  At  the  death  of  William  IV.      -  456 

At  the  death  of  George  I.        -        216  In  10th  Victoria,  1847     -       -  454 

At  the  death  of  George  II.  -    229  | 

PELAGIANS.  A  sect  founded  by  Pelagius,  a  native  of  Britain.  The  sect 
maintained,  1.  That  Adam  was  by  nature  mortal,  and  whether  he  had 
sinned  or  not,  would  certainly  have  died.  2.  That  the  consequences  of 
Adam's  sin  were  confined  to  his  own  person.  3.  That  new-born  infants  are 
in  the  same  condition  with  Adam  before  the  fall.  4.  That  the  law  qualified 
men  for  the  kingdom  of  heaven,  and  was  founded  upon  equal  promises  with 
the  gospel.  5.  That  the  general  resurrection  of  the  dead  does  not  follow  in 
virtue  of  our  Saviour's  resurrection,  &c.  This  sect  appeared  a.  d.  400  at 
Rome,  and  in  Carthage  about  412. 

PELEW  ISLANDS.  Discovered  by  the  Spaniards  in  the  seventeenth  century. 
The  wreck  here  of  the  East  India  Company's  packet  Antelope,  captain  Wil- 
son, 1783.  The  king,  Abba  Thule,  allowed  captain  Wilson  to  bring  prince 
Lee  Boo,  his  son,  to  England,  where  he  arrived  in  1784,  and  died  soon  after 
of  the  small-pox ;  and  the  East  India  Company  erected  a  monument  over 
his  grave  in  the  Rotherhithe  churchyard. 

PELOPONNESIAN  WAR.    The  celebrated  war  which  continued  for  twenty-  . 
seven  years  between  the  Athenians  and  the  inhabitants  of  Peloponnesus, 
with  their  respective  allies.    It  is  the  most  famous  and  the  most  interesting 
of  all  the  wars  which  happened  between  the  inhabitants  of  Greece.    It 
began  431  b.  c,  and  ended  404  b.  c. 


PER  ]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  465 

PENAL  LAWS,  affecting  ROMAN  CATHOLICS.  The  laws  eaacted  against 
Roman  Catholics  in  Great  Britain  were  very  severe ;  and  even  up  to  the 
period  of  passing  the  Emancii^ation  Bill  many  of  them  remained  unre- 
pealed. All  the  laws  there  against  Roman  Catholics  were  repealed  by  the 
Relief  Bill,  passed  April  13,  1829. 

PENANCE.  Called  by  the  Jews  Thejouvtha.  Penance,  they  said,  consisted 
in  the  love  of  God  attended  with  good  works.  They  made  a  confession 
upon  the  day  of  expiation,  or  some  time  before ;  and  had  stated  degrees  of 
penance  in  proportion  to  the  crimes  committed.  Penance  was  introduced 
into  the  Romish  church  a.  d.  157.  In  our  canon  law,  penance  is  chiefly  ad- 
judged to  the  sin  of  fornication. 

PENDULUMS  FOR  Clocks.  Affirmed  to  have  been  adapted  by  Galileo  the 
younger,  about  a.  d.  1641.  Christian  Huygens  contested  the  priority  of  this 
discovery :  the  latter  brought  clocks  with  pendulums  to  perfection,  1656. — 
Dufresnoy. 

PENITENTS.  There  are  various  orders  of  penitents,  Magdalens,  Magdalen- 
ettes,  &c.  The  order  of  Penitents  of  St.  Magdalen  "was  founded  at  Mar- 
seilles, about  A.  D.  1272.  The  Penitents  of  the  Name  of  Jesus  was  a  con- 
gregation of  religious  in  Spain  who  had  led  a  licentious  life,  formed  about 
1550.  The  Penitents  of  Orvieto  were  formed  into  an  order  of  nuns  about 
1662. 

PENNSYLVANIA,  one  of  the  United  States.  Granted  by  James  II.  to  William 
Penn,  of  the  Society  of  Friends,  in  1681.  (Previously  settled  by  Swedes 
and  Fins,  and  conquered  by  the  Dutch  in  1654.)  A  tract  of  20,000  acres 
sold  by  Penn  for  .£400  to  a  colony  which  formed  a  settlement  at  Philadelphia. 
The  colony  governed  by  proprietors  until  the  revolution  of  1776,  when  the 
legislature  purchased  it,  paying  the  proprietors  £130,000  in  lieu  of  quit- 
rents.  Battles  of  Brandywine  and  Germantown,  and  other  important  ac- 
tions in  this  State  in  the  war  of  independence.  See  Piiiladelplda.  Federal 
Constitution  adopted  in  convention,  Dec.  13, 1787,  by  46  to  28.  Continental 
Congress  at  Philadelphia,  in  1774.  United  States  Congress,  1790  to  1800, 
when  it  was  removed  to  Washington.  Population  of  State  in  1732,  30,000 ; 
1790,  434,373  ;  in  1800,  602,545  ;  in  1820,  1,049,13  ;  in  1840,  1,724,033. 

PENNY-POST.  First  set  up  in  London  and  its  suburbs  by  a  Mr.  Murray,  up- 
holsterer, A.  D.  1681.  Mr.  Murray  afterwards  assigned  his  interest  in  the 
undertaking  to  Mr.  Dockwra,  a  merchant,  1683 ;  but  on  a  trial  at  the  King's 
Bench^bar  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II.,  was  adjudged  to  belong  to  the  duke 
of  York  as  a  branch  of  the  general  post,  and  was  thereupon  annexed  to 
the  revenue  of  the  crown. — DcLaune,  1690.  This  institution  was  considera- 
bly improved  in  and  round  London,  July  1794,  et  seq.,  and  was  made  a  two- 
penny-post. A  penny  post  was  first  set  up  in  Dublin  in  1774.  See  Post- 
office. 

PENTECOST.  It  literally  signifies  the  ordinal  number  called  the  fiftieth ;  and 
in  the  solemn  festival  of  the  Jews,  so  called  because  it  was  celebrated  fifty 
days  after  the  feast  of  the  Passover,  Lev.  xxiii.  15,  It  is  called  the  feast 
of  ^^eeks,  E.vod.  xxxiv.  22,  because  it  was  kept  seven  weeks  after  the 
Pasaover. 

PERFUMERY.  Many  of  the  wares  coming  under  this  name  were  known  to 
the  ancients,  and  the  Scriptures  abound  with  instances  of  the  use  of  incenses 
and  perfumes.  No  such  trade  as  a  perfumer  was  known  in  Scotland  in  1763. 
— Creech.  A  stamp  tax  was  laid  on  various  articles  of  perfumery  in  Eng- 
gland  and  the  vendor  was  obliged  to  take  out  a  license,  in  1786.  At  the  cor- 
ner of  Beaufort  Buildings,  in  the  Strand,  resided  Lilly  the  perfumer,  men- 
tioned in  the  Spectator. — Leigh. 

20* 


466  THE  world's  progress.  [per 

PERIODICAL  LITERATURE.     See  Reviews  and  Magazines. 

PERIPATETIC  PHILOSOPHY.  The  philosophy  taught  by  Aristotle,  about 
342  B.  c.  Like  Plato,  who  taught  in  a  shady  grove  called  Academia,  Aris- 
totle chose  a  spot  of  a  similar  character  at  Athens,  adjacent  to  the  same 
river,  where  there  were  trees  and  shades :  this  spot  was  denominated  the 
Lyceum ;  and  as  he  usually  walked  while  he  instructed  his  pupils,  his  philo- 
sophy was  called  Peripatetic. 

PERJURY.  In  some  countries  this  crime  was  punished  with  death.  The  early 
Romans  at  first  punished  it  by  throwing  the  offender  headlong  from  the 
Tarpeian  precipice ;  but  that  penalty  was  afterwards  altered,  upon  a  suppo- 
sition that  the  gods  would  vindicate  their  own  honor  by  some  remarkable 
judgment  upon  the  offender.  The  Greeks  set  a  mark  of  infamy  upon 
them.  After  the  empire  became  Christian,  and  if  any  one  swore  falsely 
upon  the  gospels,  he  was  to  have  his  tongue  cut  out.  The  canons  of  the 
primitive  church  enjoined  eleven  years'  penance ;  and  in  some  states  the 
false-swearer  became  liable  to  the  punishment  he  charged  upon  the  innocent. 
In  England,  perjury  was  punished  with  the  pillory,  1563. 

^ERONNE,  Treaty  op.  Louis  XI.  of  France  having  jjlaced  himself  in  the 
power  of  the  duke  of  Burgundy,  was  forced  to  sign  a  treaty  at  Peronne,  con- 
firming those  of  Arras  and  Conflans,  with  some  other  stipulations  of  a  re- 
strictive and  humiliating  character,  a.  d.  1468. 

.'ERSECUTIONS,  General,  op  the  Christians.  Historians  usually  reckon 
ten.  The  first  under  Nero,  who  having  set  fire  to  Rome,  threw  the  odium 
of  the  act  upon  the  Christians.  Multitudes  of  them  were,  in  consequence, 
massacred.  Some  were  wrapped  up  in  the  skins  of  wild  beasts,  and  torn 
and  devoured  by  dogs ;  others  were  crucified,  and  numbers  burned  alive, 
A.  D.  64.  The  2nd,  under  Domitian,  a.  d.  95.  The  3rd,  in  the  reign  of  Tra- 
jan, A.  D.  100.  The  4th,  under  Adrian,  118.  The  5th,  under  the  emperor 
Severus,  197.  The  6th,  under  Maximinus,  235.  The  7th,  under  Decius, 
more  bloody  than  any  preceding.  They  were  in  all  places  driven  from  their 
habitations,  plundered  and  put  to  death  by  torments,  the  rack,  and  fire.  The 
8th,  under  Valerian,  257.  The  9th,  under  Aurelian,  272.  The  10th,  under 
Dioclesian.  In  this  persecution,  which  lasted  ten  years,  houses  filled  with 
Christians  were  set  on  fire,  and  droves  of  them  were  bound  together  with 
ropes  and  cast  into  the  sea.     See  Massacres. 

PERSECUTIONS  of  the  JEWS.    See  articles  Jews  and  Massacres. 

PERSECUTION  op  the  PROTESTANTS.  In  Franconia,  where  a^ multitude 
of  Luther's  followers  were  massacred  by  William  de  Furstemberg,  1525. — 
Du  Fresnoy.  In  England  when  Cranmer,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  and  La- 
timer and  Ridley,  prelates,  and  300  Protestants,  were  burned  alive,  and  great 
numbers  perished  in  prison,  3  Mary,  1556. —  Warner's  Eccles.  Hist.  Of  the 
Protestants  in  France,  when  niimbers  perished  ;  their  assemblies  were  pro- 
hibited, their  places  of  worship  pulled  down,  and  sentence  to  the  galleys 
proclaimed  against  all  who  harbored  them,  1723.  Executions  of  the  Pro- 
testants at  Thorn,  when  great  numbers  were  put  to  death  under  pretence  of 
their  having  been  concerned  in  a  tumult  occasioned  by  a  procession,  1724. 
See  Massacres  and  Bartholomew. 

PERSIAN  EMPIRE.  The  country  which  gave  name  to  this  celebrated  empire 
was  originalljr  called  Elam,  and  received  the  appellation  of  Persia  from  Per- 
seus, the  son  of  Perseus  and  Andromeda,  who  settled  here,  and  perhaps 
established  a  petty  sovereignty.  But  long  before  his  time,  it  was  subject 
to  independent  princes.  Persia  was  at  length  included  in  the  first  Assyrian 
monarchy ;  and  when  that  empire  was  dismembered  by  Arbaces,  &c.,  it 
appertained  to  the  kingdom  of  Media.  Persia  was  partly  conquered  from 
the  Greeks,  and  was  tributary  to  the  Parthians  for  nearly  500  3'ears,  when 


PET  ] 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES. 


467 


Artaxerxes,  a  common  soldier,  became  the  founder  of  the  second  Persian 
monarchy,  a.  d.  229. 


The  sea-fight  near  Ciiidus         -  -   394 

The  Sidonians  being  besieged  by  the 
Persians,  set  fire  to  their  city,  and  perish 
in  the  flames  -  -  -    351 

Alexander  the  Great  enters  Asia ;  first 
battle  m  Phrygia,  near  the  river  Gra- 
nicus  -  -  -  -      -   33i 

[For  the  exploits  of  Alexander  in  Per- 
sia, see  the  article  Mocedon.] 
Murder  of  Darius  by  Bessus,  who  is 

torn  in  pieces        -  -  -      -   331 

Alexander  founds  the  third  or  Grecian 

monarchy         ....    331 
Alexander,  in  a  moment  of  intoxication, 
at  the  instance  of  his  mistress  Thais, 
sets  fire  to  the  palace  of  Persepolis  -   330 
[The  riches  of  this  town,  whose  ruins, 
even  as  they  exist  at  this  day,  are  of 
indescribable  magnificence,  were  so 
immense  that  20,000  mules  and  5000 
horses  were  laden  with  the  spoils.] 
Persia  was  partly  reconquered  Ijrom  the 
Greeks,  and   remained  tributary  to 
Parthia  for  near  five  hundred  years, 
till  about  -  -  -    A.  D.    250 

Artaxerxes  I.  of  this  new  empire,  a 
common  soldier,  restores  to  Persia  its 
ancient  title      ....    229 
Reign  of  Sapor,  conqueror  and  tyrant  -   238 
He  IS  assassinated  -  -  .   273 

Hormisdas  reigns     -  -  -      -    273 

Reign  of  Sapor  II.  (of  70  years),  a  cruel 

and  successful  tyrant  -  .   ^        .    310 

Persia  was  conquered  by  the  Saracens    651 
It  fell  under  the  dominion  of  Tamer- 
lane, by  the  defeat  of  Bajazet  -  1402 
Reign  of  Thamas  Kouli  Khan       -      .  1732 
He  carried  the  Persian  arms  into  India, 
which  he  ravaged.    See  India         -  1738 

In  1747,  Ahmed  Abdalla  fonnded  the  kingdom  of  Candahar.  In  1779,  com- 
petitors for  the  throne  of  Persia  sprung  up  and  caused  a  period  of  slaughter 
and  desolation  till  1794,  when  Mahomed  Khan  became  sole  monarch. 

PERU.  First  visited  in  a.  d.  1513,  and  soon  afterwards  conquered  by  the  Spa- 
niards, whose  avarice  led  to  the  most  frightful  crimes.  The  easy  conquest 
of  this  country  has  not  its  parallel  in  historj^  Pizarro,  in  1530,  and  others, 
with  one  vessel,  112  men,  and  four  horses,  set  out  to  invade  South  America, 
which,  however,  not  succeeding,  he  again  in  1531,  embarked  with  three 
small  vessels,  140  infantry,  and  thirtj'-sis  horses ;  with  these,  and  two  re- 
inforcements of  thirty  men  each,  he  conquered  the  empire  of  Peru,  and  laid 
the  foundation  of  that  vast  power  which  the  Spaniards  enjoy  in  the  New 
World.  Pizarro's  expedition,  1524.  Peru  remained  in  subjection  to  the 
Spaniards  (who  murdered  the  Incas  and  all  their  descendants)  without  any 
attempt  being  made  to  throw  oif  the  oppressive  yoke  till  1782  ;  but  the  in- 
dependence of  the  country  was  completely  achieved  in  1826.  The  new 
Peruvian  constitution  was  signed  by  the  president  of  the  Republic,  March 
21,  1828. 

PETER-PENCE.  Presented  by  Ina,  king  of  the  West  Saxons,  to  the  pope  at 
Rome,  for  the  endowment  of  an  English  college  there,  a.  d.  725.  So  called, 
because  agreed  to  be  paid  on  the  feast  of  St.  JPeter.  The  tax  was  levied  on 
all  families  possessed  of  thirty  pence  yearly  rent  in  land,  out  of  which  they 
paid  one  penny.    It  was  confirmed  by  Ofifli,  777,  and  was  afterwards  claimed 


Zoroaster,  king  of  Bactria,  founder  of 
the  Magi. — Justin  -  b.  c.  2115 

Zoroaster  11.,  Persian  philosopher,  ge- 
nerally confounded  with  the  king  of 
Bactria. — ZarUkus      -  •  -  1082 

Cyrus,  king  of  Persia     -  -  -   560 

Lydia  conquered  by  the  Persians  -  548 
Cyrus  becomes  master  of  all  Asia  -  536 
Cambyses  conquers  Egypt  (which  see)  525 
Darius  made  king  of  Persia       -  -   522 

Revolt  of  the  Babylonians  -  .      .    512 

Conquest  of  Ionia ;  Miletus  destroyed  -   498 
Darius  equips  a  fleet  of  600  sail,  with 
an  army  of  300,000  soldiers,  to  invade 
the  Peloponnesus        ...    490 
The  troops  advance  towards  Athens,  but 
are  met  in  the  plains  of  fliarathon,  by 
Miltiades,  at  the  head  of  10,000  Athe- 
nians.— See  Marathon  -  -    490 
Xerxes  enters  Greece  in  the  spring  of 
this  year,  at  the  head  of  an  immense 
force.    The  battle  of  Thermopylas    -   480 
Xerxes  enters  Athens,  after  having  lost 
200,000  of  his  troops,  and  is  defeated 
in  a  naval  engagement  off  Salamis  -    480 
Cymon,  son  of  Miltiades,  with  a  fleet  of 
250  vessels,  takes  several  cities  i'rom 
the  Persians,  and  destroys  their  navy, 
consisting  of  340  sail,  near  the  island 
of  Cyprus         ...           -    470 
Xerxes  is  murdered  in  his  bed  by  Mith- 

ridates,  the  eunuch  -  b.  c.    4G5 

The  assassin  is  put  to  death  in  a  horrible 

manner     -        ...  -    465 

Reign  of  Artaxerxes  -  -      -    464 

Cyprus  taken  from  the  Persians  -  449 

Memorable  retreat  of  the  Greeks.    See 

article  lletreat      -  •  -      -    401 


468  THE    world's    progress.  [  PHA 

by  the  popes,  as  a  tribute  from  England,  and  regularly  collected,  till  sup- 
pressed by  Henry  VIII. — Camden.  ~ 
PETER,  THE  WILD  BOY.  A  savage  creature  found  in  the  forest  of  Herts- 
wold,  electorate  of  Hanover,  when  George  I.  and  his  friends  were  hunting. 
He  was  found  walking  on  his  hands  and  feet,  climbing  trees  like  a  squirrel, 
and  feeding  on  grass  and  moss,  November  1725.  At  this  time  he  was  sup- 
posed to  be  thirteen  years  old.  The  king  caused  him  to  taste  of  all  the 
dishes  at  the  royal  table ;  but  he  preferred  wild  plants,  leaves,  and  the  bark 
of  trees,  which  he  had  lived  on  from  his  infancy.  No  human  efforts  of  the 
many  philosophic  persons  about  the  court  could  entirely  vary  his  savage 
habits,  or  cause  him  to  utter  one  distinct  syllable.  He  died  in  Feb.  1785, 
at  the  age  of  72.  Lord  Monboddo  presented  him  as  an  instance  of  the  hy- 
pothesis that  "  man  in  a  state  of  nature  is  a  mere  animal." 

PETER'S  CHURCH,  ST.,  AT  Rome.  Originally  erected  by  Constantine.  About 
the  middle  of  the  15tli  century,  Nicholas  VI.  commenced  the  present  mag- 
nificent pile,  which  was  not  completed  under  numerous  succeeding  popes, 
until  A.  D.  1629.  The  front  is  400  feet  broad,  rising  to  a  height  of  180  feet, 
and  the  majestic  dome  ascends  from  the  centre  of  the  church  to  a  height  of 
324  feet :  the  length  of  the  interior  is  600  feet,  forming  the  most  spacious 
hall  ever  constructed  by  human  hands.    See  Paul's,  SL 

PETERSBURGH.  The  new  capital  of  Russia.  Peter  the  Great  first  began 
this  city,  in  1703.  He  built  a  small  hut  for  himself,  and  some  wretched 
wooden  hovels.  In  1710,  the  count  Golovkin  built  the  first  house  of  brick ; 
and  the  next  year,  the  emperor,  with  his  own  hand,  laid  the  foundation  of  a 
house  of  the  same  materials.  From  these  small  beginnings  rose  the  imperial 
city  of  Petersburgh ;  and  in  less  than  nine  years  after  the  wooden  hovels 
were  erected,  the  seat  of  empire  was  transferred  from  Moscow  to  this  place. 
Here,  in  1736,  a  fire  consumed  2000  houses ;  and  in  1780,  another  fire  con- 
sumed 11,000  houses;  this  last  fire  was  occasioned  by  lightning.  Again,  in 
June  1796,  a  large  magazine  of  naval  stores  and  100  vessels  were  destroyed. 
The  winter  palace  was  burnt  to  the  ground,  Dec.  29,  1837.    See  Russia. 

PETERSBURGH,  Peace  op,  between  Russia  and  Prussia,  the  former  restoring 
all  her  conquests  to  the  latter,  signed  Maj'  5, 1762.  Treaty  of  Petersburgh, 
for  the  partition  of  Poland,  (see  article  Partition  Treaties,')  Aug.  5,  1772. 
Treaty  op  Petersburgh,  for  a  coalition  against  France,  Sept.  8,  1805. 
Treaty  of  alliance,  signed  at  St.  Petersburgh,  between  Bernadotte,  prince 
royal  of  Sweden,  and  the  emperor  Alexander ;  the  former  agreeing  to  join 
in  the  campaign  against  France,  in  return  for  which  Sweden  was  to  receive 
Norway,  March  24,  1812. 

PETRARCH  AND  LAURA.  Two  of  the  most  eminent  persons  of  the  four- 
teenth century,  celebrated  for  the  exquisite  and  refined  passion  of  the  for- 
mer for  the  latter,  and  the  great  genius  and  virtue  of  both.  The  chief  subject 
of  Petrarch's  enchanting  sonnets  was  the  beautiful  Laura.  He  was  crowned 
with  laurel,  as  a  poet  and  writer,  on  Easter-day,  April  8,  1341 ;  and  died  at 
Arqua,  near  Padua,  July  18,  1374.     Laura  died  April  6,  1348. 

PHALANX  A  troop  of  men  closely  embodied. — Milton.  The  Greek  phalanx 
consisted  of  8000  men  in  a  square  battalion,  with  shields  joined,  and  spears 
crossing  each  other.  The  battalion  formed  by  Philip  of  Macedon  was  called 
the  Macedonian  phalanx,  and  was  instituted  by  him  860  b.  c. 

PHARISEES.  They  were  a  famous  sect  among  the  Jews ;  so  called  from  a  He- 
brew word  which  signifies  to  separate  or  set  apart,  because  they  pretended 
to  a  greater  degree  of  holiness  and  piety  than  the  rest  of  the  Jews.  The 
admirable  parable  of  the  Pharisee  and  Publican  is  levelled  against  spiri- 
tual pride,  and  to  recommend  the  virtue  of  humility. — Luke  xviii.  9. 


PHI  ]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  469 

PHAROS  AT  ALEXANDRIA,  called  the  Pharos  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  and 
esteemed  as  one  of  the  wonders  of  the  world.  It  was  a  tower  built  of  white 
marble,  and  could  be  seen  at  the  distance  of  100  miles.  On  the  top,  fires 
were  constantly  kept,  to  direct  sailors  in  the  bay.  The  building  of  this 
.ower  cost  800  talents,  Avhich  are  equis^alent  to  above  165,100Z.  English,  if 
Attic ;  or  if  Alexandrian,  double  that  sum.  There  was  this  inscription  upon 
it — "  King  Ptolemy  to  the  gods,  the  saviours,  for  the  benefit  of  sailors ;"  but 
Sostratus  the  architect,  wishing  to  claim  all  the  glory,  engraved  his  own 
name  upon  the  stones,  and  afterwards  filled  the  hollow  with  mortar,  and  wrote 
the  above  inscription.  When  the  mortar  had  decayed  by  time,  Ptolemy's 
name  disappeared,  and  the  following  inscription  then  became  visible; — 
"Sostratus  the  Cnidian,  son  of  Dexiphanes,  to  the  gods,  the  saviours,  for 
the  benefit  of  sailors."    About  280  b.  c. 

PHARSALIA,  Battle  of,  between  Julius  Cassar  and  Pompey,  in  which  the  for- 
mer obtained  a  great  and  memorable  victory,  glorious  to  Caesar  in  all  its 
consequences.  C^sar  lost  about  200  men,  or,  according  to  others,  1200. 
Pompey's  loss  was  15,000,  or  25,000  according  to  others,  and  24,000  of  his 
army  were  made  prisoners  of  war  by  the  conqueror.  May  12,  48  b.  c.  After 
this  defeat,  Pompey  fled  to  Egypt,  where  he  was  treacherously  slain,  by  or- 
der of  Ptolemy  the  younger,  then  a  minor,  and  his  body  thrown  naked  on 
the  strand,  exposed  to  the  view  of  all  those  whose  curiosity  led  them  that 
way,  till  it  was  burnt  by  his  faithful  freedman  Philip. 

PHILADELPHIA,  City  of.  First  surveyed  and  regulated  by  the  English  colo- 
ny under  Penn's  grant,  in  1682.  [The  Swedes  had  settled  on  Delaware  bay 
in  1627.]  Named  after  a  city  in  Asia-Minor  and  first  laid  out  with  a  view 
to  rival  ancient  Babylon  in  extent ;  but  the  plan  was  restricted  to  its  pre- 
sent limits  by  the  charter  of  1701.  First  or  "Continental"  Congress  at 
Philadelphia,  Sept.  5, 1774,  The  Declaration  of  Independence  adopted,  July 
4,  1776,  in  the  State  House,  still  standing  in  Chesnut-street.  The  city  taken 
by  the  British,  Sept.  26,  1777;  evacuated  by  them,  June  18,  1778.  Conven- 
tion met  here.  May  17,  1787,  and  on  17th  of  Sept.  following,  agreed  on  a 
constitution  for  the  United  States.  Yellow  fever  raged,  1793  and  1798. 
Congress  removed  to  Philadelphia,  1800.  United  States  Bank  established 
here,  1816.  United  States  Mint,  in  1792.  Girard  College  opened,  1846. 
Population  in  1732,  12  000;  in  1790,  42,000;  in  1810,  96,664;  in  1830, 
167,811 ;  in  1840,  220,423. 

PHILIPPI,  Battle  or,  between  Octavius  Csesar  and  Marc  Antony  on  one  side, 
and  the  republican  forces  under  Brutus  and  Cassius,  in  which  the  former 
obtained  the  victory.  Two  battles  were  fought :  in  the  first,  Brutus,  who 
commanded  the  right  wing,  defeated  the  enemy ;  but  Cassius,  who  had  care 
of  the  left,  was  overpowered,  and  he  ordered  his  freedman  to  run  him 
through  the  body.  In  the  second  battle,  the  wing  which  Brutus  command- 
ed obtained  a  victory ;  but  the  other  was  defeated,  and  he  found  himself 
surrounded  by  the  soldiers  of  Antony.  He  however  made  his  escape,  and 
soon  after  fell  on  his  sword.  Both  battles  were  fought  in  October,  42  b.c. 
— Bossuet. 

PHILIPPICS.  This  species  of  satire  derives  its  name  from  the  orations  of  De- 
mosthenes against  Philip  II.  of  Macedon,  and  from  Cicero's  Orations  (the 
second  of  which  was  called  divine  by  Juvenal)  against  Marc  Antony,  which 
latter  cost  Cicero  his  life,  43  b.  c. 

PHILIPPINE  ISLES.  Discovered  by  the  Spaniards  a.  d.  1519.  In  this  archi- 
pelago the  illustrious  circumnavigator  Magellan,  like  the  still  more  illustri- 
ous Cook  in  the  Sandwich  Islands,  lost  his  life  in  a  skirmish,  in  1521. 

PHILOSOPHY.  The  knowledge  of  the  reason  of  things,  in  opposition  to  his- 
tory, which  is  only  the  Kno^vledge  of  facts  ;  or  to  mathematics,  which  is  the 


470  THE    world's    PROGE-ESS.  [  PHI 

knowledge  of  the  quantity  of  things ; — the  hypothesis  or  system  upon  which 
natural  effects  are  explained. — Locke.  Pythagoras  first  adopted  the  name  of 
philosopher  (such  men  having  previously  been  called  sages),  about  528  b.  c. 
See  Moral  PhUosophij.  Philosophers  were  expelled  from  Rome,  and  their 
schools  suppressed,  by  Domitian,  a.  d.  83. —  Univ.  Hist.  Philosophy  has 
undergone  four  great  changes: — 1.  A  total  subserviency  to  priestcraft  and 
superstition,  by  the  Chaldeans  and  Egyptians.  2.  A  commixture  of  reason 
and  poetry,  by  the  Greeks.  3.  A  mechanical  system,  introduced  by  Coper- 
nicus and  Galileo ;  and,  4.  A  system  of  poetical,  verbal,  and  imaginary  caiisa- 
tion,  taught  by  Newton,  Lavoisier,  &.c.  The  world,  at  present,  are  divided 
between  the  two  last. 

PHILOSOPHER'S  STONE.  By  this  name  is  usually  meant  a  powder,  which 
some  wise  heads  among  the  chemists  imagined  had  the  virtue  of  turning  all 
imperfect  metals  into  silver  and  gold — all  metals  but  these  being  so  consid- 
ered. Kircher  observes,  with  truth,  that  the  quadrature  of  the  circle,  per- 
petual motion,  the  inextinguishable  lamp,  and  the  philosopher's  stone,  have 
cracked  the  brains  of  philosophers  and  mathematicians  for  a  long  time, 
without  any  useful  result.  For  a  remarkable  case  of  folly  and  imposition  in 
relation  to  this  subject,  see  Alchemy. 

PHOSPHORUS.  It  was  discovered  in  the  year  1667,  by  13 rant,  who  procured 
it  from  urine ;  and  Scheele  soon  after  found  a  method  of  preparing  it  from 
bones.  The  discovery  was  prosecuted  by  John  Kunckell,  a  Saxon  chemist, 
1670,  and  by  the  hon.  Mr.  Boyle,  about  the  same  time. — Nouv.  Diet.  Phos- 
phoric acid  is  first  mentioned  in  1743,  but  is  said  to  have  been  known  ear- 
lier; the  distinction  was  first  pointed  out  by  Lavoisier,  in  1777.  Canton's 
phosphorus  is  so  called  from  its  discoverer,  1768.  Protophosphurated  hy- 
drogen was  discovered  by  sir  Humphrey  Davy  in  1812. 

PHRENOLOGY.  The  science  of  the  mind,  and  of  animal  jsropensities,  a  mod- 
ern doctrine,  started  by  Dr.  Gall,  in  1803.  See  Craniology.  Dr.  Spurzheim 
improved  the  science  in  1815,  and  it  has  now  many  professors ;  and  a  Phre- 
nological Society  has  been  established  in  London. 

PHYSIC.  Reason  and  chance  led  early  to  the  knowledge  and  virtues  of  cer- 
tain herbs.  The  sea-horse  drawing  blood  from  his  bodj'  by  means  of  a  reed 
to  relieve  himself  from  plethora,  taught  men  the  art  of  artificial  blood-let- 
ting.— Pliny.  In  fabulous  history  it  is  mentioned  thatPolydius  having  seen 
a  serpent  approach  the  wounded  body  of  another  with  an  herb,  with  which 
he  covered  it,  restored  the  inanimate  body  of  Glaucus  in  the  same  manner. 
— Hyginus.  Egypt  appears  to  have  been  the  cradle  of  the  healing  art ;  "  and 
the  priests,"  says  Cabanus,  "soon  seized  upon  the  province  of  medicine, 
and  combined  it  with  their  other  instruments  of  power."  From  the  hands 
of  the  priests,  medicine  fell  into  those  of  the  philosophers,  who  freed  it 
from  its  superstitious  character.  Pythagoras  endeavored  to  explain  the 
formation  of  diseases,  the  order  of  their  symptoms,  and  the  action  of  medi- 
cine, about  529  b.  c.  Hippocrates,  justly  regarded  as  the  father  of  medicine 
and  the  founder  of  the  science,  flourished  about  422  b.  c.  Galen,  born  a.  d. 
131,  Avas  the  oracle  of  medical  science  for  nearly  1500  years.  The  discovery 
of  the  circulation  of  the  blood,  by  Dr.  Harvey,  furnished  an  entirely  new 
system  of  physiological  and  pathological  speculation,  1628. 

PHYSICS.  Well  described  as  a  science  of  unbounded  extent,  and  as  reaching 
from  an  atom  to  God  himself.  It  is  made  to  embrace  the  entire  doctrine  of 
the  bodies  and  existences  of  the  universe  ;  their  phenomena,  causes,  and 
effects.  Mr.  Locke  would  include  God,  angels,  and  spirits,  under  this  term. 
The  origin  of  physics  is  referred  to  the  Brachmans,  magi,  and  Hebrew  and 
Egyptian  priests.  From  these  it  was  derived  to  the  Greek  sages,  particu- 
larly Thales,  who  first  professed  the  study  of  nature  in  Greece,  about  595 


PIG  j  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  471 

B.  c.      Hence,  it  descended  to  the  Pythagoric,  Platonic,  and  Peripatetic 
schools ;  and  from  these  to  Italy  and  the  rest  of  Europe. 

PHYSIOLOGY.  In  connection  with  natural  philosophy,  and  that  part  of  phy- 
sics which  teaches  the  constitiition  of  the  body,  so  far  as  it  is  in  its  healthy 
or  natural  state,  and  to  that  purpose  endeavors  to  account  for  the  reason  of 
the  sevei'al  functions  and  operations  of  the  several  members.  Sometimes  it 
is  limited  to  that  part  of  medicine  which  particularly  considers  the  struc- 
ture and  constitution  of  human  bodies,  with  regard  to  the  cure  of  diseases. 
Its  date  is  referred  to  the  same  time  with  physics,  lohich  see. 

PHYSIOGNOMY.  This  is  a  science  by  which  the  dispositions  of  mankind  arc 
discovered,  chiefly  from  the  features  of  the  face.  The  origin  of  the  term  is 
referred  to  Aristotle ;  Cicero  was  attached  to  the  science.  It  became  a 
fashionable  study  from  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century ;  and  in  the 
last  century,  the  essays  of  Le  Cat  and  Pernethy  led  to  the  modern  system. 
Lavater's  researches  in  this  pursuit  arose  from  his  having  been  struck 
with  the  singular  countenance  of  a  soldier  who  passed  under  a  window  at 
which  he  and  Zimmerman  were  standing  ;  published  1776. 

PIANO-FORTE.  Invented  by  J.  C.  Schroder,  of  Dresden,  in  1717 ;  he  present- 
ed a  model  of  his  invention  to  the  court  of  Saxony ;  and  some  time  after, 
G.  Silverman,  a  musical-instrument  maker,  began  to  manufacture  piano-fortes 
with  considerable  success.  The  invention  has  also  been  ascribed  to  an  in- 
strument-maker of  Florence.  The  square  piano-forte  was  first  made  by 
Freiderica,  an  organ-builder  of  Saxony,  about  1758.  Piano-fortes  were 
made  in  London  by  M.  Zumpie,  a  German,  1766 ;  and  have  been  since 
greatly  improved  bj^  others  here. 

PICHEGRU'S,  MOREAU'S,  and  GEORGES'  CONSPIRACY.  The  memorable 
conspiracy  against  Napoleon  Bonaparte  detected,  and  Georges  and  Moreau 
arrested  at  Paris,  February  23,  1804.  Pichegru,  when  captured,  was  con- 
fined in  the  Temple,  where  he  was  found  strangled  on  the  morning  of  the 
6th  April  following.  For  the  particulars  relating  to  this  conspiracy,  see  ar- 
ticle Georges,  &c. 

PICQUET,  The  Game  of,  the  first  known  game  upon  the  cards,  invented  by 
Joquemin,  and  afterwards  other  games,  for  the  amusement  of  Charles  VI. 
of  France,  who  was  at  the  time  in  feeble  health,  1390. — Mczerai.  See  ar- 
ticle Cards. 

PICTS.  a  Scythian  or  German  colon}'-,  who  landed  in  Scotland  much  about 
the  time  that  the  Scots  began  to  seize  upon  the  Ebudse,  or  Western  Isles. 
They  afterwards  lived  as  two  distinct  nations,  the  Scots  in  the  highlands 
and  the  isles,  and  the  Picts  in  that  now  called  the  lowlands.  About  a.  d 
838  to  843,  the  Scots  under  Kenneth  II.  totally  subdued  the  Picts,  and  seized 
all  their  kingdom,  and  extended  the  limits  as  far  as  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

PICTURES.  Bularchus  was  the  first  who  introduced,  at  least  among  the 
Greeks,  the  use  of  many  colors  in  one  picture.  One  of  his  pictures  was 
purchase  1  by  the  king  of  Lydia  for  its  weight  in  gold  ;  he  flourished  740  b.  g. 
See  PavUing. 

I'IGEON,  The  Carrier.  The  courier  pigeons  are  of  very  ancient  use.  The 
ancients  being  destitute  of  the  convenience  of  posts,  were  accustomed  when 
they  took  a  long  journej'-,  and  were  desirous  of  sending  back  any  news  with 
uncommon  expedition,  to  take  some  pigeons  with  them.  When  they  thought 
proper  to  write  to  their  friends,  they  let  one  of  these  birds  loose,  with  let- 
ters fastened  to  its  neck :  the  bird,  once  released,  would  never  cease  its 
flight  till  it  arrived  at  its  nest  and  young  ones.  Taurosthenes  announced  to 
his  father  his  victory  at  the  Olympic  games  by  sending  to  him  at  Mgina,  3 


472  THE   WOULD  S   PROGRESS.  j"  PH 

pigeon  stained  Avith  purple. — Ovid.  Hirtius  and  Brutus  corresponded  b^ 
means  of  pigeons  at  the  siege  of  Modena.  In  modern  times,  the  most  noted 
were  the  pigeons  of  Aleppo,  which  served  as  couriers  at  Alexandretta  and 
Bagdad.  Thirty-two  pigeons  sent  from  Antwerp  were  liberated  from  Lon- 
don at  7  o'clock  in  the  morning ;  and  on  the  same  day  at  noon,  one  of  them 
arrived  at  Antwerp ;  a  quarter  of  an  hour  afterwards  a  second  arrived ;  the 
remainder  on  the  following  day,  Nov.  23,  1819. — Phillips. 

PILGRIMAGES.  They  began  to  be  made  about  the  middle  ages  of  the  church, 
but  they  were  most  in  vogue  after  the  close  of  the  11th  century.  Many 
licenses  were  granted  to  captains  of  English  ships  to  carry  pilgrims  abroad, 
7  Henry  VI.,  1428. 

PILLORY.  A  scaffold  for  persons  to  stand  on,  in  order  to  render  them  infa- 
mous, and  make  them  a  public  spectacle,  for  every  one  to  see  and  know, 
that  they  might  avoid  and  refuse  to  have  any  commerce  or  dealings  with 
them  for  the  future.  This  punishment  was  awarded  against  persons  con- 
victed of  forgery,  perjurj^  libelling,  &c.  In  some  cases  the  head  was  put 
through  a  hole,  the  hands  through  two  others,  the  nose  slit,  the  face  branded 
with  one  or  more  letters,  and  one  or  both  ears  cut  off.  It  was  in  use  in  En- 
gland in  the  reign  of  Henry  IH.,  1256.  Many  persons  died  in  the  pillory, 
by  being  struck  with  stones  by  the  mob,  and  pelted  with  rotten  eggs  and 
putrid  offal.  It  was  abolished  as  a  punishment  in  all  cases  except  perjury, 
in  1815-16.  The  pillory  was  totally  abolished  by  act  1  Victoria,  June 
1837. 

PINS.  As  an  article  of  foreign  commerce,  pins  are  first  mentioned  in  the  sta- 
tutes A.  D.  1483.  Those  made  of  brass  Avire  were  brought  from  France 
in  1540,  and  were  first  used  in  England,  it  is  said,  by  Catherine  Howard, 
queen  of  Heniy  VIII.  Before  the  invention  of  pins,  both  sexes  used  ri- 
bands, loop-holes,  laces  with  points  and  tags,  clasps,  hooks  and  eyes,  and 
skewers  of  brass,  silver,  and  gold.  They  were  made  in  England  in  1543. — 
SLowe. 

PISA,  Leaning  Tower  of.  This  celebrated  tower,  likewise  called  Campanile, 
on  account  of  its  having  been  erected  for  the  purpose  of  containing  bells, 
stands  in  a  square  close  to  the  cathedral  of  Pisa.  It  is  built  entirely  of 
white  marble,  and  is  a  beautiful  cylinder  of  eight  stories,  each  adorned  with 
a  round  of  columns,  rising  one  above  another.  It  inclines  so  far  on  one  side 
from  the  pei-peudicular,  tliat  in  dropping  a  plummet  from  the  top,  which  is 
188  feet  in  height,  it  falls  sixteen  feet  from  the  base.  Much  pains  have 
been  taken  by  connoisseurs  to  prove  that  this  was  done  purposely  by  the 
architect ;  but  it  is  evident  that  the  inclination  has  proceeded  from  another 
cause,  namely,  from  an  accidental  subsidence  of  the  foundation  on  that 
side. 

PISTOLS.  These  are  the  smallest  sort  of  fire-arms,  carried  sometimes  on  the 
saddle-bow,  sometimes  in  a  girdle  round  the  waist,  sometimes  in  the  pocket, 
&c. — Pardon.  The  pistol  was  first  used  by  the  cavalry  of  England,  in 
1544. 

PITCAIRN'S  ISLAND.  A  small  solitary  island  in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  seen  by 
Cook  in  1773,  and  noted  for  being  colonized  by  ten  mutineers  from  the 
ship  Bo'mity,  captain  Bligh,  in  1789,  from  which  time,  till  1814,  they  (or 
rather  their  descendants)  remained  here  unluiown.  See  Mutiny  of  the 
Bounty. 

PITT'S  ADMINISTRATION.  The  first  administration  of  this  illustrious  states- 
man was  formed  on  the  dismissal  of  the  Coalition  ministry  {which  see),  Dec. 
27,  1783.  His  second  administration  was  formed  May  12,  1804.  The  right 
honorable  William  Pitt  was  son  of  the  great  earl  of  Chatham.    He  died 


PLA  ] 


DICTlONAUr    OF    DATES. 


473 


Jan.  23,  1806.  Mr.  Pitt  was  a  minister  of  commanding  powers,  and  still 
loftier  pretensions :  and  he  departed  life  in  possession  of  the  esteem  of  a 
large  portion  of  his  countrymen.  A  public  funeral  was  decreed  to  his  ho- 
nor by  parliament,  and  a  grant  of  .£40,000  to  pay  his  debts. 

PIUS.  This  name  was  first  given  to  the  emperor  Antoninus  Titus,  thence  called 
Antoninus  Pius,  on  account  of  his  piety  and  virtue,  a.  d.  138.  This  name 
was  also  given  to  a  son  of  Metellus,  because  he  interested  himself  so  warm- 
ly to  have  his  father  recalled  from  banishment.  The  name  of  Pius  has  also 
been  taken  by  nine  of  the  popes  of  Rome,  the  first  of  whom  assumed  it  in 
A.  D.  142. 

PLAGUE.  "The  offspring  of  inclement  skies,  and  of  legions  of  putrifying 
locusts." — Thomson.  The  first  recorded  general  plague  in  all  parts  of  the 
world  occurred  767  b.  c.  Petavius,  At  Carthage  the  plague  was  so  terrible 
that  the  people  sacrificed  their  children  to  appease  the  gods,  534  b.  c. — Ha- 
ronius.  At  Rome  prevailed  a  desolating  plague,  carrying  off  a  hundred 
thousand  persons  in  and  round  the  city,  461  b.  c.  At  Athens,  whence  it 
spread  into  Egypt  and  Ethiopia,  and  caused  an  awful  devastation,  430  b.  c. 
Another  which  raged  in  the  Greek  islands,  Egypt,  and  Syria,  and  destroyed 
2000  persons  every  d^iy,  188  b.  c.  Pliny. 


At  Rome,  a  most  awful  plague ;  10,000  per- 
sons perish  daily,  a.  d.  78. 

The  same  fatal  disease  again  ravaged  the 
Roman  empire,  a.  d.  167. 

In  Britain,  a  plague  raged  so  formidably, 
and  swept  away  such  multitudes,  that  the 
living  were  scarcely  sufljcient  to  bury  the 
dead,  a.  d.  430. 

A  dreadful  one  began  in  Europe  in  558,  ex- 
tended all  over  Asia  and  Africa,  and  it  is 
said  did  not  cease  for  many  years.  Univ. 
Hist. 

At  Constantinople,  when  200,000  of  its  in- 
habitants perished,  A.  D.  746. 

[This  plague  raged  for  three  years,  and  was 
equally  fatal  in  Calabria,  Sicily,  and 
Greece.] 

At  Chichester  in  England,  an  epidemical 
disease  carried  off  34,000  persons,  772. — 
Will.  Malms. 

In  Scotland,  40,000  person,=;  perished  of  a 
pestilence,  a.  d.  954. 

In  London,  a  great  mortality,  a.  d.  1094 ; 
and  in  Ireland,  1095. 

Again  in  London  :  it  extended  to  cattle, 
fowls,  and  other  domestic  animals,  1111. 
— Holings. 

In  Ireland :  after  Christmas  this  year,  Henry 
II.  was  forced  to  quit  the  country,  1172. 

Again  in  Ireland,  when  a  prodigious  number 
perished,  1204. 

A  general  plague  raged  throughout  Europe, 
causing  a  most  extensive  mortality.  Bri- 
tain and  Ireland  suffered  grievously.  In 
London  alone,  200  persons  were  buried 
daily  in  the  Charterhouse  yard. 

In  Paris  and  London  a  dreadful  mortality 
prevailed  in  1362  and  1367;  and  in  Ire- 
land, in  1370. 

A  great  pestilence  in  Ireland,  called  the 
fourth,  destroyed  a  great  number  of  the 
people,  1383. 

30,000  persons  perished  of  a  dreadful  pesti- 
lence in  London,  1407. 

Again  in  Ireland,  superinduced  by  a  fam- 
ine ;  great  numbers  died,  1466  ;  and  Dub- 
lin was  wasted  by  a  plague,  1470. 


An  awful  pestilence  at  Oxford,  1471 ;  and 
throughout  England  a  plague  which  de- 
stroyed more  people  than  the  continual 
wars  for  the  fifteen  preceding  years,  1478. 
— Rapin  ;  Salmon. 

The  awful  Sudor  Anglicus,  or  sweating 
sickness,  very  fatal  at  London,  1485. — 
Delrnme. 

The  plague  at  London  so  dreadful  that  Hen- 
ry VII.  and  his  court  removed  to  Calais, 
1500.— Stowe. 

Again,  the  sweating  sickness  (mortal  in 
three  hours).  In  most  of  the  capital 
towns  in  England  half  the  inhabitants 
died,  and  Oxford  was  depopulated,  9  II. 
VIII.,  Wn.—Stowe. 

Limerick  was  visited  by  a  plague,  when 
many  thousands  perished,  1522. 

A  pestilence  throughout  Ireland,  1525 ;  and 
tlie  English  Sweat,  1528 ;  and  a  pestilence 
in  Dublin,  1575. 

30,578  persons  perished  of  the  plague  in 
London  alone,  1603-1604.  It  was  also 
fatal  in  Ireland. 

200,000  perished  of  a  pestilence  at  Constan- 
tinople, in  1611. 

In  London,  a  great  mortality  prevailed,  and 
35,417  persons  perished,  1625. 

In  France,  a  general  mortality ;  at  Lyons 
60,000  persons  died,  1632. 

The  plague,  brought  from  Sardinia  to  Na- 
ples (being  introduced  by  a  transport  with 
soldiers  on  board),  raged  with  such  vio- 
lence as  to  carry  off  400,000  of  the  inhabit- 
ants in  six  months,  1656. 

Memorable  plague  which  carried  off  68,596 
persons  in  London,  1665. 

[Fires  were  kept  up  night  and  day  to  purify 
the  air  for  three  days ;  and  it  is  thought 
the  infection  was  not  totally  destroyed  till 
the  great  conflagration  of  1666.] 

60,000  persons  persons  perished  of  the 
plague  at  Marseilles  and  neighborhood, 
brought  in  a  ship  from  the  Levant,  1720. 

One  of  the  most  awful  plagues  that  ever 
raged,  prevailed  in  Syria,  1760. — Abbi 
Mariti. 


474  THE    world's    TROGRESS.  ..  [  FLA 

PLAGUE,  continued. 


In  Persia,  a  fatal  pestilence,  which  carried 

off  80,000  of  the  inhabitants  of  Bassorah, 

1773. 
In  E^pt,  more  than  800,000  persons  died 

of  plague,  1792. 
In  Barbary,  3000  died  daily;   and  at  Fez 

247,000  perished,  1799. 
In  Spain,  and  at  Gibraltar,  immense  num- 


bers were  earned  off  by  a  pestilent  dis. 
ease  in  1804  and  1805. 

Again,  at  Gibraltar,  an  epidemic  fever,  much 
resembling  the  plague,  caused  great  mor- 
tality, 1828. 

The  Asiatic  cholera  (see  Cholera)  1832, 
1834,  1849. 


PLAGUES  OP  EGYPT.  The  refusal  of  the  king  to  hearken  to  Moses,  although 
he  had  performed  many  miracles  to  prove  his  divine  mission,  brings  a  display 
of  wrath  upon  the  land,  in  ten  awful  instances,  Avhich  are  denominated  the 
plagues  of  Egypt,  1492  b.  c.  In  this  year  the  king,  named  by  some  Amen- 
ophis,  by  others  Cherres,  is,  with  his  whole  army,  overwhelmed  in  the  Red 
Sea. —  Usher,  Blair,  Lenglet. 

PLANTAGENET,  House  of.  A  race  of  fourteen  English  kings,  from  Henry 
IL  to  Richard  III.,  killed  at  the  battle  of  Bosworth  {ivMch  see),  1485.  Anti- 
quaries are  at  a  loss  to  account  for  the  origin  of  this  appellation ;  and  the 
best  derivation  they  can  find  for  it  is,  that  Fulk,  the  first  earl  of  Anjou,  of 
that  name,  being  stung  with  remorse  for  some  wicked  action,  went  on  a  pil- 
grimage to  Jerusalem,  as  a  work  of  atonement ;  where  being  scourged  with 
broom  twigs,  growing  on  the  spot,  he  took  the  surname  of  Plantagenet,  or 
Broom-stalk,  which  was  retained  by  his  posterity. 

PLASTER  OF  PARIS,  for  moulds,  figures,  statuary,  &c.  The  method  of  tak- 
ing likenesses  bj^  its  use  was  first  discovered  b}'  Andrea  Verrochio,  about 
A.  D.  1466.  This  gypsum  was  first  found  at  Montmartre,  a  village  near  Paris, 
v/hence  it  obtained  its  name.         " 

PLAT.1EA,  Battle  of,  between  Mardonius  the  commander  of  Xerxes  king  of 
Persia,  and  Pausanias  the  Lacedfemonian,  and  the  Athenians.  The  Per.sian 
army  consisted  of  300,000  men,  3000  of  which  scarce  escaped  with  their 
lives  by  flight.  The  Grecian  army,  which  was  greatly  inferior,  lost  but  few 
men ;  and  among  these,  ninety-one  Spartans,  fifty-two  Athenians,  and  sixteen 
Tegeans,  were  the  only  soldiers  found  in  the  number  of  the  slain.  The 
plunder  which  the  Greeks  obtained  in  the  Persian  camp  was  immense.  Pau- 
sanias received  a  tenth  of  all  the  spoils,  on  account  of  his  uncommon  valor 
during  the  engagement,  and  the  rest  were  rewarded  each  according  to  their 
respective  merit.  This  battle  was  fought  on  the  22d  September,  the  same 
day  as  the  battle  of  Mycale,  479  b.  c.  ;  and  by  it  Greece  was  totally  deliver- 
ed for  ever  from  the  contiiuial  alarms  to  which  she  was  exposed  on  account 
of  the  Persian  invasions,  and  from  that  time  none  of  the  princes  of  Persia 
dared  to  appear  with  a  hostile  force  beyond  the  Hellespont. 

PLATE.  The  earliest  use  of  plate  as  an  article  of  luxury  cannot  be  precisely 
traced.  In  England,  plate,  with  the  exception  of  spoons,  was  prohibited  in 
public  houses  by  statute  8  William  III.,  1696.  The  celebrated  Plate  Act 
passed  in  May  1756.  This  act  was  repealed  in  1780.  The  act  laying  a  duty 
upon  plate  passed  in  1784. 

PLATINA.  This  is  the  heaviest  of  all  the  metals,  and  harder  than  silver  and 
gold.  The  name  which  is  given  to  it  originated  with  the  Spaniards,  from 
the  word  Plata,  signifying  silver,  it  would  seem  on  account  of  its  silvery 
color.  It  was  unknown  in  Europe  until  a.  d.  1748,  when  Don  Antonio 
Ulloa  announced  its  existence  in  the  narrative  of  his  voyage  to  Peru. — 
Greig. 

PLATTSBURGH,  on  Lake  Champlain,  New  York,  Battle  of;  14,000 British 
troops  under  sir  George  Prevost  repulsed,  Sept.  11,  1814.  The  British  fleet 
on  the  lake  captured  by  Macdonough,  at  same  time. 


POE  ] 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES 


475 


PLAYS.  Tragedy,  comedy,  satire,  and  pantomime  Avere  performed  in  Greece 
and  Rome.  Plays  became  a  general  and  favorite  pastime  about  165  e.g.; 
but  they  were  performed  on  occasions  of  festivity  some  ages  before.  The 
Trojan  plays  consisted  of  horse-races  and  exercises  of  the  youth,  under  a 
proper  head  or  captain,  wherein  the  utmost  dexterity  was  practised.  The 
plays  of  Ceres  were  instituted  to-please  the  ladies,  who  from  the  12th  to  the 
20th  of  April  were  clad  in  white,  and,  in  imitation  of  that  goddess,  went 
with  a  torch  in  their  hands  as  if  in  search  of  her  daughter  Proserpine.  The 
plays  of  Flora  were  so  offensive,  that  they  were  forced  to  be  put  down. 
The  funeral  plays  were  plaj^s  in  honor  of  the  dead,  and  to  satisfy  their 
ghosts.  There  were  numerous  institutions  under  the  name  of  plays.  Plays 
were  first  acted  in  England  at  Clerkenwell,  a.  d.  1397.  The  first  company 
of  players  that  received  the  sanction  of  a  patent  was  that  of  James  Burbage, 
and  others,  the  servants  of  the  earl  of  Leicester,  from  queen  Elizabeth,  in 
1574.  In  England  plays  were  subjected  to  a  censorship  in  1737.  See 
Drama. 

PLEADINGS.  In  the  early  courts  of  judicature  in  England,  pleadings  were 
made  in  the  Saxon  language  in  a.  d.  786.  They  were  made  in  Norman- 
French  from  the  period  of  the  Conquest  in  1066;  and  they  so  continued  lui- 
til  the  36tli  of  Edward  III.  1362.  Cromwell  ordered  all  law  proceedings  to 
oe  taken  in  English  in  1650.  The  Latin  was  used  in  conveyancing  in  the 
courts  of  law  till  1731. 

POET  LAUREAT.  Selden  could  not  trace  the  precise  origin  of  this  office. 
The  first  record  we  have  of  poet-laureat  in  England  is  in  the  35th  Henry  III. 
1251.  The  laureat  was  then  styled  the  king's  versifier,  and  a  hundred  shil- 
lings were  his  annual  stipend. —  Warton;  Maddox,  Hist.  Exch.  Chaucer,  on 
his  return  from  abroad,  assumed  the  title  poet-laureat;  and  in  the  twelfth 
year  of  Richard  II.,  1889,  he  obtained  a  grant  of  an  annual  allowance  of 
wine.  James  L.  in  1615,  granted  to  his  laureat  a  yearly  pension  of  100 
marks;  and  in  1630,  this  stipend  was  augmented  by  letters  patent  of  Charles 
I.  to  lOOZ.  per  annum,  with  an  additional  grant  of  one  tierce  of  Canary 
Spanish  wine,  to  be  taken  out  of  the  king's  store  of  wine  yearly. 

NAMES  OF  PERSONS  WHO  FILLED  THE  OFFICE  PROM  THE  EEIGN  OP  aUEBN  ELIZABETH. 


Elizabeth  appointed  Edmund  Spenser, 

who  died  -  -  -    a.  d.  1598 

Samuel  Daniel,  died  -  -     •  1619 

Ben  .Tonson,  died  -  -  -  1637 

Sir  William  Davenant,  died  -     -1668 

John  Dryden ;  he  was  deposed  at  the 

revolution        ....  1688 
Thomas  Shadwell,  died       -  -     -  1692 


Nahum  Tate,  died          -           -  a.  d.  1716 

The  rev.  Laurence  Eusden,  died  -  1730 

CoUey  Gibber,  died  -           -  .     -  1757 

William  Whitehead,  died         -  .  1785 

Rev.  Dr.  Thomas  Warton,  died  -     .  1790 

Henry  James  Pye,  died  -           -  - 1813 
Dr.  Robert  Southey,  died    .  March  21, 1843 

William  Wordsworth,  died  -     .  1850 


POETRY.  The  oldest,  rarest,  and  most  excellent  of  the  fine  arts,  and  highest 
species  of  refined  literature.  It  was  the  first  fixed  form  of  language,  and 
the  earliest  perpetuation  of  thought.  It  existed  before  music  in  melody, 
and  before  painting  in  description. — HazUtt.  The  exact  period  of  the  in- 
vention of  poetry  is  uncertain.  In  Scriptural  history,  the  song  of  Moses  on 
the  signal  deliverance  of  the  Israelites,  and  their  passage  through  the  Red  Sea, 
is  said  to  be  the  most  ancient  piece  of  poetry  in  the  world,  and  is  very  sub- 
lime.— Exodus  XV.  Orpheus  of  Thrace  is  the  earliest  author,  and  is  deemed 
the  inventor  of  poetry  (at  least  in  the  western  part  of  the  world),  about  1249 
B.  c.  Homer,  the  oldest  poet  whose  works  have  descended  to  us,  flourished 
about  907  b.  c— Parian  Marb.  Iambic  verse  {which  see)  was  introduced  by 
Archilochus,  700  b.  c.—Du  Fresnoy.  For  odes,  see  article  Odes.  We  are 
told  that  poetry  (or  more  properly  the  rules  of  poetry)  was  first  brought  to 
England  by  Aldhelme,  or  Adelmus,  abbot  of  Malmsbury,  about  the  close  of 
the  seventh  century. 


476 


THE    world's    progress. 


Lpol 


POISONING.  A  number  of  Roman  ladies  formed  a  conspiracy  for  poisoning 
their  husbands,  which  they  too  fatally  carried  into  eifect.  A  female  slave 
denounced  170  of  them  to  Fabius  Maximus,  who  ordered  them  to  be  pub- 
licly executed,  331  b.  c.  It  is  said  that  this  was  the  first  public  knowledge 
they  had  of  poisoning  at  Rome.  Poisoning  was  made  petty  treason  in  Eng- 
land, and  was  punished  by  boiling  to  deatii  (of  which  there  were  some  re- 
markable instances)  23  Henry  VIII.  1532.    See  article  Boiling  to  Death. 

POITIERS,  Battle  of,  in  France,  between  Edward  the  Black  Prince  and  John 
king  of  France,  in  which  the  English  arms  triumphed.  The  standard  of 
France  was  overthrown,  and  many  of  her  distinguished  nobility  were  slain. 
The  French  king  was  taken  prisoner,  and  brought  to  London,  through 
which  he  was  led  amidst  an  amazing  concourse  of  spectators.  Two  kings, 
prisoners  in  the  same  court  and  at  the  same  time,  were  considered  as  glo- 
rious achievements ;  but  all  that  England  gained  by  them  was  only  glory, 
Sept.  19,  1356.— Carte. 

POLAND,  Anciently,  the  country  of  the  Vandals,  who  emigrated  from  it  to 
invade  the  Roman  empire.  It  became  a  duchy  imder  Lechus  I.  a.  d.  550; 
and  a  kingdom  under  Boleslaus  a.  d.  999.  Poland  was  dismembered  by  the 
emperor  of  Germany,  the  empress  of  Russia,  and  king  of  Prussia,  who  seiz- 
ed the  most  valuable  territories  in  1772.  It  was  finally  partitioned,  and  its 
political  existence  annihilated,  by  the  above  powers,  in  1795.*  The  king 
formallj^  resigned  his  crown  at  Grodno,  and  was  afterwards  removed  to  Pe- 
tersburgh,  wliere  he  remained  a  kind  of  state  prisoner  till  his  death  in 
1798.    With  him  ended  the  kingdom  of  Poland. 

Abdication  of  John  Casimir      -  -  1669 

842     IMassacre  of  the  Protestants  at  Thorn  -1724 

Stanislaus'  unhappy  reign  begins        -  1763 

He  abolishes  torture       -  -  •  1770 

An    awful    pestilence    sweeps    away 

250,000  of  the  people  -  -  - 1770 

992     The  evils  of  civil  war  so  weaken  the 

1059 


Piastus,  a  peasant,  is  elected  to  the  du- 
cal dignity        -  -  -     a.  d. 

[Piastus  lived  to  the  age  of  120,  and  his 
reign  was  so  prosperous  that  every 
succeeding  native  sovereign  was  call- 
ed a  Piast.] 

Introduction  of  Christianity 

Red  Russia  added  to  Poland 


Boleslaus  11.  murders  the  bishop  of 
Cracow  with  his  own  hands ;  his 
kingdom  laid  under  an  interdict  by 
the  pope,  and  his  subjects  absolved 
of  their  allegiafice        -  -  -  1080 

He  flies  to  Hungaiy  for  shelter ;  but  is 
refused  it  by  order  of  Gregory  VII., 
and  he  at  length  kills  himself  -  1081 

Uladislaus  deposed         -  -  -  1102 

Premislaus  assassinated-  -  -  1295 

Louis  of  Hungary  elected  king-  -  1370 

War  against  the  Teutonic  knights       - 1447 
The  Wallachians  treacherously  carry 
oir  100,000  Poles,  and  sell  them  to 
the  Turks  as  slaves     -        .  -  -  1498 

Splendid  reign  of  Sigismund  II.  -  1548 

Stephen  forms  a  militia  composed  of 
Cossacks,  a  barbarous  race,  on  whom 
he  bestows  the  Ukraine  -  -  1575 


kingdom,  it  falls  an  easy  prey  to  the 
royal    plunderers,    the    empress   of 
Russia,  emperor  of  Austria,  and  king 
of  Prussia         ....  1772 
The  first  partition  treaty  Feb.  17,  1772 

The  public  partition  treaty       Aug.  5,  1772 
A  new  constitution  is  formed  by  the 

virtuous  Stanislaus     -  -  May  3,  1791 

[The  royal  and  imperial  spoliators,  on 
various  pretexts,  pour  their  armies 
into  Poland,  1792,  et  seq.] 
The  brave  Poles,  under  Poniatowski 
and  Kosciusko,  several  times  contend 
successfully  against  superior  armies, 
but  in  the  end  are  defeated.  Kosci- 
usko, wounded  and  taken,  is  carried 
prisoner  to  Russia      -  -  - 1794 

Stiwarrow's  victories  and  massacres   -  1794 
Battle  of  Warsaw  -  Oct.  12, 1794 

[Here  Suwarrow  subsequently  butch- 


*  An  act  of  spoliation  more  unprincipled  never  dishonored  crowned  heads.  For  a  century  pre- 
viously, the  balance  of  power  had  engaged  the  attention  of  the  politicians  of  Europe;  butin  per- 
mitting this  odious  crime,  such  an  object  appears  to  have  been  totally  lost  sight  of.  Austria  and 
Prussia  had  long  been  deadly  enemies,  and  both  hated  Russia;  yet  they  now  conspired  agaiast  a 
country  they  were  each  pledged  to  protect,  and  with  unexampled  profligacy  became  leagued  in  a 
scheme  of  plunder  consummated  by  the  destruction  of  .500,000  lives !  Russia  seized  Lithuania, 
and  all  that  part  to  the  eastward  that  suited  her.  Austria  took  Gallicia,  the  most  fertile  of  the 
provinces,  lying  contiguous  to  her  own  dominions ;  and  Prussia  secured  the  maritime  districts. 
The  most  extraordinary  circumstance  attending  this  afiair  was  the  total  inaction  of  the  two  greal 
powers,  England  and  France,  whose  supineness  in  a  more  recent  instance  also  is  rebuked  by  policj 
as  well  as  justice,  and  de]iloredby  the  food  and  brave  among  mankind. — Haydn. 


POL  ] 


DICTIONARY    OP    DATES. 


477 


POLAND,  continued. 

era  30,000  Poles  of  all  ages  and  condi- 
tions in  cold  blood.] 
Courland  is  annexed  to  Russia  -  - 1795 

Stanislaus  resigns  his  crown ;  final  par- 
tition of  his  kingdom  -  Nov.  25,  1795 
Kosciusko  set  at  liberty  Dec.  25,  1796 
Stanislaus   dies    at    St.    Petersburgh, 

Fe>i.  12, 1798 
Treaty  of  Tilsit  (ichich  see)      -  July  7, 1807 
[The  central  provinces  form  the  duchy 
of  Warsaw,  between  1807  and  1813.] 
General  Diet  at  Wai^saw  -  June,  1812 

New  constitution  -  -    Nov.  1815 

Polish  Diet  opened         -  -    Sept.  1820 

Revolution  commenced  at  Warsaw ; 
the  army  declare  in  favor  of  the  peo- 
ple        -  -  -  Nov,  29,  1830 
The  Diet  declares  the  throne  of  Poland 

vacant  -  -  -  Jan.  25,  1831 

Battle  of  Growchow,  near  Praga :  the 


Russians  lose  7000  men  ;  the  Poles, 
who  keep  the  field,  2000         Feb.  20, 1831 
Battle  of  Ostrolenka;  signal  defeat  of 

the  Russians    -  -  May  26,  1831 

The  Russian,  Diebitsch,  dies   June  10,  1831 
Grand  Duke  Constantine  dies,  June  27,  1831 
Battle  of  Winsk  (see  Wmsk)  July  14,  1831 
Warsaw  taken  (see  Warsaic}  Sept.  8,  1831 
[This  last  fatal  event  terminated  the 
nemorable  and  glorious,  but  unfor- 
tunate struggle  of  the  Poles.] 
Ukase  issued  by  the  emperor  Nicholas, 
decreeing  that  the  kingdom  of  Poland 
shall  henceforth  form  an  integral  part 
of  the  Russian  empire  Feb.  26,  1832 

A  powerful  insurrection ;  40,000  march 

on  Cracow,  but  are  defeated,  Feb.  23,  1846 
Cracow  occupied  by  the  Austrians^  and 
the  treaty  which  had  made  it  inde- 
pendent, declared  abrogated,  Nov.  16, 1846 
Unsuccessful  revolt  at  Cracow,  Apr.  25,  1848 


DUKES   AND  KINGS    OP  POLAND. 


k.D.   550 

700 


750 
750 

804 
810 
815 
830 
842 
861 
892 
913 
964 
999 
1025 
1041 
1058 
i082 
1102 
1140 
1146 
1173 
1178 
1194 
1200 


1203 
1206 


1228 
1279 


Lechus  I.  His  posterity  held  the 
dukedom  for  about  150  years. 

Cracus  I. 

Cracus  11.,  assassinated  by  his  brother. 

Lechus  II.,  deposed. 

Venda,  drowned  herself. 

Premislaus.  who  on  being  elected  was 
named  Lescus  or  Le-ss. 

Lescus  II.,  killed  by  the  French. 

Lescus  III. 

Popiel  I. 

Popiel  II. 

Piastus,  a  country  peasant. 

Zemo  Vitus. 

Lescus  IV. 

Zemomislaus. 

Miecislaus,  surnamed  the  Blind. 

Boleslans  I.,  surnamed  the  Intrepid. 

Miecislaus  II.,  went  mad. 

Casimir  the  Pacific. 

Boleslaus  II.,  killed  himself 

Uladislaus,  surnamed  Huraanus. 

Boleslaus  III.,  surnamed  Wry-mouth. 

Uladislaus  II.,  fled. 

Boleslaus  IV.,  the  Curled. 

Miecislaus  III.,  deposed. 

Casimir  II.,  surnamed  the  Just. 

Lescus  v.,  relinquished. 

Miecislaus  IV.,  whose  tyranny  in  a 
few  months  restored  Lescus  V. ;  but 
for  bad  conduct  he  was  again  forced 
to  relinquish  the  government. 

Uladislaus  III. ;  he  voluntarily  retired. 

Lescus  v.,  a  third  time,  being  chosen 
by  the  nobles,  assassinated ;  suc- 
ceeded by  his  son,  an  infant. 

Boleslaus  V.,  the  Chaste. 

Lescus  VI.,  surnamed  the  Black,  son 
of  Conrad,  brother  of  Lescus  V., 
died  1289.  An  interregnum  of  five 
years,  when  the  Poles  chose 


1295  Premislaus,  great  duke  of  Poland,  as- 

sassinated. 

1296  Uladislaus  IV.,  surnamed  Loeticus ; 

he  refused  the  title  of  king ;  deposed. 

1300  Winceslaus. 

1306  Uladislaus  IV.,  again. 

1333  Casimir  the  Great,  killed  by  a  fall 
from  his  horse,  while  hunting. 

1370  Lewis,  king  of  Hungary,  succeeded  by 
his  daughter, 

1383  Hedwigis,"who  married,  in 

13S5  Jagellon,  duke  of  Lithuania,  who  em- 
braced the  Christian  religion,  and 
took  the  name  of 
Uladislaus  V.  ;   imited  Lithuania  to 
Poland. 

1434  Uladislaus  VI.,  killed  in  battle. 

1444  Boleslaus,  duke  of  Massovia. 

1447  Casimir  IV. 

1492  John  Albert. 

1502  Alexander,  prince  of  Livonia. 

1507SigismundI. 

15^18  Sigismund  II.,  Augustus,  chose 

1573  Henry  of  Valois,  duke  of  Anjou,  sue 

ceeding  to  the  French  throne. 

1576  Stephen  Battory,  prince  of  Transyl- 
vania. 

1587  Sigismund  III.,  son  to  the  king  of 
Sweden. 

1632  Uladislaus  VIL 

1648  John  Casimir,  abdicated. 

1669  Michael  Koribert  Wiesnown. 

1574  John  Sobieski,  died  in  1697.    An  inter- 

regnum for  a  year. 

1693  Frederick  Augustus  II.,  forced  to  re- 
sign. 

1704  Stanislaus  I.,  Leczinsky,  forced  to  re- 
lire  in  1710. 

1710  Frederick  Augustus  II.,  again. 

1733  Stanislaus  I.,  again. 

1733  Frederick  Augustus  III, 

1764  StanislausAugustus  resigns  the  crown. 


So  late  as  the  13th  century,  the  Poles  retained  the  custom  of  killing  old  meu 
when  past  labor,  and  such  children  as  were  born  imi^erfect. 

POLAR   REGIONS.      For  voyages  of  discovery  to  the,  see  Norlh-xijest  Pas- 


478  THE    world's    progress.  [  POM 

POLE  STAR.  A  star  of  the  second  magnitude,  the  last  in  the  tail  of  the  con- 
stellation called  the  lAttle  Bear;  its  nearness  to  the  North  Pole  causes  it  ne- 
ver to  set  to  those  in  the  northern  hemisphere,  and  therefore  it  is  called  the 
seaman's  guide.  The  discovery  of  the  Pole  Star  is  ascribed  by  the  Chinese 
to  their  emperor  Hong  Ti,  the  grandson  (they  say)  of  Noah,  who  reigned 
and  flourished  1970  b.  c. —  Univ.  Hist. 

POLICE.  That  of  London  has  been  extended  and  regulated  at  various  pe- 
riods. Its  jurisdiction  was  extended  27  Elizabeth  1585,  and  16  Charles  I. 
1640 ;  and  the  system  improved  by  various  acts  in  subsequent  reigns.  The 
London  police  grew  out  of  the  London  watch,  instituted  about  1253.  The 
London  police  was  remodelled  by  Mr.  (afterwards  sir  Robert)  Peel,  by  statute, 
June  19,  1829.  Some  advance  has  been  made  since  1840,  in  introducing  a 
suitable  police  in  New  York  and  other  large  cities  of  the  United  States ;  but 
we  are  yet  very  far  behind  London  in  this  matter.  Probably  no  city  in  the 
world,  large  or  small,  is  so  well  provided  as  London  with  an  efficient  and 
useful  police  force ;  a  force  which  not  only  detects  and  prevents  crime,  but 
preserves  order,  quiet,  and  public  convenience,  in  an  admirable  manner. 

POLITICAL  ECONOMY,  or  improvement  of  the  condition  of  mankind.  A 
science  justly  viewed  as  the  great  high-road  to  ijublic  and  private  happiness. 
Its  history  may  be  dated  from  the  publication  of  Dr.  Adam  Smith's  Wealth 
of  Nolions.  1776. 

POLITICIANS.  A  politician  is  described  as  a  man  M'ell  versed  in  policy,  or 
the  well  regulating  and  governing  of  a  state  or  kingdom ;  a  wise  and  cun- 
ning man. — Pardon.  The  term  was  first  used  in  France  about  a.  d.  1569. — 
Henault. 

POLL-TAX.  The  tax  so  called  was  first  levied  in  England  a.  d.  1378.  The  re- 
bellion of  Wat  Tyler  sprung  from  this  impost  (see  Tyler),  1381.  It  was 
again  levied  in  1513.  By  the  18th  Charles  II.  every  subject  was  assessed 
by  the  head,  viz. — a  duke  lOOZ.,  a  marquis  80Z.,  a  baronet  30^.,  a  knight  20Z., 
an  esquire  10^.,  and  every  single  private  person  12d.,  1667.  This  grievous 
impost  was  abolished  by  William  III.  at  the  period  of  the  Revolution. 

POLYGAMY.  Most  of  the  early  nations  of  the  world  admitted  polygamy. 
It  was  general  among  the  ancient  Jews,  and  is  still  so  among  the  Turks  and 
Persiajis.  In  Medea  it  was  a  reproach  to  a  man  to  have  less  than  seven 
wives.  Among  the  Romans,  Marc  Antony  is  mentioned  as  the  first  who 
took  two  wives ;  and  the  practice  became  frequent  until  forbidden  by  Arca- 
dius  A.  D.  893.  The  emperor  Charles  V.  punished  this  offence  with  death. 
In  England,  by  statute  1  James  1.  1603,  it  was  made  felony,  but  witli  bene- 
fit of  clergy.  This  oflfence  is  now  punished  with  transportation.  See 
Marriages. 

POLYGLOT.  The  term  is  derived  from  t\vo  Greek  words  denoting  "  many  lan- 
guages," and  it  is  chiefly  used  for  the  Bible  so  printed.  The  Polyglot  Bible 
termed  the  Comptutensian  Polyglot,  in  6  vols,  folio,  was  printed  a.  d.  1514-17 ; 
the  first  edition  at  the  expense  of  the  celebrated  cardinal  Ximenes.  Three  co- 
])ies  of  it  were  printed  on  vellum.  Count  MacCarthy,  of  Toulouse,  paid  483Z. 
for  one  of  these  copies  at  tlie  Pinelli  sale.  The  second  Polyglot  was  printed 
at  Antwerp,  by  Montanus,  8  vols,  folio,  in  1569.  The  third  was  printed  at  Pa- 
ris, by  Le  Jay,  in  10  vols,  folio,  1628-45.  The  fourth  in  London,  printed  by 
Bryan  Walton,  in  6  vols,  folio,  1657. — Brunei. 

POMPEII,  Ruins  of.  This  ancient  city  of  Campania  was  partly  demolished 
by  an  earthquake  in  a.  d.  63.  It  was  afterwards  rebuilt,  and  was  swallowed 
up  by  an  awful  eruption  of  Ve.suvius,  accompanied  by  an  earthquake,  on  the 
night  of  the  24th  of  August,  a.  d.  79.  Many  of  the  principal  citizens  happen- 
ed at  the  time  to  be  as.'^euibU'd  at  a  theati-e  where  public  spectacles  were 


pop] 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES. 


479 


exhibited.  The  ashes  buried  the  whole  city,  and  covered  the  surrounding 
country.  After  a  lapse  of  fifteen  centuries,  a  countryman,  as  he  was  turning 
up  tlie  ground,  accidentally  found  a  bronze  figure  ;  and  this  discovery  attract- 
ing the  attention  of  the  learned,  further  search  brought  numerous  produc- 
tions to  light,  and  at  length  the  city  was  once  more  shone  on  by  the  sun. 
Different  monarchs  have  contributed  their  aid  in  uncovering  the  buried 
city;   the  part  first  cleared  was  supposed  to  be  the  main  street,  a.  d.  1750. 

I'ONDICHERRY.  Formerly  the  capital  of  French  India,  and  first  settled  by 
the  French  in  1674.  It  was  taken  from  them  by  the  Dutch  in  1693,  and 
was  beseiged  by  the  English  in  1748.  It  was  taken  by  the  English  forces  in 
Januarv  1761,  and  was  restored  in  1763.  Pondicherry  was  once  more  cap- 
tured by  the  British,  August  23,  1793 ;  and  finally  in  1803. 

I'ONTUS.  The  early  history  of  this  country  (which  seems  to  have  been  but  a 
portion  of  Cappadocia,  and  received  its  name  from  its  vicinity  tc  the  Pon- 
tus  Eiixinus)  is  very  obscure.  Artabazes  was  made  king  of  Pontus  oy  Darius 
Hystaspes.  His  successors  were  little  more  than  satraps  or  lieutenants  of 
the  kings  of  Persia,  and  are  scarcely  known  even  by  name. 


Artabazes  made  king  of  Pontus  by  Da- 
rius Hystaspes  -            -            -    B.  c.  487 
Reijrn  of  Mitliridates  I.         -           -      -383 
Ariobarzanes  invades  Pontus     -           -  363 
INIithridates  II.  recovers  it     ■           -      -  336 
Mithridates  III.  reians     -            -            -  301 
Ariobarzanes  II.  reigns         -            -      -  266 
INIithridates  IV.  is  besieged  in  liis  capi- 
tal by  tlie  Gauls,  &c.    -           -           -  252 
Mithridates  makes  an  unsuccessful  at- 
tack upon  the  free  cily  of  Sinope,  and 
is  obliged  to  raise  the  siege  by  the 
Rhodians           -           -           -           -  219 
Reign  of  Pharnaces  ;  he  takes  Sinope, 
and  makes  it  tlic  capital  of  his  king- 
dom          183 

Reign  of  Mithridates  V.        -  -      -1.57 

He  IS  murdered  in  the  midst  of  his  court  123 
Mithridates  VI.,  surnamed  the  Great,  or 
Eupator,  receives  the  diadein  at  12 
years  of  age       ...  -  123 

Marries  Laodice,  his  own  sister       -      -  115 
She  attempts  to  poison  him ;  he  puts 

her  and  her  accomplices  to  death       -  112 
Mithridates  makes  a  glorious  campaign ; 
conquers    Scythia,    Bosphorus,   Col- 
chis, and  other  countries         -  -  111 
He  enters  Cappadocia           -            -      -    97 
His  war  witlr  Rome        -           •  -    89 


Tigranes  ravages  Cappadocia         b.  c. 

Mithridates  enters  Biihynia,  and  makes 
himself  master  of  many  Roman  pro- 
vinces, and  puts  80,000  Romans  to 
death      ..... 

Archelaus  defeated  by  Sylla,  at  Chaero- 
nea ;  100,000  Cappadocians  slain 

Victories  and  conquests  of  Mithridates 
up  to  this  time    -         -  .  . 

The  ileet  of  Mithridates  defeats  that  un- 
der LueuUus,  in  two  battles 

Mithridates  defeated  by  LucuUus 

Mithridates  defeats  Fabius   - 

But  is  defeated  by  Pompey 

Mithridates  stabs  himself,  and  dies 

Reign  of  Pharnaces 

BalUe  of  Zela  (see  Zela) ;  Pharnaces 
defeated  by  Csesar 

Darius  reigns  -  -  -      - 

Polemon,  son  of  Zeno,  reigns 

Polemon  II.  succeeds  his  lather    -  A.  D. 

Mithridates  VII.  reigns 

Pontus  afterwards  became  a  Roman 
province,  under  the  emperors. 

Ale.xis  Comncnus  founded  a  new  empire 
of  the  Greeks  at  Trebisond,  in  this 
country,  a.  d.  1204,  which  continued 
till  the  Turks  destroyed  it  in  1459.- 


86 


POOR  LAWS.  The  poor  of  England  till  the  time  of  Henry  VIII.  subsisted  as 
the  poor  of  Ireland  do  to  this  day,  entirely  upon  private  benevolence.  By 
an  ancient  statute,  23  Edward  III.  1348,  it  was  enacted  that  none  should 
give  alms  to  a  beggar  able  to  work.  By  the  common  law,  the  poor  were  to 
be  sustained  by  "  parsons,  rectors  of  the  church,  and  parishioners,  so  that 
none  should  die  for  default  of  sustenance  ;"  and  by  statute  15  Richard  II. 
impropriators  were  obliged  to  distribute  a  yearly  sum  to  the  poor.  But  no 
compulsory  lav/  was  enacted  till  the  27th  Henry  VIII.,  1535.  The  origin  of 
the  present  system  of  poor  laws  is  referred  to  the  43d  of  Elizabeth,  1600. 


In  1580,  the  Poor  Rates  were  -  £188,811 

1680,  they  amounted  to  -  665.562 

1698,  they  amounted  to     -  -  819.000 

1760,  they  amounted  to  -  1,556,804 

1785,  they  amounted  to  -  2.184,950 

1802,  they  amounted  to  -  4,952,421 


In  1815,  the  Poor  Rates  were  -  £5,418.845 

1820,  they  amounted  to  -  7,329,594 

1830,  they  amounted  to  ■  8,111,422 

1835,  they  amounted  to  -  6,.356.345 

l&JO.  they  amounted  to  -  5,468.699 

1845.  they  amounted  to  -  5,543,050 


POPE.  This  title  was  originally  given  to  all  bishops.  It  was  first  adopted  by  Hy- 
genus,  A.  n.  138;  and  y.<i\tf  Bonifiu  ■,■  HT.  i)V(H'\ired  Phooas,  emperor  of  the 


480  THE    world's    progress.  [  POP 

East,  to  confine  it  to  the  prelates  of  Rome,  606.  By  the  connivance  of  Pho- 
cas  also,  the  pope's  supremacy  over  the  Christian  church  was  established.  The 
custom  of  kissing  the  pope's  toe  was  introduced  in  708.  The  first  sovereign 
act  of  the  popes  of  Rome  was  by  Adrian  I.,  who  caused  money  to  be  coined 
with  his  name,  780.  Sergius  II.  was  the  first  pope  who  changed  his  name, 
on  his  election  in  844.  Some  contend  that  it  was  Sergius  I.  and  others  John 
XII.  or  XIII.  See  Names.  John  XVIII.,  a  layman,  was  made  pope  1024.  The 
first  pope  who  kept  an  armj'-  was  Leo  IX.  1054.  Gregory  VII.  obliged  Henry 
rV.,  emperor  of  Germany,  to  stand  three  days  in  the  depth  of  winter,  bare- 
footed, at  his  castle  gate,  to  implore  his  pardon,  1077.  Tlie  pope's  authority 
was  firmly  fixed  in  England  1079.  Appeals  from  English  tribunals  to  the 
pope  were  introduced  19  Stephen,  11-54. —  Viner's  Statutes.  Henry  II.  of  Eng- 
land held  the  stirrup  of  pope  Alexander  III.  to  mount  his  horse,  1161;  and 
also  for  Becket,  1170.*  Celestine  III.  kicked  the  emperor  Henry  VI.'s  crown 
off  his  head  while  kneeling,  to  show  his  prerogative  of  making  and  unmak- 
ing kings,  1191.  The  pope  collected  the  tenths  of  the  whole  kingdom  of 
England,  1226.  The  papal  seat  was  removed  to  Avignon,  in  France,  in  1308, 
for  seventy  years.  The  Holy  See's  demands  on  England  were  refused  by 
parliament,  1363.  Appeals  to  Rome  from  England  were  abolished  1533. — 
Viner.  The  words  "  Lord  Pope"  were  struck  out  of  allEnghsh  books,  1541. 
The  papal  authority  declined  about  1600.  Kissing  the  pope's  toe  and  other 
ceremonies,  were  abolished  by  Clement  XIV.  1773.  The  pope  became  des- 
titute of  all  political  influence  in  Europe,  1787.  Pius  VI.  Avas  burnt  in  effigy 
at  Paris  1791.  He  made  submission  to  the  French  republic,  1796.  Was 
expelled  from  Rome,  and  deposed,  February  22,  1798,  and  died  at  Valence, 
August  19,  1799.  Pius  VII.  was  elected  in  exile,  March  13,  1800.  Was 
dethroned  May  13,  1809.  Remained  a  prisoner  at  Fontainebleau  till  Napo- 
leon's overthrow ;  and  was  restored  May  24,  1814.  Pope  Pius  IX.  elected 
June  1846,  decrees  a  senate  of  100,  Oct.  2, 1847.  Riot  at  Rome,  new  ministry, 
May  1,  1848.  Count  Rossi,  the  pope's  prime  minister,  assassinated  Nov. 
16,  1848.  Attack  of  the  people  on  the  Quirinale ;  the  pope  yields  and 
grants  a  liberal  ministry,  Nov.  16.  After  being  a  prisoner  in  his  palace 
for  a  week,  the  pope  escapes  in  disguise  of  a  servant  to  Mola-di-Gaeta,  Nov. 
24,  and  thence  goes  to  Portici,  near  Naples.  Roman  republic  proclaimed 
Feb.  9,  1849.  See  Rome.  The  pope  returned  to  Rome,  April  1850.  See 
Italy ;  Rome;  Reformation,  cf-c. 

POPES    SINCE    THE    REFORMATION. 

1591  Innocent  IX. ;  died  in  2  months. 


A.D.  1513  Leo  X.  ;  his  grant  of  indulsrences  for 
crime  led  to  the  reformation. 

1.522  Adrian  VI. 

152-3  Clement  VII. ;  denounced  Henry  VIII. 
of  England. 

1534  Paul  III. 

1550  .Julius  III. 

1.555  iMarcellus  II. ;  died  in  2]  days. 

1555  Paul  IV. ;  fiery  and  haughty. 

1559  Pius  IV. 

1566  Pius  V. 

1572  Gregory  XIII.  ;  learned  canon  ;  re- 
formed the  Calendar,  {trhich  see). 

1585  Sixtus  V.  ;  supposed  poisoned. 

1590  Urban  VII. ;  died  12  days  after. 

1590  Gregory  XIV. 


1-592  Clement  VIII.  ;  learned  and  just. 
1605  Leo  XI. ;  died  same  month. 
1605  Paul  V. 

1621  Gregory  XV. ;  beneficent. 
1623  Urban  VIII. 

1644  Innocent  X. ;  violent  and  cruel. 
16.55  Alexander  VII. ;  liberal  and  learned. 
1667  Clement  IX.  ;  died  of  grief. 
1670  Clement  X. 

1676  Innocent  XI. ;  reformed  abuses. 
1689  Alexander  VIII. 
1691  Innocent  XII. ;  abolished  nepotism. 
1700  Clement  XI. 

1721  Innocent  XIII. ;  the  eighth  pontiff  of 
his  family. 


*  "  When  Louis,  kin^  of  France,  and  Henry  II.  of  England,  met  pope  Alexander  III.  at  the  castle 
of  Torei,  on  the  Loire,  they  both  dismounted  to  receive  "him,  and  holding  each  of  them  one  of  the 
reins  of  his  bridle,  walked  on  foot  by  his  side,  and  conducted  him  in  that  submissive  manner  into 
the  castle." — Hume.  Pope  Adrian  IV.  was  the  only  Englishman  that  ever  obtained  the  tiara.  His 
arrogance  was  such,  that  he  obliged  Frederick  I.  to  prostrate  himself  before  him,  kiss  his  foot,  hold 
his  slirrup,  and  lead  the  white  palfrey  on  which  ho  rode.  His  name  was  Nicholas  Brekespeare. 
He  was  elected  In  the  popedom  in  115-1 


pop] 


DICTIONARY    OP    DATES. 


481 


1800  Cardinal  Chiaramonte,  elected  at  Van 
ice,  as  Pius  VII.,  March  13. 

1823  Annibal delta Genga,Leo  XII., Sept.23 

1831  Mauro  Capellari,  Gregory  XVI.,Feb.2. 

1846  Mastei  Ferretti,  Pius  IX.,  inaugurated 
June  21,  aged  54.        -        -  June  16. 


POPES,  continued. 

1724  Benedict  XIU. 

1730  Clement  XII. ;  reformed  abuses. 

1740  Benedict  XIV. ;  wise  and  pious. 

1758  Clement  XIII. 

1769  Clement  XIV.    Ganganelli. 

1775  Pius  VI.,  February  14. 

For  Succession  of  Popes  to  the  Reformation,  see  Tabular  Vieios,  from  page 
50  to  page  115. 

POPE  JOAN.  It  is  fabulously  asserted  that  in  the  ninth  century,  a  female, 
named  Joan,  conceived  a  violent  passion  for  a  young  monk  named  Felda^ 
and  in  order  to  be  admitted  into  his  monastery  assumed  the  male  habit! 
On  the  death  of  her  lover,  she  entered  on  the  duties  of  professor,  and  being 
very  learned,  was  elected  pope  when  Adrian  II.  died  in  872.  Other  scan- 
dalous particulars  follow  ;  "  yet  until  the  Reformation  the  tale  was  repeated 
and  believed  without  offence." — Gibbon. 

POPISH  PLOT.  This  plot  is  said  to  have  been  contrived  by  the  Catholics  to 
assassinate  Charles  II. ;  concerning  which,  even  modern  historians  have 
affirmed,  that  some  circumstances  were  true,  though  some  were  added,  and 
others  much  magnified.  The  popish  plot  united  in  one  conspiracy  three 
particular  designs  :  to  kill  the  king,  to  subvert  the  government,  and  extir- 
pate the  Protestant  religion.  Lord  Stafford  was  convicted  of  high  treason 
as  a  conspirator  in  the  Popish  plot,  and  was  beheaded,  making  on  the 
scaffold  the  most  earnest  protestations  of  his  innocence,  Dec.  29,  1680.^ — 
Rapin. 

POPULATION.  The  population  of  the  world  may  now,  according  to  the  best 
and  latest  authorities,  Balbi,  Hanneman,  the  Almanac  de  Gotha,  &c.,  be 
stated  in  round  numbers  at  1050  millions.  Of  these,  Europe  is  supposed  to 
contain  270  millions  ;  Asia,  565  millions  ;  Africa,  115  millions;  Amei-ica,  75 
millions ;  and  Australasia,  25  millions.  The  population  of  England  in  a.  d. 
1377  was  2,092,978  souls.  In  a  little  more  than  a  hundred  years,  1483*  it 
had  increased  to  4,689,000.  The  following  tables  of  the  population  of  the 
United  Kingdom  are  from  official  returns  : — 

POPULATION  OP  ENGLAND  AND  WALES  DECENNIALLY  FOR  ONE  HUNDRED  YEARS. 


Year  1700 
1710 
1720 
1730 
1740 
1750 
1760 


pulation  5.475,000 

Year  1770 

ditto 

5,240,000 

1780 

ditto 

5,5Bo,U0U 

J  790 

ditto 

5,790.UOO 

1801 

ditto 

6.064.000 

1821 

ditto 

6,467.000 

1841 

ditto 

6.736,U0O 

Population  7,428,000 
ditto  7,953,000 
ditto  8,675,000 
ditto  10,942,646 
ditto  14,391,631 
ditto       18,844,434 


POPULATION   OF  THE    UNITED    STATES. 


Year  1790  Population  3,929.827 

1800  -        -        -       ditto       5,305;925 
1810       •        -    -       ditto       7,239,814 

1820  -        -        -       ditto       9,638,131 

PRESENT  POPULATION  OP  THE  CHIEF  KINGDOMS  AND  CITIES  OF  THE  WORLD, 


Year  1830  Population  12,866,920 

1840  -        -        -       ditto       17,063,353 
[See  the  several  States.] 


Chinese  empire 

CBalbi)    -        -  180,000,000 

Russia    -        -    -  58,-500,000 

Russian  empire  -  72,000,000 

France-       -        -  36,500,000 

Austria  -  -  -  34,599,000 
Great  Britain  and 

Ireland  -  -  27,000,000 
British  empire    - 158,000,000 

Japan     -        -    -  27,000,000 

Spam  -  -  -  17,500,000 
Spanish    empn-e 

(total)  ■        ■    -  19,500,000 


Pruss.  monarchy    16,550,000 
United  States  of 


America* 
Tur]i:ey  -        -    - 
Ottoman  empire 

Ootat)      - 
Persia     -        -    - 
Mexico 
Kingdom  of  the 

two  Sicilies  -    - 
Brazil  - 

Sardinia  -        -    • 
Morocco 


17,063,000 
12,000,000 

24,500,000 
11.800,000 
9,500,000 

8,750,000 
6,250,000 
5,800,000 
5,200,000 


Holland  -        -     ■ 

Dutch  monarchy 
(total) 

Bavaria  - 

Sweden  and  Nor- 
way - 

Belgium - 

Poland 

Portugal 

Republic  of  Co- 
lumbia   - 

Eccles.  States - 

British  America 


5,100,000 

14,7.50,000 
4,600,000 

4,-550.000 
4,500,000 
4,250,000 
3,950,000 

3,350,000 
2,970-000 
2,950;000 


In  1840.     Ill  18-V),  estimated  at  22,000,000. 
21 


482 


THE    WORLD'S    PROGRESS. 


[POR 


POPUI.ATION,  continued. 

Switzerland 

2,450,000 

St.  Petersburgh  - 

405,000 

Hamburgh     •    • 

Denmark        -    - 

2,400,000 

Vienna    -        -    • 

395,000 

Lyons 

Hanover     - 

1,780,000 

New  York  (1845) 

371.000 

Palermo  -        -    - 

Wirtemberg  -    - 

1,680,000 

Moscow 

355;000 

Marseilles  - 

Saxony 

1,650,000 

Grand  Cairo  -    - 

335,000 

Copenhagen   -    - 

Tuscany-        -    - 

1,550,000 

J,isbon 

298.000 

Turin  - 

Baden 

1,400,000 

Aleppo    - 

280;000 

Seville    -        -    - 

CITIES, 

Berlin  - 

280.000 

Warsaw 

Cities. 

Inhab. 

Amsterdam    -    • 

274,000 

Tunis      -        -    - 

London  iParlia- 

Madrid 

270,000 

Baltimore  (1848) 

■mentary  Ret.) 

1,776,556 

Philadelphia  (1848) 

2.'-i8,000 

Prague 

Jeddo  {reputed)  • 

1,680,000 

Bordeaux       -    - 

247.000 

Smyrna  -       -    - 

Pekin    (reputed) 

1,600,000 

Bagdad 

245;uon 

Brussels 

Paris  - 

1,000,000 

Mexico    -        -    - 

£25,000 

Florence        -   - 

Nankin  -       -   - 

850,000 

Rome  - 

224,000 

Stockholm  - 

Constantinople   - 

800,000 

Rio  Janeiro .  -    - 

200,000 

Munich  -       -   • 

Calcvtta      - 

710,000 

Milan  - 

193,000 

Dresden 

Madras    -        -    - 

435,000 

Barcelona       •    - 

183,000 

Boston  (1845)  -    • 

Naples 

410,000 

Frankfort   - 

172,000 
168,000 
147,000 
146,000 
145,000 
143,000 
142,000 
141,000 
138,000 
134,000 
133,000 
132,000 
130,000 
122,000 
1V1,000 
113,000 
114,000 
114;000 
110,000 

I'ORCELAIN.  Porcelaine.  Said  to  be  derived  from  Pour  cent  annies,  it  being 
formerly  believed  that  the  materials  of  porcelain  were  matured  under 
ground  100  years.  It  is  not  known  who  first  discovered  the  art  of  making 
porcelain,  nor  is  the  date  recorded  ;  but  the  manufacture  has  been  carried 
on  in  China  at  King-te-ching,  at  least  since  a.  d.  442,  and  here  still  the  finest 
porcelain  is  made.  It  is  first  mentioned  in  Europe  in  1531,  shortly  after 
which  time  it  was  known  in  England.  See  China  Porcelain^  and  Dresdeiv 
China. 

PORTLAND,  the  largest  to\vn  in  Maine,  formerly  part  of  Falmouth;  burnt  by 
the  British,  Oct.  1775.  Population  in  1800,  3,677  ;  in  1820,  8,581 ;  in  1840. 
15,082. 

PORTO  BELLO.  Discovered  by  Columbus,  November  2,  1502.  It  was  taken 
from  the  Spaniards  by  the  British  under  admiral  Vernon,  November  22, 
1739.  It  was  again  taken  by  admiral  Vernon,  who  destroyed  the  fortifica- 
tions, in  1742.  Before  the  abolition  of  the  trade  by  the  galleons,  in  1748, 
and  the  introduction  of  register  ships,  this  jjlace  was  the  great  mart  for  the 
rich  commerce  of  Peru  and  Chili. 

PORTO  FERRAJO.  Capital  of  Elba ;  built  and  fortified  by  Cosmo  I.  duke 
of  Florence,  in  1548  ;  but  the  fortifications  were  not  finished  till  1628,  when 
Cosmo  II.  completed  them  with  a  magnificence  equal  to  that  displayed  by 
the  old  Romans  in  their  public  undertakings.  Here  was  the  residsnce  of 
Napoleon  in  1814-15.     See  Bonaparte,  Elba,  and  France. 

PORTSMOUTH.  The  most  considerable  haven  for  men-of-war,  and  the  most 
strongly  fortified  place  in  England.  The  dock,  arsenal,  and  storehouses 
were  established  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII. 

PORTUGAL.  The  ancient  Lusitania.  The  name  is  derived  from  Porto  Callo, 
the  original  appellation  of  the  city  of  Oporto.  It  submitted  to  the  Roman 
arms  about  250  b.  c,  and  underwent  the  same  changes  as  Spain  on  the  fall 
of  the  Roman  empire.  Conquered  by  the  Moors,  a.  d.  713.  They  kept 
possession  till  they  were  conquered  byAlphonsus  VI.  the  Valiant  of  Castile, 
assisted  by  many  other  princes  and  volunteers.  Among  those  who  shone 
most  in  this  celebrated  expedition  was  Henry  of  Lorraine,  grandson  of 
Robert,  king  of  France.  Alphonsus  bestowed  upon  him  Theresa,  his  na- 
tural daughter,  and,  as  her  marriage  portion,  the  kingdom  of  Portugal, 
which  he  was  to  hold  of  him,  a.  d.  1093. 


Settlement  of  the  Alains  and  Visigoths 

here       -  -  -  -     a.  d.    472 

Invasion  by  the  Saracens  ■  -    713 

The  kings  of  Asturias  subdue  some 
Saracen  chiefs,  and  Alphonso.s  HI. 
establishes  episcopal  sees       ■  -    900 


Alphonsus  Henriquez  defeats  5  Moorish 
kings,  and  is  proclaimed  king  by  hi:; 
army     -  -  -  -  -  1139 

Assisted  by  a  fleet  of  Crusaders  in  their 
way  to  the  Holy  Land,  he  takes  Lis- 
bon from  I  lie  Moors    -  -  -1147 


por] 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES. 


481 


rORTUGAL,  contimied. 

The  kingdom  of  Algarve  taken  from  the 
Moors  by  Sancho  I.     -  -  -  1189 

Ueign  of  Dionysiua  I.  or  Denis,  father 
of  hi"!  country,  who  builds  44  cities 
or  towns  in  Portugal  -  -  -  1279 

Military  orders  of  Christ  and  St.  James 
instituted,         -  -  - 1279  to  1325 

John  I.,  surnamed  the  Great,  carries 
his  arms  into  Africa   -  -  -  1415 

Madeira  and  the  Canaries  seized  -  1420 

Passage  to  the  East  Indies,  by  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope,  discovered      -  -  149S 

Discovery  of  the  Brazils  -  -  150U 

The  Inquisition  established       -  -  1526 

The  kingdom  seized  by  Philip  II.  of 
Spain 1580 

The  Portuguese  throw  off  the  yoke,  and 
place  John,  duke  of  Braganza,  on  the 
throne.  His  posterity  still  possess 
the  crown         ....  1640 

The  great  earthquake  which  destroys 
Lisbon.    See  Earthquake     -  -  1755 

Joseph  I.  is  attacked  by  assassins,  and 
narrowly  escapes  death         -  -  1758 

[This  affair  causes  some  of  the  iirst 
families  of  the  kingdom  to  be  tortured 
to  death,  their  very  names  being  for- 
bidden to  be  mentioned;  yet  many 
were  unjustly  condemned,  and  their 
innocence  was  soon  afterwards  made 
manifest.  The  Jesuits  were  also  ex- 
pelled on  this  occasion.] 

Joseph,  having  no  son,  obtains  a  dis- 
Densation  from  the  pope  to  enable 
{lis  daughter  and  brother  to  intermar- 
ry.   See  Incest.  -  .       .    -  1760 

The  Spaniards  and  French  invade  Port- 
ugal, which  is  saved  by  the  valor  of 
the  English      -  -  1762  and  1763 

Regency  of  John  (afterwards  king) 
owing  to  the  queen's  lunacy  -  -  1792 

The  Court,  on  the  French  invasion, 
emigrates  to  the  Brazils  Nov.  2,  1807 

Marshal  Junot  enters  Lisbon,  Nov.  29,  1807 

Convention  of  Cintra  (see  article  under  i 

that  name)       -  -  Aug.  30,  1808 

Portugal  cedes  Guiana  to  France         -  1814 

Revolution  in  Portugal  -  Aug.  29,  1820  | 

Constitutional  Junta      -  -Oct.  1,  1820  i 

Return  of  the  Court       -  •  July  4,  1821  ! 

Independence  of  Brazil,  the  prince  re-  | 

gent  made  emperor     -  Oct.  12,  1822  i 

The  king  of  Portugal  suppresses  the  j 

constitution      -  -  June  5,  1823  j 

Disturbances  at  Lisbon ;  Don  Miguel  | 

departs,  &c.     -  -         May  1-9,  1824  I 

Treaty  with  Brazil         •  Aug.  29,  1825 


'  Death  of  John  VI.  -  Feb.  18,  1826 

Don  Pedro  grants  a  charter,  and  con- 
firms the  regency       -         April  26,  1826 
He  relinquishes  the  throne  in  favor  of 

his  daughter  Donna  Maria      May  2,  1826 
Marquess  of  Chaves'  insurrection  at 

Lisbon  -  -  -  -  Oct.  6,  1626 

Don  Miguel  and  Donna  Maria  betroth- 
ed -  -  -  Oct.  29,  1826 
Portugal  solicits  the  assistance  of  Gr-jat 

Britain  -  -  -  Dec.  3,  1830 

Departure  of  the  first  British  auxiliary 

troops  for  Portugal     -  Dec.  17,  1826 

Don  Miguel  formally  assumes  the  title 

of  king  -  -  -  -July  4,  1828 

He  dissolves  the  three  estates  July  12,  1828 
Revolution  at  Brazil       -  April  7,  1831 

Don  Pedro  arrives  in  England  June  16,  1831 
Insurrection  in  favor  of  the  queen,  in 

which  300  lives  are  lost         Aug.  21, 1831 
Don    Pedro's   expedition   sails    from 

Belle-isle  -  -  -  Feb.  9,  1832 

At  TerceiraDon  Pedro  proclaims  him- 
self regent  of  Portugal,  on  behalf  of 
his  daughter     •  -  April  2,  1S'J2 

He  takes  Oporto  -  -  -July  8,  1832 

After  various  conflicts,  Don  Miguel  ca- 
pitulates to  the  Pedroites       May  26,  1834 
Don  Miguel  is  permitted  to  leave  the 

country  unmolested    -  May  31,  1834 

Massacres  at  Lisbon       -  June  9,  1834 

The  queen  declared  by  the  Cortes  to  be 

of  age    -  -  -  Sept.  15,  1834 

Don  Pedro  dies    -  -  Sept.  21,  1834 

Prince  Augustus  of  Portugal  (duke  of 
Leuchtenberg),  just  married  to  the 
queen,  dies       -  -        March  28, 1835 

The  queen  marries  prince  Ferdinand  of 

SaxeCoburg    -  -  -Jan.  1,1836 

A  sudden  change  of  ministry  leads  to  a 

formidable  revolution  Oct.  9,  1846 

Action  at  Evora ;  the  insurgents  defeat- 
ed by  the  queen's  troops  Oct.  23,  1846 
[Oporto,  where  a  revolutionary  junta 
is  established,  and  other  large  towns, 
are  seized  by  the  insurgent  army.] 
Actions  are  fought  at  Viana,  Valpassos, 
Braga,  Torres-Vedras,  &c.,  favorable 
to  the  queen.  Battle  of  St.  Ubes;  the 
Insurgents  defeated,  losing  861  men 
in  killed  and  wounded  -May  1,  1847 

Intervention  of  England,  France,  and 

Spain,  signed  in  London        May  21, 1847 
Claim  of  the  United  States  on  Portugal 
for  damages  in  the  war  of  1812,  re- 
sisted, and  U.  S.  minister  leaves  Lis- 
bon      -  -  -  -    July,  1850 


KINGS   OP 

..D.  1093  King  of  Lorraine,  count  or  earl  of  Port- 
ugal. 

1112  Alphonso  I.  ;  proclaimed  king    -  1139 

1185  Sancho  L 

1212  Alphonso  II.,  suniamed  Crassus,  or 
the  Fat. 

1224  Sancho  11,,  the  Idle,  deposed. 

1247  Alphonsus  III. 

1279  Dennis. 

1.325  Alphonsus  IV 

1357  Peter  the  Severe. 

1367  Ferdinand  I.,  died  13S3 ;  an  interreg- 
num for  18  months. 


PORTUGAL. 

1385  John  I.,  the  Bastard,  natural  son  to 
Peter  the  Severe. 

1433  Edward. 

1438  Alphonsus  V. 

1481  John  II. 

1495  Emanuel. 

1521  John  III. 

1557  Sebastian,  killed  in  Afrtfii. 

1578  Heni-y,  the  Cardinal. 

1580  Anthony,  prior  of  Crato,  son  of  Enian 
uel,  deposed  by  Philp  11.  of  Spain, 
who  united  Portugal  to  his  other  do- 
minions, till  1640. 


THE   world's   progress. 


[pos 


1750  Joseph. 

1777  Mary  Frances  Isabella. 

1799  John  VI. 

1&-26  Don  Pedro ;   he  abdicates  May  2,  lu 

favor  of  his  daughter. 
1826  Maria  de  Gloria. 


484 

PORTUGAL,  continued. 

1640  John  IV.,  duke  of  Braganza,  dispos 
sessed  the  Spaniards,  and  was  pro- 
claimed king,  Dec.  1. 

1656  Alphonsus  VI. 

1668  Peter  II. 

1707  Jolm  V. 

POSTS.  Posts  originated  in  the  regular  couriers  established  by  Cyrus,  who 
erected  post-houses  throughout  the  kingdom  of  Persia.  Augustus  was  the 
first  who  introduced  this  institution  among  the  Romans,  and  who  employed 
post-chaises.  This  plan  was  imitated  by  Charlemagne  about  a.  d.  800. — 
Ashe.  Louis  XI.  first  established  post-houses  in  France  owing  to  his  eager- 
ness for  news,  and  they  were  the  first  institution  of  this  nature  in  Europe, 
1470. — Henault.  In  England  the  plan  commenced  in  the  reign  of  Edwarf^ 
rV".,  1481,  when  riders  on  post-horses  werft  stages  of  the  distance  of  twenty 
miles  from  each  other  in  order  to  procure  the  king  the  earliest  intelligence 
of  the  events  that  passed  in  the  course  of  the  war  that  had  arisen  With  the 
Scots. —  Gale.  Richard  III.  improved  the  system  of  couriers  in  1483.  In 
1543  similar  arrangements  existed  in  England. — Sadler's  Letters.  Post  com- 
munications between  London  and  most  towns  of  England,  Scotland,  and 
Ireland,  existed  in  1635.—  Strype. 

POST-OFFICE,  The  General,  op  England.  See  preceding  article.  The  first 
chief  postmaster  of  England  was  Mr.  Thomas  Randolph,  appointed  by 
queen  Elizabeth  in  1581.* 

THE  REVENUE  OP  THE  POST-OFFICE  OF  ENGLAND  AT  THE  FOLLOWING  PERIODS,  VIZ. 


In  1643  It  yielded 

1653  Farmed  to  John  Manley, 

Esq.,  for 
1663  Farmed  to  Daniel  O'Neale, 

Esq.,  for  - 
1674  Farmed  for       -  -     - 

1685  It  yielded     - 
1707  Ditto      -  -  •     - 

1764Ditio 
1800  Ditto      -  -  -     - 


£5,000 
10,000 


In  1805  Great  Britain 
1815  Ditto      - 
1820  United  Kingdom 
1825     Ditto   - 
1835     Ditto 


1,424,994 
1.755,898 
2,402,697 
2,255,239 
-  2,353,34P 


1839  Last   year  of  the   heavy 

postage  -  -     -2,522,495 

1840  First  year  of  the  low  rate, 

1  penny  for  all  distances    471,000 

The  first  post-ofSce  in  the  colo- 


21,500 

43.000 

65;000 
111,461 
432.048 
745,313 

POST-OFFICE  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

nies  was  established  in  1710,  by  act  of  Parliament  for  establishing  a  general 
post-oflBce  for  all  her  Majesty's  dominions.  During  the  revolution  this  de- 
partment was,  of  course,  controlled  by  Congress,  and  the  Constitution  of 
the  United  States,  1789,  provided  for  the  continuance  of  this  control — the 
Postmaster-General  being  appointed  by  the  President  and  Senate,  as  one  of 
the  cabinet.  For  successive  Postmaster-Generals  see  Administrations.  The 
following  table  gives  the  statistics  of  the  post-offices  in  the  United  States 
at  different  times  since  1790. 


Year. 

No.  of  Post 

Amount  of 

Net  Revenue. 

Extent  in  miles 

OMces. 

Postagt 

of  Post  Rmds. 

1790  - 

75  -       - 

-    $37,93;;     - 

-  $5,795     - 

■      1,875 

1800  . 

-      903  -        - 

-    280,804    - 

-  66,810     - 

-    20,817 

1810  . 

-   2,300  - 

-    551,684    - 

-  55,715     - 

-    36,406 

1820  - 

-   4,500  - 

-1,111,927    - 

1   - 

-    72,492 

1830  - 

-   8,000  - 

- 1,850,583    - 

1   - 

-  115,000 

1840  . 

-  13.468  - 

-4,539,265    - 

1   - 

-  155,739 

1845  - 

-  14,183  -        . 

-4,289,842    - 

t   - 

■  143,940 

1846  - 

-14,601  -        - 

-3,487,1991  - 

t    . 

■  152,865 

1847  - 

-15,146  - 

-  3,955,893 1  - 

-  153,818 

1848  - 

-16,159  - 

-  4,371,077 1  - 

-  44,227     - 

-  163,208 

The  numbei 

of  dead  letters  returned  quarterly 

is  estimated 

at  450,000. 

*  Even  so  late  as  between  1730  and  1740,  the  post  was  only  transmitted  ihree  days  a  week  be- 
tween Edinburgh  and  London ;  and  the  metropolis,  on  one  occasion,  only  sent  a  single  letter,  which 
was  for  an  Edinburgh  banker,  named  Ramsay. 

t  In  all  these  years  the  receipts  fell  short  of  the  expenditures. 

t  The  returns  for  1846, 7,  and  8,  are  for  the  first  three  years  of  the  new  law  passed  IMarch  3, 1845, 
•educing  the  letter  postage  to  5  cents  under  -300  miles,  and  10  cents  for  all  greater  distances. 


pka]  dictionary  of  dates.  485 

POTATOES.  The  potato  is  a  native  of  Chili  and  Peru.  Potatoes  were  ori- 
ginally carried  to  England  from  Santa  Fe,  in  America,  by  sir  John  Haw- 
kins, A.  D.  1563.  Other's  ascribe  this  introduction  to  sir  Francis  Drake,  in 
1586 ;  while  their  general  introduction  is  mentioned  by  many  writers  as 
occurring  in  1592.  Their  first  culture  in  Ireland  is  referred  to  sir  Walter 
Raleigh,  who  had  large  estates  in  that  country,  about  Youghal,  in  the 
county  of  Cork.  It  is  said  that  potatoes  were  not  known  in  Flanders  until 
1620.  A  fine  kind  of  potato  was  first  brought  from  America,  by  that 
"patriot  of  every  clime,"  the  late  Mr.  Howard,  who  cultivated  it  at  Cardin^- 
ton,  near  Bedford,  1765  ;  and  its  culture  became  general  soon  after.  It  is 
aflQrmed  that  the  Neapolitans  once  refused  to  eat  potatoes  during  a  famine. 
— Butler.  Potatoe  disease  first  appeared  in  Ireland,  &c.,  causing  great 
alarm  and  distress,  Oct.  1845. 

POTOSI,  Mines  of.  These  mines  were  discovered  by  the  Spaniards  in  1545, 
and  produce  the  best  silver  in  America.  They  are  in  a  mountain  in  the 
form  of  a  sugar-loaf.  Silver  was  as  common  in  this  place  as  iron  is  in 
Europe ;  but  the  mines  are  now  much  exhausted,  or  at  least  little  is  got  in 
comparison  of  what  was  formerly  obtained. 

POUND.  From  the  Latin  Pondus.  The  pound  sterling  was  in  Saxon  times, 
about  A.  D.  671,  a  pound  troy  of  silver,  and  a  shilling  was  its  twentieth  part, 
consequently  the  latter  was  three  times  as  large  as  it  is  at  present. — Peacham, 
The  value  of  the  Roman  pondo  is  not  precisely  knoAvn,  though  some  sup- 
pose it  was  equivalent  to  an  Attic  mina,  or  2,1.  45.  Id.  Our  avoirdupois 
weight  {avoir  du  poids)  came  from  the  French,  and  contains  sixteen  ounces  ; 
it  is'in  proportion  to  our  troy  weight  as  seventeen  to  fourteen. —  Chaonbers. 

POWDERING  THE  HAIR.  This  custom  took  its  rise  from  some  of  the  ballad- 
singers  at  the  fair  of  St.  Germain  whitening  their  heads  to  make  them- 
selves ridiculous.  Unlike  other  habits  it  was  adopted  from  the  low  by  the 
high,  and  became  very  general  about  a.  d.  1614.  In  England  the  powdered- 
hair  tax  took  place  in  May  1795,  at  which  time  the  preposterous  practice 
of  using  powder  was  at  its  height ;  this  tax  was  one  guiuea  for  each  person. 
The  hair-powder  tax  is  still  continued,  though  it  yields  in  England  under 
7000^.  per  year,  and  in  Scotland  about  250^.    It  was  abolished  in  Ireland. 

PR^TORS.  Magistrates  of  Rome.  The  office  was  instituted  365  b.  c,  when 
one  preetor  only  was  appointed ;  but  a  second  was  appointed  in  252  b.  g. 
One  administered  justice  to  the  citizens,  and  the  other  appointed  judges 
in  all  causes  which  related  to  foreigners.  In  the  year  of  Rome  520, 
two  more  ijrEetors  were  created  to  assist  the  consul  in  the  government 
of  the  provinces  of  Sicily  and  Sardinia,  which  had  been  lately  conquered, 
and  two  more  when  Spain  was  reduced  into  the  form  of  a  Roman  province, 
A.  u.  c.  551.  Sylla  the  dictator  added  two  more,  and  Julius  Csesar  increas- 
ed the  number  to  10,  and  afterwards  to  16,  and  the  second  triumvirate  to 
64.  After  this  tlieir  numbers  fluctuated,  being  sometimes  18,  16,  or  12,  till, 
in  the  decline  of  the  empire,  their  dignity  decreased,  and  their  numbers 
were  reduced  to  three. 

PRAGA,  Battle  of,  in  which  30,000  Poles  were  butchered  by  the  merciless 
Russian  general  Suwarrow,  fought  Oct.  10,  1794.  Battle  of  Praga,  in  which 
the  Poles  commanded  by  Skrznecki  defeated  the  Russian  army  commanded 
by  general  Giesmar,  who  loses  4000  killed  and  wounded,  6000  prisoners,  and 
12  pieces  of  cannon;  fought  between  GrothofF  and  Wawer,  March  81, 1831. 

PRAGMATIC  SANCTION.  An  ordinance  relating  to  the  church  and  some- 
times state  affairs ;  and  at  one  time  particularly  the  ordinances  of  the  kings 
of  France,  wherein  the  rights  of  the  Galilean  church  were  asserted  against 
the  usurpation  of  the  pope  in  the  choice  of  bishops.  Also  the  emperor's 
letter  by  advice  of  his  council,  in  answer  to  high  personages  in  particular 


486  THE    WORLD'S    PllOGRESS.  [  PEE 

contingencies.  The  Pragmatic  Sanction  for  settling  the  empire  of  Germany 
in  the  house  of  Austria,  a.  d.  1439.  The  emperor  Charles  VI.  pubhshed  the 
P]"agmatic  Sanction,  whereby,  in  default  of  male  issue,  his  daughters  should 
succeed  in  preference  to  the  sons  of  his  brother  Joseph  I.,  April  17,  1713, 
and  he  settled  his  dominions  on  his  daughter  Maria  Theresa  in  conformity 
thereto,  1722.  She  succeeded  in  Oct.  1740 ;  but  it  gave  rise  to  a  war,  in 
which  most  of  the  powers  of  Europe  were  engaged. 

PRAGUE,  Battle  op,  between  the  Imperialists  and  Bohemians.  The  latter, 
who  had  chosen  Frederick  V.  of  the  Palatine  (son-in-law  to  our  James  I.)  for 
their  king,  were  totally  defeated.  The  unfortunate  king  was  forced  to  flee 
with  his  queen  and  children  into  Holland,  leaving  all  his  baggage  and  money 
behind  him.  He  was  afterwards  deprived  of  his  hereditary  dominions,  and 
the  Protestant  interest  was  ruined  in  Bohemia ;  all  owing  to  the  pusilla- 
nimity and  inactivity  of  James,  Nov.  7,  1620.  Prague  was  taken  by  the 
Saxons  in  1631 ;  and  by  the  Swedes  in  1648.  It  was  taken  by  storm  by  the 
French,  in  1741 ;  but  they  were  obliged  to  leave  it  in  1742.  In  1744,  it  was 
taken  by  the  king  of  Prussia ;  but  he  was  obliged  to  abandon  it  the  same 
year.  The  great  and  memorable  battle  of  Prague  was  fought  May  6,  1757. 
In  this  engagement  the  Austrians  were  defeated  by  prince  Henry  of  Prussia, 
and  their  whole  camp  taken ;  their  illustrious  commander,  general  Browno, 
was  mortally  wounded ;  and  the  brave  Prussian,  marshal  Schwerin,  was 
killed.  After  this  victory,  Prague  was  besieged  by  the  king  of  Prussia,  but 
he  was  soon  afterwards  obliged  to  raise  the  siege. 

PRAISE-GOD-BAREBONES'  PARLIAMENT.  A  celebrated  parliament,  so 
called  from  one  of  the  members  (who  had  thus  fantastically  styled  himself 
according  to  the  fashion  of  the  times),  met  July  4,  1653.  This  parliament 
consisted  of  144  members,  summoned  by  the  protector  Cromwell ;  they  were 
to  sit  for  fifteen  months,  and  then  they  were  to  chose  a  fresh  parliament 
themselves. 

PRATIQUE.  The  writing  or  license  of  this  name  was  originally  addressed  by 
the  Southern  nations  to  the  ports  of  Italy  to  which  vessels  were  bound,  and 
signified  that  the  ship  so  licensed  came  from  a  place  or  country  in  a  healthy 
state,  and  no  way  infected  with  the  plague  or  other  contagious  disease. 
The  pratique  is  now  called  a  bill  of  health,  and  is  still  of  the  same  intent 
and  import. — Ashe. 

PRAYERS  FOR  THE  DEAD,  &c.  They  were  first  introduced  into  the  Chris- 
tian church  about  a.  d.  190. — Eusebms.  Prayers  addressed  to  the  Virgin 
Mary  and  to  the  saints  were  introduced  by  pope  Gregory,  a.  d.  593.  The 
mode  of  praying  with  the  face  to  the  east  was  instituted  by  pope  Boniface 
II.,  A.  D.  532. 

PRECEDENCE.  Precedence  was  established  in  very  early  ages ;  and  in  most 
of  the  countries  of  the  East  and  of  Europe,  and  was  amongst  the  laws  of 
Justinian.  In  England,  owing  to  the  disputes  that  prevailed  among  cour- 
tiers respecting  priority  of  rank  and  office,  the  order  of  precedency  was 
regulated  chiefiy  by  two  statutes,  namely,  one  passed  31  Henry  VIIL,  1539 ; 
and  the  other,  1  George  I.,  1714. 


TABLE   OP  PRECEDENCY. 


THE  QUEEN. 
Prince  of  Wales. 
Prince  Albert. 
Queen  Dowager. 
Queen's  other  sons. 
Princess  royal. 


Princess  Alice  ;    and   other  1  Archbishop  of  Canterbury. 


prnicesses. 
Duchess  of  Kent. 
Queen's  uncles. 
Queen's  aunts. 
Queen's  cousins. 


Lord  Chancellor. 
Archbishop  of  York. 
'Lord  high  treasurer. 
"Lord  president. 
*Lord  privy  seal. 


'  If  of  the  rank  of  barons. 


pre] 


DICTIONARY    OF   DATES. 


487 


PRECEDENCE,  continued. 

'Lord  high  constable. 

tLord  great  chamberlain  of 
England. 

*Earl  marshal. 

"Lord  high  admiral. 

Lord  steward  of  the  house- 
hold. 

Lord  Chamberlain. 

Dukes,  according  to  patent. 

Marquesses,  according  to 
their  patents. 

Dukes'  eldest  sons. 

Earls,  according  to  their  pa- 
tents. 

Marquesses'  eldest  sons. 

Dukes'  younger  sons. 

Viscounts,  according  to  their 
patents. 

Earls'  eldest  sons. 

Marquesses'  younger  sons. 

Bishop  of  London. 

Bishop  of  Durham. 

Bishop  of  Winchester. 

All  other  bishops,  according 
to  their  seniority  of  conse" 
cration. 

Secretary  of  State,  being  a 
baron. 

Commissioners  of  the  great 
seal. 

Barons,  according  to  their 
patents. 

[All  the  above,  except  the 
royal  family,  hold  their 
Drecedence  of  rank  by  act  , 


COMMONERS. 

The  Speaker. 

Treasurer,  comptrollerj  and 

vice-chamberlain    of    the 

household. 
Secretaries  of  State,  if  they  be 

under  the  degree  of  baron. 
Viscounts'  eldest  sons. 
Earls'  younger  sons. 
Barons'  eldest  sons. 
Knights  of  the  Garter. 
Privy  councillors. 
Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer. 
Chancellor  of  the  duchy  of 

Lancaster. 
Lord    chief  justice    of  the 

queen's  bench. 
Master  of  the  rolls. 
Vice-chancellor. 
Lord  chief  justice  of  the  com- 
mon pleas. 
Lord  chief  baron. 
Judges  and  barons,  according 

to  seniority. 
Hereditary  bannei'ets. 
Viscounts'  younger  sons. 
Barons'  younger  sons. 
Baronets. 

Bannerets  for  life  only. 
Knights  of  the  bath. 

Grand  Crosses. 
Knights  commanders. 
Knights  bachelors. 
Eldest  sons  of  the  younger 

sons  of  peers. 
Baronets'  eldest  sons. 


Knights  of  thi  Garter's  eldest 
sons. 

Bannerets'  eldest  sons. 

Knights  of  the  bath's  eldest 
sons. 

Knights'  eldest  sons. 

Baronets'  younger  sons. 

Flag  and  field  officers. 

Sergeants-at-law. 

Doctors,  Deans,  and  chan- 
cellors. 

Masters  in  chancery. 

Companions  of  the  bath. 

Gentlemen  of  the  privy 
chamber. 

Esquires  of  trje  knights  of  the 
Bath. 

Esquires  by  creation. 

Esquires  by  office  or  com- 
mission. 

Younger  sotb  of  knights  of 
the  garter. 

Sons  of  bannerets. 

Younger  sons  of  knights  of 
the  bath. 

Younger  sons  of  knights  ba- 
chelors. 

Gentlemen  entitled  to  bear 
arms. 

Clergymen,  not  dignitaries. 

Barristers  at  law. 

Officers  of  the  army  and 
navy,  not  esquires  by  com- 
mission. 

Citizens,  burgesses,  &c. 


31  Henry  VIIL] 

PREDESTINATION.  The  belief  that  God  hath  from  all  eternity  unchangeably 
appointed  whatever  comes  to  pass.  This  doctrine  is  the  subject  of  one  of 
the  most  perplexing  controversies  that  have  occurred  among  mankind.  It 
was  taught  by  the  ancient  Stoics  and  early  Christians ;  and  Mahomet  intro- 
duced the  doctrine  of  an  absolute  predestination  into  his  Koran  in  the 
strongest  light.  The  controversy  respecting  it  in  the  Christian  church  arose 
in  the  fifth  century,  when  it  was  maintained  by  St.  Augustin ;  and  Lucidus. 
a  priest  of  Gaul,  taught  it  a.  d.  470. 

PRESBURG,  Peace  of,  between  France  and  Austria,  by  which  the  ancient 
states  of  Venice  were  ceded  to  Italy ;  the  principality  of  Eichstett,  part  of 
the  bishopric  of  Passau,  the  city  of  Augsburg,  the  Tyrol,  all  the  possessions 
of  Austria  in  Suabia,  in  Brisgau,  and  Ortenau,  were  transferred  to  the  elec- 
tor of  Bavaria  and  the  duke  of  Wirtemberg,  who,  as  well  as  the  duke  of 
Baden,  were  then  created  kings  by  Napoleon ;  the  independence  of  the  Hel- 
vetic republic  was  also  stipulated,  Dec.  26,  1805. 

PRESBYTERIANS.  A  numerous  and  increasing  sect  of  Christians,  so  called 
from  their  maintaining  that  the  government  of  the  church  appointed  in  the 
New  Testament  was  by  Presbyteries,  or  associations  of  ministers  and  ruling 
elders,  equal  in  power,  office,  and  in  order.  The  first  Presbyterian  meeting- 
house in  England  was  established  by  the  Puritans  at  Wandsworth,  Surrey, 
Nov.  20,  1572.  Presbyterianism  is  the  religion  of  Scotland,  Its  distinguish- 
ing tenets  seem  to  have  been  first  embodied  in  the  formulary  of  faith  attri- 


*  Above  all  of  their  own  rank  only,  by  31  Henry  VIII. 
t  When  in  actual  office  only,  by  1  George  I. 
N.  B.  TLs  priority  of  signing  any  treaty  or  public  instrument  by  ministers  of  state  is  taken  cj 
fank  of  office,  and  net  title. 


488  THE    world's    progress.  [  PRE 

buted  to  Jolin  Knox,  and  compiled  by  that  reformer  in  1560.  It  was 
approved  by  the  parliament,  and  ratified,  1567,  and  finally  settled  by  an  act 
of  the  Scottish  senate,  1696,  afterwards  secured  by  the  treaty  of  union  with 
England  in  1707. 

PRESIDENTS  of  the  UNITED  STATES.  Washington,  unanimously  elected 
president  of  the  federal  convention,  which  sat  at  Philadelphia  from  May  25 
to  Sept.  17,  1787 ;  and  was  unanimouslj^  elected  first  president  of  the  United 
States,  April  6,  1789.     See  United  States  and  Administrations. 

PRESS,  THE  PRINTING.  This  great  engine  was  of  rude  construction  from 
the  period  of  the  discovery  of  the  art  of  printing,  up  to  the  close  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  when  many  improvements  were  made.  William  Caxton, 
a  mercer  of  London,  had  a  press  set  up  at  Westminster,  1471. — Stoioe's 
Chron.  The  earl  of  Stanhope's  iron  presses  were  in  general  use  in  1806. 
The  printing-machine  was  invented  by  Koenig  in  ,  811,  and  Applegath's  fol- 
lowed. The  Columbian  press  of  Cljaner  was  produced  in  1814;  and  the 
Albion  press,  an  improvement  on  this  last,  came  into  use  a  few  years  after. 
Printing  by  means  of  steam  machinery  was  first  executed  in  England  at 
T/ie  Times  ofiice,  London,  on  Monday,  November  28,  1814.  Cowper's  and 
Applegath's  rollers  for  distributing  the  ink  upon  the  types  were  brought  inlo 
use  in  1817.  Vast  improvements  have  been  made  in  the  United  States  within 
a  few  years,  both  in  hand  and  steam-presses.  The  most  celebrated  manufac- 
turers, probably,  are  R.  Hoe  &  Co.,  of  New- York.  Their  largest  presses 
for  newspapers  are  capable  of  throwing  ofl"  10,000  sheets  per  hour,  which  is 
so  much  in  advance  of  any  presses  in  Europe  that  they  have  supplied  orders 
from  Paris.  The  presses  of  Seth  Adams  &  Co.,  of  Boston,  are  perhaps  the 
best  in  the  world  for  book  printing.     See  article  Printing. 

PRESS,  Liberty  of  the.  The  imprimatur,  "let  it  be  printed,"  was  much  used 
on  the  title-pages  of  books  printed  in  the  16th  and  17th  centuries.  The 
liberty  of  the  press  was  restrained,  and  the  number  of  master  printers  in 
London  and  Westminster  limited,  by  the  star-chamber,  14  Charles  I.,  1638. 
And  again  by  act  of  parliament,  6  WiUiam  III.,  1693.  The  celebrated  toast, 
"The  liberty  of  the  press — it  is  like  the  air  we  breathe — if  we  have  it  not 
we  die,"  was  first  given  at  the  Crown  and  Anchor  tavern,  London,  at  a  Whig 
dinner  in  1795.  Presses  were  licensed,  and  the  printer's  name  required 
to  be  placed  on  both  the  first  and  last  pages  of  a  book,  July  1799.  In  France 
and  Germany  the  liberty  of  the  press  has  been  occasionally  granted,  but 
again  restricted  by  the  reactionary  governments.  In  the  United  States  it 
was  fully  guaranteed  by  the  constitution. 

PRESSING  TO  DEATH.  A  punishment  in  England,  referred  to  the  reign  of 
Henry  III.  or  of  Edward  I.,  and  on  the  statute  book  until  the  latter  part  of 
the  last  century.  A  remarkable  instance  of  this  death,  in  England,  is  the 
following : — Hugh  Calverly,  of  Calverly  in  Yorkshire,  esq.,  having  murdered 
two  of  his  children,  and  stabbed  his  wife  in  a  fit  of  jealousy,  being  arraign- 
ed for  his  crime  at  York  assizes,  stood  mute,  and  was  thereupon  pressed  to 
death  in  the  castle,  a  large  iron  weight  being  placed  upon  his  breast,  3  James 
I.  1605. — Stoive's  Chron. 

PRESTONPANS,  Battle  of,  between  the  Young  Pretender,  prince  Charles 
Stuart,  heading  his  Scotch  adherents,  and  the  royal  army  under  sir  John 
Cope.  The  latter  was  defeated  with  the  loss  of  500  men,  and  was  forced  to 
fly  at  the  very  first  onset.  Sir  John  Cope  precipitately  galloped  from  the 
field  of  battle  to  Berwick-upon-Tweed,  where  he  was  the  first  to  announce 
his  own  discomfiture.  His  disgrace  is  perpetuated  in  a  favorite  Scottish 
ballad,  called,  from  the  doughty  hero,  "  Johnie  Cope."  Fought  Sept.  2i, 
1745. 

PRETENDER.  The  person  known  in  English  history  by  the  title  of  the  Pretender, 


PEI  ]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES,  489 

OP  Chevalier  de  St.  George,  was  the  son  of  James  II.,  born  in  1688,  and  ac- 
knowledged by  Louis  XIV.  as  James  III.  of  England,  in  1701.  He  was  pro- 
claimed, and  his  standard  set  up,  at  Braemar  and  Castletown  in  Scotland, 
Sept.  6,  1715 ;  and  he  landed  at  Peterhead,  in  Abei-deenshire,  from  France, 
to  encourage  the  rebellion  that  the  earl  of  Mar  and  his  other  adherents  had 
promoted,  Dec.  26,  same  year.  This  rebellion  having  been  soon  suppressed, 
the  Pretender  escaped  to  Montrose  (from  whence  he  arrived  at  Gravelines), 
Feb.  4,  1716  ;  and  died  at  Rome,  Dec.  30,  1765. 

PRETENDER,  the  Young.  The  son  of  the  preceding,  called  prince  Charles, 
born  in  1720.  He  landed  in  Scotland,  and  proclaimed  his  father  king,  June 
1745.  He  gained  the  battle  of  Prestonpans,  Sept.  21,  1745,  and  of  Falkirk, 
January  18,  1746 ;  but  was  defeated  at  Culloden,  April  16,  same  year,  and 
sought  safety  by  flight.  He  continued  wandering  among  the  frightful  wilds 
of  Scotland  for  nearly  six  months,  and  as  30,000Z.  was  ofllered  for  taking  him, 
he  was  constantly  pursued  by  the  British  troops,  often  hemmed  round  by 
his  enemies,  but  stiU  rescued  by  some  lucky  accident,  and  he  at  length  es- 
caped from  the  isle  of  Uist  to  Morlaix.  He  died  March  3, 1788.  His  natur- 
al daughter  assumed  the  title  of  Duchess  of  Albany ;  she  died  in  1789.  His 
brother,  the  cardinal  York,  calling  himself  Henry  IX.  of  Jngland,  born 
JMarch  1725,  died  at  Rome  in  August  1807. 

PRIDE'S  PURGE.  In  the  civil  war  against  Charles  I.  colonel  Pride,  at  the 
head  of  two  regiments,  surrounded  the  house  of  parliament,  and  seizing 
in  the  passage  41  members  of  the  Presbyterian  party,  sent  them  to  a  low 
room,  then  called  hell.  Above  160  other  members  were  excluded,  and  none 
admitted  but  the  most  furious  of  the  independents.  This  atrocious  invasion 
of  parliamentary  rights  was  called  Pride's  Purge,  and  the  privileged  mem- 
bers were  named  the  Rump,  to  whom  nothing  remained  to  complete  their 
wickedness,  but  to  murder  the  king,  24  Charles  I.,  1648. — Goldsmith. 

PRIESTS.  Anciently  elders,  but  the  name  is  now  given  to  the  clergy  only. 
In  the  Old  Testament  the  age  of  priests  was  fixed  at  thirty  years.  Among 
the  Jews,  the  dignity  of  high  or  chief  priest  was  annexed  to  Aaron's  fa- 
mily, 1491  B.  c.  After  the  captivity  of  Babylon,  the  civil  government  and 
the  crown  were  superadded  to  the  high  priesthood ;  it  was  the  peculiar 
privilege  of  the  high  priest,  that  he  could  be  prosecuted  in  no  court  but 
that  of  the  great  Sanhedrim.  The  heathens  had  their  arch-flamen  or 
high-priest,  and  so  have  the  Christians,  excepting  among  some  particular 
sects. 

PRIMER.  A  book  so  named  from  the  Romish  book  of  devotions,  and  for- 
merly set  forth  or  published  by  authority,  as  the  first  book  children  should 
publicly  learn  or  read  in  schools,  containing  prayers  and  portions  of  the 
Scripture.  Copies  of  primers  are  preserved  of  so  early  a  date  as  1539. — 
Ashe. 

PRIMOGENITURE,  Right  op,  an  usage  brought  down  from  the  earliest  times. 
The  first  born  in  the  patriarchal  ages  had  a  superiority  over  his  brethren, 
and  in  the  absence  of  his  father  was  priest  to  the  family.  In  England,  by 
the  ancient  custom  of  gavel-kind,  primogeniture  was  of  no  account.  It 
came  in  with  the  feudal  law,  3  William  I.,  1068. 

PRINTING.  The  greatest  of  all  the  arts.  The  honor  of  its  invention  haa 
been  appropriated  to  Mentz,  Strasburg,  Haerlem,  Venice,  Rome,  Florence, 
Basle  and  Augsburg ;  but  the  claims  of  the  three  first  only  are  entitled  to 
attention.  Adrian  Junius  awards  the  honor  of  the  invention  to  Laurenzes 
John  Coster  of  Haerlem,  "  who  printed  with  blocks,  a  book  of  images  and 
letters.  Speculum  Hiimiana  Salvalonis,  and  compounded  an  ink  more  viscous 
and  tenacious  than  common  ink,  which  blotted,  about  a.  d.  1438."  The 
leaves  of  this  book  being  printed  on  one  side  only,  were  afterwards  pasted  to- 

21* 


490 


THE    world's    progress. 


[PRl 


getlier.    John  Faust  established  a  printing  office  at  Mentz,  and  printed  the 

Tractahis  Petri  Hispani,  in  1442.  John  Guttenberg  invented  cut  metal 
types,  and  used  them  in  printing  the  earliest  edition  of  the  Bible,  which  was 
commenced  in  1444,  and  finished  in  1460.  See  Book.  Peter  Schseffer  cast 
the  first  metal  types  in  matrices,  and  was  therefore  the  inventor  of  complete 
PRINTING,  1452. — Adrian  Junius ;  Du  Fresnoy. 


Book  of  Psalms  primed         -?     a.  d.  1457 

The  Durandi  Rationale,  first  work 
printed  with  cast  metal  types       %   -  1459 

[Printuig  was  introduced  into  Oxford, 
about  this  time. — Collier.  But  this 
statement  is  discredited  by  Bibdin.] 

A  iu'y  printed. — Dufresnoy    -     1     -1460 

The  first  Bible  completed. — Idem%      -  14ti0 

[Mentz  taken  and  pi  undered,  and  the  art 
of  printing,  in  the  general  ruin,  is 
spread  to  other  towns]  -  -  1462 

The  types  were  uniformly  Gothic,  or 
old  German  (whence  oui  English,  or 
Black  Letter)  until     -  -  -  1465 

Greek  characters  (quotations  only)  first 
used,  same  year    -  -  -      -  1465 

Cicero  de  Officiis  printed  {Blair)       -  1466 

Pioman  characters,  first  at  Rome       -  1467 

A  Chronicle,  said  to  have  been  found 
in  the  archbishop  of  Canterbui-y's  pa- 
lace (the  fact  disputed),  bearing  the 
date  Oxford,  a^ino       •  -  ■  1468 

William  Caxton,  a  mercer  of  London, 
set  up  the  first  press  at  Westminster*  1471 

He  printed  Willyam  Caxton' s  Recuyel 
of  the  Historyes  of  Troy,  by  Raoul 
le  Fein-e.—FniLLiPS  -  -  -  1471 

His  first  pieces  were,  A  Treatise  on  the 
Game  of  Chess,  and  7\dly's  Offices 
(see  below). — Dibdin  -  -   '        -  1474 

.£sop's  Fables,  printed  by  Caxlon,  is 
supposed  to  be  the  first  book  with  its 
leaves  numbered         -  -  -  14S4 

Aldus  cast  the  Greek  alphabet,  and  a 
Greek  book  printed  (a/j  Aldi)   ■       -  1476 

He  introduces  the  Italic         -        -        -  1496 


The  Pentateuch,  in  Hebrew      -    a.  d.  14^ 

Homer,  infolio,  beautifully  done  at  Flo- 
rence, eclipsmg  all  former  printing, 
by  Demetrius !.H88 

Printing  used  in  Scotland  -       -       -     !.i509 

The  first  edition  of  the  whole  Bible  was, 
strictly  speaking,  the  Complutensian 
Polyglot  of  cardinal  Ximenes  (see 
Polyglot 1517 

The  Liturgy,  the  first  book  printed  in 
Ireland,  by  Humphrey  Powell  -       -  1550 

The  first  Newspaper  printed  in  England 
(see  Newspapers)      .       .       .        .  1588 

First  patent  granted  for  printing       -     1591 

First  printing-press  improved  by  Wil- 
liam Blaeu,  at  Amsterdam      -        -    1601 

First  printing  in  America  at  Cambridge, 
Mass.,  when  the  Freeman's  Oath  and 
an  Almanac  were  printed  -        -  1639 

First  Bible  printed  in  Ireland  was  at 
Belfast.— JJm-t/y's  Tour.  -        -        -  1704 

First  types  cast  in  England  by  Caslon.- 
Phillips. 

Stereotype  printing  suggested  by  Wil- 
liam Ged,  of  Edinburgh. — Nichols. 

The  present  mode  of  stereotype  inven- 
ted by  Mr.  Golden,  of  New  York 

Stereotype  printing  was  in  use  in  Hol- 
land in  the  last  century. — Phillips.] 
See  Stereotype. 

The  printing-machine  was  first  suggest- 
ed by  Nicholson         ....  1790 

The  Stanhope  press  was  in  general  use 
in 1806 

Machine  printing  (see  Press)    -        -     1811 

Steam  machinery  (see  Press)      -        .  1814 


1720 
1735 


1779 


TITLES  OP   THB   EARLIEST   BOOKS    OF   CAXTON   AND   WYNKYN   DE  WORDS. 


The  Game  and  Playe  of  the  Chesse.  Trans- 
lated out  of  the  Frenclw  and  emprynted 
by  me  Williara  Caxton -Pi/wyssAia^/zeZasf 
day  of  Marclie  the  yer  of  our  Lord  God  a 
thousand foure  hondred  and  Ixxiiij. 

TULLY. 

The  Boke  of  Tulle  of  Okie  age  Emprynted 
by  me  simple  persone  William  Caxton  in 
to  Englysshe  as  the ptaysir  solace  and  re- 
verence of  vien  growynir  iji  to  old  age  the 
xij  day  of  August  the  yere  of  our  lord 
M.cccc.lxxxj. — Herbert. 

THE   POLYCRONYCON. 

The  Polycronycon  conteyning  the  Berynges 
andDedesqfmanyTymesineyghtBokes. 
Imprinted  by  William  Caxton  after  hav- 
ing somewhat  chaunged  the  rude  and 
olde  Englysshe,  that  is  to  wete  (to  wit)  cer- 


tayn  Words  which  in  these  Days  be  nei- 
ther vsyd  ne  understanden.  Ended  the 
second  day  of  Juyll  at  Westmestre  the 
xxij  yere  of  the  Regne  ofKynge  Edward 
the  fourth,  and  of  the  Incarnacion  of  oure 
Lord  a  Thousand  four  Hondred  four 
Score  and  tweyne  [1482.] — Dibdin's  Tvp. 
Antiq,. 

the  chronicles. 

The  Cronicles  of  Englond  Enpnted  by  tne 

Wyllyam  Caxton  thabbey  of  Westmynstre 

by  London  the  v  day  of  Jayn  the  yere 

of     thi7icarnacion     of    our    lord    god 

M  CCCC.LXXX. 

POLYCRONICON. 

Polycronycon.  Ended  the  thyrienth  daye 
of  Apryll  the  tenth  yere  of  the  regne  cf 
kinge  Harry  the  seuenth  and  of  the  Jn- 


'  To  the  west  of  the  Sanctuary,  in  Westminster  Abbey,  stood  the  Eleemosynary  or  Almonry, 
where  the  first  printing-press  in  England  was  erected  in  1471,  by  William  Caxton,  encouraged  b/ 
the  learned  Thomas  Milling,  then  abbot.  He  produced  •'  The  Game  and  Play  of  the  Chesse,"  tie 
first  book  ever  printed  in  these  kingdoms.  There  is  a  slight  difference  about  the  place  in  which  it 
was  printed,  but  all  agree  that  it  was  within  the  precincts  of  this  religious  house. — Leigh. 


pr:] 


DICTIONARY    OF   DATES. 


491 


PRINTING,  continued. 

carimcyon  of  our  lord  MOCCCLXxxxv 
Emprynled  by  Wynkyn  Theworde  at 
Westmeslre. 

HILL   OP  PERFECTION. 

The  Hylle  of  Perfection  emprynled  at  the 
instance  of  the  reverend  relygyous  fader 
Tho.  Prior  of  the  hous  of  St.  Ann.  the  or- 
der of  the  charteroiise  Acco'mpiyshe[d] 
a7idfynyssheld]  att  Westmynster  the  uiii 
day  ofjaneur  the  yere  of  our  lord  Thou- 
sonde  occc.LXxxxvii.  Andinthexiiyere 
qfkynge  Henry  the  vii  by  me  wynkyn  de 
worde. — Ames,  Herbert,  Dibdin. 

ENGLAND. 

The  Descrypcyon  of  Englonde  Walys  Scot- 
land and  Ireland  speaking  of  the  A'oblesse 
and  Worthynesse  of  the  same  Fyimysshed 
and  enprynted  in  Mete  strete  in  the  syne 
of  the  Sonne  by  me  Wynkyn  de  Worde 
the  yere  of  our  lord  a  m.ccccc  and  ij.  men- 
sis  Mayiis  [mense  Mali]. — Dibdin's  Typ. 
Ant. 

the  festival. 

The  Festyvall  or  Sermons  on  sondays  and 
holidais  taken  out  of  the  golden  legend  en- 


prynted at  london  in  Fletestrete  at  ye  syne 
of  ye  Sonne  by  wynkyn  de  worde.  In  the 
yere  of  our  lord  m.ccccc.  viii.  Andended 
the  xi  daye  of  Maye. — Ames. 

THE   lord's   prayer. 

As  printed  by  Caxton  in  1483. 

Father  our  that  art  in  heavens,  hallowed  be 
thy  natne  :  thy  kyngdome  come  to  us  ;  thy 
will  be  do?ie  in  earth  as  is  in  heaven :  oure 
every  days  bred  give  us  to  day  ;  and  for- 
give us  oure  tresspasses,  as  we  forgive 
them  that  tresspass  against  us ;  and  lead 
us  not  into  temptation,  but  deliver  usfrom 
all  evil  sin,  amen. — Lewis's  Life  op 
Caxton. 

a  placard. 
As  printed  by  William  Caxton. 

If  it  plese  onyman  spirituel  or  temporel  to 
bye  ony  pies  of  two  or  thre  comemoracios  of 
Salisburi  use'  enpryntid  after  the  forme 
of  this  preset  lettre  whicke  ben  wel  and 
truly  correct,  late  him,  come  to  westmon- 
ester  in  to  the  almonestye  at  the  reed  pale 
[red  pale]  and  he  shall  have  them  good 
there. — Dibdin's  Typ.  Antiq,. 


Among  the  earlj^  printers,  the  only  points  used  were  the  comma,  parenthesis, 
interrogation,  and  full  stop.  To  these  succeeded  the  colon  ;  afterwards  the 
semicolon ;  and  last  the  note  of  admiration.  The  sentences  were  full  of 
abbreviations  and  contractions  ;  and  there  were  no  running-titles,  numbered 
leaves  or  catch-words.  Our  punctuation  appears  to  have  been  introduced 
with  the  art  of  printing. 

PRINTED  GOODS.  The  art  of  calico-printing  is  of  considerable  antiquity, 
and  there  exist  specimens  of  Egyptian  cotton  dyed  by  figured  blocks  many 
hundred  years  old.  A  similar  process  has  been  resorted  to  even  in  the 
Sandwich  Islands,  where  they  use  a  large  leaf  as  a  substitiite  for  the  block. 
See  article  Cotton.  The  copyright  of  designs  secured  in  England  by  2  Vic- 
toria, 1839. 

PRIORIES.  They  were  of  early  foundation,  and  are  mentioned  in  a.  d.  722  in 
England.  See  Abbeys  and  Monasteries.  The  priories  of  aliens  were  first 
seized  upon  by  Edward  I.  in  1285,  on  the  breaking  out  of  a  war  between 
England  and  France.  They  were  seized  in  several  succeeding  reigns  on 
the  like  occasions,  but  were  usually  restored  on  the  conclusion  of  peace. 
These  priories  were  dissolved,  and  their  estates  vested  in  the  crown,  3 
Henry  V.  1414. — Rymer's  Fadera. 

PRISONERS  OF  WAR.  Among  the  ancient  nations,  prisoners  of  war  when 
spared  by  the  sword  were  usually  enslaved,  and  this  custom  more  or  less 
continued  until  about  the  thirteenth  century,  when  civilized  nations,  instead 
of  enslaving,  commonly  exchanged  their  prisoners.  The  Spanish,  French, 
and  American  prisoners  of  war  in  England  were  12,000  in  number,  Sept.  30, 
1779.  The  number  exchanged  by  cartel  with  France  from  the  commence- 
ment of  the  then  war,  was  44,000,  June  1781. — Phillips.  The  English  pri- 
soners in  France  estimated  at  6000,  and  the  French  in  England,  27,000, 
Sept.  1798. — Idem.  The  English  in  France  amounted  to  10,300,  and  the 
French,  &c.,  in  England  to  47,600,  in  1811. — Idem.    This  was  the  greatest 


*  Romish  Service  books,  used  at  Salisbury  by  the  devout,  called  Pies  {Pica,  Latin),  as  is  sup 
posed  from  the  different  color  of  the  text  and  rubric.  Our  Pica  is  called  Cicero  by  foreign  print 
ers. — Wheatley. 


492  THE   world's    progress.  [  PRO 

nninber,  owing  to  the  occasional  exchanges  made,  up  to  the  period  of  the 
last  war. 

PRISON  DISCIPLINE  SOCIETY,  in  England,  owes  its  existence  to  the  philan- 
thropic labors  of  Sir  T.  F.  Buxton,  M.  P.  It  was  instituted  in  1815,  and  held 
its  first  public  meeting  in  1820.  Its  objects  are,  the  amelioration  of  jails,  by 
the  diffusion  of  information  respecting  their  construction  and  management, 
the  classification  and  employment  of  the  prisoners,  and  the  prevention  of 
crime,  by  inspiring  a  dread  of  punishment,  and  by  inducing  the  criminal, 
on  his  discharge  from  confinement,  to  abandon  his  vicious  pursuits. — 
Haydn.  In  the  United  States  a  Prison  Discipline  Society  for  the  same  object 
was  established  in  Boston  in  1825.  The  Rev.  Louis  Dwight  was  its  active 
promoter  and  secretary.  Great  efforts  have  been  made  in  several  States  for 
the  amelioration  and  improvement  of  prisoners ;  and  the  various  systems 
adcipted  and  practised  at  Wethersfield,  Conn.,  at  Auburn,  N.  Y.,  Philadel- 
phia, &c.,  have  attracted  the  attention  of  statesmen  and  travellers  from 
Europe.  Among  those  who  have  labored  effectively  in  this  matter  is  a  lady 
— Miss  Dix,  of  New  York — who  has  accomplished  more  than  any  other  per- 
son, for  the  welfare  of  prisoners  and  of  the  insane,  and  may  deserve  even  a 
higher  name  than  the  American  Mrs.  Fry. 

PRIVY  COUNCIL,  England.  This  assembly  is  of  great  antiquity.  Instituted 
by  Alfred,  a.  d.  895.  In  ancient  times  the  number  was  twelve  ;  but  it  was 
afterwards  so  increased,  that  it  was  found  inconvenient  for  secrecy  and 
despatch,  and  Chai-les  II.  limited  it  to  thirty,  whereof  fifteen  were  the 
principal  officers  of  state  (councillors  ex  officio),  and  ten  lords  and  five  com- 
moners of  the  king's  choice,  a.  d.  1679.  The  number  is  now  indefinite.  To 
attempt  the  life  of  a  privy-councillor  in  the  execution  of  his  office  made 
capital,  occasioned  by  Guiscard's  stabbing  Mr.  Harley  while  the  latter  was 
examining  him  on  a  charge  of  high  treason,  10  Anne,  1711. 

PRIZE  MONEY.  In  the  English  navy  the  money  arising  from  captures 
made  upon  the  enemy,  is  divided  into  eight  equal  parts,  and  thus  distri- 
buted by  order  of  government : — Captain  to  have  three-eighths,  unless 
under  the  direction  of  a  flag-officer,  who  in  that  case  is  to  have  one  of  the 
said  three-eighths ;  captains  of  marines  and  land  forces,  sea  lieutenants, 
&c.,  one-eighth  :  lieutenants  of  marines,  gunners,  admiral's  secretaries,  &c. 
one-eighth ;  midshipmen,  captain's  clerks,  &c.,  one-eighth ;  ordinary  and 
able  seamen,  marines,  &c.,  two-eightlis. 

PROFILES.  The  first  profile  taken,  as  recorded,  was  that  of  Antigonus,  who, 
having  but  one  eye,  his  likeness  was  so  taken,  330  b.  c. — Ashe.  "  Until  the 
end  of  the  third  century,  I  have  not  seen  a  Roman  emperor  with  a  full  face  ; 
they  were  always  painted  or  appeared  in  profile,  which  gives  us  the  view  of 
a  head  in  a  very  majestic  manner." — Addison. 

PROMISSORY  NOTES.  They  were  regulated  and  allowed  to  be  made  assign- 
able in  1705.  Fii'st  taxed  by  a  stamp  in  1782;  the  tax  was"  increased  in 
1804,  and  again  in  1808,  and  subsequently.     See  Bills  of  Exchange. 

PROPAGANDA  FIDE.  The  celebrated  congregation  or  college  in  the  Romish 
Church,  Congregatio  de  Propaganda  FUde,  was  constituted  at  Rome  by  pope 
Gregory  XV.  in  1622.  Its  constitution  was  altered  by  several  of  the  suc- 
ceeding pontiff's. 

PROPERTY  TAX  in  England.  Parliament  granted  to  Henry  VIII.  a  subsidy 
of  two-fifteenths  from  the  commons  and  two-tenths  from  the  clergy  to  aid 
the  king  in  a  war  with  France,  1512. — Rapin.  Cardinal  Wolsey  pro- 
posed a  tenth  of  the  property  of  the  laity  and  a  fourth  of  the  clergy 
to  the  same  king,  1522.  The  London  merchants  strenuously  opposed  this 
tax :  they  were  required  to  declare  on  oath  the  real  value  of  their  effects  ; 
but  they  firmly  refused,  alleging  that  it  was  not  possible  for  them  to  give 


PRU  J  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  493 

an  exact  account  of  their  effects,  part  whereof  was  in  the  hands  of  corres- 
pondents in  foreign  countries.  At  length,  by  agreement,  tlie  king  was 
pleased  to  accept  of  a  sum  according  to  their  own  calculation  of  themselves, 
— Butler.  This  tax  was  levied  at  various  periods,  and  was  of  great  amount 
in  the  last  years  of  the  late  war.  The  assessments  on  real  property,  under 
the  property-tax  of  1815,  were  51,898,423Z. 

PROPHECY.  The  word  prophet,  in  proper  language,  means  one  of  the  sacred 
writers  empowered  by  God  to  display  futurity.  We  have  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment the  writings  of  sixteen  prophets ;  i.  e.  of  four  greater,  and  twelve 
lesser.  The  former  are  Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  Ezekiel,  and  Daniel ;  the  latter 
are  Hosea,  Joel,  Amos,  Obadiah,  Micah,  Jonah,  Nahum,  Habakknk,  Ze- 
phaniah,  Haggai,  Zechariah,  and  Malachi.  Prophecy  is  instanced  in  the 
earliest  times.  The  prophetic  denunciations  upon  Babylon  were  executed 
by  Cyrus,  538  b.  c.  God's  judgment  upon  Jerusalem  {^Isaiah,  xxix.  1 — 8) 
executed  by  Titus,  a.d.  70.  Many  other  instances  of  prophecy  occur  in 
Scripture. 

PROTESTANTS.  The  emperor  Charles  V.  called  a  diet  at  Spires,  in  1529,  to 
request  aid  from  the  German  princes  against  the  Turks,  and  to  devise  means 
for  allaying  the  religious  disputes  which  then  raged,  owing  to  Luther's  op- 
position to  the  Roman  Catholic  religion.  Against  a  decree  of  this  diet,  tc 
support  the  doctrines  of  the  church  of  Rome,  six  Lutheran  princes,  with 
the  deputies  of  thirteen  imperial  towns,  formally  and  solemnly  protested, 
April  17,  1530.  Hence  the  term  protestants  was  given  to  the  followers  of 
Luther,  and  it  afterwards  included  Calvinists,  and  all  other  sects  separated 
from  the  see  of  Rome.  The  six  protesting  princes  were  John  and  George, 
the  electors  of  Saxony  and  Brandenburg ;  Ernest  and  Francis,  the  two 
dukes  of  Lunenburg ;  the  landgrave  of  Hesse  ;  and  the  prince  of  Anhalt ; 
these  were  joined  by  the  inhabitants  of  Strasburg,  Nuremberg,  Ulm,  Con- 
stance, Hailbron  and  seven  other  cities.     See  Lxutheranism,  Calvinisvi,  <^c. 

PROVISIONS — Remarkable  facts  concerning  them.  Wheat  for  food  for  100 
men  for  one  day  worth  only  one  shilling,  and  a  sheep  for  fourpence,  Henry 
I.,  about  1130.  The  price  of  wine  raised  to  sixpence  per  quart  for  red,  and 
eightpence  for  white,  that  the  sellers  might  be  enabled  to  live  by  it,  2  John, 
1200. — Bwrtoii's  Aimals.  When  wheat  was  at  65.  per  quarter,  the  farthing 
loaf  was  to  be  equal  in  weight  to  twenty-four  ounces  (made  of  the  whole 
grain),  and  to  sixteen  the  white.  When  wheat  was  at  I5.  61^.* per  quarter, 
the  farthing  loaf  white  was  to  weigh  sixty-four  ounces,  and  the  whole  grain 
(the  same  as  standard  now)  ninety-six,  by  the  first  assize,  a.  d.  1202. — Mat. 
Paris.  A  remarkable  plenty  in  all  Europe,  1280. — Dufresnoy.  Wheat  \s. 
per  quarter,  14  Edward  I.  1-286. — Stovx.  The  price  of  provisions  fixed  by 
the  common-council  of  London  as  follows :  two  pullets,  three-halfpence  ; 
a  partridge,  or  two  woodcocks,-  three-half-pence ;  a  fat  lamb  sixpence  from 
Christmas  to  Shrovetide,  the  rest  of  the  year  fourpence,  29  Edward  I.  1299. 
Stoice.  Price  of  provisions  fixed  by  parliament :  at  the  rate  of  21.  8s.  of 
our  money  for  a  fat  ox,  if  fed  witli  corn  2>l.  12s. ;  a  shorn  sheep,  55. ;  two 
dozen  of  eggs,  Zd. ;  other  articles  nearly  the  same  as  fixed  by  tjie  common- 
council  above  recited.  7  Edwai-d  II.  1313. — Rot.  Pari.  Wine,  the  best  sold 
for  2O5.  per  tun,  10  Richard  II.  1387.  Wheat  being  at  I5.  Id.  the  bushel  in 
1390,  this  was  deemed  so  high  a  price  that  it  is  called  a  dearth  of  corn  by 
the  historians  of  that  era.  Beef  and  pork  settled  at  a  halfpenny  the  pound, 
and  veal  three  farthings,  by  act  of  parliament,  24  Henry  VIII.  1533. — ^71- 
derson's  Origin  of  Commerce.  Milk  was  sold,  three  pints,  ale-measure,  for 
one  halfpenny,  2  Eliz.  1560. — Stowe's  Chronicle. 

PRUSSIA.  This  country  was  anciently  possessed  by  the  Venedi,  about  320 
B.  c.    The  Venedi  were  conquered  by  a  i^eople  called  the  Borussi,  who  in- 


494 


THE    WORLD  S    PROGRESS. 


[PRU 


habited  the  Riphtean  mountains ;  and  from  these  the  country  was  called 
Burussia.  Some  historians,  however,  derive  the  name  from  Po,  sig- 
nifying near,  and  Russia — Po-Russia,  easily  modified  into  Prussia.  The 
Porussi  afterwards  intermixed  with  the  followers  of  the  Teutonic  knights, 
and  latterly,  with  the  Poles.  This  people  and  country  were  little  known 
until  about  a.  d.  1007. 


St.  Adalbert  arrives  in  Prussia  to  preach 
Christianity,  but  is  murdered  by  the 
pagans  -  -  -        a.  d.  1010 

Boleslaus  of  Poland  revenges  his  death 
by  dreadful  ravages        -  -        .  •  *  * 

Berlin  built  by  a  colony  from  the  Nether- 
lands, in  the  reign  of  Albert  the  Bear  -  1163 

The  Teutonic  knights,  returning  from 
the  holy  wars,  undertake  the  conquest 
of  Prussia,  and  the  conversion  of  the 
people  -  -  -  -  .  1225 

Konigsberg,  lately  built,  made  the  capi- 
tal of  Prussia   ....  1286 

The  Teutonic  knights,  by  their  barba- 
rities, almost  depopulate  Prussia.  It 
is  repeopled  by  German  colonists  in 
the  13th  century  -  -  -  •  *  * 

Frederick  IV.  of  Nuremberg  obtains  by 
purchase  from  Sigismond,  emperor 
of  Germany,  the  margraviate  of  Bran- 
denburg ....  1415 

[This  Frederick  is  the  head  of  the  pre- 
sent reigning  family.] 

Casimir  IV."  of  Poland  assists  the  na- 
tives against  the  oppression  of  the 
Teutonic  knights  -  -         -  1446 

Albert  of  Brandenburg,  grand-master 
of  the  Teutonic  order,  renounces  the 
Roman  Catholic  religion,  embraces 
Lutheranism,  and  i.s  acknowledged 
duke  of  East  Prussia,  to  be  held  as  a 
fief  of  Poland         -  -  -      -  1525 

University  of  Konigsberg  founded  by 
duke  Albert      ....  1544 

The  dukedom  of  Prussia  is  joined  to  the 
electorate  of  Brandenburg,  and  so 
continues  to  this  day  -  -  -  1594 

John  Sigismund  created  elector  of  Bran- 
denburg and  duke  of  Prussia  -  1603 

The  principality  of  Halberstadtandthe 
bisnopric  of  Minden  transferred  to  the 
house  of  Brandenburg  -  -1648 

Poland  obliged  to  acknowledge  Prussia 
as  an  independent  state,  under  Frede- 
rick William    ....  1657 

Order  of  Concord  instituted  by  Christian 
Ernest,  duke  of  Prussia,  to  distinguish 
the  part  he  had  taken  in  restoring 
peace  to  Europe  -  -  -  1660 

The  foundation  of  the  Prussian  monar- 
chy was  established  between  the  years 
1640  and  -  -  -  -  1680 

Frederic  III.,  in  an  assembly  of  the 
states,  puts  a  crown  upon  his  own 
head,  and  upon  the  head  of  his  con- 
sort, and  is  proclaimed  king  of  Prus- 
sia, by  the  title  of  Frederick  I.  -  1701 

Guelders  taken  from  the  Dutch      -      - 1702 

Frederick  I.  seizes  NeufchatelorNeun- 
burgh,  and  Valengia,  and  purchases 


which  the  Prussian  monarchy  is 
made  to  rank  among  the  fixst  powers 
in  Europe         -  -  -    a.  d.  1740 

Breslau  ceded  to  Prussia     -  -      -1741 

Silesia,  Glatz,  &c.,  ceded  -  -  1742 

Frederick  the  Great  visits  England  -  1744 
General  Lacy  with  15,000  Austrians, 
and  a  Russian  army,  march  to  Berlin. 
The  city  laid  under  contribution ;  and 
pays  800,000  guilders,  and  1,000,000 
crowns,  the  magazines,  arsenals,  and 
foundries  destroyed     -  -  - 1760 

Frederick  the  Great  dies      -    Aug.  17,  1786 
The  Prussians  take  possession  of  Hano- 
ver -  -  -         Jan.  30,  1806 
Prussia  jcms    the    allies  of  England 

against  France  -  -   Oct.  6,  l«06 

Fatal  battle  of  Jena  -         Oct.  14,  IboO 

[Here  followed  the  loss  of  almost  every 
corps  in  succession  of  the  Prussian 
army,  the  loss  of  Berlin,  and  of  every 
province   of   the    monarchy  except 
Prussia  proper.] 
Berlin  decree  promulgated    -  Nov.  20, 1806 
.  Peace  of  Tilsit  (tr/(/c/i  see)      -  July  7, 1807 
Convention  of  Berlin  -       Nov.  5, 1803 

Prussia  joins  the  aUies    -       March  17,  1813 
Treaty  of  Paris  -  -  April  11, 1814 

The  king  promised  liberty  of  the  press 

March,  1817 
Outbreak  at  Berlin :  the  king  resists 
urgent  demands  for  liberal  measures, 

March  14,  1847 
Barricades  r.nd  fights  between  troops 

and  students  -  -  March  15, 1847 

The  king  goes  to  Potsdam  -  March  18, 1847 
— issues   decree  demanding    a  federal 
union  of  Germany,  and  granting  li- 
berty of  the  press       -        March  18,  1S17 
Another  bloody  collision,  274  killed 

March  18, 1847 
New  ministry  formed  -  March  18,  1847 
The  king  grants  general  amnesty 

March  20,  1847 
Agitations  general  throughout  Prussia 
A  free  constitution  granted,  in  a  solemn 

convocation,  by  the  king   -  April  11,  1347 
The  duchy  of  Posen  reorganizecj  by  the 

king  -  -  -    March  26,  1848 

Prussian  diet  meets  at  Berlin  -  April  3, 1848 
Constitutional    assembly    of    Prussia 

meets  -  -  -    May  22, 184? 

The  arsenal  at  Berlin  captured  by  the 

mob         -  -  -        June  16,  1848 

The  king  prorogues  the  assembly  at 
Berlin,  and  appoints  its  meeting  at 
Brandenburg  -  -     Nov.  9,  1818 

The  Burgher  Guard  refuses  to  obey  the 
order  of  the  king  to  disband.  Berlin 
in  a  state  of  siege  -        Nov.  12,  1849 

The  assembly  dissolved,  and  a  new  con- 
stitution promulgated       -       Dec.  6, 1849 


the  principality  of  Tecklenburgli      -  1707 
Reign  of  Frederick  the  Great,  during 

MAEGRAVES   AND   ELECTORS    OP  BRANDENBURG,  ETC. 

A.  D.  923  Sifroi,  margrave  of  Brandenburg.  I  succession  of  time,  passed  into  the 

*  *   Geron,  margrave  of  Lusatia,  which,  in   |  families  of  Staden,  Ascani*,  Bellen- 


PUR  ] 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES. 


495 


PRUSSIA,  continued. 

stadt,  and  that  of  Bavaria ;  till  the 
emperor  Sigismond,  with  the  consent 
of  the  states  of  the  empire,  gave  per- 
petual investiture  to 

1416  Frederick  IV.  of  Nuremberg,  made 
elector  of  Brandenburgh,  1417. 

1440  Frederick  II.,  surnamed  Ferreus,  or 
Ironside ;  resigned. 

1470  Albert  1.,  surnamed  the  German  Achil- 
les. He  confirmed  the  deed  made  by 
his  predecessor,  of  mutual  succession 
with  the  families  of  Saxony  and 
Hesse ;  resigned. 

1476  John,  surnamed  the  Cicero  of  Germany, 
his  son.     _  . 

1499  Joachim  I.,  his  son. 


1535  Joachim  II. ;  he  was  poisoned  by  a  Jew. 
1571  John  George. 
1598  Joachim  Frederick. 
160S  John  Sigismund. 
1619  George  William. 
1640  Frederick  William  the  Great. 
1688  Frederick,  who,  in  1701,  was  made  king 
of  Prussia. 

KINGS   OF   PRUSSIA. 

1701  Frederick  I. 

1713  Frederick  William  I. 

1740  Frederick  II.,  surnamed  the  Grjiit, 

1786  Frederick  William  II. 

1797  Frederick  William  III. 

1840  Frederick  William  IV.,  June  7. 


PUBLICHOUSES  in  England.  A  power  of  licensing  them  was  first  granted 
to  sir  Giles  Mompesson  and  sir  Francis  Mitchel  for  their  own  emolument, 
A.  D.  1620-1.  The  number  of  public  houses  in  England  at  this  period  was 
about  13,000.  In  1700  the  number  was  32,600 ;  and  in  1790,  the  number  in 
Great  Britain  was  76,000.  It  is  supposed  that  there  were  about  50,000 
public  houses,  and  30,000  beer-shops  in  England  and  Wales  in  1830.  The 
number  on  Jan.  5,  1840,  was  95,820. 

PULLEY.  The  pulley,  together  with  the  vice  and  other  mechanical  instru- 
ments, are  said  to  have  been  invented  by  Archytas  of  Tarentum,  a  disciple 
of  Pythagoras,  about  516  b.  c. —  Univ.  Hist.  It  has  been  ascertained  that  in 
a  single  movable  pulley  the  power  gained  is  doubled.  In  a  continued  com- 
bination the  power  is  twice  the  number  of  puUies,  less  1. — Phillips. 

PULTOWA,  Battle  of.  In  this  memorable  engagement  Charles  XII.  of 
Sweden  was  entirely  defeated  by  Peter  the  Great  of  Russia,  and  obliged  to 
take  refuge  at  Bender,  in  the  Turkish  dominions.  The  vanquished  monarch 
would  have  fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  czar  after  the  engagement,  had_  he 
not  been  saved  by  the  personal  exertions  of  the  brave  count  Poniatowski,  a 
Polish  nobleman,  whom  Voltaire  has  commemorated  and  immortalized. 
This  battle  was  lost  chiefly  owing  to  a  want  of  concert  in  the  generals,  and  to 
the  circumstance  of  Charles  having  been  dangerously  wounded,  just  before, 
which  obliged  him  to  issue  his  commands  from  a  litter,  without  being  able 
to  encourage  his  soldiers  by  his  presence.    Fought  July  8,  1709. 

PUMPS.  Ctesibius  of  Alexandria,  architect  and  mechanic,  is  said  to  have  in- 
vented the  pump  (with  other  hydraulic  instruments)  about  224  b.  c,  although 
the  invention  is  ascribed  to  Uanaus,  at  Lindus,  1485  b.  c.  They  were  in 
general  use  in  England,  a.  d.  1425.  The  air-pump  was  invented  by  Otto 
Guericke  in  1654,  and  was  improved  by  Boyle  in  1657.  An  inscription  on 
the  pump  in  front  of  the  Royal  Exchange,  London,  states  that  the  well 
beneath  was  first  sunk  in  a.  d.  1282. 

PUNIC  WARS.  The  first  Punic  war  was  undertaken  by  the  Romans  against 
Carthage  264  b.  c.  The  ambition  of  Rome  was  the  origin  of  this  war  ;  it 
lasted  twenty-three  years,  and  ended  241  b.  c.  The  second  Punic  war  be- 
gan 218  B.  c,  in  which  year  Hannibal  marched  a  numerous  army  of  90,000 
foot  and  12,000  horse  towards  Italy,  resolved  to  carry  on  the  war  to  the 
gates  of  Rome.  He  crossed  the  Rhone,  the  Alps,  and  the  Apennines,  with 
uncommon  celerity ;  and  the  Roman  consuls  who  were  stationed  to  stop  his 
progress  were  severally  defeated.  The  battles  of  Trebia,  of  Ticinus,  and 
of  the  lake  of  Thrasymenus,  followed.  This  war  lasted  seventeen  years,  and 
ended  in  201  b.  g.  The  third  Punic  war  began  149  b.  c,  and  was  terminated 
by  the  fall  of  Carthage,  146  b.  c.     See  Carthage. 

PURGATORY.    The  middle  place  between  the  grave,  or  heaven,  and  hell, 


496  THE    world's    progress.  [  PYT 

where,  it  is  believed  by  the  Roman  Catholics,  the  soul  passes  through  the 
fire  of  purification  before  it  enters  the  kingdom  of  God.  The  doctrine  of 
purgatory  was  known  about  a.  d.  250 ;  and  was  introduced  into  the  Roman 
church  in  593. — Platina.  It  was  introduced  early  in  the  sixth  century. — 
Dupin. 

PURIFICATION.  The  act  of  cleansing,  especially  considered  as  relating  to 
the  religious  performance  among  the  Jewish  women.  It  was  ordained  by  the 
Jewish  law  that  a  woman  should  keep  within  her  house  forty  days  after  the 
birth  of  a  son,  and  eighty  days  after  the  birth  of  a  daughter,  when  she  was 
to  go  to  the  temple  and  offer  a  lamb,  pigeon,  or  turtle,  a.  d.  214.  Among 
the  Christians,  the  feast  of  purification  was  instituted,  a.  d.  542,  in  honor  of 
the  Virgin  Mary's  going  to  the  temple,  where,  according  to  custom,  she 
presented  her  son  Jesus  Christ,  and  offered  two  turtles  for  him.  Pope  Ser- 
gius  I.  ordered  the  procession  with  wax  tapers,  from  whence  it  is  called 
Candlemas-day. 

PURITANS.  The  name  given  to  such  persons  as  in  the  reigns  of  queen  Eliza- 
beth, king  James,  and  king  Charles  I.,  pretended  to  greater  holiness  of 
living  and  stricter  discipline  than  any  other  people.  They  at  first  were 
members  of  the  established  church,  but  afterwards  became  separatists  upon 
account  of  several  ceremonies  that  were  by  the  rigidness  of  those  times  se- 
verely insisted  upon. — Bishop  Sanderson. 

PYRAMIDS  OF  EGYPT.  The  pyramids,  according  to  Dr.  Pococke  and  Son- 
nini,  "  so  celebrated  from  remote  antiquity,  are  the  most  illustrious  monu- 
ments of  art.  It  is  singular  that  such  superb  piles  are  nowhere  to  be  found 
but  in  Egypt ;  for  in  every  other  country,  pyramids  are  rather  puerile  and 
diminutive  imitations  of  those  in  Egypt,  than  attempts  at  appropriate  mag- 
nificence. The  pyramids  are  situated  on  a  rock  at  the  foot  of  some  high 
mountains  which  "bound  the  Nile."  The  first  building  of  them  commenced, 
it  is  supposed,  about  1500  b.  c.  They  were  formerly  accounted  one  of  the 
seven  wonders  of  the  world.  The  largest,  near  Gizeh,  is  461  feet  in  perpen- 
dicular height,  \vith  a  platform  on  the  top  32  feet  square,  and  the  length  of 
the  base  is"? 46  feet.  It  occupies  eleven  acres  of  ground,  and  is  constructed 
of  such  stupendous  blocks  of  stone,  that  a  more  marvellous  result  of  hu- 
man labor  has  not  been  found  on  the  earth. 

"  Virtue  alone  outbuilds  the  pyramids, 

"  Her  monuments  shall  stand  when  Egypt's  fall." — Youno. 

PYRENEES,  Battle  of  the,  between  the  British  army,  commanded  by  lord 
Wellington,  and  the  French,  under  the  command  of  marshal  Soult.  The 
latter  army  was  defeated  with  great  slaughter,  July  28,  1813.  After  the 
battle  of  Vittoria  (fought  June  21),  Napoleon  sent  Soult  to  supersede  Jour- 
dan,  with  instructions  to  drive  the  allies  across  the  Ebro,  a  duty  to  which 
his  abilities  were  inferior ;  for  Soult  retreated  into  France  with  a  loss  of 
more  than  20,00  men,  having  been  defeated  in  a  series  of  engagements  from 
July  25  to  August  2. 

PYRENEES,  Peace  of  the.  A  peace  concluded  between  France  and  Spain; 
by  the  treaty  of  the  Pyrenees,  Spain  yielding  Roussillon,  Artois,  and  her 
rights  to  Alsace ;  and  France  ceding  her  conquests  in  Catalonia,  Italy,  &c., 
and  engaging  not  to  assist  Portugal,  Nov.  7,  1659. 

PYTHAGOREAN  PHILOSOPHY.  Founded  by  Pythagoras,  of  Samos,  head 
of  the  Italic  sect.  He  first  taught  the  doctrine  of  metempsychosis  or 
transmigration  of  the  soul  from  one  body  to  another.  He  forbade  his  dis- 
ciples to  eat  flesh,  as  also  beans,  because  he  supposed  them  to  have  been 
produced  from  the  same  putrified  matter  from  which  at  the  creation  of  the 
world  man  was  formed.  In  his  theological  system,  Pythagoras  supported 
that  the  universe  was  created  from  a  shapeless  heap  of  passive  matter  by 


JJUA  J  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  497 

the  hands  of  a  powerful  being,  who  himself  was  the  mover  and  soul  of  the 
world.  He  was  the  inventor  of  the  multiplication-table,  and  a  great  im- 
prover of  geometry,  while  in  astronomy  he  taught  the  system  adopted  at 
this  day,  539  b.  c. 
PYTHIAN  GAMES.  Games  celebrated  in  honor  of  Apollo,  near  the  temple 
of  Delphi.  They  were  first  instituted,  according  to  the  more  received 
opinion,  by  Apollo  himself,  in  commemoration  of  the  victory  which  he  had 
obtained  over  the  serpent  Python,  from  which  they  received  their  name ; 
though  others  maintain  that  they  were  first  established  by  Agamemnon, 
or  Diomedes,  or  by  Amphictyon,  or,  lastly,  by  the  council  of  the  Amphio 
tyons,  B.  c.  1263. — Arundelian  Marbles. 

Q. 

QUACKERY  and  QUACK  MEDICINES.  At  the  first  appearance  that  a 
French  quack  made  in  Paris,  a  boy  walked  before  him,  publishing,  with  a 
shrill  voice,  "  My  father  cures  all  sorts  of  distempers  ;"  to  which  the  doctor 
added  in  a  grave  manner,  "  What  the  child  says  is  true." — Addisun.  Qaacks 
sprung  up  with  the  art  of  medicine ;  and  several  couniiies,  particularly 
England  and  France,  abound  with  them.  In  London,  some  of  their  esta- 
blishments are  called  colleges.  Quack  medicines  were  taxed  in  England  in 
1783  et  seq.  An  inquest  was  held  on  the  body  of  a  young  lady,  Miss 
Cashiu,  whose  physician,  St.  John  Long,  was  afterwards  tried  for  man- 
slaughter ;  he  was  found  guilty,  and  sentenced  to  pay  a  fine  of  250Z.,  Oct. 
30,  1830. 

QUADRANT.  The  mathematical  instrument  in  the  form  of  a  quarter  circle. 
The  solar  quadrant  was  introduced  about  290  b.  c.  The  Arabian  astrono- 
nomers  under  the  Caliphs,  in  a.d.  995,  had  a  quadrant  of  21  feet  8  inches 
radius,  and  a  sextant  57  feet  9  inches  radius.  Davis's  quadrant  for  mea- 
suring angles  was  produced  about  1600.  Hadley's  quadrant,  in  1731.  See 
Navigation. 

QUADRUPLE  ALLIANCE.  The  celebrated  treaty  of  Alliance  betAveen  Great 
Britain,  France,  and  the  Emperor,  signed  at  London.  This  alliance,  on  the 
accession  of  the  states  of  Holland,  obtained  the  name  of  the  Quadruple 
Alliance,  and  was  for  the  purpo.se  of  guaranteeing  the  succession  of  the 
reigning  families  in  Great  Britain  and  France,  and  settling  the  partition  of 
the  Spanish  monarchy.     Aug.  2,  1718. 

QUJ?:STOR,  in  Roman  antiquity,  was  an  oflScer  who  had  the  management  of 
the  public  treasure,  instituted  484:  b.  c.  The  questorship  was  the  firstofllce 
any  person  could  bear  in  the  commonwealth,  and  gave  a  right  to  sit  in  the 
senate.  At  first  there  were  only  two;  but  afterwards  the  number  was 
greatly  increased. 

QUAKERS  OR  FRIENDS.  Originally  called  Seekers,  from  their  seeking  the 
truth  ;  and  afterwards  Friends — a  beautiful  appellation,  and  characteristic 
of  the  relation  which  man,  under  the  Christian  dispensation,  ought  to  bear 
towards  man. — Clarkson.  Justice  Bennet,  of  Derby,  gave  the  society  the 
name  of  Quakers  in  1650,  because  Fox  (the  founder)  admonished  him  and 
those  present  with  him,  to  tremble  at  the  word  of  the  Lord.  This  respect- 
able sect,  excelling  in  morals,  prudence,  and  industry,  was  commenced  in 
England  about  a.  d.  1650,  by  George  Fox,  who  was  soon  joined  by  a  num- 
ber of  learned,  ingenious,  and  pious  men — among  others,  by  George  Keith, 
Wm.  Penn,  and  Robert  Barclay  of  Ury.*    The  thee  and  thou  used  by  the 

*  The  Quakers  early  suffered  grievous  persecutions  in  England  and  America.    At  Boston,  where 
the  first  Friends  who  arrived  were  females,  they,  even  females,  were  cruelly  scourged,  and  their 


498  THE    world's    progress.  [  QUE 

Quakers  originated  with  their  founder,  who  published  a  book  of  instruc- 
tions for  teachers  and  professors.  The  solemn  affirmation  of  Quakers  was 
enacted  to  be  taken  in  all  cases,  in  the  courts  below,  wherein  oaths  are  re- 
quired from  other  subjects,  8  William  III.  1696. 

QUARANTINE.  The  custom  first  observed  at  Venice,  a.  d.  1127,  whereby  all 
merchants  and  others  coming  from  the  Levant  were  obliged  to  remain  in 
the  house  of  St.  Lazarus,  or  the  Lazaretto,  40  days  before  they  were  ad- 
mitted into  the  city.  Various  southern  cities  have  now  lazarettos  ;  that  of 
Venice  is  built  in  the  water.  In  the  times  of  plague,  England  and  all  other 
nations  oblige  those  that  come  from  the  infected  places  to  perform  qua- 
rantine with  their  ships,  &c.,  a  longer  or  shorter  time,  as  may  be  judged 
most  safe. 

QUATRE-BRAS,  Battle  of,  between  the  British  and  allied  army  under  the 
duke  of  Brunswick,  the  prince  of  Orange,  and  sir  Thomas  Picton,  and  the 
French  under  marshal  Ney,  fought  two  days  before  the  battle  of  Waterloo. 
In  this  engagement  the  gallant  duke  of  Brunswick  fell,  Jvme  16,  1815. 

QUEBEC.  Founded  by  the  French  in  1605.  It  was  reduced  by  the  English, 
with  all  Canada,  in  1626,  but  was  restored  in  1632.  Quebec  was  besieged 
by  the  English,  but  without  success,  in  1711 ;  but  was  conquered  by  them, 
after  a  battle  memorable  for  the  death  of  general  Wolfe  in  the  moment  of 
victory,  Sept.  13,  1759.  This  battle  was  fought  on  the  Plains  of  Abraham. 
Quebec  was  besieged  by  the  Americans  under  Gen.  Montgomeiy,  who  was 
slain,  December  31,  1775;  and  the  siege  was  raised  the  next  year.  The 
public  and  private  stores,  and  several  wharfs,  were  destroyed  by  fire  in 
1815;  the  loss  being  estimated  at  upwards  of  260,000Z.  Awful  fire,  1650 
houses,  the  dwellings  of  12,000  persons,  burnt  to  the  ground,  May  28, 
1845.  Another  great  fire,  one  month  afterwards ;  1365  houses  burnt,  June 
28,  1845.    Disastrous  fire  at  the  theatre,  50  lives  lost,  Jan.  12,  1846. 

QUEEN.  The  first  queen  invested  with  authority  as  a  ruling  sovereign,  was 
Semiramis,  queen  and  empress  of  Assyria,  2017  b.  c.  She  embellished  the 
city  of  Babj'lon,  made  it  her  capital,  and  by  her  means  it  became  the  most 
magnificent  and  superb  city  in  the  world.  The  title  of  queen  is  coeval  witli 
that  of  king.  The  Hungarians  had  such  an  aversion  to  the  name  af  queen, 
that  whenever  a  queen  ascended  the  throne,  she  reigned  with  the  title  of 
king.     See  note  to  article  Hungary. 

QUEEN  CAROLINE'S  TRIAL.  Caroline,  the  consort  of  George  IV.  of  Eng- 
land, was  subjected,  when  princess  of  Wales,  to  the  ordeal  of  the  Delicate 
Investigation,  May  29,  1806.  Her  trial  commenced  Aug.  19,  1820.  Illumi- 
nations on  her  acquittal,  Nov.  10-12.  Her  death  Aug.  7, 1821.  Riot  at  her 
funeral,  Aug.  14. 

QUEENS  OF  ENGLAND.  There  have  been,  since  the  conquest,  besides  the 
present  sovereign,  four  queens  of  England  who  have  reigned  in  their  own 
right,  not  counting  the  empress  Maude,  daughter  of  Henry  I.,  or  the  lady 
Jane  Grey,  whose  quasi  reign  lasted  only  ten  days.  There  have  been  thirty- 
four  queens,  the  consorts  of  kings,  exclusively  of  four  wives  of  kings  who 

cav.s  cut  off,  yet  they  were  unshaken  in  theii-  constancy.  In  1659,  they  stated  in  parliament  that 
2,000  Friends  hail  endured  sufferings  and  imprisonment  in  Newgate ;  and  164  Friends  offered  them- 
selves at  tliis  time,  by  name,  to  government,  to  be  imprisoned  in  lieu  of  an  equal  number  in  danger 
(from  confinement)  of  death.  Fifty-five  (ont  of  120  sentenced)  Vifere  transported  to  America,  by  an 
order  of  council,  1664.  The  masters  of  vessels  refusing  to  carry  them  for  some  months,  an  em- 
bargo was  laid  on  West  India  ships,  when  a  mercenary  wretch  was  at  length  found  for  the  scrvi'-e. 
But  the  Friends  would  not  walk  on  board,  nor  would  the  sailors  hoist  them  into  the  vesset,  and  sol- 
diers from  the  Tower  were  employed.  In  1665,  the  vessel  sailed;  but  it  was  immediately  captured 
by  the  Dutch,  who  liberated  28  of  the  prisoners  in  Holland,  the  rest  having  died  of  the  plague  in  thai 
year.    Set  Plague.    Of  the  120  few  reached  America. 


que] 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES. 


499 


died  previously  to  their  husbands  ascending  the  tlirone.  Of  thirty-five  ac^ 
tual  sovereigns  of  England,  four  died  unmarried,  three  kings  and  one  queen. 
The  following  list  includes  all  these  royal  personages : — 


Of  William  I. 
Matilda,  daughter  of  Baldwin,  earl  of 
Flanders ;  she  was  married  in  1051 ;  and 
died  1084. 

William  II. 
This  sovereign  died  unmarried. 

'     Of  Henry  I. 
Matilda,  daughter  of  Malcolm  III.  king  of 
Scotland;  she  was  married  November  11, 
1100;  and  died  May  1,  1119. 

Adelais,  daughter  of  Godfrey,  earl  of  Lou- 
vaine  ;  she  was  married  January  29,  1129. 
Survived  the  king. 

Maude  oi  Matilda. 
Di.  nghter  of  Henry  I.,  and  rightful  heir  to 
the  throne  ;  she  was  born  1101 ;  was  betroth- 
ed in  1109,  at  eight  years  of  age,  to  Henry 
v.,  emperor  of  Germany,  who  died  1125. 
She  married,  secondly.  Geoffrey  Plantagenet, 
earl  of  Anjou,  1130.  Was  set  aside  frorn  the 
English  succession  by  Stephen,  1135 ;  landed 
in  England  and  claimed  the  crown,  11.39. 
Crowned,  but  was  soon  after  defeated  at 
Winchester,  1141.  Concluded  a  peace  with 
Stephen,  which  secured  the  succession  to 
her  son,  Henry,  1153;  died  1167. 

Of  Stephen. 

Matilda,  daughter  of  Eustace,  count  of 
Boulogne ;  she  was  married  in  1128 ;  and 
died  May  3,  1151. 

Of  Henry  II. 

Eleanor,  the  repudiated  queen  of  Louis 
VII.  king  of  France,  and  heiress  of  Guienne 
and  Poitou  ;  she  was  married  to  Henry  1152 ; 
and  died  1204. 

[The  Fair  Rosamond  was  the  mistress  of 
this  prince.    See  article  Rosamond. 

Of  Richard  I. 
Bere7igera,  daughter  of  the  king  of  Na- 
varre ;  she  was  married  May  12,  1191.    Sur- 
vived the  king. 

Of  John. 

Avisa,  daughter  of  the  earl  of  Gloucester ; 
she  was  married  in  1189.    Divorced. 

Isabella,  daughter  of  the  count  of  Angou- 
leme ;  she  was  the  young  and  virgin  wife  of 
the  count  de  la  Marche  ;  married  to  John  in 
1200.  Survived  the  king,  on  whose  death 
she  was  remarried  to  the  count  de  la  Marche. 

Of  Henry  111. 
Eleanor,  daughter  of  the  count  de  Pro- 
vence ;  she  was  married  January  14,  1236. 
Survived  the  king ;  and  died  in  1292,  in  a  mo- 
nastery, whither  she  liad  retired. 

Of  Edward  I. 

Eleanor  of  Castile ;  she  was  married  in 
1253 ;  died  of  a  fever,  on  her  journey  to  Scot- 
land, at  Horneby,  in  Lincoln.shire,  1296. 

Margaret,  sister  of  the  king  of  France  ;  she 


was  married  September  12, 1299.    Survived 
the  king. 

Of  EoVfJlRD   II. 

Isabella,  daughter  of  the  king  of  France ; 
she  was  married  in  1308.  On  the  death,  by 
the  gibbet,  of  her  favorite,  Mortimer,  she  was 
confined  for  the  rest  of  her  life  in  her  own 
house  at  Risings,  near  London. — Hume. 

Of  Edward  III. 
Philippa,  daughter  of  the  count  of  Holland 
and  Hamault ;  she  was  married  January  24, 
1328 ;  and  died  August  16,  13G9. 

Of  Richard  II. 

Anne,  of  Bohemia,  sister  of  the  emperoi 
Winceslaus  of  Germany  ;  she  was  marrieu 
in  January  1382 ;  and  died  August  3,  1395. 

/sa6eWa,  daughter  of  Charles  VI.  of  France; 
she  was  married  Nov.  1,  1396.  On  the  mi.j- 
der  of  her  husband  she  returned  to  her  fa- 
ther. 

Of  Henry  IV. 

Mary,  daughter  of  the  earl  of  He  eford ; 
she  died,  before  Henry  obtained  the  crown, 
in  1.394. 

Joan  of  Navarre,  widow  of  the  duke  of 
Bretagne ;  she  was  married  in  1403.  Sur- 
vived the  king,  and  died  in  1437. 

Of  Henry  V. 
Catherine,  daughter  of  the  king  of  France  i 
she  was  married  May  30,  1420.  "She  outliv- 
ed Henry,  and  was  married  to  Owen  Tudor, 
grandfather  of  Henry  VII. 

Of  Henry  VI. 

Margaret,  daughter  of  the  duke  of  Anjou ; 
she  was  married  April  22, 1445.  She  surviv- 
ed the  unfortunate  king,  her  husband,  and 
died  in  1482. 

Of  Edward  IV. 

Lady  Elizabeth  Grey,  daughter  of  sir 
Richard  Woodeville,  and  widow  of  sir  John 
Grey,  of  Groby ;  she  was  married  March  1, 
1464.  Suspected  of  favoring  the  insurrection 
of  Lambert  Simnel ;  and  closed  her  life  in 
confinement. 

Edward  V. 

This  prince  perished  in  the  Tower,  in 
the  13th  year  of  his  age ;  and  died  unma  ■- 
ried. 

Of  Richard  IIL 

Anne,  daughter  of  the  earl  of  Warwick, 
and  widow  of  Edward,  prince  of  Wales! 
whom  Richard  had  murdered,  1471.  She  is 
supposed  to  have  been  poisoned  by  Richard 
(having  died  suddenly  March  6,  1485),  to 
make  way  for  his  intended  marriage  with 
the  princess  Elizabeth  of  York. 

Of  Henry  VII. 
Elizabeth  of  York,  princess  of  England, 
daughter  of  Edward  IV. ;  she  was  married 
January  18,   1486 :   and  died  February  11 
1503. 


500 


THE   WORLD'S    PROGRESS. 


[que 


QUEENS,  continued. 

Of  Hbney  VIII. 

Catherine  of  Arragon,  widow  of  Henry's 
elder  brother,  Arthur,  prince  of  Wales.  She 
was  man-ied  June  3,  1509 ;  was  the  mother 
of  queen  Mary ;  was  repudiated,  and  after- 
wards formally  divorced,  May  23, 1533;  died 
January  6,  1536. 

Anna  Boleyn,  daughter  of  sir  Thomas  Bo- 
leyn,  and  maid  of  honor  to  Catherine.  She 
was  privately  married,  before  Catherine  was 
divorced,  Nov.  14,  1532 ;  was  the  mother  of 
queen  Elizabeth ;  was  beheaded  at  the  Tow- 
er, May  19,  1536. 

Jane  Seymour^  daughter  of  sir  John  Sey- 
mour, and  maid  of  honor  to  Anna  Boleyn. 
She  was  married  May  20,  1536,  the  day  alter 
Anna's  execution ;  was  the  mother  of  Ed- 
ward VI.,  of  whom  she  died  in  childbirth, 
Oct.  13,  1537. 

Anne  of  Cleves,  sister  of  William,  duke 
of  Cleves.  She  was  married  January  6, 
1540 ;  was  divorced  July  10,  1540 ;  and  died 
in  1557. 

Catherine  Hotcard,  niece  of  the  duke  of 
Norfolk ;  she  was  married  August  8,  1540  ; 
and  was  beheaded  on  Tower  hill  February 
12,  1542. 

Catherine  Parr,  daughter  of  sir  Thomas 
Parr,  and  widow  of  Nevill.  lord  I.atimer. 
She  was  married  July  12,  15-13.  Survived 
the  king,  after  whosedeaih  she  married  sir 
Thomas  Seymour,  created  lord  Sudley ;  and 
died  September  5, 1548. 

Edward  VI. 
This  prince,  who  ascended  the  throne  in  his 
tentli  year,  reigned  six  years  and  five  months, 
and  died  unmarried. 

Lady  Janb  Grey. 
Daughter  of  the  duke  of  Suffolk,  and  wife 
of  lord  Guildford  Dudley.  Proclaimed  queen 
on  the  death  of  Edward.  In  ten  days  after- 
wards returned  to  private  life  ;  was  tried 
Nov.  13,  1553 ;  and  beheaded  February  12, 
1554,  when  but  seventeen  years  of  age. 

Mary. 
Daughter  of  Henry  VIII.  She  ascended 
the  throne  July  6,  1553 ;  married  Philip  11. 
of  Spain,  July  25,  1554 ;  and  died  Novem- 
ber 17,  1558.  The  king  her  husband  died  in 
1598. 

Elizabeth. 
Daughter  of  Henry  VIII.    Succeeded  to 
the  crown  Nov.  17,  1558 ;  reigned  44  years, 
4  months,  and  7  days ;  and  died  unmarried. 

Of  James  I. 
Anne,  princess  of  Denmark,  daughter  of 
Frederick  11. ;  she  was  married  August  20, 
1589 ;  and  died  March  1619. 

Of  Charles  I. 

Henrietta  Maria,  daughter  of  Henry  IV. 

king  of  France ;  she  was  married  June  13, 

1625.    Survived  the  unfortunate  king ;  and 

died  in  France,  August  10,  1669. 


Of  CHARLE.S   II. 

Catherine,  infanta  of  Portugal,  daughter 
of  John  IV.  and  sister  of  Alfonso  VI.  :  she 
was  married  May  21,  1662.  Survived  the 
king,  returned  to  Portugal,  and  died  Dec. 
21, 1705. 

Of  James  II. 

Anne  Hyde,  daughter  of  Edward  Hyde, 
earl  of  Clarendon  ;  she  was  married  in  Sep- 
tember 1660 ;  and  died  before  James  ascend- 
ed the  throne,  in  1671. 

Mary  Beatrice,  princess  of  Modena,  daugh- 
ter of  Alphonzo  d'Este,  duke ;  she  was  mar- 
ried November  21,  1673.  At  the  revolution 
in  1688,  she  retired  with  James  to  Franco; 
and  died  at  St.  Germams  in  1718,  having  sur- 
vived her  consort  seventeen  yei.:'P. 

William  and  Mary. 
Mary,  the  princess  of  Orange,  daughter  i< 
James  II.;  married  to  William,  Nov.  4, 16^  7 ; 
ascended  the  throne  Feb.  13,  1689 ;  died  De- 
cember 28, 1694. 

Anne. 
Daughter  of  James  11.  She  married  George 
prince  of  Denmark,  July  28,  1683 ;  succeed- 
ed to  the  throne  March  8, 1702 ;  had  thirteen 
children,  all  of  whom  died  young  ;  lost  her 
husband,  October  28, 1708 ;  and  died  August 
1,  1714. 

Of  George  I. 
Sopliia  Dorothea,  daughter  of  the  duke  of 
Zell.    She  died  a  few  weeks  previously  to 
the  accession  of  George  to  the  crown,  June 
8,  1714. 

Of  George  H. 
Wilhehnina  Caroline  Dorothea,  of  Bran- 
denburgh-Anspach ;  married  in  1704:  and 
died  November  20,  1737. 

Of  George  III. 
Charlotte  Sophia,  daughter  of  the  duke  of 
jNIecklenburgh-Strelitz ;  married  September 
8, 1761 ;  and  died  November  17,  1818. 

Of  George  IV. 
Caroline  Amelia  Augusta,  daughter  of  the 
duke  of  Brunswick ;  she  was  married  April 
8,  1795, ;  was  mother  of  the  lamented  prin- 
cess Charlotte ;  and  died  August  7, 1821.  See 
article  Queen  Caroline. 

Of  William  IV. 

Adelaide  Ainelia  Louisa  Teresa  Caroline, 
sister  of  the  duke  of  Saxe-Meinengen ;  she 
was  married  July  11, 1818;  and  survived  the 
king. 

Victoria. 
Alexandrina  Victoria,  the  reigning  queen, 
daughter  of  the  duke  of  Kent ;  bornlMay  24, 
1819 ;  succeeded  to  the  crown  June  20, 1837 ; 
crowned  June  28, 1838.  Married  her  cousin 
prince  Albert  of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha,  Feb- 
ruary 10,  1840. 


QUEENSTOWN;  Canada.     Taken  by  the  troops  of  the  United  States  of  Ameri- 


RAC  J  DICTIONARY    OP    DATES.  501 

ca,  October  13,  1812 ;  but  retaken  by  the  British  forces,  who  defeated  the 
Americans  with  considerable  loss  in  killed,  wounded,  and  prisoners,  the 
same  day. 

QUICKSILVER.  In  its  liquid  state,  it  is  commonly  called  virgin  mercury.  It 
is  endowed  with  very  extraordinaiy  properties,  and  used  to  show  the  weight 
of  the  atmosphere,  and  its  continual  variations,  &c.  Its  use  in  refining  sil- 
ver was  discovered  a.  d.  1540.  There  are  mines  of  it  in  various  parts,  the 
chief  of  which  are  at  Almeida  in  Spain,  and  at  Udria  in  Carniola  in  Ger- 
many, discovered  by  accident  in  1497.  A  mine  was  discovered  at  Ceylon  in 
1797.  Quicksilver  was  congealed  in  winter  at  St.  Petersburgh  in  1759.  It 
was  congealed  in  England  by  a  chemical  process,  without  snow  or  ice,  by 
Mr.  Walker,  in  1787. 

QUIETISTS.  The  doctrines  and  religious  opinions  of  Molinus,  the  Spaniard, 
whose  work,  the  Spiritual  Guide,  was  the  foundation  of  the  sect  of  Quietists 
in  France.  His  principal  tenet  was,  that  the.  purity  of  religion  coi^sisted  in 
an  internal  silent  meditation  and  recollection  of  the  merits  of  Christ,  and 
the  mercies  of  God.  His  doctrine  was  also  called  quietism  from  a  kind  of 
absolute  rest  and  inaction  in  which  the  sect  supposed  the  soul  to  be,  when 
arrived  at  that  state  of  perfection  called  by  them  unitive  life.  They  then 
imagined  the  soul  to  be  wholly  employed  in  contemplating  its  Jod.  Ma- 
dame de  la  Mothe-Guyon,  who  was  imprisoned  in  the  Bastile  for  her  visions 
and  prophecies,  but  released  thi'ough  the  interest  of  Fenelon,  the  celebrated 
archbishop  of  Cambray,  between  whom  and  Bossuet,  bishop  of  Meaux,  she 
occasioned  the  famous  controversy  concerning  Quietism,  1697.  The  sect 
sprang  up  about  1678. — Nouv.  Diet. 

QUILLS.  They  are  said  to  have  been  first  used  for  pens  in  a.  d.  553  ;  but  some 
say  not  before  635.  Quills  are  for  the  most  part  plucked  with  great  cruelty 
from  living  geese  ;  and  all  persons,  from  convenience,  economy,  and  feeling, 
ought  to  pi'efer  metallic  pens,  which  came  into  use  in  1830. — Phillips. 

QUITO.  A  presidency  of  Colombia  {which  see)  celebrated  as  having  been  the 
scene  of  the  measurement  of  a  degree  of  the  meridian,  by  the  French  and 
Spanish  mathematicians,  in  the  reign  of  Louis  XV.  Forty  thousand  souls 
were  hurried  into  eternity  by  a  dreadful  earthquake  at  Quito,  which  almost 
overwhelmed  the  city,  Feb.  4,  1797. 

R. 

RACES.  One  of  the  exercises  among  the  ancient  games  of  Greece  (see  Chari- 
ots). Horse-races  were  known  in  England  in  very  eai-ly  times.  Fitz-Stephen, . 
who  Avrote  in  the  days  of  Henry  II.,  mentions  the  delight  taken  by  the  citi- 
zens of  London  in  the  diversion.  In  James's  reign,  Croydon  in  the  sovith, 
and  Garterly  in  the  north,  were  celebrated  courses.  Near  York  there  were 
races,  and  the  prize  was  a  little  golden  bell,  1607. —  Camden.  In  the  end  of 
Charles  I.'s  reign,  races  were  performed  at  Hj^de-park,  and  also  Newmarket, 
although  first  used  as  a  place  for  hunting.  Charles  II.  patronized  them, 
and  instead  of  bells,  gave  a  silver  bowl,  or  cup,  value  100  guineas. 

RACKS.  This  engine  of  death,  as  well  as  of  torture,  for  exti-acting  a  confes- 
sion from  criminals,  was  early  known  in  the  southern  countries  of  Europe. 
The  early  Christians  suffered  by  the  rack,  which  was  in  later  times  an  in- 
strument of  the  Inquisition.  The  duke  of  Exeter,  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VI., 
erected  a  rack  of  torture  (then  called  the  duke  of  Exeter's  daughter),  now 
teen  in  the  Tower,  1423.  In  the  case  of  Felton,  who  murdered  the  duke  of 
Buckingham,  the  judges  of  England  nobly  i)rotested  against  the  punish- 
ment proposed  in  the  privj'-  council  of  putting  the  assassin  to  the  rack,  as 
being  contrary  to  the  laws.  1G28.     See  RaviUac. 


5G2  THE    world's    PK.0GE.ESS.  [  EAl 

RADCLIFFE  LIBRARY,  Oxford.  Founded  under  the  will  of  Dr.  John  Rad- 
cliffe,  the  most  eminent  physician  of  his  time.  He  left  4.0,0001.  to  the  Uni- 
versity of  Oxford  for  this  purpose,  dying  Nov.  1,  1714.  The  first  stone  of 
the  library  was  laid  May  17,  1737 ;  the  edifice  was  completely  finished  in 
1749,  and  was  opened  April  13,  same  year. 

R  ADSTADT,  Peace  of,  between  France  and  the  emperor,  March  6, 1714.  Con- 
gress of— commenced  to  treat  of  a  general  peace  with  the  Germanic  powers, 
Dec.  9;  1797.  Negotiations  were  carried  on  throughout  the  year  1798.  Atro- 
cious massacre  of  the  French  plenipotentiaries  at  Radstadt  by  the  Austrian 
regiment  of  Szeltzler,  April  28,  1798. 

RAFTS.  The  Greeks  knew  no  other  way  of  crossing  the  narrow  seas  but  on 
rafts  or  beams  tied  to  one  another,  luitil  the  use  of  shipping  was  hrought 
among  them  by  Danaus  of  Egypt,  when  he  fled  from  his  brother  Rameses, 
1485  B.  c. — Heylin. 

RAILROADS.  There  were  short  roads  called  tram-ways  in  and  about  New- 
castle so  early  as  the  middle  of  the  17th  century ;  but  they  were  made  of 
wood,  and  were  used  for  transporting  coals  a  moderate  distance  from  the 
pits  to  the  place  of  shipping.  They  are  thus  mentioned  in  1676  : — "  The 
manner  of  the  carriage  is  by  lajing  rails  of  timber  from  the  colliery  to  the 
river,  exactly  straight  and  parallel ;  and  bulky  carts  are  made  with  four  roll- 
ers fitting  those  rails,  whereby  the  carriage  is  so  easy  that  one  horse  will 
draw  down  four  or  five  chaldrons  of  coals,  and  is  an  immense  benefit  to  the 
coal-merchants," — Life  of  Lord-Keeper  North.  They  were  made  of  iron,  a,'. 
Whitehaven,  in  1738.  The  first  considerable  iron  railroad  was  laid  down  at 
Colebrook  Dale  in  1786.  The  first  iron  railroad  sanctioned  by  parliament 
(with  the  exception  of  a  few  undertaken  by  canal  companies  as  small 
branches  to  mines)  was  the  Surrej^  iron  railway  (by  horses),  from  the  Thames 
at  Wandsworth  to  Croj'don,  for  which  the  act  was  obtained  in  1801.  The  first 
great  and  extensive  enterprise  of  this  kind  is  the  Liverpool  and  Manchester 
railway  (by  engines),  commenced  in  October  1826,  and  opened  Sept.  15,  1830. 

EXTENT    OF   RAILWAYS    OPENED    THROUGHOUT   THE  WORLD,   IN    1847. 


Miles. 

Miles 

Great  JBritain  and  Ireland 

■   3,375 

Italy      - 

■    115 

United  States  (in  1849,  6,117)    - 

-    3,800 

Denmark  - 

-      -    106 

Germany  (in  1849,  .3,100)       • 

•    1,.570 

Cuba 

-    800 

Holland     .           -           -           - 

-      200 

Russia 

-      -      52 

Belgium 

-    1,095 

British  Colonies 

- 1,000 

France 

-  2,200 

East  India  - 

-      -    500 

Total  length  of  railways  opened  throughout  the  world : — in  1847,  21,761  miles. 

In  1824,  the  first  locomotive  constructed  travelled  at  the  rate  of  6  miles 
per  hoiu- ;  in  1829,  the  Rocket  travelled  at  the  rate  of  fifteen  miles  per  hour ; 
in  1834,  the  Fire  Fly  attained  a  speed  of  20  miles  per  hour ;  in  1839,  the 
North  Star  moved  with  a  velocity  of  37  miles  per  hour;  and  at  the  present 
moment  locomotives  have  attained  a  speed  of  70  miles  per  hour.  During 
the  same  ])eriod  the  quantity  of  fuel  required  for  generating  steam  has  been 
diminished  five-sixths,  that  is,  six  tons  of  coal  were  formerly  consumed  for 
one  at  the  present  moment,  and  other  expenses  are  diminished  in  a  corres- 
ponding ratio. —  Tuck's  Railways,  1847. 

RAILROADS  in  the  UNITED  STATES.     In  January  1849,  the  lines  complet- 
ed reached  an  aggregate  of 

In  New  England 1,219  miles. 

In  New  York 840    do. 

In  other  parts  of  the  United  States 4,058    do. 

Total    ....         6,117    do. 
JSee  Americrm  Almanac,  1S50,  ]>age  211,  for  complete  list.! 


RAV  ]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  503 

A  considerable  number  of  miles  have  since  been  completed,  including  a 
portion  of  the  New  York  and  Erie;  Hudson  River  Railroad,  &c.,  &c.  The 
first  railway  in  the  United  States,  was  the  Quincy  and  Boston,  to  convey 
granite  for  Bunker  Hill  monument,  1827.  Boston  and  Providence  Railroad, 
opened  June  2,  1835.  Boston  and  Lowell,  June  27,  and  Boston  and  Wor- 
cester, July  6,  same  year.  Utica  and  Schenectady,  opened  Aug.  1, 1836.  Bal- 
timore to  Wilmington,  July  19,  1837.  Providence  and  Stonlngton,  Nov.  10, 
1837.  Worcester  and  Springfield,  Mass.,  Oct.  1,  1839.  Housatonic,  Feb. 
12,  1840. 

iiAILROADS  IN  FRANCE.  There  was  a  small  one  at  mount  Cenis  as  early  as 
1783;  the  first  of  any  extent  was  the  St.  Etienne  and  Andrezieux  22  miles, 
commenced  in  1825.  Paris  and  Versailles  commenced  1827.  Horrible  accident 
on  that  from  Paris  to  Versailles,  70  persons  killed  by  collision  and  fire,  includ- 
ing the  celebrated  navigator  D'Urville,  May  8, 1842.  Another  on  the  Paris  and 
Brussels  Railway,  train  ran  off  a  bridge,  14  killed  and  20  wounded,  July 
8,  1846. 

RAILWAYS,  BELGIUM.  That  between  Brussels  and  Antwerp,  the  first  in 
Belgium,  opened  May  3,  1836. 

RAMILIES,  Battle  of,  between  the  English  under  the  duke  of  Marlborough 
and  the  allies  on  the  one  side,  and  the  French  on  the  other;  fought  on 
Whitsunday,  May  23,  1706.  The  duke  achieved  one  of  his  most  glorious 
victories,  which  accelerated  the  fall  of  Louvain,  Brussels,  and  other  import- 
ant places,  and  parliament  rewarded  the  victor  by  settling  the  honors  which 
had  been  conferred  on  himself,  upon  the  male  and  female  issue  of  his 
daughters. 

RATISBON,  Peace  op,  concluded  between  France  and  the  emperor  of  Ger- 
many, and  by  which  was  terminated  the  war  for  the  Mantuan  succession, 
October  13,  1630.  It  was  at  Ratisbon,  in  a  diet  held  there,  that  the  German 
princes  seceded  from  the  Germanic  empire,  and  placed  themselves  under 

'      the  protection  of  the  emperor  Napoleon,  August  1,  1806. 

RATS.  The  brown  rat,  very  improperly  called  the  Norway  rat,  the  great  pest 
of  our  dwellings,  originally  came  to  us  from  Persia  and  the  Southern  regions 
of  Asia.  This  fact  is  rendered  evident  from  the  testimony  of  Pallas  and  F. 
Cuvier.  Pallas  describes  the  migratory  nature  of  rats,  and  states  that  in 
the  autumn  of  1729  they  arrived  at  Astrachan  in  such  incredible  numbers, 
that  nothing  could  be  done  to  oppose  them ;  they  came  from  the  western 
deserts,  nor  did  the  waves  of  the  Volga  arrest  their  progress.  They  only  ad- 
vanced to  the  vicinity  of  Paris  in  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century,  an(/ 
in  some  parts  of  France  are  still  unknown. 

RAVENNA,  Battle  of,  between  the  French  under  the  great  Gaston  de  Foix 
(duke  of  Nemours  and  nephew  of  Louis  XII.)  and  the  Spanish  and  papal 
armies.  De  Foix  gained  the  memorable  battle,  but  perished  in  the  moment 
of  victory,  and  his  death  closed  the  fortunes  of  the  French  in  Italy,  April 
11,  1512.'  ■ 

R  AVILLAC'S  MURDER  op  HENRY  IV.  op  FRANCE.  The  death  of  Ravil- 
lac  is  one  of  the  most  dreadful  upon  record.  He  assassinated  the  king.  May 
14,  1610;  and  when  put  to  the  torture,  he  broke  out  into  horrid  execrations. 
He  was  carried  to  the  Greve,  and  tied  to  the  rack,  a  wooden  engine  in  the 
shape  of  St.  Andrew's  cross.  His  right  hand,  within  which  was  fastened 
the  knife  with  which  he  did  the  murder,  was  first  burnt  at  a  slow  fire. 
Then  the  fleshy  and  most  delicate  parts  of  his  body  were  torn  with  red  hot 
pincers,  and  into  the  gaping  wounds  melted  lead,  oil  pitch,  and  rosin  were 
poured.  His  body  was  so  robust  tliiit  lie  endured  this  exquisite  pain;  and 
his  strength  resisted  that  of  the  foin-  liorses  by  wiiieh  his  limbs  were  to  be 


504  THE    world's    progress.  [  RET 

pulled  to  pieces.  The  executioner  in  consequence  cut  him  into  quarters, 
and  the  spectators,  who  refused  to  pray  for  him,  dragged  them  through  the 
streets. 

REFORM  IN  PARLIAMENT.  This  subject  was  a  chief  source  of  agitation 
for  many  years,  and  during  several  administrations.  Mr.  Pitt's  motion  for 
a  reform  in  parliament  was  lost  by  a  majority  of  20,  in  1782.  The  discus- 
sion on  this  motion  was  the  most  remarkable  up  to  the  period  at  which  re- 
form was  conceded.  The  first  ministerial  measure  of  reform  was  in  earl 
Grey's  administration,  when  it  was  proposed  in  the  house  of  commons  by 
lord  John  Russell,  March  1,  1831.  His  bill  defeated  in  the  house  of  lords 
by  41  majority,  Oct.  8.  The  bill  of  1832  defeated  by  35  majority,  May  7. 
New  peers  were  created  May  18,  and  the  bill  was  finally  passed  by  peers 
(106  to  22)  June  4,  1832. 

REFORMATION,  The.  The  early  efforts  for  the  reformation  of  the  church 
may  be  traced  to  the  reign  of  Charlemagne,  Miien  Paulinus,  bishop  of  Aqui- 
leia,  employed  his  voice  and  pen  to  accomplish  this  object.  The  principal 
reformers  were  Wickliffe,  Huss,  Luther,  Zuinglius,  Tyndal,  Calvin,  Petri, 
Melancthon,  Erasmus,  Jerome  of  Prague,  Zisca,  Browne,  and  Knox.  The 
eras  of  the  Reformation  are  as  follows  :— 

In  Sweden  {Petri)       -       -        -  a.  d.  1530 


In  England  ( TF/c/tii/fe)  -  -  a.  d.  1360 
In  Bohemia  (Huss)  ....  1405 
In  Germany  {Luther)  •  ■  -  -  1.'517 
In  Switzerland  {Zuinglius)  ■        •       •  1519 

In  Denmark 1521 

In  France  (Co/luM)  -  -  -  •  -1-529 
Protestants  lirst  so  called      -        •        -  1529 


In  England  {Henry  VIII.)       -        -    -  1534 
In  Ireland  {Browne)      ....  1535 
In  England,  completed  {Cranmer,  1  u- 
cer,  Fag  ins,  Sfc.)       ....  [547 

In  Scotland  {Knox) 1560 

In  the  Netherlands         -       -       -  .     - 1562 


The  reformed  religion  was  established  by  queen  Elizabeth  on  her  accession 
to  the  throne,  1558.  George  Browne,  archbishop  of  Dublin,  was  the  first 
prelate  who  embraced  the  Protestant  religion  in  Ireland,  1585.  See  Lidher, 
Protestants,  d^-c. 

RELIGION.  Properly,  that  awful  reverence  and  pure  worship  that  is  due  to 
God,  the  supreme  Author  of  all  beings,  though  it  is  very  often  abused,  and 
applied  to  superstitious  adorations  among  Christians,  and  to  idols  and  false 
gods  among  the  heathens. — Pardon.  Religion  had  its  origin  in  most  tribes 
and  nations  in  tlieir  ignorance  of  the  causes  of  natural  phenomena,  benefits 
being  ascribed  to  a  good  spirit,  and  evils  to  a  bad  one. — Phillips.  Religious 
ceremonies  in  the  worship  of  the  Supreme  Being  are  said  to  have  been  in- 
troduced by  Enos,  2832  e.g.. — Lenglet.  See  the  different  sects  as  described 
throughout  the  volume.  The  Established  religion  of  England  commenced 
with  the  Reformation  {wkkh  see),  1534.  The  Six  Articles  of  Religion,  for 
the  non-observance  of  which  many  Protestants  as  well  as  Catholics  suflered 
death,  passed  1539.  The  Thirty-nine  Articles  were  established  first  in  1552 ; 
they  were  reduced  from  forty-two  to  thirty-nine  in  January  1563,  and  receiv- 
ed the  sanction  of  parliament  in  1571. 

REPEAL  or  the  UNION  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  An  Irish  associa- 
tion was  formed  with  this  object  under  the  auspices  of  Mr.  O'Connell,  in 
1829.  A  new  and  more  resolved  association  afterwards  sprung  up,  and  in 
1841,  1842,  and  1843  became  more  violent,  each  successive  year,  in  its  deli- 
berations. Assemblies  of  the  people  were  held,  in  the  last-named  year,  in 
various  parts  of  Ireland,  some  of  them  amounting  to  150,000  persons,  and 
called  "  monster  meetings."  A  meeting  to  be  held  at  Clontarf.  on  Oct.  8, 
was  suppressed  by  government;  O'Connell  and  his  chief  associates  were 
brought  to  trial,  Jan.  15,  1844. 

RETREAT  of  the  GREEKS.  Memorable  retreat  of  10,000  Greeks  who  had 
joined  the  army  of  the  younger  Cyrus  in  his  revolt  against  his  brother  Arta- 
"xerxes.  Xenophon  was  selected  by  his  brother  officers  to  superintend  the 
retreat  of  his  countryman.     H-,>  rose  superior  to  dang-er.  and  though  under 


rev] 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES. 


505 


contiuual  alarms  from  the  sudden  attacks  of  the  Persians,  he  was  enabled 
to  cross  rapid  rivers,  penetrate  through  vast  deserts,  gain  the  tops  of  moun-. 
tains,  till  he  could  rest  secure  for  awhile,  and  refresh  his  tired  companions. 
This  celebrated  retreat  was  at  last  happily  effected ;  the  Greeks  returned 
home  after  a  march  of  1155  parasangs,  or  leagues,  which  was  performed  in 
215  days,  after  an  absence  of  fifteen  months.  The  whole  perhaps  might 
now  be  forgotten,  or  at  least  but  obscurely  known,  if  the  great  philosopher 
who  planned  it  had  not  employed  his  pen  in  describing  the  dangers  which 
he  escaped,  and  the  difficulties  which  he  surmounted.  401  e.  c. —  Vossms. 
REVENUE,  PUBLIC,  of  England.  The  revenue  collected  for  the  civil  list 
and  for  all  the  other  charges  of  government,  as  well  ordinary  as  extraordi- 
nary, £1,200,000  per  annum,  in  1660,  the  first  after  the  restoration  of  Charles 
11.  Raised  to  ^£6,000,000,  and  every  branch  of  the  revenue  anticipated, 
which  was  the  origin  of  the  funds  and  the  national  debt,  William  and  Mary, 
1690. — Salmon's  Chron.  Hist.. 

GENERAL  VIEW  OP  THE  PUBLIC  REVENUE  SINCE  THE  CONaUEST,  BY  SIR  JOHN  SINCLAIR. 

JB  800,000 

400,000 

450,000 

500,000 

600,000 

'  895,819 

1,517,247 

1,800,000 

2,001,855 

3,892,205 

5,691,803 

6,762,643 

8,522,540 

15,572.971 

65.599,570 

62:871,300 

55,431,317 

50,494,732 

51,067,856 


William  the  Conqueror 

William  Rufus 

Hem-y  1. 

Stephen 

Henry  11. 

Richard  I.    ■ 

John 

Henry  III. 

Edward  I. 

Edward  II. 

Edward  III. 

Richard  II. 

Henry  IV. 

Henry  V. 

Henry  VI. 

Edward  IV. 

Edward  V. 

Richard  III. 

Henry  VII. 


-  ^00,000 
350,000 
300,000 
250,000 
200,000 
150,000 
100,000 
80,000 
150,900 
100,000 
154,000 
130,000 
100,000 
76,643 
64j976 

100,000 
130,000 
400,000 


Henry  VIII. 

Edward  VI.      - 

Mary  .... 

Elizahetli  ... 

.lames  I.        .... 

Charles  I.  ... 

Commonwealth 

Charles  II.       -        -        -        ■ 

.Tames  II.     - 

William  III.    .       -       .       . 

Anne  (at  the  Union)  - 

George  I.  .        .        .        . 

George  11.  ... 

George  III.,  1788     - 

Ditto,  1820,  United  Kingdom 

George  IV.,  1825,  ditto    - 

William  IV.,  1830,  ditto     - 

Ditto,  1835,  ditto      - 

Victoria,  1845,  ditto    - 


REVENUE  OP  THE  United  States,  The,  is  derived  chiefly  from  customs  and 
sales  of  public  lands.    The  aggregate  revenue  was,  in 


1790 
1795 
1800 
1805 
1810 
1815 
1820 


$4,399,473 
5,926.216 
10,624;997 
13,520.312 
9,299;737 
15,411.634 
16,779,331 


1325  - 


1835  - 
1836 
1837  - 
1838 
1839  - 


1840 

1844 
1845 
1846 
1847 


«16,993,858 
28,504,519 
29,769.134 
29,499,247 
26,346,790 
35,436,750 


REVIEWS  AND  MAGAZINES. 


$21,-342,906 
24,280,888 

-  34,163,635 
48.288,219 

-  18,032,846 
19,372,984 

-  30,399,043 

The  first  publication  of  the  character  of  a  re- 
view was  the  ''Journal  des  Savants"  established  at  Paris,  in  1665,  by  Denis 
de  Sallo.  It  was  at  first  published  weekly,  and  contained  analyses  and  cri- 
tiques of  new  works,  which  were  so  severe  as  to  give  much  offence.  Do 
Sallo  died  in  1669,  and  the  journal  was  afterwards  edited  by  Gallois,  De  la 
Roque,  and  Cousin.  From  1715  to  1792,  it  was  conducted  by  a  society  of 
learned  men,  and  appeared  in  monthly  numbers ;  and  the  collection  from 
1665  to  1792  forms  111  volumes  4to.  In  1792,  it  was  discontinued ;  but  in 
1816,  it  was  revived,  and  has  had  a  number  of  eminent  men  among  its  con- 
tributors, as  De  Sacy,  Langl^s,  R^musat,  Biot,  Cuvier,  &c.  Numerous  other 
literary  and  scientific  journals  have  been  established  at  Paris  within  a  few 
years. 

The  Gentleman's  Magazine,  which  first  appeared  in  1731,  and  the  Monthly 
Review,  in  1749,  were  the  first  works  of  the  kind  published  in  London,  that 
obtained  any  great  degree  of  permanency  or  celebrity.  Of  the  journals 
which  preceded  the  Gentleman's  Magazine,  the  following  are  enumerated 
by  Nichols;  viz.  ■■  Weekly  Memorials,  or  an  Account  of  Books  lately  set  forth," 


506  THE  world's  progress.  [eev 

1688-9 ;  "  Memoirs  of  Literature,"  8  vols.,  8vo.,  1722 ;  "  New  Memoirs  of 
Literature,"  6  vols.,  1725  to  1727 ;  "  Present  State  of  the  Republic  of  Letters," 
18  vols.,  1728  to  1736;  "Historia  Literaria,"  4  vols.,  1730  to  1732. 

The  Gentleman'' s  Magazine  was  established  in  1731,  by  Edward  Cave,  the 
first  editor,  who  died  in  1754,  leaving  the  work  in  the  hands  of  his  associate, 
David  Henry,  who  received  as  coadjutor  John  Nichols,  in  1778,  and  died  in 
1792,  having  been  connected  with  the  management  of  the  magazine  more 
than  fifty  years.  Mr.  Nichols,  who  was  an  eminent  antiquary,  and  author 
of  "Literary  Anecdotes,"  9  vols.,  died  in  1827,  having  been  joint  or  sole 
editor  nearly  half  a  century.  These  editors  were  all  printers  by  profession ; 
and  the  appellation  assumed  aad  retained  by  the  conductor  of  the  work 
from  its  commencement  to  the  present  time,  is  Sylvanus  Urban.  This  Mag- 
azine is  celebrated  for  the  early  connection  of  Dr.  Johnson  with  the  first  edi- 
tor, and  in  a  notice  of  the  life  of  Cave,  revised  in  1781,  Dr.  Johnson  says  of 
this  magazine,  that  its  "  scheme  is  known  wherever  the  English  language  is 
spoken, — that  it  is  one  of  the  most  successful  and  lucrative  pamphlets  which 
literary  history  has  upon  record."  A  new  series  of  this  work  was  begun 
January,  1834 ;  the  first  series  having  been  completed  in  103  volumes 

The  Monthly  Review,  the  earliest  regular  work  of  the  kind  in  England,  was 
established  in  1749,  by  Ralph  GriflSths,  LL.  D.,  who  continued  to  conduct  it 
54  years,  assisted  by  his  son  in  the  latter  years  of  his  life.  This  work  was 
continued  until  1844,  and  had  many  able  contributors.  The  first  series, 
from  1749  to  1789  inclusive,  comprises  81  volumes ;  Second  Series,  ending  in 
1825,  108  volumes. 

The  Critical  Beview  [London]  was  established  in  1756,  by  Archibald  Hamil- 
ton, with  the  assistance  of  Dr.  Smollett  and  other  friends.  From  1764  to 
1785,  the  Rev.  Joseph  Robertson  was  a  liberal  contributor,  having  furnished 
upwards  of  2,620  articles.  This  work  was  discontinued  several  years  since. 
First  Series,  from  1756  to  1790,  inclusive.  70  volumes  ;  2d  Series,  from  1791 
to  1803,  inclusive.  39  volumes;  3d  Series,  from  1804  to  1811,  inclusive,  24 
volumes ;  4th  Series,  from  1812  to  1814,  inclusive,  6  volumes.  A  5th  Series 
Avas  begun  in  1815. 

The  British  Critic  [London]  was  established  in  1793  ;  and  its  first  editors  were 
the  Rev.  Messrs.  Robert  Nares  and  William  Beloe:  the  latter  of  whom  died 
in  1817;  and  the  former  in  1829,  having  retained  his  connection  with  the 
work  till  the  completion  of  the  42d  volume.  It  was  at  first  published  in 
monthly  numbers  ;  but  from  1827,  it  api)eared  quarterly,  under  the  title  of 
"  The  British  Critic  and  Theological  Review,"  until  1843,  when  a  new  work, 
called  the  English  Review,  took  its  place.  It  was  conducted  by  the  mem- 
bers of  the  ecclesiastical  establishment ;  and  maintained  Tory  and  High 
Church  principles. 

The  establishment  of  the  Edinburgh  RevieiD,  in  1802,  formed  an  era  in  peri- 
odical criticism ;  as  this  work  from  its  commencement  took  a  wider  range 
and  assumed  a  higher  tone,  both  in  literature  and  politics,  than  any  preced- 
ing publication  of  the  kind.  It  has  uniformly  been  a  strenuous  asserter  of 
Whig  or  reforming  principles.  Its  editors  have  been  the  Rev.  Sidney  Smith 
(the  first  year),  Francis  Jeffrey,  and  (now)  Macvey  Napier.  Among  its 
principal  writers,  besides  Sidney  Smith  and  Jeffrey,  are  the  distinguished 
names  of  Playfair,  Dugald  Stewart,  Mackintosh,  Brown,  Leslie,  Brougham, 
and  Macaulay.  This  work  soon  gained  a  wide  circulation ;  and  at  one  time, 
upwards  of  20,000  copies  were  published ;  but  in  1832,  the  number  was  some- 
what less  than  9000. 

The  Quarterly  Review  [London]  was  established  in  1809,  and,  as  early  as 
1812,  it  is  said  to  have  obtained  a  circulation  little  short  of  6000  copies.  It 
may  be  regarded  as  a  rivnl  publication  to  the  Edinbu.rgli  Review,  maintain- 


rev] 


DICTIONARY    OP   DATES.  SOi, 


ing,  in  a  manner  equally  uncompromising,  opposite  or  High  Tory  principles. 
It  was  edited  from  its  commencement  till  1825  by  William  Gifford ;  then  by 
H.  N.  Coleridge ;  and  now  by  J.  G.  Lockhart.  Among  its  writers  are  num- 
bered sir  Walter  Scott,  Southey,  and  Croker.  It  has  had  many  able  and 
learned  contributors,  some  of  whom  are  understood  to  have  been  connected 
with  the  government. 
The  Eclectic  Review  [London],  a  monthly  Journal,  was  commenced  in  1805. 
It  is  conducted  by  Protestant  Dissenters,  and  maintains  evangelical  princi- 
ples in  religion,  and  liberal  or  reforming  principles  in  politics.  It  has  had 
many  able  contributors,  among  whom  are  numbered  Adam  Clarke,  Robert 
Hall,  and  John  Foster. — Present  editor,  Josiali  Conder. — First  Series,  from 
1805  to  1813,  inclusive,  10  volumes ;  2d  Series,  from  1814  to  1828,  inclusive, 
30  volumes.  The  3d  Series  was  begun  in  1829. 
The  Christian  Observer  [London],  a  monthly  journal,  conducted  by  members 
of  the  established  church,  was  commenced  in  1802,  and  maintains  what  are 
commonly  styled  evangelical  principles.  It  has  had  a  number  of  able  contri- 
butors. The  first  editor,  Zachary  Macaulay ;  the  present,  the  Rev.  Samuel 
Charles  Wilks. — Most  of  the  volumes  of  this  work  have  bevJi  republished 
in  this  country. 
Blackioood's  Edinburgh  Magazine,  a  monthly  journal,  was  commenced  in  1817. 
It  is  edited  by  Professor  John  Wilson,  and  maintains  High  Tory  politics. 
The  number  of  copies  published,  in  1832,  was  stated  at  upwards  of  9000. 
The  Westminster  Revievj,  established,  in  1824,  by  the  disciples  of  Jeremy  Ben- 
tham,  is  a  strenuous  advocate  for  radical  reform  in  church,  state,  and  legis- 
lation. First  editor,  John  Bowring,  LL.D ;  then  succeeded  by  Mr.  Mill, 
and  by  W.  E  Hickson.  The  Foreign  Quarterly  was  united  with  it  in  1845. 
The  Foreign  Quarterli/  Revieio  [London],  established  in  1827,  devoted  to 
foreign  literature,  and  conducted  with  ability,  until  1845,  when  it  was  united 
to  the  Westminster  Rcvleiu. — Amer.  Almanac,  &c. 

REVOLUTION,  Era  of  the.  This  memorable  revolution  took  place  in  Eng- 
land in  1688,  and  is  styled  by  Voltaire  as  the  era  of  English  liberty.  James 
II.  had  rendered  himself  hateful  to  his  subjects  by  his  tyranny  and  oppres- 
sion ;  and  soon  after  the  landing  of  the  prince  of  Orange  at  Torbay,  Nov.  5, 
1688,  the  throne  was  abdicated  by  James,  who  fled.  The  revolution  was 
consummated  by  Wilhara  III.  and  his  queen  (Mary,  daiighter  of  James) 
being  proclaimed,  Feb.  13,  and  crowned  April  11,  1689. 

REVOLUTIONS,  Remarkable  in  Ancient  History.  The  Assyrian  empire  de- 
stroyed, and  that  of  the  Modes  and  Persians  founded  by  Cyrus  the  Great, 
536  B.  c.  The  Macedonian  empire  founded  on  the  destruction  of  the  Per- 
sian, on  the  defeat  of  Darius  Codomanus,  by  Alexander  the  Great,  331 
B.  c.  The  Roman  empire  established  on  the  ruins  of  the  Macedonian,  or 
Greek  monarchy,  by  Julius  Caesar,  47  b.  c.  The  Eastern  empire,  founded 
by  Constantino  the  Great,  on  the  final  overthrow  of  the  Roman,  a.  d.  306. 
The  empire  of  the  Western  Franks  began  under  Charlemagne,  a.  d.  802. 
This  empire  underwent  a  new  revolution,  and  became  the  German  empire 
under  Rodolph  of  Hapsburgh,  the  head  of  the  house  of  Austria,  a.  d.  1273, 
from  whom  it  is  also  called  the  Monarchy  of  the  Austrians.  The  Eastern 
empire  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Turks,  about  a.  d.  1293.  See  also  the 
Revolutions  of  particular  countries  under  their  proper  heads,  as  Rome, 
France,  Portugal,  &c. 

REVOLUTIONS,  the  most  celebrated  in  modern  history.  In  Poi'tugal,  a.  d. 
1640.  In  England,  1688.  In  Poland,  1 704,  1795,  and  1830.  In  Russia.  1730 
and  1762.  In  Sweden,  1772  and  1809.  Tn  America,  1775.  In  France.  1789, 
1830.  and  1848.  In  Holland.  1795.  In  Venice.  1797.  In  Rome.  1798.  In 
the  Netherlands.  18.30.     In  Brunswick.  1830.     In  Brazil.  1831.     Ta  R.mre. 


508 


THE    WORLD'S   PROGRESS. 


[&iq 


Tuscany,  Lombardy,  Hungary,.  &c.,  1848-9.  These  last  were  temporary  only 
— the  former  governments  were  restored,  1849.    See  these  countries  respec- 
tively. 
REVIEWS  AND  MAGAZINES  in  the  UNITED  STATES.    Before  the  Ame- 
rican Revolution  various  attempts  were  made  to  establish  religious  and  lite- 
rary journals  in  several  places  in  this  country,  particularly  Boston,  New 
York,  and  Philadelphia ;  but  no  one  of  them  obtained  a  liberal  support  or 
had  a  long  duration.    The  following  are  some  of  the  leading  literary  and 
religious  reviews  and  magazines : 
BOSTON.        Founded. 
American  Monthly  Ma- 
gazine, (the  first)  es- 
tablished  by    Jeremy 
Gridley,    continued  3 


years,  about    -  -1745 

Massachusetts  Maga- 
zine, (lasted   to  1795)  1784 

Monthly  Anthology,  Prf. 
Ticknor,  A.  H.  Eve- 
rett, Buckminster,  &c. 
(to  1811)      -  -    -  1803 

General  Repertory  and 
Review,  (1st  Amer. 
quarterly.^  edited  at 
Cambridge  by  Andrews 
Norton        -  -  1812-13 

North  American  Re- 
view, commenced  by 
W.  Tudor*  -    -  1815 

Christian  Examiner, 
(quarterly)  Channing, 
Dewey,  Ware,  &c,     -  1818 

American  Biblic.  Repo- 
sitory, founded  by  E. 
Robinson,  D.D.,  at  An- 
dover    •  -  -  1831 

Christian  Revieii},(Jio.'p- 
tist)  quarterly         -    -  1835 

Boston  Quarterly  Re- 
rzew,  (Brownson)      -  1837 

New  jEngland  Maga- 
zine, Buckingham      -  1833 

American  Quarterly  Re- 
gister, Edwards         -  18 — 

The  Dial,  (quarterly) 
Emerson,  to  1843         -  1841 

Massachusetts  Quarler- 


NEW  YORK. 

N.  Y.  Magazine  and 
Literary  Repository, 
(to  1792)  -  -  1787 

Literary  Review,  R.  C. 


Sands,  &c.  (to  1823)    -  1S22 
Atlantic  Mag.,    Sands, 
afterwards  New  York 
Monthly  Review,       ■  1824 
Knickerbocker  Mag.,  C. 

F.  Hoffman,  succeeded 
by  Flint,  and  now  L. 

G.  Clark  -  -  1832 
Democratic  Review  (un- 
til 1841  at  Washington)  1837 

American  Monthly  Ma- 
gazine, N.  Y.,(to  1838) 
Herbert,Hoffman,Ben- 
jamin  -  -    -  1835 

N.  Y.  Review,  (quar- 
terly) J.  G.  Cogswell, 
(to  1842)  -  -  1837 

American  Review,  G. 
H.  Colton         -  -  1844 

Hunt's  Merchant's  Ma- 
gazine    ■  •        ■  1839 

NEW  HAVEN. 

Christian  Observer      -  182- 

American  Jour7ial  of 
Science  ^  Arts,  (Silli- 
man's)  quarterly        -  1818 

New  Englaiider,  Theol. 
(quarterly)  -      -  1&43 

Church  Revieic  (quar- 
terly)    -  -  -  1848 


PHILADELPHIA. 

Aitkin's  Pennsylvania 
Magazine  was  the 
most  popular  before 
the  Revolution;  Thos. 
Paine  and  Francis 
Ilopkinson,  editors 

Amer.  ilfMseum,  pub.  by 
Matthew  Carey,  (to 
1792)     -  -  -  1787 

Literary  Magazine  and 
American  Register,  C. 
Brockden  Brown,  (to 
1810)  -  -      -1806 

Portfolio,  pub.  monthly 
from  1809  by  Jos.  Den- 
nie ;  edited  by  Nicho- 
las Biddle,]812-1G,  and 
1816-21  by  J.  E.  Hall  -  1801 

Analectic  Mag.,  Moses 
Thomas,  (to  1820)       -  1813 

Amer.  Quar.  Review, 
Robt.  Walsh,  (to  1837)  182? 

Graham's  Magazine    - 

Lady's  Book,  Mrs.  Hale 

Stryker's  Arnerican  Rs- 
gister,  (quarterly)      - 1847 

Southern  Quarterly  Re- 
view, at  Charleston, 
(to  1833,  recommenced 
1812)     -  -  -1828 

Southern  Lit.  Messen- 
ger, at  Richmond,  by 
T.  W.  White        -      -  1834 

Biblical  Repertory  and 
Theological  Review, 
Princeton,  N.  J.  -  18— 


hj,  Theo.  Parker,  &c.  1846 

RHEIMS.  The  principal  church  here  was  built  before  a.  d.  406 ;  it  was  rebuilt 
in  the  twelfth  century,  and  is  now  very  beautiful.  The  corpse  of  St.  Remy, 
the  archbishop,  is  preserved  behind  the  high  altar,  in  a  magnificent  shrine. 
The  kings  of  France  have  been  successively  crowned  at  Rheims  ;  probably, 
becouse  Clovis,  the  founder  of  the  French  monarchy,  when  converted  from 
paganism,  was  baptized  in  the  cathedral  here,  in  the  year  496.  This  city 
was  taken  and  retaken  several  times  in  the  last  months  of  the  war  of  1814. 

RHETORIC.  Rhetorical  points  and  accents  were  invented  by  Aristophanes  of 
Byzantium,  200  b.  c. — Abbe  Lenglet.  Rhetoric  was  first  taught  in  Latin  at 
Rome  by  Photius  Gallus,  87  b.  c. — Idem.  "We  are  first  to  consider  what  is. 
to  be  said ;  secondly,  how :  thirdly,  in  what  words ;  and  lastly,  how  it  is  to 
be  ornamented." — Cicero.  A  regius  professor  of  rhetoric  was  appointed  in 
Edinburgh,  April  20,  1762,  when  Dr.  Blair  became  first  professor. 


'Subsequent  editors:— W.  Phillips,  1817;  E.  T.  Channing,  Dana,  and  Sparks,  1817;  Edward 
"\verett,  1819;  Jared  Sparks,  1823;  A.  H.  Everett,  ia30;  J.  G.  Palfrey,  183") ;  F.  Bowen,  1842. 


ROM  ] 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES. 


509 


RHINE,  CONFEDERATION  op  the.     See  article  Confederation  of  the  Rhine. 

RHODE  ISLAND,  one  of  the  United  States ;  first  settled  by  Roger  Williams 
and  his  associates,  who  left  Massachusetts  to  escape  religious  persecution, 
and  founded  the  town  of  Providence,  in  1636.  Williams  obtained  a  patent 
from  Plymouth  Co.  in  1644,  inchiding  Providence  Plantations  and  Rhode 
Island,  which  had  been  settled  1638.  New  charter  by  Charles  II.,  in  1663, 
■\vhich  has  continued  in  force  till  recently,  unchanged  by  the  Revolution. 
Dorr's  attempt  to  change  or  overturn  this  constitution  by  armed  force,  in 
June,  1842,  defeated  by  the  military  force  of  the  government.  New  consti- 
tution adopted  in  convention,  September  1842.  Constitution  of  the  United 
States  adopted  May  29, 1790 ;  this  State  being  the  last  to  accede  to  it.  Poji- 
ulation  in  1790,  58,825 ;  in  1810,  76,981 ;  in  1830,  97,212 ;  in  1840,  108,130. 

RHODES.  This  city  was  peopled  from  Crete,  as  early  as  916  b.  c.  The  Rho- 
dians  were  famous  navigators,  masters  of  the  sea,  and  institutors  of  a  mar- 
itime code,  which  was  afterwards  adopted  by  the  Romans.  The  republic  not 
completed  till  480  b.  c.  The  city  built  432  e.g.  Its  famous  Colossus 
(which  see)  thrown  down  bj^  an  earthquake,  224  b.  c,  and  finally  destroyed 
by  the  Saracen  admiral  Moavia,  a.  d.  672 — Priestley. 

RJALTO,  AT  Venice.  This  renowned  bridge  is  mentioned  by  Shakspeare  in 
his  '■  Merchant  of  Venice."  It  was  built  in  1570,  and  consists  of  a  single 
arch,  but  a  very  noble  one,  of  marble,  built  across  the  Grand  Canal,  near 
the  middle,  wliere  it  is  the  narrowest :  this  celebrated  arch  is  ninety  feet 
wide  on  the  level  of  the  canal,  and  twenty- four  feet  high. 

RIGHTS,  BILL  of.  The  declaration  made  by  the  lords  and  commons  of  Eng- 
land to  the  prince  and  princess  of  Orange,  Feb.  13,  1689.  See  Bill  of 
Rights. 

RIOTS.     Some  of  the  most  noted  in  the  United  States : 


At  BaUimore,  office  of  a  Newspaper  oppos- 
ed to  the  war,  demolished,  .July,  1812. 

At  Providence,  4  persons  killed  by  the  mili- 
tai7,  Sept.  24, 1831. 

At  Baltimore,  about  the  bank  of  Md.,  several 
killed  and  wounded.  Aug.  8,  1835. 

At  New  York,  '-abolition  riots,"  caused  by 
discussions  on  slavery,  and  supposed  in- 
tentions of  abolitionists  to  promote  "  amal- 
gamation" between  whites  and  blacks, 
July  10-12,  1&34. 

At  Charlestown,  Mass.,  a  Catholic  seminary 
or  nunnery  burnt,  Aug.  11,  1834. 

At  Philadelphia,  further  "  abolition"  riots, 
40  houses  destroyed,  Aug.  12,  1834. 

At  Utica,  Boston,  &c.,  same  cause.  1835-6. 

At  Cincinnati,  printing-press  of  Mr.  Bur- 
ney's  "abolition"  paper  destroyed,  July 
30, 1836. 

At  New  York,  caused  by  the  high  price  ol 
flour ;  several  hundred  barrels  of  flour  des- 
troyed, Feb.  13,  1837. 

At  Alton,  111.,  Rev.  E.  P.  Lovejoy's  anti-sla- 
very newspaper  destroyed,  and  lie  was 
killed,  Nov.  7,  1837. 

At  Philadelphia,  mob  opposed  to  the  anti- 
slavery  discussions,  destroyed  Pennsylva- 
nia Hall,  &c..  May  17, 1838. 

In  the  Pennsylvania  legislature,  two  dilferent 
legislatures  organized,  the  Senate  expelled 
from  their  Chamber  by  a  mob.  Militia 
called  out  and  the  contest  settled  after  4 
days,  Dec.  8,  1S:38. 


At  Cincinnati,  chiefly  of  Irishmen  against 
abolitionists  and  negroes,  Sept.  4, 1841. 

Disgraceful  alfray  in  Pennsylvania  legisla- 
ture ;  a  member  stabbed  by  another,  April 
8, 1843. 

Another  in  House  of  Representatives  of  U. 
S.;  rencontre  between  Weller  and  Shriver, 
Jan.  25,  1844. 

Riot  at  Philadelphia,  between  "  native  Ame- 
ricans" and  the  Irish,  30  houses  and  3 
churches  burned,  fourteen  persons  killed, 
forty  wounded ;  finally  put  down  by  the 
military.  May  6-8,  1S44. 

The  same  renewed,  and  40  to  50  killed  and 
wounded  by  the  military:  5000  troops  call- 
ed out,  July  7,1844. 

Outrages  of  "Anti-Renters,"  in  Rensselaer 
County,  N.  Y.  Commenced  August  21, 
1844 :  renewed  in  December. 

Delaware  Co.,  N.  Y.,  declared  by  governor 
Wright  to  be  in  a  state  of  insurrection. 
Collection  of  rents  being  resisted  by  rioters 
disguised  as  Indians,  and  an  under  sheriff 
murdered,  Aug.  27,  1845. 

Anti-Rent  riot  in  Columbia  Co.  N.  Y.  March 
25, 1847. 

Riots  at  the  Astor  Place  Opera  House,  N.  Y, 
against  Blr.  Macready,  the  English  actor 
21  killed  ;  May  10,  1S49. 

Disgraceful  rencontre  between  Foote  of  Mis 
sissippi  and  Benton  of  Missouri,  in  the 
Senate  of  the  U.  S.,  the  first  gross  insult  to 
that  assembly,  May,  1850. 


RIVER  AND  HARBOR  CONVENTION,  for  promoting  improvements,  &c. ;   as- 


510  THE    world's    progress.  [  ROM 

sembled  at  Chicago,  111.,  July  5.  1847.  House  of  Representatives  votes 
(112  to  53)  that  it  is  expedient  and  constitutional  for  the  general  govern- 
ment to  promote  such  improvements,  July  1848. 
ROBESPIERRE'S  REIGN  op  TERROR.  Maximilian  Rolbespierre  headed  the 
populace  in  the  Champ  de  Mars,  in  Paris,  demanding  the  dethronement  of 
the  king,  July  17,  1791.  He  was  triumphant  in  1793,  and  great  numbers  of 
eminent  men  and  citizens  were  sacrificed  during  his  sanguinary  administra- 
tion. Billaud  Varennes  denounced  the  tyranny  of  Robespierre  in  the  tri- 
bune, July  28,  1794.  Cries  of  "  Down  with  the  tyrant !"  resounded  through 
the  hall ;  and  so  great  was  the  abhorrence  of  the  Convention  of  this  wicked 
minister,  that  he  was  immediately  ordered  to  the  place  of  execution  and 
suffered  death,  no  man  deeming  himself  safe  while  Robespierre  lived. 

ROBIN  HOOD.  The  celebrated  captain  of  a  notorious  band  of  robbers,  who 
infested  the  forest  of  Sherwood  in  Nottinghamshire,  and  from  thence  made 
excursions  to  many  parts  of  England,  in  search  of  booty.  Some  historians 
assert  ti.at  this  was  only  a  name  assumed  by  the  then  earl  of  Huntingdon, 
who  was  disgraced  and  banished  the  court  by  Richard  I.  at  his  accession. 
Robin  Hood,  Little  John  his  friend  and  second  in  command,  with  their  nu- 
merous followers,  continued  their  depredations  from  about  1189  to  1247, 
when  he  died. — Stowe's  Chron. 

ROCKETS,  CONGREVE'S.  War  implements  of  very  destructive  power,  -vyere 
invented  by  sir  William  Congreve,  about  1803.  The  carcase  rockets  were 
first  usod  at  Boulogne,  their  powers  having  been  previously  demonstrated 
in  the  presence  of  Mr.  Pitt  and  several  of  the  cabinet  ministers,  1806.  See 
article  Boulogne  Motilla. 

ROMAN  CATHOLICS.  The  progress  of  Christianity  during  the  life-time  of 
its  divine  founder  was  confined  within  narrow  bounds :  the  Holy  Land  was 
alone  the  scene  of  his  labors,  and  of  his  life  and  death.  The  period  of  the 
rise  of  the  Roman  Catholic  religion  may  be  dated  from  the  establishment  of 
Christianity  by  Constantine,  a.  d.  323.  See  Borne.  The  foundation  of  the 
papal  power  dates  from  a.  d.  606,  when  Boniface  III.  assumed  the  title  of 
Universal  Bishop.  See  Pope.  Pepin,  king  of  France,  invested  pope  Ste- 
phen II.  with  the  temporal  dominions  of  Rome  and  its  territories,  a.  d.  756. 
The  tremendous  power  of  the  Roman  pontiffs  was  weakened  by  the  Reform- 
ation, and  has  since  been  gradually  yielding  to  the  influence  of  the  reformed 
doctrines,  and  the  general  diffusion  of  knowledge  among  the  nations  of  the 
earth.  Of  225  millions  of  Christians,  about  160  millions  are,  or  pass  under 
the  denomination  of,  Roman  Catholics. — M.  Balbi, 

ROMAN  CATHOLICS  in  England.  Laws  were  enacted  against  them  in 
1539.  They  were  forbidden  the  British  court  in  1673 ;  but  restored  to  favor 
there  in  1685.  Disabled  from  holding  offices  of  trust  1689  ;  and  excluded 
from  the  British  throne  same  year.  Obliged  to  register  their  names  and 
estates  1717.  Indulgences  were  granted  to  Roman  Catholics  by  parliament 
in  1778.  They  were  permitted  to  purchase  land,  and  take  it  by  descent, 
1780.  The  "no-popery"  riots  (Gordon's)  1780.  Catholic  Emancipation 
Bill  passed  April  13,  1829,  D.  O'Connell  being  the  first  M.  P.  who  took  his 
seat  under  the  act. 

ROMANCES.  "  Stories  of  love  and  arms,  wherein  abundance  of  enthusiastic 
flights  of  the  imagination  are  introduced,  giving  false  images  of  life." — 
Pardon.  As  Heliodorus,  a  bishop  of  Tricea,  in  Thessaly,  was  the  author 
of  Elhiopics,  in  Greek,  the  first  work  in  this  species  of  writing,  he  is  hence 
styled  the  "Father  of  Romances."  His  work  has  a  moral  tendency,  and 
particularly  inculcates  the  virtue  of  chastity.  He  flourished  a.  n.  398.- 
H-iiet  de  Origvne  Fabul.  Roman. 


BOS  ] 


DICTIONARY   OF    DATES. 


511 


ROME.  Once  the  mistress  of  the  world,  and  subsequently  the  seat  of  the 
most  extensive  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  ever  acknowledged  by  mankind. 
Romulus  is  universally  supposed  to  have  laid  the  foundations  of  this  cele- 
brated city,  on  the  20th  of  April,  according  to  Varro,  in  the  year  3961  of 
the  Julian  period,  3251  years  after  the  creation  of  the  world,  753  before  the 
birth  of  Christ,  431  j'^ears  after  the  Trojan  war,  and  in  the  fourth  year  of 
the  sixth  Olympiad.  In  its  original  state,  Rome  was  but  a  small  castle  on 
the  summit  of  Mount  Palatine";  and  the  founder,  to  give  his  followers  the 
appearance  of  a  nation  or  a  barbarian  horde,  was  obliged  to  erect  a  standard 
as  a  common  asylum  for  every  criminal,  debtor,  or  murderer,  who  fled  from 
their  native  country  to  avoid  the  punishment  which  attended  them.  From 
such  an  assemblage  a  numerous  body  was  soon  collected,  and  before  the 
death  of  the  founder,  the  Romans  had  covered  with  their  habitations,  the 
Palatine,  Capitoline,  Aventine,  Esquiline  hills,  with  Mount  Coelius,  and 
Quirinalis.  Their  numerous  and  successful  wars  led,  in  the  course  of  ages, 
to  their  mastery  over  all  mankind,  and  to  their  conquest  of  neari>  tlie 
whole  of  the  then  known  world.  The  Romans  and  the  Albans,  contesting 
for  superiority,  agreed  to  choose  three  champions  on  each  part  to  decide  it. 
The  three  Horatii,  Roman  knights,  and -the  three  Curiatu,  Albans,  having 
been  elected  by  their  respective  countries,  engaged  in  the  celebrated  com- 
bat, which  by  tiie  victory  of  the  Horatii,  united  Alba  to  Rome,  667  b.  c. — 
Livf.    See  Tabular  Views,  p.  15  to  ]3.  63. 

&e.  The  pope  refuses ;  the  people 
753  attack  the  palace,  and  at  7  p.  m.  the 
pope  yields,  and  grants  a  liberal  mi- 
nistry  -  -  -  Nor.  16,  1848 

The  pope,  after  being  a  prisoner  in  his 
palace  for  seven  days,  escapes  from 
Rome  to  Blola  di  Gaeta,  in  the  dis- 
guise of  a  servant       -  Nov.  24, 1848 

Roman  chambers  dissolved,  and  a  con- 
stituent assembly  convened  -  Dec.  29,  1348 

The  Roman  republic  proclaimed ;  Maz- 
zini  and  two  others  triumvirs  Feb.  9, 1849 

Fi'ench  armament  against  the  republic 
reaches  Civita  Vecchia    -    April  25,  1849 

French  repulsed  under  the  walls  of 
Rome,  with  the  loss  of  600  -  April  29, 1849 

Rome  surrenders  after  an  attack  of  29 
days,  and  false  promises  on  the  part 
of  the  French     -  -  July  2,  1849 

Rome  entered  by  the  French  under  Ou- 
dinot.  and  evacuated  by  Garibaldi 
and  liis  force  of  3,000  men   -    July  3,  1849 

Garibaldi  escapes  to  the  Adriatic,  Aug.2, 1849 

Oudinot  surrenders  the  government 
into  the  hands  of  three  commissioners 
of  the  pope,  who  begin  the  work  of 
reaction       -  -  -     Aug.  3,  1349 

Letter  of  the  French  president,  dictat- 
ing the  basis  of  the  restoration  of  the 
pope's  temporal  power,  viz. :  general 
amnesty,  secularization  of  the  admi- 
nistration, code  Napoleon,  and  a  libe- 
ral government  -  Aug.  18,  1849 

Pope  Pius  IX.  returned  to  Rome  -  Apr.  1850 


Foundation  of  the  city  cemmenced  by 
Romulus  -  -  -B.C. 

Odoacer,  chief  of  the  Heruli,  enters 
Italy,  takes  Rome,  and  assumes  the 
title  of  king  of  Italy,  which  ends  the 
Western  empire  -  -    a.  d. 

Rome  is  recovered  for  Justinian,  by 
Belisarius         .  .  .  . 

Retaken  by  the  Goths 

Narses,  Justinian's  general,  again  re- 
conquers Rome 

Papal  power  established 

Rome  revolts  from  the  Greek  emperors, 
and  becomes  free 

Pope  Stephen  II.  invested  with  the  tem- 
poral dominion  of  Rome 

Charlemagne  acknowledged  as  ejinperor 
of  the  West  -  -  -      - 


476 


-   726 
756 


800 


Rienzi,  the  last  of  the  tribunes,  rules  at 
Rome 1347 

[The  popes  continued  in  possession  of 
the  city  and  territories.  See  article 
Popes  and  Italy.] 

The  recent  struggles  of  Rome  for  free- 
dom commenced  in     -  -  - 1848 

Mazzini's  first  proclamation  -  Oct.  29, 1848 

Count  Rossi,  the  pope's  prime  minis- 
ter, assassinated  at  the  senate-house. 
The  populace  march  to  the  Quirmal, 
and  present  their  demands  to  the 
pope,  viz. :  Italian  nationality,  con- 
stituent assembly,  a  new  ministry, 


ROSARY.  "We  owe  to  Dominic  de  Guzman,  a  canon  of  the  order  of  St.  Au- 
gustin,  two  most  important  blessings,"  says  a  Spanish  writer,  ■  the  Rosary 
and  the  Holy  Office,"  a.  d.  1202.  Other  authors  mention  the  Rosary  as 
being  said  in  1093. 

ROSES,  The  WnrrE  and  Red.  The  intestine  wars  which  so  long  devastated 
England,  were  i^rried  on  under  the  symbols  of  the  White  and  the  Red  Rose, 
and  were  called  the  wars  of  the  Roses.    The  partisans  of  the  house  of  Lan- 


512  THE    WORLDS    PROGRESS.  [  RCTM 

caster  chose  the  red  roses  as  their  mark  of  distinction,  and  tliose  of  York 
were  denominated  from  the  white.  These  wars  originated  with  the  descend- 
ants of  Edward  III.  That  monarch  was  succeeded  by  his  grandson,  Ri- 
chard II.,  who  being  deposed,  the  duke  of  Lancaster  Avas  proclaimed  king, 
by  the  title  of  Henry  IV.  in  prejudice  to  the  duke  of  York,  the  right  heir 
to  the  crown ;  he  being  descended  from  Lionel,  the  second  son  of  Edward 
III.,  wbereas  the  duke  of  Lancaster  was  the  son  of  John  of  Gaunt,  \!a&iKird 
son  of  king  Edward.  The  accession  of  Henry  occasioned  several  conspira- 
cies during  his  reign ;  and  the  animosities  which  subsisted  between  his  de- 
scendants and  those  of  the  duke  of  York  afterwards  filled  the  kingdom 
with  civil  commotions,  and  deluged  its  plains  with  blood,  parf'cularly  in 
the  reigns  of  Henry  VI.  and  Edward  IV.  First  battle  fought,  May  22, 
1455.  See  Albans^  St.  Union  of  the  Roses  in  the  msfrriage  of  Henry  VH. 
with  the  princess  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Edward  IV.,  1486 

ROSICRUSIANS.  A  sect  of  hermetical  philosophers,  first  appeared  in  Ger- 
many in  1302,  and  again  early  in  the  17th  century.  They  swore  fidelity, 
promised  secrecy,  and  wrote  hieroglyphically ;  and  affirmed  that  the  an- 
cient philosophers  of  Egypt,  the  Chaldeans,  Magi  of  Persia,  and  Gymno- 
sophists  of  the  Indies,  taught  the  same  doctrine  with  themselves. 

ROUND-HEADS.  During  the  unhappy  war  which  brought  Charles  I.  of  Eng- 
land to  the  scaffold,  the  adherents  of  that  monarch  were  first  called  Cava- 
litrs,  and  the  friends  of  the  parliament  were  called  Round-heads.  This 
latter  term  arose  from  those  persons  who  thus  distinguished  themselves 
putting  a  round  bowl  or  wooden  dish  upon  their  heads,  and  cutting  their 
hair  by  the  edges  or  brims  of  the  bowl.    See  Cavaliers. 

ROYAL  ACADEMY  of  ARTS  in  England.  Instituted  1768,  under  the  patron- 
age of  George  III. ;  and  sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  knighted  on  the  occasion,  was 
appointed  its  first  president. — Leigh. 

ROYAL  HUMANE  SOCIETY,  London.  This  institution,  for  the  recovery  of 
persons  apparently  drowned,  was  founded  in  1774,  by  Drs.  Goldsmith,  He- 
berden.  Towers,  Lettsom,  Hawes  and  Cogan,  but  principally  by  the  exertions 
of  the  last  three  gentlemen.  The  society  has  eighteen  receiving-houses  in  the 
metropolis,  all  of  which  are  supplied  with  perfect  and  excellent  apparatus, 
and  designated  by  conspicuous  boards,  announcing  their  object. 

ROYAL  INSTITUTION,  London.  This  institution  was  formed  in  1800,  un- 
der the  patronage  of  George  III.,  and  incorporated  by  royal  charter  as 
"  The  Royal  Institution  of  Great  Britain,"  for  diffusing  the  knowledge,  and 
facilitating  the  general  introduction,  of  useful  mechanical  inventions  and 
improvements,  and  for  teaching,  by  courses  of  philosophical  lectures  and 
experiments,  the  application  of  science  to  the  common  purposes  of  life. 
The  investigations  and  the  important  discoveries  of  sir  H.  Davy,  who  lec- 
tured on  chemistry  here,  conferred  no  small  degree  of  celebrity  on  this 
establishment.    A  new  professorship  was  created  in  1833. 

ROYAL  SOCIETY.  The  origin  of  this  learned  body  is  ascribed  to  the  hon. 
Robert  Boyle  and  sir  Wm.  Petty,  who,  together  with  the  several  doctors  of 
divinity  and  physic,  Matthew  Wren  and  Mr.  Rook,  frequently  met  in  the 
apartments  of  Dr.  Wilkins,  in  Wadham  College,  Oxford ;  where  the  society 
continued  till  1658.  Charles  II.,  April  22,  1663,  constituted  them  a  body 
politic  and  corporate,  by  the  appellation  of  the  "  President,  Council  and 
Fellows  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London,  for  improving  Natural  Knowledge." 

RUMP  PARLIAMENT.  The  parliament  so  designated  at  the  period  of  the 
civil  war  in  England.  Colonel  Pride  at  the  head  of  two  regiments  block- 
aded the  house  of  commons,  and  seized  in  the  passage  41  members  of  the 
Presbyterian  party,  whom  he  confined ;  above  160  more  were  excluded ; 
and  none  but  the  most  determined  of  the  Independents,  about  60,  were 


RUS] 


DICTIONARY   OF    DATES. 


5i; 


permitted  to  enter  the  house.  This  invasion  of  parliamentary  rights  was 
called  Pride's  Purge,  and  the  admitted  members  were  called  the  Rump, 
lQ4^.—  Goldsmiih. 

RUSSIA.  Anciently  Sarmatia.  It  Is  conjectured  that  the  aborigines  of  this 
vast  tract  of  country  were  the  immediate  progeny  of  Magog,  second  son 
of  Japhet ;  and  that  they  settled  here  very  shortly  after  the  dispersion 
from  Babel,  where  they  were  gradually  divided  into  tribes,  each  distin- 
guished by  a  particular  name,  but  still  retaining  their  ancient  general  ap- 
pellation, until  it  was  clianged  by  the  Romans  into  that  of  Scythians. 
Rurick  was  grand-duke  of  JVovogorod,  a.  d.  882,  which  is  the  earliest  au- 
thentic account  of  this  country.  In  981,  Woladimer  was  the  first  CLristian 
king.  Audrey  I.  began  his  reign  in  1156,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  Mos- 
cow. About  1200,  the  Mongol  Tartars  conquered  Russia,  and  held  it  in 
subjection  till  1 540,  when  John  Basilowitz  restored  it  to  independence.  In 
tlie  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century  the  Russians  discovered  and  conquered 
Siberia. 


The  foundation  of  the  present  monarchy 
laid A.  D.  1474 

Basil  IV.  carries  his  victorious  arms  in- 
to the  East,  1509  to        ....  1534 

Ivan  Basilowitz  takes  the  title  of  czar, 
signifying  great  king,  and  drives  the 
Tartars  clear  out  of  his  dominions, 
1534  to 1550 

The  navigation  from  England  first  dis- 
covered by  Robert  Chancellor  -        -  1554 

The  Tartars  surprise  Moscow,  and  slay 
30,000  of  the  people    ....  1571 

The  Novogorodians  having  intrigued 
with  the  Poles,  Ivan  orders  the  chief 
inhabitants  to  be  hewn  into  small  pie- 
ces before  his  eyes      ....  1581 

The  race  of  Rurick,  who  had  governed 
Russia  for  700  years,  becomes  extinct  1593 

The  imposition  practised  by  Demetrius 
See  Impostors.    -       •       -        -       -  1606 

The  Poles  place  Ladislaus,  son  of  their 
own  king,  Sigismund  II.,  upon  the 
throne  of  Russia       ....  1610 

Michael  Fedorowitz,  of  the  house  of 
Romanzov,  ascends  the  throne  -        -  1613 

Revolt  from  Polish  tyranny  -        -        •  1613 

Finland  ceded  to  Sweden.      -        -        -  1617 

Reign  of  Peter  I.  or  the  Great       -      .  1682 

He  visited  England,  and  worked  in  the 
dock-yard  at  Depiford        .        .        -  1697 

Orders  of  St.  Andrew,  and  of  St,  Alex- 
ander Nevskoi,  instituted  about        -  1698 

The  Russians  begin  their  new  year 
from  Januai'y  I  -  .  .  1700 

Peter  builds  St.  Petersburg  -      .  1703 

Peter  II.  deposed,  aad  the  crown  given 
to  Anne  ofCourland   -  -  -1730 

Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Peter  I.  reigns, 
in  prejudice  of  Ivan  VI.,  an  infant, 
who  is  imprisoned  for  life  .      .  1741 

Peter  III.  dethroned  ami  murdered ;  suc- 
ceeded by  Catheiine  his  wife,  -  1762 

THE   CZARS,   OR  EMPERORS    OP  RUSSIA. 

A.D.  1461  .lohnlll.  1606  Chousky 

1504  Demetrius;  murdered.  "  " 

1504  Basil  V. 

1534  John  IV. 

1.584  Theodore  I. 

1598  Bovise  Godounove. 

1605  Theodore  II 

1605  Demetrius  II. ,  assassinated. 


The  young  prince,  the  rightful  heir,  till 
now  immured,  put  to  death        a.  n.  1763 

The  dismemberment  of  Poland  com- 
menced by  Catherine.    (See  Poland)  177V 

This  perfidious  robbery  completed       -  1795 

Catherine  gives  her  subjects  a  new  code 
of  laws ;  abolishes  torture  in  punish- 
ing criininals ;  and  dies  -  -  179C 

Murder  of  the  emperor  Paul,  who  is 
found  dead  in  his  chamber,  March  23,  1801 

Great  defeat  of  Alexander,  at  Austerlitz, 
by  Napoleon  -  -      Dec.  2,  1805 

Alexander  visits  England   -       June  6,  1814 

The  grand-duke  Constantine  renounces 
the  right  of  succession      -      Jan.  26,  1822 

The  emperor  Nicholas  is  crowned  at 
Moscow       -  -  -    Sept.  3,  1826 

Russian  war  against  Persia  .  Sept.  28, 182G 

Nicholas  invested  with  the  order  of  the 
Garter  -  .  -    July  9, 1827 

Peace  concluded  between  Russia  and 
the  Persians  -        -        Feb"  22,  1828 

War  between  Russia  and  the  Ottoman 
Porte  declared   -  -        April  26,  1823 

[For  the  disastrous  consequences  to 
Turkey  of  this  war,  see  2'urkey  and 
Battles.} 

The  war  for  the  independence  of  Poland, 
against  Russia       .  .    Nov.  29,  1830 

This  war  closed  with  the  capture  of 
Warsaw,  and  the  total  overthrow  of 
the  Poles.     See  Warsaw  -    Sept.  8,  1831 

[For  the  events  of  this  last  war,  see  ar. 
tide  Poland.] 

Cracow,  which  had  been  erected  into  a 
republic,  and  its  independence  gua- 
ranteed by  the  Congress  of  Vienna,  in 
1815,  is  occupied  by  a  Russian  and 
Austrian  army  -  Feb.  13, 1836 

Failure  of  the  Russian  expedition  a- 
gainst  Khiva  -  -      Jan.  3, 1840 

Treaty  of  London.   See  Syria  -  July  15,  I&IO 


1616  Michael  Fedorowitz. 

1645  Alexis. 

1676  Theodore  III. 

1682  Peter  I.,  the  Great. 

1725  Catherine  I. 

1727  Peter  II. 

1730  Anne,  a  nuS». 


22* 


514  THE  world's  progress.  [  SAC 


1740  John  V. ;  murdered,  July  ir,  1762. 

1741  Elizabeth. 

1762  Peter  III. ;  deposed,  and  died  soon  af- 
terwards. 


RUSSIA,  oontiiiued. 

1762  Catherine  II. 

1796  Paul  I. ;  mui-dered,  Feb.  23, 1901. 

1801  Alexander. 

1825  Nicholas,  December  1. 

RYE-HOUSE  PLOT.  The  real,  or  more  probably  pretended,  conspiracy  to 
assassinate  Cliarles  II.  and  bis  brother  the  duke  of  York  (afterwards  James 
II.)  at  a  place  called  Rye-house,  on  the  way  to  London  from  Newmarket. 
This  design  was  said  to  have  been  frustrated  by  the  king's  house  at  New- 
market accidentally  taking  fire,  which  hastened  the  royal  party  away  eight 
days  before  the  i^lot  was  to  take  place,  March  22,  1683.  The  plot  was  discov- 
ered June  12,  following.  The  patriot  Algernon  Sidney,  suffered  death  on  a 
false  charge  of  being  concerned  in  this  conspiracy,  Dec.  7,  1683. 

RYSWICK,  Peace  of,  concluded  between  England,  France,  Spix-in,  and  Holland, 
signed  Sept.  20,  and  by  the  emperor  of  Germany,  Oct.  30,  1697. 

S. 

SABBATH,  The.  Ordained  by  the  Almighty.  The  Jews  observed  the  seventh 
day  in  commemoration  of  the  creation  and  their  redemption  from  the  bon- 
dage of  the  Egyptians ;  the  Christians  observe  the  first  day  of  the  week  in 
commemoration  of  the  resurrection  of  Christ  from  the  dead,  and  the  univer- 
sal redemption  of  mankind.  The  sabbath-day,  or  Sunday,  ordained  to  be 
kept  holy  in  England,  from  Saturday  at  three  in  the  afternoon  to  Monday  at 
break-of-day,  4  Canon,  Edgar,  a.  d.  960.  Act  of  parliament  levying  one 
shilling  on  every  person  absent  from  church  on  Sundays,  3  James  I.  1606. 
Act  restraining  amusements,  Charles  I.,  1626-.  Act  restraining  the  perform- 
ance of  servile  works,  and  the  sale  of  goods,  except  milk  at  certain  hours, 
meat  in  i^ublic  houses,  and  works  of  necessity  and  charitj'-,  on  forfeiture  of 
five  shillings,  29  Charles  II.  1677. 

SABBATIANS.  Christians,  who,  professing  to  follow  the  example  and  precepts 
of  Christ,  keep  the  ancient  divine  Sabbath  of  Saturday,  instead  of  the  mo- 
dern Romish  festival  of  Sunday,  for  which  this  sect  allege  that  there  is  not 
a  tittle  of  Scriptural  authority.  They  maintain  that  the  Jewish  Sabbath 
was  never  abrogated,  nor  any  other  appointed  or  instituted,  and  consequently 
that  it  ought  to  be  as  religiously  observed  by  the  Christians  as  by  the 
Jews,  1549. 

SABBATICAL  YEAR.  A  Jewish  institution,  1444  b.  c.  Every  seventh  year, 
during  which  time  the  very  ground  had  rest,  and  was  not  tilled,  and  every 
forty-ninth  year  all  debts  were  forgiven,  slaves  set  at  liberty,  and  estates, 
&c.,  that  were  before  sold  or  mortgaged,  retui'ned  to  their  original  families, 
&c. — Josephus. 

SABINES.  The  people  from  whom  the  Romans,  under  Romulus,  took  away 
their  daughters  by  force  for  wives,  having  made  and  invited  them  to  some 
public  sports  or  shows  on  purpose ;  when  the  Sabines  were  determined  to 
revenge  this  afiFront,  the  women  became  mediators  to  their  fathers  in  behalf 
of  their  husbands  the  Romans,  and  settled  a  regular  and  lasting  peace  be- 
tween them,  750  b.  c. 

SACRED  WAR.  The  first,  concerning  the  temple  at  Delphi,  took  place  448  b.  c. 
The  second  Sacred  War  occurred  on  Delphi  being  attacked  by  the  Phocoans, 
356  B.  0.  This  latter  war  was  terminated  by  Philip  of  Macedon  taking  all 
the  cities  of  the  Phoceans,  348  b.  c. — Plutarch. 

SACRIFICE.  The  first  religious  sacrifice  was  oflTered  to  God  by  Abel;  it  con- 
sisted of  milk  and  the  firstlings  of  his  flock,  3875  b.  c. — Josephus;  Usher. 
Sacrifices  to  the  gods  were  first  introduced  into  Greece  by  Phoroneus,  king  of 


ST.  V]  DICTIONARY    OF   DATES.  515 

Argos,  1773  b.  c.  The  offering  of  human  sacrifices  seems  to  have  originated 
with  the  Chaldeans,  from  whom  the  custom  passed  into  Greece,  Persia,  and 
other  eastern  nations.  All  sacrifices  to  the  true  God  ceased  with  the  sacri- 
fice of  the  Redeemer,  a.  d.  33. 

SADDLES.  In  the  earlier  ages  the  Romans  used  neither  saddles  nor  stirrups, 
which  led  to  several  maladies  of  the  hips  and  legs.  Saddles  were  in  use  in 
the  third  century,  and  are  mentioned  as  made  of  leather  in  i* .  d.  304.  They 
were  known  in  England  about  the  year  600.  Side-saddles  for  ladies  were  in 
use  in  1388.  Anne,  the  queen  of  Richard  II.,  introduced  them  to  the  En- 
glish ladies. — Slowe. 

SADDTJCEES.  A  sect  among  the  Jews,  said  to  have  been  founded  by  one 
Sadoc,  a  scholar  of  Antigonus,  who,  misinterpreting  his  master's  doctrine, 
taught  there  was  neither  heaven  nor  hell,  angel  nor  spirit ;  that  the  soul 
was  mortal,  and  that  there  was  no  resurrection  of  the  body  from  the  dead. 
As  for  their  other  opinions,  the  Sadducees  agreed  m  general  with  the  Sama- 
ritans, excepting  that  thej''  were  partakers  of  all  the  Jewish  sacrifices.  This 
sect  began  about  200  b.  c. — Pardon. 

SAFETY-LAMP.  That  of  the  illustrious  sir  Humphrey  Davy,  to  prevent  ac- 
cidents which  happen  in  coal  and  other  mines,  introduced  in  1815  ;  and  im- 
proved in  1817.  The  safety-lamp  is  founded  on  the  principle  that  flame,  in 
passing  through  iron-wire  meshes,  loses  so  much  of  its  heat  as  not  to  be 
capable  of  igniting  inflammable  substances  around,  while  flame  alone  ig- 
nites gas.  It  should  be  mentioned,  that  the  father  of  all  safety-lamps  is 
Dr.  Reid  Clanny,  of  Sunderland,  whose  invention  and  improvements  are 
authenticated  in  the  Transactions  of  the  Society  of  Arts,  for  1817,  and  in 
Thomson's  Annals  of  Philosophy,  same  year. 

SAGUNTUM,  Siege  of.  The  famous  and  dreadful  siege  of  Saguntum  (now 
Morviedro  in  Valencia)  was  sustained  219  b.  c.  The  heroic  citizens,  after 
exerting  incredible  acts  of  valor  for  eight  months,  chose  to  be  buried  in  the 
ruins  of  their  city  rather  than  surrender  to  Hannibal.  They  burnt  them- 
selves, with  their  houses  and  all  their  efiects,  and  the  conqueror  became 
master  of  a  pile  of  ashes  and  of  dead. 

ST.  SALVADOR.  The  first  point  of  land  discovered  in  the  "West  Indies  or 
America  by  the  illustrious  Christopher  Columbus.  It  was  previously  called 
Guanahami,  or  Cat's  Isle,  and  Columbus  (in  acknowledgment  to  God  for 
his  deliverance  from  the  dangers  to  which  he  was  exposed  in  his  voyage  of 
discovery)  named  it  St.  Salvador,  October  11,  1492. 

ST.  SEBASTIAN'S,  Siege  of,  by  the  British  and  allied  army  under  lord  Wel- 
lington. St.  Sebastian,  after  a  short  siege,  dmlng  which  it  sustained  a  most 
heavy  bombardment,  and  by  which  the  whole  town  was  laid  nearly  in  ruins, 
was  stormed  by  general  (afterwards  lord)  Graham,  and  taken,  August  31, 
1813. 

ST.  SOPHIA,  Church  of.  In  Constantinople,  a  short  distance  from  the  Sub- 
lime Porte,  stands  the  ancient  Christian  church  of  St.  Sophia,  built  by 
Justinian ;  and  since  the  Mahometan  conquest,  in  1453,  used  as  an  impe- 
rial mosque.  It  abounds  in  curiosities.  Its  length  is  269  feet,  and  its 
breadth  243  feet.  Six  of  its  pillars  are  of  green  jasper,  from  the  Temple  of 
Diana,  at  Ephesus ;  and  eight  of  porphyry,  from  the  Temple  of  the  Sun,  at 
Rome. 

ST.  VINCENT,  Battle  op,  between  the  Spanish  and  British  fleets  off  the 
Cape.  The  latter  was  commanded  by  sir  John  Jervis  (afterwards  earl  St. 
Vincent),  who  took  four  line-of-battle  ships,  and  considerably  damaged  the 
rest  of  the  Spanish  fleet,  February  14,  1797. 


516  THE  wofwLd's  progress.  [  san 

SALAMANCA,  Battle  of,  between  the  British  and  allies  commanded  by  lord 
Wellington,  and  the  French  army  under  Marshal  Marmont,  fought  July  22, 
1812.  In  this  great  and  memorable  battle  the  illustrious  Wellington  was 
victorious,  though  the  loss  of  the  allies  was  most  severe,  amounting  in 
killed,  wounded,  and  missing,  to  nearly  6000  men ;  but  that  of  the  enemy 
was  much  greater.  Marmont  left  in  the  victor's  hands  7141  prisoners,  11 
pieces  of  cannon,  6  stand  of  colors,  and  two  eagles  :  8000  men  are  believed 
to  have  been  kiUed  and  wounded.  Marmont  was  the  seventh  French  Mar- 
shal whom  lord  Wellington  had  defeated  in  the  course  of  four  years.  An 
immediate  consequence  of  this  victory  was  the  capture  of  Madrid  with  2500 
more  prisoners,  and  an  immense  quantity  of  stores. 

SALAMIS,  Battle  of.  The  Persians  defeated  by  the  Greeks  in  this  great  sea- 
fight,  October  20,  480  b.  c.  Themistocles,  the  Greek  commander,  with  only 
380  sail,  defeated  the  fleet  of  Xerxes,  which  consisted  of  .2000  sail.  After 
this  battle,  Xerxes  retired  from  Greece,  leaving  behind  him  Mardonius, 
with  300,000  men,  to  carry  on  the  war,  and  suffer  more  disasters.  In  his  re- 
treat, he  found  the  bridge  of  boats  he  had  crossed  over  at  the  Hellespont, 
now  the  Dardanelles,  destroyed  by  a  tempest. 

SALIQUE,  OR  SALIC,  LAW.  By  this  law  females  are  excluded  from  inherit- 
ing the  crown  of  France.  It  was  instituted  by  Pharamond,  a.  d.  424.  Rati- 
fied in  a  council  of  state  by  Clovis  I.,  the  real  founder  of  the  French 
monarchy,  in  511. — HenauWs  France.  In  order  to  give  more  authority  to 
the  maxim  that  "  the  crown  should  never  descend  to  a  female,"  it  was  usual 
to  derive  it  from  a  clause  of  the  Salian  code  of  the  ancient  Franks ;  but 
this  clause,  if  strictly  examined,  carries  only  the  appearance  of  favoring 
the  principle,  and  does  not  in  reality  bear  the  sense  imposed  upon  it. 

SALT  and  SALT-MINES.  Salt  is  either  procured  from  rocks  in  the  earth,  from 
salt-springs,  or  from  sea-water.  The  famous  salt-mines  of  Wielitska,  near 
Cracow,  in  Poland,  have  been  worked  600  years,  and  yet  present,  it  has  been 
lately  said,  no  appearance  of  being  exhausted.  Rock-salt  was  discovered 
about  A.  D.  950.  Saltpetre  was  first  made  in  England  about  1625.  The  fine 
salt-mines  of  Staffordshire  were  discovered  about  1670. 

SAMARITANS.  The  Samaritans  are  often  mentioned  in  the  Scriptures.  They 
were  the  inhabitants  of  a  province  of  which  Samaria  was  the  capital,  and 
were  composed  of  heathens  and  rebellious  Jews  ;  and  on  having  a  temple 
built  there  after  the  form  of  that  of  Jerusalem,  a  lasting  enmity  arose  be- 
tween the  people  of  Judea  and  Samaria,  so  that  no  intercourse  took  place 
between  the  two  countries,  and  the  name  of  Samaritan  became  a  word  of  re- 
proach, and  as  if  it  were  a  curse. — Lemfriere. 

SANCTUARIES.  They  had  their  origin  in  the  early  ages.  Rome  was  one 
entire  sanctuary  from  751  b.  c.  In  England,  privileged  places  for  the  safety 
of  offenders  were  granted  by  king  Lucius  to  our  churches  and  their  pre- 
cincts. St.  John's  of  Beveiiey  was  thus  privileged  in  the  time  of  the  Saxons. 
St.  Burein's,  in  Cornwall,  was  privileged  by  Athelstan,  a.  d.  935;  West- 
minster, by  Edward  the  Confessor ;  St.  Martin's-le-Grand,  1529.  Sanc- 
tuaries were  abolished  at  the  Reformation.  Several  places  in  London  were 
privileged  against  the  arrest  of  persons  for  debt.  These  last  were  sup- 
pressed in  1696. 

SANDALS.  The  shoe  or  slipper  worn  especially  by  the  eastern  nations.  At 
first  it  was  only  a  piece  of  leather  like  the  sole  of  a  shoe,  to  keep  the  foot 
from  the  ground,  but  was  in  tlie  course  of  time  improved  to  a  covering  of 
cloth,  ornamented  Avith  all  the  delicacies  of  art,  and  made  of  the  richest 
materials,  and  worn  by  the  high  priests  at  great  solemnities,  and  by  kings, 
princes,  and  great  men  as  a  mark  of  distinction.  Sandals  were  also  worn 
by  women,   as  appears  from  the  story  of  Judith  and  Holofernes,  where, 


sar]  dictionary  of  dates.  517 

among  other  decorations,  she  is  said  to  have  put  on  sandals,  at  the  sight  of 
which  he  was  ravished.  It  was  usual  for  ladies  to  have  slaves  to  carry 
their  sandals  in  cases,  ready  to  adorn  their  feet  on  occasions  of  state.  See 
Shoes. 

S  AJVDWICH  ISLANDS.  A  group  of  eleven  islands  in  the  Pacific  Ocean.  They 
were  discovered  by  captain  Cook  in  1778.  Many  voyagers  report  that  the  na- 
tural capacity  of  the  natives  seems  in  no  respect  below  the  common  standard 
of  mankind.  It  Avas  in  one  of  these  islands  that  this  illustrious  circumna- 
vigator fell  a  victim  to  the  sudden  resentment  of  the  natives,  Feb.  14,  1779. 
Extraordinary  progress  in  the  civilization  and  improvement  of  the  natives, 
eifected  chiefly  by  the  American  missionaries.  Tamehameha,  chief  of 
Hawaii,  becomes  king  of  the  group,  18  .  Rihoriho,  his  son,  succeeds 
him,  1819.  Idolatry  abolished,  1819.  Rihoriho  and  his  queen  died  in  Eng- 
land, 1824.  Kanikeaouli,  20  years  of  age,  king,  1824.  Mission  established 
by  the  American  Board,  1820.  In  1832  there  were  900  schools  and  50,000 
pupils  in  the  Islands.  Treaty  with  the  French,  made  with  admiral  Dupetit- 
Thouars,  1837.  Another,  enforcing  the  introduction  of  Catholic  mission- 
aries, &c.,  1839.  Tamehameha  III.  becomes  king.  Dr.  G.  P.  Jtdd,  an  Ame- 
rican, prime-minister,  18  .  In  1831  there  were  14  ships,  2680  tons,  belong- 
ing to  the  Islands — which  are  important  to  the  United  States  as  a  whaling 
station.    See  Oivhyhee. 

SANHEDRIM.  An  ancient  Jewish  council  of  the  highest  jurisdiction,  of  sev- 
enty, or  as  some  say,  seventy-three  members.  They  date  this  senate  from 
Numbers  xi.  16.  It  Avas  yet  in  being  at  the  time  of  Jesus  Christ,  John 
xviii.  31.  A  Jewish  Sanhedrim  was  summoned  by  the  emperor  Napoleon 
at  Paris,  July  23,  1806  ;  and  it  assembled  Jan.  20,  1807. 

SAPPHIC  VERSE.  The  verse  invented  by  Sappho,  the  lyric  poetess  of  Mity- 
lene.  Sappho  was  equally  celebrated  for  her  poetry,  her  beauty,  and  her 
amorous  disposition.  She  conceived  a  hopeless  passion  for  Phaon,  a  youth 
of  her  native  country,  on  which  account  she  threw  herself  into  the  sea 
from  Mount  Leucas,  and  was  drowned.  The  Lesbians,  after  her  death,  paid 
her  divine  honors,  and  called  her  the  tenth  muse,  594  b.  c. 

SARACENS.  A  celebrated  people  from  the  deserts  of  Arabia,  Sarra  in  their 
language  signifying  a  desert.  They  were  the  first  disciples  of  Mahomet ; 
and  within  40  years  after  his  death,  in  a.  d.  681,  they  conquered  a  great  part 
of  Asia,  Africa,  and  Europe.  They  conquered  Spain  in  718  et  seq. ;  the 
empire  of  the  Saracens  closed  by  Bagdad  being  taken  by  the  Tartars,  1258. 
— Blair.  There  are  now  no  people  known  by  this  name ;  the  descendants 
of  those  who  subdued  Spain  are  called  Moors. 

SARAGOSSA.  Anciently  C^sarea  Augusta ;  whence,  by  corruption,  its  name. 
Its  church- has  been  a  place  of  great  devotion.  They  tell  us  that  the  Virgin, 
while  yet  living,  appeared  to  St.  James,  who  was  preaching  the, gospel,  and 
left  him  her  image,  which  was  afterwards  placed  in  the  church,  with  a  little 
Jesus  in  its  arms,  ornamented  with  a  profusion  of  gold  and  jewels,  and  il- 
luminated by  a  multitude  of  lamps.  In  December  1778,  four  hundred  of 
the  inhabitants  perished  in  a  fire  at  the  theatre.  Saragossa  taken  by 
the  French,  after  a  most  heroic  defence  by  general  Palafos,  during  as  re- 
nowned a  siege  as  is  on  record,  February  13,  1809. 

SARATOGA,  Burgoyne's  Surrender  at.  Here  general  Burgoyne,  comman- 
der of  the  British  army,  after  a  severe  engagement  with  the  Americans  in 
the  war  of  independence  (Oct.  7),  being  surrounded,  surrendered  to  the 
American  general  Gates,  when  5791  men  laid  down  their  arms,  October  17, 
1777. 

SARD ANAP ALUS.    The  last  king  of  Assyria.    See  Assyria.    One  of  the  most 


518 


THE    WORLD'S    PROGRESS. 


r  SAT 


infamous  and  sensual  monarchs  that  ever  lived.  Having  grown  odious  to 
his  subjects,  and  being  surrounded  by  hostile  armies,  dreading  to  fall  into 
their  hands,  he  shut  himself  up  in  his  capital  at  Nineveh.  Here  he  caused 
a  vast  pile  of  wood  to  be  raised  in  a  court  of  his  palace,  and  heaping  upon 
it  all  his  gold,  silver,  jewels,  precious  and  rare  articles,  the  royal  apparel, 
and  other  treasures,  and  inclosing  his  concubines  and  eunuchs  in  an  apart- 
ment within  the  pile,  he  set  all  on  fire,  perishing  himself  in  the  flames. 
This  is  the  mightiest  conflagration  of  wealth  on  record.  The  riches 
thus  destroyed  were  worth  a  thousand  myriads  of  talents  of  gold,  and  ten 
TIMES  as  many  talents  of  silver!!!  about  1,400,000,OOOZ.  sterling. — Athenaus, 

SARDINIA.  The  first  inhabitants  of  Piedmont,  Savoy,  &c.,  are  supposed  to 
have  been  the  Umbrians,  Etrurians,  Ligurians,  and  afterwards  the  Gauls 
(when  they  established  themselves  in  Italy,  under  Brennus,  &c.,)  from 
whom  this  country  was  called  Cisalpine  Gaul  (or  Gaul  on  this  side  of  the 
Alps,  with  respect  to  Rome) :  it  afterwards  became  a  part  of  Lombardy, 
from  whom  it  was  taken  by  the  Burgundians.  The  island  of  Sardinia  has 
been  successively  possessed  by  the  Phoenicians  and  Greeks,  the  Carthagi- 
nians, Romans,  Saracens,  and  Spaniards.  From  settlers  belonging  to  v.  Iiich 
various  nations  the  present  inhabitants  derive  their  origin. 
Subjugated  by  the  Romans       -      B.C.    231 


Taken  by  the  Moors,  about  -       -  a.d.    728 

Reduced  by  the  Genoese    -        -        -     1115 

The  pope  grants  Sardinia  to  thePisanese, 
who  are,  however,  too  weak  to  expel 
the  Saracens 1132 

Alphonsus  IV.  of  Arragon,  becomes 
master  of  Sardinia         -        -       -    -1324 

Taken  from  the  Spaniards  by  the  Eng- 
lish naval  forces         ....  1708 

Recovered  by  the  Spaniards    •       -    -  1717 

They  again  lose  possession   •        -        -  1719 

Ceded  to  the  duke  of  Savoy,  as  an  equi- 
valent for  Sicily         ....  1720 

Victor  Amadeus,  having  the  title  of  king 
abdicates  in  favor  of  his  son    -    a.d.  1730 

Attempting  to  recover  Sardinia,  he  is 
taken,  and  dies  in  prison    -        -        -  17.32 

[The  court  kept  at  Turin  till  1706,  when 
these  dominions  were  overrun  by  the 
French  arms,  and  shortly  afterwards 
annexed  to  the  French  empire.] 

The  king  resigns  his  crown  to  his  bro- 
ther, duke  of  Aoust     -        .    June  4,  1802 

Sardinia  annexed  to  Italy,  and  Bona- 
parte crowned  king  of  the  whole. 

December  26;  1805 

Restored  to  its  rightful  sovereign,  with 
Genoa  added  to  it  December  1S14 

King  Charles  Albert,  having  protested 
against  Austrian  encroachments  in 
Italy,  calls  out  an  additional  force  of 
25,000  men  -  -  -     Jan.  10,  1848 

Proclaims  the  basis  of  a  Constitution 

Feb.  8,  1848 


Declares  war  against  Austria,  enters 
Milan  with  An  army,  to  assist  the  po- 
pular cause,  and  drives  the  Austrians 
towards  Mantua      -       -    March  23,  1848 

Takes  Lodi     ....    April  1,  *"** 

Forces  the  Austrian  line  near  Verona, 

April  17,  **" 

Takes  Peschiara      -       -       -May30,  ***' 

Defeats  the  Austrians  under  Radetsky, 
at  Goito  •"•* 

Sardmian  army  driven  from  Vicenza, 
Verona,  the  Adige,  &c.,  June-July  -  1848 

Retreats  to  Ticino  after  capitulation  of 
Milan Aug. 4,  **'* 

Followed  by  an  armistice      -        -        i '*" 

Rupture  of  the  armistice    -        -  March  1849 

Battle  of  Novara ;  the  Sardinians  under 
Charles  Albert,  totally  defeated  by 
Radetsky **** 

The  king  abdicates  in  favor  of  his  son, 
Victor  Emanuel,  count  of  Savoy,  and 
leaves  the  kingdom     -       March  23,  **" 

Insurection  at  Genoa  against  the  new 
king April  1,  *'*' 

Genoa  invested  by  Marmora,    April  5,  ***' 
and  fully  reduced      -        -    April  11,  *'** 

Charles  Albert  late  king,  dies  at  Lis- 
bon        July  28,  ••** 

Victor  Emanuel  opens  the  legislative 
chamber  with  a  moderate  speech,  and 
is  warmly  greeted  -       Aug.  1.  **** 

Treaty  with  Austria       -       -   Aug.  6,  ***' 

The  chamber  voles  100,000  livres  to  re- 
lieve the  refugees  fom  various  parts 
of  Italy       -   "        -  -     Aug.  30,  *"* 


KINGS    OF   SARDINIA. 

A.  D.  1720.  Victor  Amadeus,  son  of  Charles  Ema-  I  1802.  Victor  Emanuel, 

nuel  duke  of  Savoy.  |  1821 .  Charles  Felix. 

1730.  Charles  Emanuel  I  1831.  Charles  Albert,  April  27. 

1773.  Victor  Amadeus  Maria  II.  1848.  Victor  Emanuel 
1796.  Charles  Emanuel.                                  I 

SATIRE.  About  a  century  after  the  introduction  of  comedy,  satire  made  its 
appearance  at  Rome  in  the  writings  of  Lucilius.  who  was  so  celebrated  in 
this  species  of  composition  that  he  has  been  called  the  inventor  of  it,  116 


SAW  ]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  519 

B.  c. — Livy.  Lucilius  obtained  praise  lavished  with  too  liberal  a  hand :  we 
may  compare  him  to  a  river  which  rolls  upon  its  waters  precious  sand,  ac- 
companied with  mire  and  dirt. — Horace. 

SATURDAY.  With  us  this  is  the  last  or  seventh  day  of  the  week ;  but  with 
the  Jews  it  is  the  Sabbath.  See  Sabbath.  It  was  so  called  from  an  idol 
worshipped  on  this  day  by  the  old  Saxons,  and  according  to  Vertigern  was 
named  by  them  Saterne's-day.— Par^^ora.  It  is  more  probably  from  Saturn, 
dies  Saturni. — Addison. 

.SATURN.    Ascertained  to  be  about  900  millions  of  miles  distant  from  the 

■'■'     sun,  and  its  diameter  to  be  89,170  miles.    His  satellites  were  discovered  by 

I'      Galileo  and  Simon  Meyer,  1608-9-10 ;  his  belt,  &c.,  by  Huj'gens  in  1634  ; 

his  fifth  satellite  by  the  same  in  1655;    and  his   sixth  and   seventh   by 

Herschel  in  1789.     Cassini  was  also  a  discoverer  of  the  satellites  of  the 

planets. 

SATURNALIA.  Festivals  in  honor  of  Saturn.  They  were  instituted  long 
before  the  foundation  of  Rome,  in  commemoration  of  the  freedom  and 
equality  which  prevailed  on  earth  in  the  golden  reign  of  Saturn.  Some, 
however,  suppose  that  the  Saturnalia  were  first  ©bserved  at  Rome  in  ,  he 
reign  of  Tullus  Hostilius,  after  a  victory  obtained  over  the  Sabines  ;  while 
others  support  that  Janus  first  instituted  them  in  gratitude  to  Saturn,  from 
whom  he  had  learned  agriculture.  Others  suppose  that  they  were  first 
celebrated  after  a  victory  obtained  over  the  Latins  by  the  dictator  Posthu- 
mius.  During  these  festivals  no  business  was  allowed,  amusements  were 
encouraged,  distinctions  ceased,  and  even  slaves  could  say  what  they  pleased 
to  their  masters  with  impunity. — Lenglet. 

SAVINGS  BANKS,  England.  The  benefit  clubs  among  artisans,  having  ac- 
cumulated stocks  of  money  for  their  progressive  purposes,  a  plan  was 
adopted  to  identify  these  funds  with  the  public  debt  of  the  country,  and  an 
extra  rate  of  interest  was  held  out  as  an  inducement;  hence,  savings  banks 
to  receive  small  sums,  returnable  with  interest,  on  demand,  were  formed. 
Brought  under  parliamentary  regulation  in  1816.  The  number  of  savings 
banks  considerably  increased  up  to  1846 ;  and  the  number  of  depositors  in 
that  year  was,  for  the  United  Kingdom,  1,063,418  ;  and  the  whole  amount 
deposited,  32,661,924Z.  In  the  United  States  the  first  savings  bank  in  Phi- 
ladelphia, 1816  ;  the  next  in  Boston,  1817.  They  are  now  very  numerous 
throughout  the  United  States. 

SAVOY.  It  became  a  Roman  province  118  b.  c.  The  Alemans  seized  it  in  a.  d. 
395,  and  the  Franks  in  496.  It  shared  the  revolutions  of  Switzerland  till 
1040,  when  Conrad,  emperor  of  Germany,  gave  it  to  Hubert,  with  the  title 
of  earl.  Amadeus,  earl  of  Savoy,  solicited  Sigismund  to  erect  his  domi- 
nions into  a  duchy,  which  he  did  at  Cambray,  February  19,  1417.  Victor 
Amadeus,  duke  of' Savoy,  obtained  the  kingdom  of  Sicily,  by  treaty,  from 
Spain,  which  he  afterwards  exchanged  with  the  emperor  for  the  island  of 
Sardinia,  with  the  title  of  king,  1713-20.  The  French  subdued  this  country 
in  1792,  and  made  it  a  department  of  France,  under  the  name  of  Mont 
Blanc,  in  1800. 

SAW.  Invented  by  Dsedalus. — Pliny.  Invented  by  Talus. — ApoUodorus.  Ta- 
lus, it  is  said,  having  found  the  jaw-bone  of  a  snake,  he  employed  it  to  cut 
through  a  piece  of  wood,  and  then  formed  an  instrument  of  iron^  like  it. 
Beecher  says  saw-mills  were  invented  in  the  seventeenth  century^  but  he 
errs.  Saw-mills  were  erected  in  Madeira  in  1420;  at  Breslau,  in  1427. 
Norway  had  the  first  saw-mill  in  1530.  The  bishop  of  Ely,  ambassador 
from  Miry  of  England  to  the  court  of  Rome,  describes  a  saw-mill  there, 
1555.  In  England  saw-mills  had  at  first  the  same  fate  with  printing  in  Tur- 
key, the  crane  in  Strasburg,  &c.    The  attempts  to  introduce  them  were 


520  THE  woiild's  progress.  [sch 

violently  opposed ;  and  one  erected  by  a  Dutchman  in  1663  was  forced  to  be 
abandoned. 

SAXONY.  The  rd^^al  family  of  Saxony  is  of  very  ancient  origin,  and  is  allied 
to  all  the  royal  houses  in  Europe.  The  sovereignty  still  continues  in  the 
same  family,  notwithstanding  it  encountered  an  interruption  of  more  than 
two  hundred  years,  from  1180  to  1423.  Saxony,  which  had  been  for  many 
centuries  an  electorate,  was  formed  into  a  kingdom  in  1806,  when  Frederick 
Augustus  became  the  first  king.  That  sovereign  was  succeeded  by  his 
brother,  Anthony,  May  5,  1827.  The  present  sovereign  is  Frederick  Au- 
gustus II.,  who  ascended  the  throne,  6th  of  June,  1836.  Saxony  became 
the  scene  of  the  great  struggle  against  Napoleon  in  1813.  Insurrection  at 
Dresden ;  the  king  retires  to  Konigstern,  May  3,  1849.  Insurgents  put 
down  by  the  Prussian  troops,  May  7,  1849. 

SCANDALUM  MAGNATUM.  The  name  given  to  a  special  statute  relating 
to  any  wrong,  by  words  or  in  writing,  done  to  high  personages  of  the  land, 
such  as  peers,  judges,  ministers  of  the  crown,  officers  in  the  state,  and  other 
great  public  functionaries,  by  the  circulation  of  scandalous  statements, 
false  news,  or  horrible  messages.  This  law  was  enacted  2  Richard  II,.  1378. 

SCEPTIC.  The  ancient  sect  of  philosophers  founded  by  Pyrrho,  334  b.  c. 
Pyrrho  was  in  continual  suspense  of  judgment;  he  doubted  of  everything, 
never  made  any  conclusions,  and  when  he  had  carefully  examined  a  subject, 
and  investigated  all  its  parts,  he  concluded  bj''  still  doubting  of  its  evidence. 
As  he  showed  so  much  indifference  in  every  thing,  and  declared  that  life 
and  death  were  the  same  thing,  some  of  his  disciples  asked  him,  Avhy  he 
did  not  hurry  himself  out  of  the  world"?  "Because,"  says  he,  "there 
is  no  difference  between  life  and  death."  Timon  was  one  of  the  chief  fol- 
lowers of  this  sect,  which  was  almost  extinct  in  the  time  of  Cicero. — 
Sbrabo. 

SCEPTRE.  This  is  a  more  ancient  emblem  of  royalty  than  the  crown.  In  the 
earlier  ages  of  the  world,  the  sceptres  of  kings  were  long  walking-staves  ; 
they  afterwards  were  carved,  and  made  shorter.  Tarquin  the  Elder  was 
the  first  who  assumed  the  sceptre  among  the  Romans,  about  468  b.  c.  The 
French  sceptre  of  the  first  race  of  kings  was  a  golden  rod,  a.  d.  481. — Lc 
Geiidre. 

SCHOOLS.  Charity  schools  were  instituted  in  London  to  prevent  the  seduc- 
tion of  the  infant  poor  into  Roman  Catholic  seminaries,  3  James  II.  1687. — 
Rapin.  Charter  schools  were  instituted  in  Ireland  1733. — Scnlly.  In  Eng- 
land there  are  now  13,642  schools  (exclusively  of  Sunday  schools)  for  the 
education  of  the  poor  ;  and  the  number  of  children  is  998,431.  The  paro- 
chial and  endowed  schools  of  Scotland  are  in  number  (exclusively  of  Sunday 
schools)  4,836  ;  and  the  number  of  children,  181,467.  The  number  of 
schools  in  Wales  is  841,  and  the  number  of  children  38,164:  in  Ireland, 
13,327  schools,  and  774,000  children.  In  the  United  States  the  system  of 
public  schools  is  very  generally  and  effectively  supported.  The  school- fund 
in  Maine  amounts  to  $350,000 ;  in  Massachusetts,  $850,000  ;  in  Connecticut, 
$2,077,641;  New  York,  $6,491,803;  New  Jersey,  $369,278;  Delaware, 
$225,000;  Virginia.  $1,448,261;  Georgia,  $262,300;  Alabama,  $1.215,381 ; 
Tennessee,  $1,346,068  ;  Kentucky,  $1,221,819  ;  Ohio,  $1,566.931 ;  Michigan, 
$500,000;  Indiana.  $2.195  149;  Missouri,  $575,668;  Iowa,  $132,909.  Total 
in  1849,  $21,420,275.  '  In  the  State  of  New  York  the  number  of  District 
School  Libraries  is  about  11,000.     See  Education,  Libro.rics,  &c. 

SCIENCE  IN  THE  United  St.\tes.  Franklin's  discoveries  in  electricity,  l7-'^2. 
American  Philosophical  Society  established,  1769.  American  Academy  of 
Arts  and  Sciences,  1780.  First  course  of  Chemical  Lectures  in  the  United 
States,  by  Dr.  S.  L.  Mitchill,  N.  Y.,  1792.    Botanic  garden  and  Professor  of 


SCY  1  DICTIONARY    OF   DATES.  521 

Natural  History  established  at  Harvard  College,  1805.     American  Associa- 
tion for  the  Advancement  of  Science,  formed,  1845. 

SCILLY  ISLES.  They  held  commerce  with  the  Phoenicians.  They  are  men- 
tioned by  Strabo  as  being  ten  in  number.  The  memorable  shipwreck 
of  the  British  squadron  under  sir  Cloudesley  Shovel  occurred  here.  This 
brave  admiral  returning  from  an  expedition  against  Toulon,  mistook  these 
rocks  for  land,  and  struck  upon  them.  His  ship,  the  Associatio7i,  in  which 
were  his  lady,  two  sons,  many  persons  of  rank,  and  800  brave  men,  went 
instantly  to  the  bottom.  The  Eagle,  Captain  Hancock,  and  the  Romneij  and 
Firebrand,  were  also  lost.  The  rest  of  the  fleet  escaped,  Oct.  22,  1707.  Sir 
Cloudesley's  body,  being  found,  was  conveyed  to  London,  and  buried  in 
Westminster  Abbey,  where  a  monument  was  erected  to  his  memory. 

SCOTLAND.  See  Caledonia.  This  important  member  of  the  British  empire 
was  governed  by  a  king  before  the  Romans  visited  England,  and  continued 
an  independent  kingdom  till  the  death  of  the  English  queen  Elizabeth, 
when  James  VI.  of  Scotland,  the  most  immediate  heir,  was  called  to  the 
throne  of  England,  and  constantly  resided  in  the  latter ;  he  and  his  suc- 
cessors calling  themselves  kings  of  England  and  Scotland,  and  each 
country  having  a  separate  parliament,  till  the  year  1707,  in  the  reign  of 
queen  Anne,  when  both  kingdoms  were  united  under  the  general  name  (..f 
Great  Britain.     See  England  and  Scotland,  Tabular  Views,  p.  75.,  et  seq. 

SCREW.  This  instrument  was  known  early  to  the  Greeks.  The  pumping- 
screw  of  Archimedes,  or  screw-cylinder  for  raising  water,  invented  236  b.  c, 
is  still  in  use,  and  still  bears  that  philosopher's  name.  The  poAver  of  the 
screw  is  astonishing  ;  it  being  calculated  that  if  the  distance  between  the 
two  spirals  or  threads  of  the  screw  be  half  an  inch,  and  the  length  of  each 
handle  twelve  inches,  the  circle  that  they  describe  in  going  roiind  will  be 
seventy-five  inches,  and  consequently  150  times  greater  than  half  an  inch, 
the  distance  between  the  two  spirals.  Therefore  one  man  can,  with  the 
assistance  of  this  screw,  press  down  or  raise  up  as  much  as  150  men  could 
do  without  it.  This  power  increases  in  proportion  to  the  closeness  of  the 
spirals  and  the  length  of  the  handles. — Greig. 

SCULPTURE.  The  origin  of  this  art  cannot  be  traced  with  any  certainty. 
Tlie  invention  is  given  by  some  ancient  writers  to  the  Egyptians,  and  by 
others  to  the  Greeks.  It  is  referred  by  some  historians  to  1020  b.  c,  and 
sculpture  in  marble  to  872  b.  c.  Pausanias  refers  the  nearest  approach 
to  perfection  in  the  art  to  560  b.  c.  Accoi'ding  to  sacred  history,  Bezaleel 
and  Aholiab,  who  built  the  tabernacle  in  the  wilderness,  and  made  all  the 
vessels  and  ornaments,  were  the  first  architects  and  sculptors  of  repute,  and 
their  excellence  is  recorded  as  the  gift  of  God,  Exodus,  xxxi.  Dipcenus  and 
Scyllis,  statuaries  at  Crete,  establislied  a  school  at  Sicyon.  Pliny  speaks  of 
them  as  being  the  first  who  sculptured  marble  and  polished  it ;  all  statues 
before  their  time  being  of  wood,  568  b.  c.  This,  however,  can  only  be  fact 
so  far  as  it  relates  to  the  western  world ;  for  in  the  eastern  counti'ies  the  art 
was  known  long  before.  Alexander  gave  Lysippus  the  sole  right  of  making 
his  statues,  326  b.  c.  He  left  no  less  than  600  pieces,  some  of  which  were 
so  highly  valued  in  the  age  of  Augustus,  that  they  sold  for  their  weight  in 
gold.  Sculpture  never  found  any  very  distinguished  followers  among  the 
Romans,  and  in  the  middle  ages  it  fell  into  disuse.  With  the  revival  of 
the  sister  art,  painting,  it  revived  also ;  and  Donato  di  Bardi,  born  at 
Florence,  a.  d.  1383,  was  the  earliest  professor  among  the  moderns.  Sculp- 
ture was  revived,  under  the  auspices  of  the  Medici  family,  about  1460. — 
Abbi  Lenglet. 

SCYTHIA.  The  country  situate  on  the  most  northern  parts  of  Europe  and 
Asia,  from  which  circumstance  it  is  generally  denominated  European  and 


522  THE   world's   progress.  [  SEM 

Asiatic.  The  most  northern  parts  of  Scythia  were  uninhabited,  on  account 
of  the  extreme  coldness  of  the  climate.  The  boundaries  of  Scythia  were 
unknown  to  the  ancients,  as  no  traveller  had  penetrated  beyond  the  vast 
tracts  of  lands  which  lay  at  the  north,  east,  and  west.  The  Scythians  made 
several  irruptions  upon  the  more  southern  provinces  of  Asia,  especially  b.  c. 
624,  when  they  remained  in  possession  of  Asia  Minor  for  twenty-eight 
years  ;  and  we  find  them  at  different  periods  extending  their  conquests  in 
Europe,  and  penetrating  as  far  as  Egypt.  In  the  first  centuries  after  Christ 
they  invaded  the  Roman  empire. 
SEAS,  So-VEREiGNTY  OF  THE.  The  claim  of  England  is  of  very  ancient  date. 
Arthur  was  the  first  who  assumed  the  sovereignty  of  the  seas  for  Britain, 
and  Alfred  afterwards  supported  this  right.  The  sovereignty  of  England 
over  the  British  seas  was  maintained  by  Selden,  and  measures  were  taken 
by  government  in  consequence,  8  Charles  1. 1633.  The  Dutch,  after  the  death 
of  Charles  I.,  made  some  attempts  to  obtain  it,  but  were  roughly  treated 
by  Blake  and  other  admirals.  Russia  and  other  parts  of  the  North,  armed, 
to  avoid  search,  1780  ;  again  1800.     See  Armed  Neutrality  and  Flag. 

SECRETARY  of  STATE.  The  first  in  England  was  lord  Cromwell,  a.  d.  1529. 
Towards  the  close  of  Henry  VIII.'s  reign  two  secretaries  were  appointed  ; 
and  upon  the  union  with  Scotland,  Anne  added  a  third,  as  secretary  for 
Scotch  affairs :  this  appointment  was  afterwards  laid  aside :  but  in  the 
reign  of  George  III.  the  number  was  again  increased  to  three,  one  for  the 
American  department.  In  1782  this  last  was  abolished  by  act  of  par- 
liament ;  and  the  appointments  as  at  present  subsequently  took  place,  the 
secretaries  being  now  home,  foreign,  and  colonies.  The  first  Secretary  of 
State  of  the  United  States  was  Thomas  Jefferson,  appointed  by  Washington, 
Sept.  26,  1789.  For  his  successors  see  Administrations.  There  is  a  Secre- 
tary of  State  in  each  of  the  States,  appointed  by  the  executive  or  elected 
by  the  people. 

SECTS.  See  them  severally  through  the  volume.  The  great  vicissitude  of 
things  is  the  vicissitude  of  sects.  True  religion  is  built  upon  a  rock ;  all 
others  are  tossed  upon  the  waves  of  time. — Bacon.  Assuming  the  popula- 
tion of  the  globe  to  be  one  thousand  and  fifty  millions,  the  following  divi- 
sion, with  reference  to  their  religious  worship,  will  appear. — M.  Balbi. 

Jews         ....      4,500.000  I  Idolaters,  &c.,  not  professing  the 
Christians      -  -  -      -  225,O0OJO00        Jewish,  Christian,  or   Maho- 

Mahometans        -  -  -  155,000,000  |     metan  worship  .  .  665,500,000 

SEDAN  CHAIRS.  So  called  from  Sedan,  on  the  Meuse,  in  France.  The  first 
seen  in  England  was  in  1581.  One  was  used  in  the  reign  of  James  I.  by 
the  duke  of  Buckingham,  to  the  great  indignation  of  the  people,  "who  ex- 
claimed that  he  was  employing  his  fellow-creatures  to  do  the  service  of 
beasts.  Sedan  chairs  came  into  fashion  in  London  in  1634,  when  sir  Fran- 
cis Duncomb  obtained  the  sole  privilege  to  use,  let,  and  hire  a  number  of 
such  covered  chairs  for  fourteen  years.  They  became  in  very  general  use 
in  1649. 

SEDUCTION.  For  this  offence  the  laws  of  England  have  provided  no  other 
punishment  than  a  pecuniary  satisfaction  to  the  injured  family.  And 
even  this  satisfaction  is  only  obtained  by  one  of  the  quaintest  fictions  in 
the  world ;  the  father  bringing  his  action  against  the  seducer  for  the  loss 
of  his  daughter's  services  during  her  pregnancy  and  nurturing. — Paleifs 
Moral  Philosophy.  A  law  for  the  punishment  of  seduction  was  passed  by 
the  legislature  of  New  York  in  184  . 

SEMPACH,  Battle  of,  between  the  Swiss  and  Leopold,  duke  of  Austria.  The 
heroic  Swiss,  after  prodigies  of  valor,  gained  a  great  and  memorable  vic- 
tory over  the  duke,  who  was  slain,  July  9,  1386.    By  this  battle  they  es- 


sex]  DIOTI0NAK.Y    OF   DATES.  523 

tablished  the  liberty  of  their  country ;  and  it  is  still  annually  commemo- 
rated with  great  solemnity  at  Sempach. 

SEPTEMBER.  The  ninth  month  of  the  year,  reckoned  from  January,  and  the 
seventh  from  March,  whence  its  name,  from  septimus,  seventh.  It  became 
the  ninth  month  when  January  and  February  were  added  to  the  year  by 
Numa,  713  b.  c.  The  Roman  senate  would  have  given  this  month  the  name 
of  Tiberius,  but  that  emperor  opposed  it ;  the  emperor  Domitian  gave  it  his 
own  name,  Germanicus ;  the  senate  under  Antoninus  Pius  gave  it  that  of 
Antoninus ;  Commodus  gave  it  his  surname,  Herculeus ;  and  the  emperor 
Tacitus  his  own  name,  Tacitus.  But  these  appellations  are  all  gone  into 
disuse. 

SEPTUAGINT  VERSION  op  the  BIBLE,  made  277  b.  c.  Seventy-two  trans- 
lators were  shut  up  in  thirty-six  cells ;  each  pair  translated  the  whole  ;  and 
on  subsequent  comparison  the  thirty-six  copies  did  not  vary  by  a  word  or 
leitQY.— Justin  Martyr.  St.  Jerome  affirms  they  translated  only  the  Pen- 
tateuch ;  but  St.  Justin  and  others  say  they  translated  the  whole.  Pto- 
lemy gave  the  Jews  about  a  million  sterling  for  a  copy  of  the  T?sta;  aent, 
and  seventy  translators  half  a  million  more  for  the  translation. — Joseplms. 
Finished  in  seventy-two  days. — Hewlett. 

SERINGAPATAM,  Battles  op,  called  also  the  battle  of  Arikera,  in  which  the 
British  defeated  Tippoo  Saib,  May  15,  1791.  Battle,  in  which  the  redoubts 
were  stormed,  and  Tippoo  was  reduced  by  lord  Cornwallis,  Feb. '6,  1792. 
After  this  capture,  preliminaries  of  peace  were  signed,  and  Tippoo  agreed 
to  cede  one-half  of  Mysore,  and  to  pay  33,000,000  of  rupees  (about 
3,300,000^.  sterhng)  to  England,  and  to  give  up  to  lord  CornwaUis  his 
two  eldest  sons  as  hostages.  In  a  new  war  the  Madras  army  arrived  be- 
fore Seringapatanr,  April  5,  1799 ;  it  was  joined  by  the  Bombay  army,  April 
14 ;  and  the  place  was  stormed  and  carried  by  major-general  Baird,  May  4, 
same  year.    In  this  engagement  Tippoo  was  killed.    See  India. 

SERPENTS.  The  largest,  the  record  of  which  is  in  some  degree  satisfactorily 
attested,  Avas  that  which  disputed  the  passage  of  the  army  led  by  Regulus 
along  the  banks  of  the  Bagrada.  It  was  120  feet  long,  and  had  killed  many 
of  his  soldiers.  It  was  destroyed  by  a  battering-ram ;  and  its  skin  was 
afterwards  seen  by  Pliny  in  the  capitol  at  Rome.— Pliny.  The  American 
papers  have  frequently  chi'onicled  the  appearance  of  a  sea-serpent  on  the 
coast,  but  its  existence  has  been  generally  doubted.  Haydn  quotes  from 
Phillips  that  a  sea-serpent  was  cast  on  shore  on  the  Orkney  Islands,  which 
was  fifty-five  feet  long,  and  the  circumference  equal  to  the  girth  of  an 
Orkney  pony,  1808. 

SERVANTS.  In  England,  an  act  laying  a  duty  on  male  servants  was  passed  in 
1775.  This  tax  was  augmented  in  1781,  et  seq.  A  tax  on  female  servants 
was  imposed  in  1785  ;  but  this  latter  act  was  repealed  in  1792.  The  tax  on 
servants  yielded  in  1830  about  250,000^.  per  annum,  but  in  1840  the  revenue 
from  it  had  fallen  to  201,482^. 

SEVILLE.  The  capital  of  Spain  until  Philip  II.  finally  established  his  court  at 
Madrid,  a.  d.  1563.  This  city  is  the  Hispalis  of  the  Phoenicians,  and  the 
Julia  of  the  Romans.  The  peace  of  Seville,  between  England,  France,  and 
Spain,  and  also  a  defensive  alliance  to  which  Holland  acceded,  signed  Nov. 
9,  1729.  Seville  surrendered  to  the  French,  Feb.  1, 1810 ;  and  was  taken  by 
assault  by  the  British  and  Spaniards,  after  the  battle  of  Salamanca,  Aug.  27, 
1812. 

SEXTANT.  This  instrument  is  used  in  the  manner  of  a  quadrant,  and  contains 
sixty  degrees,  or  the  sixth  part  of  a  circle.  It  is  for  taking  the  altitude  of 
the  planets,  &c.    Invented  by  the  celebrated  Tycho  Brahe,  at  Augsburgh, 


m. 


THE    WORLD  S    PROGRESS. 


[SHl 


in  1550. — Vince's  Astron.  The  Arabian  astronomers  under  the  Caliphs  are 
■said  to  have  had  a  sextant  of  fifty-nine  feet  nine  inches  radius,  about  a.  d. 
mb.—Ashe. 

SHEEP.  They  were  impoliticly  exported  from  England  to  Spain,  and,  the  breed 
being  thereby  improved,  produced  the  fine  Spanish  wool,  which  proved 
detrimental  to  our  woollen  manufacture,  8  Edward  IV.  1467. — Anderson. 
Their  expoi-tation  prohibited  on  pain  of  fiiie  and  imprisonment,  1522.  The 
number  of  sheep  in  the  United  Kingdom  has  been  variously  stated — by  som^ 
at  43,000,000,  by  others  at  49,000,000,  and  by  more  at  60,000,000,  in  1840. 

SHERIFF.  The  ofiice  of  sheriff  is  from  shire-reve,  governor  of  a  shire  or 
county.  London  had  its  sheriffs  prior  to  William  I.^  reign ;  but  some  say 
that  sherifls  were  first  nominated  for  every  county  in  England  by  William 
in  1079. 

SHERIFFMUIR,  Battle  of,  between  the  royal  army  under  the  duke  of  Ar- 
gyle,  and  the  Scotch  rebel  forces  who  favored  the  Pretender  (the  chevalier 
de  St.  George,  son  of  James  II.),  commanded  by  the  earl  of  Mar;  the  insur- 
gents were  defeated,  and  several  persons  of  rank  were  taken  prisoners.  The 
battle  was  fought  on  the  very  day  on  which  the  rebel  forces  in  the  same 
cause  were  defeated  at  Preston,  Nov.  12,  1715. 

SHIP-BUILDING.  The  art  is  attributed  to  the  Egyptians,  as  the  first  inven- 
tors ;  the  first  ship  (probably  a  galley)  being  brought  from  Egypt  to  Greece 
by  Danaus,  1485  b.  c. — Blair.  The  first  double-decked  ship  was  built  by 
the  Tyrians,  786  b.  c. — Lenglet.  The  first  double-decked  one  built  in  Eng- 
land was  of  1000  tons  burthen,  by  order  of  Henry  VII.  1509  ;  it  was  called 
the  Great  Harry,  and  cost  14,000^. — Stoice.  Before  this  time  24-gun  ships 
Avere  the  largest  in  the  navy,  and  these  had  no  port-holes,  the  guns  being 
on  the  upper  decks  only.  Port^holes  and  other  improvements  were  invented 
by  Descharges,  a  French  builder  at  Brest,  in  the  reign  of  Louis  XII.,  about 
1500.  Ship-building  was  first  treated  as  a  science  by  Hoste,  1696.  A  74- 
gun  ship  was  put  upon  the  stocks  at  Van  Diemen's  Land,  to  be  sheathed 
with  India-rubber,  1829.  For  beautiful  models  and  fast  sailing,  the  shipping 
of  the  United  States — especially  the  packet  ships  and  steamers  sailing  from 
New  York — are  not  surpassed,  and  probably  not  equalled,  by  any  in  the 
world.     See  Navij  and  Steam  Vessels. 

SHIPPING  OF  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  Shipping  was  first  registered  in  the 
river  Thames  in  1786 ;  and  throughout  the  empire  in  1787.  In  the  middle 
of  the  18th  century,  the  shipping  of  England  was  but  half  a  million  of  tons 
— less  than  London  now.  In  1840,  the  number  of  shijjs  in  the  British  em- 
pire was  29,174 ;  tonnage,  3,277,338;  seamen,  205,904.  These  returns  were 
exclusive  of  ships  and  boats  propelled  by  steam.    See  Steam,  Vessels. 

SHIPPING  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES.    Tonnage  at  different  periods. 


Years. 

1791 

1792 

1793 

1794 

1795 

1796 

1797 

1798 

1799 

1800 

1801 

1802 

1803 

1804 


Tonnage. 

Years. 

Tonnage. 

.        502,146 

1806 

•     1,208,735 

-   564,437 

1807 

-  1.268,548 

491,780 

1808 

-  1,242,595 

628,817 

1809 

-  1,350,281 

747,964 

1810 

-  1,424,783 

&31,900 

1811 

-  1,232,502 

876,913 

1812 

.  1,269,997 

898,328 

1813 

-  1,666,628 

-   946,408 

1814 

•  1,159,209 

972,492 

1815 

-  1,368,127 

.  1,033,219 

1816 

-  1,372,218 

892,101 

1817 

-  1,399,911 

-   949,147 

1818 

-  1.225.184 

.  1,042,404 

1819 

-  i;260;751 

-  1,140,369 

1820 

-   1.280,166 

Years. 

1821 

1822 

1823 

1824 

1825 

1826 

1827 

1828 

1829 

1830 

1831 

1832 

1&33 

1834 


Tonnage. 

Years. 

1,298,958 

1835 

1,324,699 

ia36 

1,336,565 

1&37 

1,389,163 

1838 

1,423,112 

1839 

1,534,190 

1840 

1,620,608 

1841 

1,741,392 

1842 

1,260,978 

1843 

1,191,776 

1844 

1,267,846 

1845 

1,439,450 

1846 

1,601,150 

1847 

1,758,907 

1818 

1,824,940 
1,892,102 
1,896,685 
1,995,639 
2,096,478 
2,180,764 
2,130,744 
2,092,390 
2,158,602 
2,280,095 
2,417,002 
2,ti62^84 
2,839^»6 
3,150,502 


SHR  ]  DICTIONARY    OF   DATES.  525 

SHIP-MONEY.  It  was  first  levied  a.  d.  1007,  and  caused  great  commotions. 
This  impost  being  illegally  levied  by  Charles  I.  in  1634,  led  to  the  revolu- 
tion. He  assessed  London  in  seven  ships,  of  4000  tons,  and  1560  men; 
Yorkshire  in  two  ships,  of  600  tons,  or  12,000^. ;  Bristol  in  one  ship  of  100 
tons ;  Lancashire  in  one  ship  of  400  tons.  The  trial  of  the  patriot  Hamp- 
den for  refusing  to  pay  the  tax,  which  he  at  first  solely  opposed,  took  place 
in  1638.  Ship-money  was  included  in  a  redress  of  grievances  in  1641. 
Hampden  received  a  wound  in  a  skirmish  with  prince  Rupert,  and  died  June 
24,  1643. 

SHIPWRECKS,  AND  DISASTERS  AT  SEA.    See  Wrecks  of  Shipping. 

SHIRTS.  This  now  almost  universal  garment  is  said  to  have  been  first  gener- 
ally worn  in  the  west  of  Europe  early  in  the  eighth  century. — Du  Fresnoy. 
Woollen  shirts  were  commonly  worn  in  England  until  about  the  38th  of 
Henry  III.,  1253,  when  linen,  but  of  a  coarse  kind  (fine  coming  at  this  period 
from  abroad),  was  first  manufactured  in  England  by  Flemish  artisans. — 
Sto%oe. 

SHOES.  Among  the  Jews  thej''  were  made  of  leather,  linen,  rush,  or  vood. 
Moons  were  worn  as  ornaments  in  their  shoes  by  the  Jewish  women. — Isaiah 
iii.  18.  Among  the  Greeks  shoes  were  of  various  kinds.  Pythagoras  would 
have  his  disciples  wear  shoes  made  of  the  bark  of  trees ;  probably,  that 
they  might  not  wear  what  were  made  of  the  skins  of  animals,  as  they  re- 
frained from  the  use  of  every  thing  that  had  life.  Sandals  were  worn  by 
women  of  distinction.  The  Romans  wore  an  ivory  crescent  on  their 
shoes ;  and  Caligula  wore  his  enriched  with  precious  stones.  The  Indians, 
like  the  Egyptians,  wore  shoes  made  of  the  bark  of  the  papyrus.  In  Eng- 
land the  people  had  an  extravagant  way  of  adorning  their  feet;  they  wore 
the  beaks  or  points  of  their  shoes  so  long,  that  they  encumbered  themselves 
in  walking,  and  were  forced  to  tie  them  up  to  their  knees ;  the  fine  gentlemen 
fastened  theirs  with  chains  of  silver,  or  silver  gilt,  and  others  with  laces. 
This  custom  was  in  vogue  from  a.  d.  1462,  but  was  prohibited,  on  the  for- 
feiture of  20s.  and  on  pain  of  being  cursed  by  the  clergy,  7  Edward  IV.  1467. 
See  Dress.  Shoes  as  at  present  worn  were  introduced  about  1633.  The 
buckle  was  not  used  till  1668. — Sioioe;  Mortimer. 

SHOP-TAX,  IN  England.  The  act  by  which  a  tax  was  levied  upon  retail  shops 
was  passed  in  1785 ;  but  it  caused  so  great  a  commotion,  particularly  in 
London,  that  it  was  deemed  expedient  to  repeal  it  in  1789.  The  statute 
whereb)^  shop-lifting  Avas  made  a  felony,  without  benefit  of  clergy,  was 
passed  10  and  11  William  III.  1699.  This  statute  has  been  repealed.  See 
Acts. 

SHREWSBURY,  Battle  of,  between  the  royal  army  of  Henry  IV.  and  the 
ai'my  of  the  nobles,  led  by  Percy  (surnamed  Hotspur),  son  of  the  duke  of 
Northumberland,  who  had  conspired  to  dethrone  Henry.  Each  army  con- 
sisted of  about  12.000  men,  and  the  engagement  was  most  bloody.  Henry 
was  seen  every  where  in  the  thickest  of  the  fight ;  while  his  valliant  son, 
who  was  afterwards  the  renowned  conqueror  of  France,  fought  by  his  side, 
and  though  wounded  in  the  face  by  an  arrow,  still  kept  the  field,  and  per- 
formed astonishing  acts  of  valor.  On  the  other  side,  the  daring  Hotspur 
supported  the  renown  he  had  acquired  in  many  bloody  engagements,  and 
every  where  sought  out  the  king  as  a  noble  object  of  his  vengeance.  2300 
gentlemen  were  slain,  and  about  6000  private  men.  The  death  of  Hotspur 
by  an  unknown  hand  decided  the  fortune  of  the  day,  and  gave  the  victoi7 
to  the  king,  July  21,  1403.— //jw«e.     [See  Shakspeare's  Henry  IV.} 

SHROPSHIRE,  Battle  of,  in  which  the  Britons  were  completely  subjugated, 
and  Caractacus,  the  renowned  king  of  the  Silures,  became,  tlirough  the 
treachery  of  the  queen  of  the  Briganti,  a  prisoner  of  the  Romans,  a.  d.  51. 


526  THE  world's   progress.  [  SIC 

While  Caractacus  was  being  led  through  Rome,  his  eyes  were  dazzled  by 
the  splendors  that  surrounded  him.  "  Alas  !"  he  cried,  "  how  is  it  possible 
that  a  people  possessed  of  such  magnificence  at  home  could  envy  me  an 
humble  cottage  in  Britain  1"  The  emperor  was  affected  with  the  British 
hero's  misfortunes,  and  won  by  his  address.  He  ordered  him  to  be  unchained 
upon  the  spot,  and  set  at  liberty  with  the  rest  of  the  captives. — Goldsmith. 

SHROVE  TUESDAY.  In  the  season  of  Lent,  after  the  people  had  made  con- 
fession, according  to  the  discipline  of  the  ancient  church,  they  were  per- 
mitted to  indulge  in  festive  amusements,  although  not  allowed  to  partake 
of  any  repast  beyond  the- usual  substitutes  for  flesh;  and  hence  arose  the 
custom  yet  preserved  of  eating  pancakes  and  fritters  at  Shrovetide,  the  Greek 
Christians  eating  eggs,  milk,  &c.  during  the  first  >veek  in  Lent.  On  these 
days  of  authorized  indulgence  the  most  wanton  recreations  were  tolerated, 
l^rovided  a  due  regard  was  paid  to  the  abstinence  commanded  by  the  church ; 
and  from  this  origin  sprang  the  Carnival.  On  Shrove  Tuesday  the  people  in 
every  parish  throughout  England  formerly  confessed  their  sins ;  and  the 
parish  bell  for  the  purpose  was  rung  at  ten  o'clock.  In  several  ancient  par- 
ishes the  custom  yet  prevails  of  ringing  the  bell,  and  obtains  in  London  the 
name  of  pancake-bell.    Observed  as  a  festival  before  1430. 

SIBYLS.  The  Sibyllse  were  certain  women  inspired  by  heaven,  who  flourished 
in  different  parts  of  the  world.  Their  number  is  unknown.  Plato  speaks 
of  one,  others  of  two,  Pliny  of  three,  ^lian  of  four,  and  Varro  of  ten,  an 
opinion  which  is  universally  adopted  by  the  learned.  An  Erythrean  sibyl  is 
said  to  have  offered  to  Tarquin  II.  nine  books  containing  the  Roman  desti- 
nies, demanding  for  them  300  pieces  of  gold.  He  denied  her,  whereupon 
the  sibyl  threw  three  of  them  into  the  fire,  and  asked  the  same  price  for 
the  other  six,  which  being  still  denied,  she  burned  three  more,  and  again 
demanded  the  same  sum  for  those  that  remained ;  when  Tarquin,  conferring 
with  the  pontiffs,  was  advised  to  buy  them.  Two  magistrates  were  created 
to  consult  them  on  all  occasions,  531  b.  c. 

SICILY.  See  Naples.  The  ancient  inhabitants  of  this  island  were  the  Sicani, 
a  people  of  Spain,  and  Etruscans,  who  came  hither  from  Italy,  1291:  b.  c.  A 
second  colony,  under  Siculus,  arrived  80  years  before  the  destruction  of  Troy, 
1264  B.  c. — Lsiiglet.  The  Phoenicians  and  Greeks  settled  some  colonies  here, 
and  at  last  the  Carthaginians  became  masters  of  the  whole  island,  till  they 
were  dispossessed  of  it  by  the  Romans  in  the  Punic  wars.  Some  authors 
suppose  that  Sicily  was  originally  joined  to  the  continent,  and  that  it  was 
separated  from  Italj''  by  an  earthquake,  and  that  the  straits  of  the  Charyb- 
dis  were  formed. — Justin. ;  Livij. 

Arrival  of  Ulysses.— i7o?;ter   -        -    B.C.     1186    The  Romans  arrive  m  Sicily     •  B.C.  264 

He  puts  out  ihe  eye  of  Polyphemus            -  1186  I  Agrigentum  taken  by  the  Romans  -  282 

Sy  racuse  founded. — Eusebius         ■           -   732  |  Palermo  besieged  by  the  Romans  -     -  254 

Gela  founded. — Thuct/dides       ■           -     -    713     Archimedes  flourishes           -  -           •  236_ 
Arrival  of  ihe  Jlessenians     -           -           -    668  !  The  Romans  take  Syracuse,  and  make  all 

Phalaris,    tyrant    of  Agrigentum,    put   to           |      Sicily  a  province            -            -  -      •  212 

The  servile  war  began. — Livt/  -           -  135 


Conquered  by  the  Saracens       -  A.D.    821 

[They  made  Palermo  the  capilal,  and  the 


death. — See  Brazen  Bull        ■  ■      ■  552 

Hippocrates  becomes  tyranu of  Gela  •  496 

i.avf  of  Petalism  instituted  -  •  466 

U  sign  ol  Dionysius         -  -  -     -  405 

H  fended  wiih  the  freedom  of  the  philo-  •      staiidard  of  Mahomet  triumphed  for  200 

siipher  Plato,  the  tyrant  sells  him  for  a  I     years.] 

slave. — Stanley      ...  -  386  j  They  are  di-iven  out  by  a  Norman  prince, 

Plato  ransomed  by  his  friends    -  -     •  386  ]      Roger  I.,  son  of  Tancred,  who  takes  the 

Daman  and  Pythias  flourish. — See  Dainon  j      title  of  count  of  Sisily     -  -  -    lOSO 

and  Pythias  ....  3g6  |  Roger  II.,  son  of  the  above-named,  unites 

The  sway  of  Timoleon    -  -  -      •  346  i      Sicily  with  Naples,  and  is  crowned  Inng 

Usurpation  of  Agathocles     •  -  .  317  j      of  the  Two  Sicilies  -  -     -1130 

Defeat  of  Hamilcar         -  -  -     -  309  ]  Charles  of  Anjou,  bro'her  to  St.  Louis,  king 

Pilla.?e  of  the  temples  of  Lepari  ■  304  '      of  France,  conqu^iS  Naples  and  Sicily". 


sie] 


DICTIONARY    OF   DATES. 


527 


SICILY,  conthiiied. 
deposes  the  Norman  princes,  and  makes 
himself  king         -  -  .     a.  d.  1266 

The  French  becoming  hated  by  the  Sici- 
lians, a  genera!  massacre  of  the  invaders 
takes  place,  one  Frenchman  only  escap- 
ing.— See  Sicilian  Vespers  -     ■  1288 

Li  the  same  year  Sicily  is  seized  by  a  fleet 
sent  by  the  kings  of  Arragon,  in  Spain ; 
but  Naples  remains  to  the  house  of  An- 
jou,  which  expires  -  -  -  1382 

Jane,  the  late  sovereign,  having  left  her 
crown  to  Louis,  duke  of  Anjou,  his  pre- 
tensions are  resisted  by  Clrarles  Du- 
razzo,  cousin  of  Jane,  who  ascends  the 
throne     -  -  -  -  -     -  1386 

Alphonsus,  king  of  Arragon,  takes  posses- 
sion of  Naples        ....  1458 

Thi  kingdom  of  Naples  and  Sicily  united 
to  the  Spanish  monarchy        -  -     -  1504 

The  tyranny  of  the  Spaniards  causes  an 
insurrection,  excited  by  Masaniello,  a 
fisherman,  who,  in  fifteen  days,  raises 
two  hundred  thousand  men  -  -  1647 

Henry  duke  of  Guise,  taking  advantage  of 
these  commotions,  procures  himself  to 
be  proclaimed  king ;  but  is,  in  a  few 
days,  delivered  up  to  the  Spaniards  by 
his  adherents     -  -  -  -     -  1647 


Ceded  to  Victor,  duke  of  Savoy,  by  the 
treaty  of  Utrecht  -  -     A.  d.  1713 

Ceded  "by  him  to  the  emperor  Charles  VI., 
Sardinia  being  given  to  him  as  an  equi- 
valent -  -  -  -     -   1720 

The  Spaniards  having  made  themselves 
masters  of  both  kingdoms,  Charlesj^son 
of  the  king  of  Spain,  ascends  the  throne, 
with  the  ancient  title  renewed,  of  king 
of  the  Two  Sicilies  -  -  -  1731 

Order  of  St.  .lanuarius  instituted  by  king 
Charles 1739 

The  throne  of  Spain  becoming  vacant, 
Charles,  who  is  heir,  vacates  the  throne 
of  the  two  Sicilies  in  favor  of  his  brother 
Ferdinand,  agreeably  to  treaty      -  -  17.'' 3 

Dreadful  earthquake  at  Messina,  in  Sicily, 
which  destroys  40,000  persons  -     -  1763 

Naples  preserved  from  the  power  of  the 
French  by  the  British  forces  under  admi- 
ral Nelson 

Violent  earthquake  in  tlie  neighborhood 
of  Naples  .... 

The  French  invade  Naples,  depose    i  'ng 
Ferdinand  IV.,  and  give  the  crown  of  -.he 
Two  Sicilies  to  Joseph  Bonaparte,  bro- 
ther to  the  emperor  of  the  French  -  1806 
For  subsequent  events,  see  Naples. 


1799 

1805 


KINGS    OP   THE   TWO    SICILIES. 


AiwD.  1713.  Victor  Amadeus,  duke  of  Savoy  ;  he 
resigned  it  to  the  emperor  Charles 
VI.,"  in  1718,  and  got  Sardinia  in 
lieu  of  it. 

1718.  Charles  VI.  emperor. 

1734.  Charlesj  second  son  to  the  king  of 
Spain,  resigned  in  1759. 

1759.  Ferdinand  IV.,  third  son  of  the  former 
king. 


1806.  Joseph  Napoleon  Bonaparte. 

1808.  Joachim  Murat ;  he  was  shot,  Octo  jer  13, 
1815. 

1815.  Ferdinand  I. ;  formerly  Ferdinand  IV.  of 
Naples,  and  intermediately  Ferdinand 
III.  of  Sicily  ;  now  of  the  United  King- 
dom of  the  Two  Sicilies. 

1826.  Francis  I. 

1830.  Ferdinand  II.,  Nov  8. 


SICILIAN  VESPERS.  The  memorable  massacre  of  the  French  in  Sicily,  known 
by  this  name,  commenced  at  Palermo,  March  30,  1282.  The  French  had 
become  hateful  to  the  Sicilians,  and  a  conspiracy  against  Charles  of  Anjou 
was  already  ripe,  when  the  following  occm-rence  led  to  develop  and  accom- 
plish it.  On  Easter  Monday,  the  chief  conspirators  had  assembled  at  Pa- 
lermo ;  and  while  the  French  were  engaged  in  festivities,  a  Sicilian  bride 
happened  to  pass  by  with  her  train.  She  was  observed  by  one  Drochet,  a 
Frenchman,  who,  advancing  towards  her,  began  to  nse  her  rudely,  under 
pretence  of  searching  for  arms.  A  young  Sicilian,  exasperated  at  this  af- 
front, stabbed  him  with  his  own  sword ;  and  a  tumult  ensuing,  200  French 
were  instantly  murdered.  The  enraged  populace  now  ran  through  the  city, 
crying  out  "  Let  the  French  die  !"  and,  without  distinction  of  rank,  age, 
or  sex,  they  slaughtered  all  of  that  nation  they  could  find,  to  the  number  of 
8000.  Even  such  as  had  fled  to  the  churches  found  no  sanctuary  there — the 
massacre  became  general  throughout  the  island. 

SIEGES.  Azoth,  which  was  besieged  by  Psammetichus  the  Powerful,  held  out 
for  nineteen  years. —  Usher.  It  held  out  for  twenty-nine  years. — Herodotus. 
This  was  the  longest  siege  recorded  in  the  annals  of  antiquity.  The  siege 
of  Troy  was  the  most  celebrated,  occupied  ten  years,  1184  b.  c.  The  fol- 
lowing are  the  princii^al  and  most  memorable  sieges  since  the  twelfth  cen 
tnry  :— 


Acre,  1192,  1799,  by  Bona-  I  Algiers,  1681  ;  Bomb-vesseh 
parte  ;  siege  raised  iij'ler  \  first  used  by  a  French  en- 
6Q  days,  open  Irennlir-s.        I      ffineer  named  Renmi.  1S16 

Algesiras,  I'Sil.  \  .'\lkmaei',  1,")7;<. 


Almeida,  August  27, 1810 
Amiens,  1597. 
Ancona,  1798. 
Angouleme,  1343. 


628 


THE   WORLD'S   PROGRESS. 


[SIE 


SIEGES,  continued. 

Antwerp,  1576.  Use  of  in- 
fernal  machines,  1583, 1585 
ir06,  1792,  1814. 

Arras,  1414. 

Ath,  1745. 

Avignon,  1226. 

Aisoff,  1736. 

Badajos,  March  11, 1811.  Ta- 
ken by  escalade  on  the 
night  of  April  6,  1812. 

Bagdad,  1248. 

Bangalore,  March  6,  1791. 

Barcelona,  1697,  1714. 

Bayonne,  1451. 

Beauvais,  1472. 

Belgrade,  1439,  1455,  1521, 
1688,  1717,  1739,  1789, 

Bellegarde,  1793,  1794. 

Belle-Isle,  April  7,  1761. 

Beraen-op-Zoom,  1583,  1622, 
1747,  1814. 

Berwick,  1293. 

Besancon,  1668,  1674. 

Bethuue,  1710. 

Bois-le-Duc,  1603,  1794. 

Bologna,  1512,  1796. 

Bommol;  the  invention  of 
the  covert-nay,  1794. 

Bonifacio,  1553. 

Bonn,  1587,  1689,  1703 

Bordeaux,  1451,  1653. 

Bouchain,  1676,  1711. 

Boulogne,  1545. 

Brannau,  1744,  1S05. 

Breda,  1590,  1625,  1793. 

Brescia,  1512,  1796,  1799. 

Breslau,  .Ian.   8,  1807. 

Brisac,  16.38,  1703. 

Brussels,  1695,  1746. 

Buda,  1526,  1541,  1686. 

Burgos,  Sept.  19  to  Oct.  22, 
1812 ;  raised.  The  French 
in  their  retreat  blew  up  the 
works,  .June  13,  1813. 

Cadiz,  1812. 

Caen,  1346,  1450. 

Calais,  1347,  (British  histo- 
rians affirm  that  cannon 
tcere  used  at  Cressy,  1346, 
and  here  in  1347.  First 
used  here  in  1388. — Ry- 
mer's  FoeD.)  1558,  1.596. 

Calvi,  1794. 

Campo-Mayor,Mar.  23,1811. 

Candia ;  the  largest  cannon 
then  knoicn  itiEarope  used 
here  by  the  Turks,  1667. 

Capua,  1501. 

Carthagena,  1706. 

Castillon,  1452,  1586. 

Ceuta,  1790. 

Chalons,  1 199. 

Charleroi,  1672,  1677,  1693, 
1736,  1794. 

Chartres,  1568,  1591. 

Chaves,  March  25,  1809. 

Cherbourg.  1450. 

Chincilla,  Oct.  30,  1812. 

Ciudad  Rodriffo.  1706;  July 
10,  1810;  Jan.'l9,  1812. 

Colberg,  1760, 1807. 

Colchester,  1645. 


Compiegne  {Joan  of  Are), 

1430. 
Conde,  1676,  1792,  1794. 
Coni,  1691,  1744. 
Constantinople,  1453. 
Copenhagen,  1700, 1801, 1807. 
Corfu,  1715. 

Courtray.  1302,  et  seq.  1794. 
Cracow,  1772. 
Cremona,  1702. 
Dantzic,  1734, 1793, 1807, 1813 

to  Jan.  12,  1814. 
Dendermonde,  1667. 
Dole,  1668,  1674. 
Douay,  1710. 
Dover,  1216. 
Dresden,  1745,  1813. 
Drogheda,  1649. 
Dublin,  1500. 
Dunkirk,  1646,  1793. 
Edinburgh,  1093. 
Figueras.  Aug.  19,  1811. 
Flushing;  Aug.  15,  1809. 
Fontenoy,  1242. 
Frederickshal ;  Charles  XII. 

killed,  1718. 
Fredericfcstein,    August    13, 

1814. 
Furnes,  1675,  1744,  1793. 
Gaeta,  1433,  1707,  1734,  1799, 

July,  1806,  1815. 
Genoa  1747,  1800. 
Gerona,  Dec.  10,  1809. 
Ghent,  1576,  1703. 
Gibraltar,    1704,   1779.   (See 

Gibraltar),  1782. 
Glatz,  1742,  1807. 
Gotlingen,  1760. 
Graves,  1602,  1674, 1794. 
Gravelines,  1644 
Grenada.  1491,  1492. 
Groningen,  1.580,  1672,  1795. 
Guastaila,  1702. 
Gueldres,  1637,  1640,  1703. 
Haerlem,  1572,  1573. 
Ham,  1411. 
Harlieur.  1415,  1450. 
Heidelberg,  16S8. 
Herat,  June  28,  1838. 
Huningen,  1815. 
Ismael:  tiie  merciless  Snwar- 

row  butchered  30,000  me7t, 

the    brave  garrison,  and 

6000  -women,  in  cold  blood, 

Dec.  22,  1790. 
Kehl,  1733,  1796. 
Landau,  1702,  et  seq.,  1713, 

1792,  and  1793. 
Landrecis,  1.543,  1712. 
Laon,  991,  1594. 
Leipsic,  1637,  et  seq.,  1813. 
Lemberg,  1704. 
Lerida,  1647,  1707, 1807. 
Leyden,  1-574. 
Liege,  1468,  1702. 
Lille,  1667,  1708,  1792. 
Lilo,  1747. 

Limerick,  1651,  1691. 
Londonderry,  1689. 
Louisboursr,  1758. 
Lyons,  179T3. 
Maestricht.  1570,  1673.     Vau- 


ban  first  came  into  TWtice, 

1676,  1743,  1794. 
Magdebourg,  1631,  1806. 
Malag^,  1487. 
Malta,  1565,  1798,  1800. 
Mantua,  1734,  1797, 1799. 
Marseilles,  1544. 
Mentz,  by  Charles  V.,  1552, 

1689,  1792  et  seq.,  1797. 
Melun,  1420,  1559. 
Menin,  1706,  1744. 
Mequinenza,  June  8,  1810. 
Messina,  1282,  1719. 
Metz,  1552. 
Mezieres,  1521. 
Middleburgh,  1572. 
Mons,  1572,  1691,  1709,  1746, 

1792,  1794. 
Mcntargis,  1427. 
Montauban,  1621. 
Montevideo,  .Jan.  iS08. 
Mothe  :  thePrench,  taught  by 

a  Mr.  Muller,  an  English 

engineer,first practised  the 

art  of  throwing  shells,  1634. 
Murviedro,  Oct.  25.  1811. 
Namur,  1692,  1746,  1792. 
Naples,  1381, 1435, 1504, 1557, 

1792,  1799,  1806. 
Nice,  1705. 
Nieuport,  1745,  1794. 
Olivenza,  Jan.  22,  1811. 
Olmutz,  1758. 
Orleans,  1428, 1563. 
Ostend,  1701,  1706,  1745. 
Oudenarde,  1708,  1745. 
Padua,  1509. 

Pampeluna,  Oct  31,  1813. 
Paris,  1429,  1485,  1594. 
Parma  1248. 
Pavia,  1.525, 1655,  1796. 
Perpignan,  1542,  1642. 
Philipville,1578. 
Philipsburg,  1644,  1675,1688, 
first  experiment  of  firing 

artillery   a-ricochet,   1734, 

1795. 
Plattsburg,  Sept.  11,  1814. 
Pondicherry,  1748,  1792. 
Prague,  1741,  1743,  1744. 
Puebla,  (col.  Child)  1847. 
Quesnoy,  1794. 
Rennes,  1357. 
Rheims,  1359. 
Rhodes,  1522. 
Riga,  1700,  1710. 
Rochelle,  1573,  1627. 
Rome,  1527,  1798. 
Romorentin ;    artillery  firai 

used  in  sieges.-YoiyiJiiSE, 

1256. 
Rosas,  1645, 1795, 1808. 
Rouen,  1449, 1562,  1591. 
Roxburgh,  1460. 
St.  Sebastian,  Sept.  8,  1813. 
Salamanca,  June  27  "  1812 
Salisbury,  1349. 
Saragossa,  1710,  1809. 
Saverne,  1675. 
Schweiiinitz ;    first    experi- 

vient  to  reduce  aforlreaa 


sil] 


DICTIONARY    OF   DATES, 


529 


Thorn,  1703. 

Thouars,  1372,1793. 

Tortosa,  Jan.  2,  1811. 

Toulon,  1707,  1793. 

Toulouse,  1217. 

Tournay,  1340,  1352,  15S1, 
1667,  1709,  (this  was  the 
best  defence  ever  drawn 
from  countermines),  1745, 
1794. 

Treves,  1675. 

Tunis,  1270,  1535 

Turin,  1640,  1706,  1799. 

Urbino,  1799. 


Valencia,  Dec.  25, 1811. 

Valencienes,  1677,  1794. 

Vannes,  1343. 

Venloo,  1702, 1794. 

Verdun,  1792. 

Vera  Cruz,  (gen.  Scott)  1847. 

Vienna,  1529,  1683. 

Wakefield,  1460. 

Warsaw,  Sept,  8, 1831. 

Xativa,  1707. 

Xeres,  1262. 

Ypres,  1648,  1744,  1794. 

Zurich,  1544. 

Zutphen,  1572,  1586. 


SIEGES,  contimied. 

by  spring-ing  globes  of  com- 

j)ression,  1762,  1807. 
Scio  (see  Greece),  1822. 
Seringapatam.  1799. 
Seville  1096,  1248. 
Smolensko,  1611. 
Soissons,  1414. 
Stralsund ;    the   method   of 

throwing  red  hot  balls  first 

practised  teith  certainty, 

1675,47:13,  1807. 
Tarifa,  Dec.  20,  1811. 
Tarragona,  May  1813. 
Temeswar,  1716. 
Tliionville,  1643,  1792. 

SIERRA  LEONE.  Discovered  in  a.  d.  1460.  In  178G,  London  swarmed  with 
free  negroes  living-  in  idleness  and  want ;  and  400  of  them,  with  60  whites, 
mostly  women  of  bad  character  and  in  ill  health,  were  sent  out  to  Sierra 
Leone,  at  the  charge  of  government,  to  form  a  settlement,  December  9, 1786. 
The  settlement  attacked  by  the  French,  September  1794 :  by  the  natives, 
February  1802.  Sir  Charles  Macarthy,  the  governor  of  the  colony,  murder- 
ed by  the  Ashantee  chief,  Jan.  21,  1824. 

SILK.  Wrought  silk  was  brought  from  Persia  to  Greece,  325  b.  c.  Known  at 
Rome  in  Tiberius's  time,  when  a  law  passed  in  the  senate,  prohibiting  the 
use  of  plate  of  massj^  gold,  and  also  forbidding  men  to  debase  themselves 
by  wearing  silk,  fit  only  for  women.  Heliogabalus  first  wore  a  garment  of 
silk,  A.  D.  220.  Silk  was  at  first  of  the  same  value  with  gold,  weight  for 
weight,  and  was  thought  to  grow  in  the  same  manner  as  cotton  on  trees. 
Silk-worms  were  brought  from  India  to  Europe  in  the  sixth  century.  Char- 
lemagne sent  Oifa,  king  of  Mercia,  a  present  of  two  silken  vests,  a.  d.  780. 
The  manufacture  was  encouraged  by  Roger,  king  of  Sicily,  at  Palermo,  1130, 
when  the  Sicilians  not  only  bred  the  silk-worms,  but  spun  and  weaved  the 
silk.  The  manufacture  spread  into  Italy  and  Spain,  and  also  into  the  south 
of  France,  a  little  before  the  reign  of  Francis  I.,  about  1510 ;  and  Henry  IV. 
propagated  mulberry-trees  and  silk-worms  throughout  the  kingdom,  1589. 
In  England,  silk  mantles  were  worn  by  some  noblemen's  ladies  at  a  ball  at 
Keuilworth  Castle.  1286.  Silk  was  worn  by  the  English  clergy  in  1584. 
Manufactured  in  England  in  1604 ;  and  broad  silk  wove  from  raw  silk  in 
1620.  Brought  to  perfection  by  the  Freneh  refugees  in  London,  at  Spital- 
fields,  1688.  A  silk-throwing  mill  was  made  in  England,  and  fixed  up  at 
Derby,  by  sir  Thomas  Lombe,  merchant  of  London,  modelled  from  the  ori- 
ginal mill  then  in  the  king  of  Sardinia's  dominions,  about  1714. 

SILVER.  It  exists  in  most  parts  of  the  world,  and  is  found  mixed  with  other 
ores  in  various  mines  in  Great  Britain.  The  silver  mines  of  South  America 
are  far  the  richest.  A  mine  was  discovered  in  the  district  of  La  Paz  in 
1660,  which  was  so  rich  that  the  silver  of  it  was  often  cut  with  a  chisel. 
In  1749,  one  mass  of  silver,  weighing  370  lbs.  was  sent  to  Spain.  From  a 
mine  in  Norway,  a  piece  of  silver  was  dug,  and  sent  to  the  Royal  Museum 
at  Copenhagen,  weighing  560  lbs.,  and  worth  1680Z.  In  England  silver-plate 
and  vessels  were  first  used  by  Wilfrid,  a  Northumberland  bishop,  a  lofty 
and  ambitious  man,  a.  d.  709. —  TyrelVs  Hist,  of  England.  Silver  knives, 
spoons,  and  cups,  were  great  luxuries  in  1300. 

SILVER  COIN.  Silver  was  first  coined  by  the  Lydians,  some  say ;  others,  by 
Phidon  of  Argos,  869  b.  c.  At  Rome  it  was  first  coined  by  Fabius  Pictor, 
269  B.  c.  Used  in  Britain  25  b.  c.  The  Saxons  coined  silver  pennies,  which 
were  22^  grains  weight.  In  1302,  the  penny  was  yet  the  largest  silver  coin 
in  England.     See  ShUUngs,  &c.,  and  Coin.     From  1816  to  1840  inclusive, 


530  THE   world's   progress.  [  SLA 

were  coined  at  the  Mint  in  London,  11,108,265Z.  15s.  in  silver,  being  a  yearly 
average  of  AU.8B0l.—Parl.  Ret. 

SIMONIANS.  An  ancient  sect  of  Christians,  so  called  from  their  founder 
"  Simon  Magus,  or  the  Magician.  He  was  the  first  heretic,  and  went  to  Rome 
about  A.  D.  41.  His  heresies  were  extravagant  and  presumptuous,  yet  he 
had  many  followers,  a.  d.  57.  A  sect  called  St.  Simonians  sprung  up  in 
France ;  and  lately  attracted  considerable  attention  in  that  country ;  and 
the  doctrine  of  Simonianism  has  been  advocated  in  England,  and  particu- 
larly by  Dr.  Prati,  who  lectured  upon  it  at  a  meeting  iu  London,  held  Jan. 
24,  1834. 

SINGING.  See  Music.  The  singing  of  psalms  was  a  very  ancien!  custom  both 
among  the  Jews  and  Christians.  St.  Paul  mentions  this  practice,  which 
■\vas  continued  in  all  succeeding  ages,  with  some  variations  as  to  the  mode 
and  circumstance.  During  the  persecution  of  the  Orthodox  Christians  by  the 
empress  Justina,  mother  of  the  then  young  Valentinian  11.  a.  d.  386,  eC'cle- 
siastical  music  was  introduced  in  favor  of  the  Arians.  "  At  this  time  it 
was  first  ordered  that  hymns  should  be  sung  after  the  manner  of  Eastern 
nations,  that  the  devout  might  not  languish  and  pine  away  with  ji  tedious 
sorrow."  The  practice  was  imitated  by  almost  all  other  congregations  of 
the  world. — SL  Augustin.  Pope  Gregory  the  Great  refined  upon  the  church 
miisic,  and  made  it  more  exact  and  harmonious ;  and  that  it  might  be  ge- 
neral, he  set  up  singing-schools  in  Rome,  a.  d.  602. 

SI  RN AMES,  first  came  up  iu  Greece  and  Egypt,  and  arose  in  great  acts  and 
distinctions ;  as  Soter,  from  Saviour ;  Nicator,  conqueror  ;  Euergetes,  or  Be- 
nefactor ;  Philopater,  lover  of  his  father ;  PJiUometer,  lover  of  his  mother, 
&c.  Strato  was  surnamed  Physicus,  from  his  deep  study  of  nature ;  Aris- 
tides  was  called  the  Just ;  Phocion  the  Good ;  Plato,  the  Athenian  Bee ; 
Xenophon,  the  Attic  Muse;  Aristotle,  the  Stagyrite;  Pythagoras,  the  Samian 
Sage ;  MenedaBmus,  the  Eretrian  Bull ;  Democritus,  the  Laughiiig  Philoso- 
fher ;  Virgil,  the  Mantuan  Sioain,  &c.  Sirnames  were  introduced  into  Eng- 
land by  the  Normans,  and  were  adopted  by  the  nobility,  a.  d.  1100.  The  old 
Normans  used  Fitz,  which  signifies  son,  as  Fitzherbert.  The  Irish  used  O, 
for  grandson,  as  O'Neal,  O'Donnel.  The  Scottish  Highlanders  employed 
Mac,  as  Macdonald,  son  of  Donald.  The  Saxons  added  the  word  son  to  the 
father's  name,  as  Williamson.  Many  of  the  most  common  sirnames,  such 
as  Johnson,  Wilson,  Dyson,  Nicholson,  &c.,  were  taken  by  Brabanters  and 
other  Flemings,  who  were  naturalized  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VI.  1435. — 
Bymer's  Fcedera,  vol.  x. 

SLAVERY.  Slavery  has  existed  from  the  earliest  ages.  With  other  abomi- 
nable customs,  the  traffic  in  men  spread  from  Chaldea  into  Egypt,  Arabia, 
and  all  over  the  East,  and  at  length  into  every  known  region  under  heaven. 
In  Greece,  in  the  time  of  Homer,  all  prisoners  of  war  were  treated  as  slaves. 
The  Lacedemonian  youth,  trained  up  in  the  practice  of  deceiving  and 
butchering  slaves,  were  from  time  to  time  let  loose  upon  them  to  show  their 
proficiency  in  stratagem  and  massacre ;  and  once,  for  their  amusement  only, 
they  murdered  3000  in  one  night.  Alexander,  when  he  razed  Thebes,  sold 
the  whole  people,  men,  women,  and  children,  for  slaves,  385  e.  c.  See 
Helots. 

SLAVERY  IN  ROME.  In  Rome  slaves  were  often  chained  to  the  gate  of  a 
great  man's  hoxise,  to  give  admittance  to  the  guests  invited  to  the  feast. 
By  one  of  the  laws  of  the  XII.  Tables,  creditors  could  seize  their  insolvent 
debtors,  and  keep  them  in  their  houses  till,  by  their  services  or  labor,  they 
had  discharged  the  sum  they  owed.  C.  Pollio  threw  such  slaves  as  gave 
him  the  slightest  offence  into  his  fish-ponds,  to  fatten  his  lampreys,  42  b.  c. 
Caecilius  Isidorus  left  to  his  heir  4116  slaves,  12  b.  c. 


sla]  dictionary  of  dates.  53, 

SLAVERY  IN  ENGLAND.  Slavery  was  very  early  known ;  and  laws  respect- 
ing the  sale  of  slaves  was  made  by  Alfred.  The  English  peasantry  were  so 
commonly  sold  for  slaves  in  Saxon  and  Norman  times,  that  children  were 
sold  in  Bristol  market  like  cattle  for  exportation.  Many  were  sent  to  Ire- 
land, and  others  to  Scotland.  A  statute  was  enacted  by  Edward  VI.  that  a 
runaway,  or  any  one  who  lived  idly  for  three  days,  should  be  brought  before 
two  justices  of  the  peace,  and  marked  V  with  a  hot  iron  on  the  breast,  and 
adjudged  the  slave  of  him  who  brought  him  for  two  years.  He  was  to  take 
the  slave,  and  give  him  bread,  water,  or  small  drink,  and  refuse  meat,  and 
cause  him  to  work  by  beating,  chaining,  or  otherwise  ;  and  if,  within  that 
space,  he  absented  himself  fourteen  days,  was  to  be  marked  on  the  forehead 
or  cheek,  by  a  hot  iron,  with  an  S,  and  be  his  master's  slave  for  ever — second 
desertion  was  made  felony.  Lawful  to  put  a  ring  of  iron  round  his  neck, 
arm,  or  leg.  A  beggar's  child  might  be  put  apprentice,  and,  on  running 
away,  become  a  slave  to  his  master,  1547. 

SLAVE  TRADE.  The  slave  trade  from  Congo  and  Angola  was  begun  by  the 
Portuguese  in  1481.  Volumes  have  been  written,  confined  to  facts  alone, 
describing  the  horroi'S  of  this  traffic.  The  commerce  in  man  has  brutalized 
a  tract  15  degrees  on  each  side  the  equator,  and  40  degrees  wide,  or  of  four 
millions  of  square  miles ;  and  men  and  women  have  been  bred  for  sale  to  the 
Christian  nations  during  the  last  250  years,  and  wars  carried  on  to  make  pri- 
soners for  the  Christian  market.  The  Abbe  Raj^nal  computes  that,  at  the 
time  of  his  writing,  9,000,000  of  slaves  had  been  consumed  by  the  Europeans, 
"Add  1,000,000  at  least  moi-e,  for  it  is  about  ten  years  since,"  says  Mr. 
Cooper,  who  published  letters  on  this  subject  in  1787.  In  the  j^ear  1768. 
the  slaves  taken  from  their  own  continent  amounted  to  104,100.  In  1786, 
the  anmial  number  was  about  100,000 ;  and  in  1807  (the  last  year  of  the 
English  slave  trade),  it  was  shown  by  authentic  documents,  produced  by 
government,  that  from  1792  upwards  of  3,500,000  Africans  had  been  torn 
from  their  country,  and  had  either  miserably  perished  on  the  passage,  or  been 
sold  in  the  West  Indies.* — Butler.  Bull  of  pope  Gregory  against  the  slave 
trade,  Dec.  1830.  Quintuple  treaty  for  the  suppression  of  the  slave  trade, 
allowing  mutual  right  of  search,  signed  at  London,  by  the  representatives 
of  Great  Britain,  France,  Austria,  Russia,  and  Prussia,  December  20,  1841. 
King  of  Sweden  abolishes  slavery  in  the  island  of  St.  Bartholomew,  Oct. 
9,  1847. 

SLAVE  TRADE  op  ENGLAND.  Captain,  afterwards  sir  John  Hawkins,  was 
the  first  Englishman,  after  the  discovery  of  America,  who  made  a  traffic 
of  the  human  species.  His  first  expedition  with  the  object  of  procuring 
negroes  on  the  coast  of  Africa,  and  conveying  them  for  sale  to  the  West 
Indies,  took  place  in  October,  1563.  See  Guinea.  Queen  Anne  directed  the 
colonial  government  of  New  York  to  take  care  "  that  the  Almighty  should 


"  Eurojiean  avarice  has  been  glutted  with  the  murder  of  180,000,000  of  our  fellow-creatures, 
recollecting  that  for  every  one  slave  procured,  ten  are  slaughtered  in  their  own  land  in  war,  and 
thut  a  fifth  die  on  the  passage,  and  a  third  in  the  seasoning. — Cooper's  Letters  on  the  Slave 
TuADE.  "  But,"  says  Butler,  "  this  monstrous  colossal  crime  has  not  been  perpetrated  with  im- 
puDiry.  Not  only  its  prosecution,  but  its  effects  have  in  some  measure  called  down  upon  us  the 
frowns  and  the  judgments  of  heaven. 

"  By  foreign  wealth  arii  British  morals  changed, 
And  Afric's  sons,  and  India's,  smile  avenged." 
The  trade  was  abolished  in  Austria  in  1782.  By  the  French  convention  in  1794.  By  the  United 
States  in  1807.  By  England  (see  above)  in  1807.  The  Allies,  at  Vienna,  declared  against  it,  February 
181.5.  Napoleon,'  in  the  hundred  days,  abolished  the  trade,  March  29,  1815.  Treaty  with  Spain, 
1817;  with  the  Netherlands,  May,  1818  ;  with  Brazil,  Nov.  1826.  But  this  horrid  traffic  contniuea 
fi  be  encouraged  in  several  states. — Haydi). 


532 


THE   world's   progress. 


[  SMU 


be  devoutly  and  duly  served,  according  to  the  rites  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land, and  also  that  the  Royal  African  Company  should  be  encouraged,  and 
that  the  colony  should  have  a  constant  and  sufficient  supply  of  tnerchantahU 
negroes  at  moderate  rates."  In  the  year  1786,  England  employed  130  ships, 
and  carried  ofF42,000  slaves  ;  Bristol  and  Liverpool  were  chiefly  engaged  in  it ; 
and  such  was  the  extent  of  British  commerce  in  human  flesh,  that  at  the  pe- 
riod of  slave  emancipation  in  the  British  plantations  in  1833,  the  number  of 
slaves,  which  had  previously  been  considerably  more,  yet  then  amounted  to 
770,280.  The  slave-trade  question  was  debated  in  the  British  parliament 
in  1787.  The  debate  for  its  abolition  lasted  two  days  in  April  1791.  The 
motion  of  Mr.  Wilberforce  was  lost  by  a  majority  of  88  to  83,  April  3,  1798. 
After  several  other  efibrts  of  humane  and  just  mt;n,  the  question  was 
introduced  imder  the  auspices  of  lord  Grenville  and  Mr.  Fox,  then  mi'iio- 
ters,  March  31,  1806  ;  and  the  trade  was  finally  abolished  by  parliament. 
March  25,  1807. 

SI  AVERY  OF  THE  AMERICAN  INDIANS  in  Europe. 


Many  of  the  early  navigators  to  Ame- 
rica, including  Columbus  himself, 
carried  considerable  numbers  of  the 
aborigines  to  Europe,  where  they 
were  sold  into  slavery.  Queen  Isa- 
bella commanded  the  liberation  of 
Indians  held  in  bondage  in  her  pos- 
sessions, in       -  -  -  -  1501 


— but  the  next  y^ear  the  slaverj  of  In- 
dians was  recognized  as  lawful ;  and 
the  practice  of  selling  the  natives  of 
North  America  into  foreign  bondage 
continued  for  nearly  two  centuries. 
The  excellent  Wintlirop  enumerates 
Lrdians  among  his  bequests. — Ban- 
croft. 


SLAVERY  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES.     See  Slave  Trade. 


The  first  negro  slaves  in  the  English 
colonies  of  North  America  were 
brousht  to  Virginia  in  a  Dutch  vessel 
of  war  -  -  .  -  -  1G20 

Negroes  "  who  had  been  fraudulently 
brought  from  Guinea"  to  Massacliu- 
setts  (the  first  in  New  England),  were 
sent  home  at  the  public  expense  by 
the  general  court  of  that  colony        -  1646 

Gorton  and  RogerWilliams  made  a  de- 
cree against  slavery  in  Rhode  Island  1652 

White  slaves  were  sold  in  England,  to 
be  transported  to  Virginia :  average 
price  for  5  years'  service,  .£5 — while 
a  negro  was  worth  £25. — Bancroft  -  1672 

Virginia  had  one  slave  to  50  whites     -  1650 

The  Quakers  abolished  slavery  among 
themselves       -  .  .  .  1754 

Resolutions  against  the  sl.ive  trade 
passed  by  the  first  congress  01'  the 
colonies  ....  1774 

Act  against  the  external  slave  trade 
passed  by  congress  of  tlie  United 
States    1789 


[Slavery  had  been  already  prohibited 
in  most  of  the  northern  States  in  their 
constitutions.! 
Act  of  congress  against  fitting  out  ves- 
sels for  slave  trade      -  -  -  1794 
Act  forbidding  any  citizen  of  the  Uni- 
ted States  Irom  holding  property  in 
foreign  slave  vessels.     United  Slates 
vessels  authorized  to  seize  slavers    -  1800 
Act  forbidding,  under  heavy  penalties, 
the  introduction  of  slaves  into  the 
United  States  .           -           -  .  1807 
Act  declaring  the  slave  trade  piracy, 

punishable  with  death  -  -  1820 

[Slavery  has,  however,  been  continued 
in  thirteen  of  the  States.    See  Mis- 
souri. ] 
The  number  of  slaves  in  the  United 
States  in  1790  was       .       -        -    697,697 

In  1800 896,849 

In  1810 1,191,364 

In  1820    -        -        -    ■   •        -        -  1,538,064 

In  1S30 2,010,436 

In  1840 2,487,:355 


SLAVES,  Emancipation  of.  Act  for  the  abolition  of  slavery  throughout  the 
British  colonies,  and  for  the  promotion  of  industry  among  the  manumitted 
slaves,  and  for  the  compensation  to  the  persons  hitherto  entitled  to  the  ser- 
vices of  such  slaves,  by  the  grant  from  parliament  of  2O,00O,000Z.  sterling, 
passed  3  and  4  William  IV.,  Aug.  28,  1833.  By  the  operation  of  this  act, 
slavery  terminated  in  the  British  iDossessions  on  Aug.  1,  1834,  and  770,280 
slaves  became  free. 

SLEEP.  We  are  told  that  while  Epimenides  was  at  Athens,  and  was  one  day 
attending  his  flocks,  he  entered  a  cave,  and  there  fell  asleep.  His  sleep  con- 
tinued, according  to  some  writers,  forty  or  forty-seven  years  ;  Pliny  says  he 
slept  fifty-seven  years;  and  when  he  awoke,  he  found  eveiy  object  so  al- 
tered he  knew  not  where  he  was.    It  is  supposed  that  lie  lived  289  years, 


SOD  J  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  533 

596  B.  c.  We  have  manj,  and  even  very  late,  instances  of  persons  in 
these  countries  sleeping  continuously  for  weeks  and  months. 
SMALL-POX.  Lady  Mary  Wortley  Montagu  introduced  inoculation  for  the 
small-pox  from  Turkey,  her  own  son  having  been  inoculated  with  perfect 
success  at  Adrianople,  a.  d.  1718.  She  was  allowed,  by  way  of  experiment, 
to  inoculate  seven  capital  convicts,  who,  on  their  recovery,  were  pardoned. 
Inoculation  for  the  small-pox  was  encouraged  under  the  auspices  of  Dr, 
Mead.  A  small-pox  hospital  was  instituted  in  London,  1746,  but  the  pie- 
sent  building  was  not  opened  till  1756.     See  Inoculation  and  Vaccination. 

SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION.  Founded  by  will  of  James  Smithson,  a  na. 
tural  son  of  the  duke  of  Northumberland,  who  died  1835,  and  left  .£100,000 
"to  the  United  States  of  America,  to  found  at  Washington  an  institution 
for  the  increase  and  diffusion  of  knowledge  among  men."  Act  of  Congress 
accepting  the  bequest,  and  providing  for  the  fulfilment  of  the  trust,  1846. 
Corner  stone  of  the  building  laid,  May  1,  1847. 

SMOLENSKO,  Battle  of.  One  of  the  most  memorable  of  the  celebrated 
Russian  campaign  of  1812,  between  the  French  and  Russian  armies.  The 
French  in  this  most  sanguinary  engagement  were  three  times  repulsed,  but 
they  ultimately  succeeded,  and,  on  entering  Smolensko,  found  the  city, 
which  had  been  bombarded,  burning  and  partly  in  ruins.  Barclay  de  Tolli, 
the  Russian  commander-in-chief  incurred  the  displeasure  of  the  emperor 
Alexander,  because  he  retreated  after  the  battle,  and  KutusolF  succeeded 
to  the  command,  Aug.  17,  1812. 

SMUGGLERS  in  England.  The  customs  duties  were  instituted  originally  to 
enable  the  king  to  aflbrd  protection  to  trade  against  pirates ;  and  they  af- 
terwards became  a  branch  of  the  public  revenue.  A  severe  penalty  against 
smuggling  was  enacted  in  1736. 

SNUFF-TAKING.  This  practice  took  its  rise  in  England  from  the  captures 
made  of  vast  quantities  of  snuff  bj''  sir  George  Rooke's  expedition  to  Vigo 
in  1702.  The  prize  of  the  forces  having  been  sent  home  and  sold,  the  vice 
soon  obtained  from  which  the  revenue  now  draws,  with  tobacco,  consider- 
ably more  than  3,000,0000Z.  per  annum.  In  the  year  ending  Jan.  5,  1840, 
there  were  imported  1,622,493  lbs.  of  snuff,  of  which  196,805  lbs.  were 
entered  for  home  consumption  ;  the  duty  was  88,263Z.     See  Tobacco. 

SOAP.  This  article  was  imperfectly  known  to  the  ancients.  The  first  express 
mention  of  it  occurs  in  Pliny  and  Galen ;  and  the  former  declares  it  to  be 
an  invention  of  the  Gauls,  though  he  prefers  the  German  to  the  Gallic  soap. 
In  remote  periods  clothes  were  cleansed  by  being  rubbed  or  stamped  upon 
in  water.  Nausicaa  and  her  attendants.  Homer  tells  us,  Avashed  theirs  by 
treading  iipon  them  with  their  feet  in  pits  of  water. — Odyssey,  book  vi. 
The  manufacture  of  soap  began  in  London  in  1524,  before  which  time  it 
was  supplied  by  Bristol  at  one  penny  per  pound. 

SOBRAON,  Battle  of  ;  India.  The  British  army,  35,000  strong,  under  Sir 
Hugh  (now  lord)  Gough,  attacked  the  Sikh  force  on  the  Sutlej.  The  ene- 
my was  dislodged  after  a  dreadful  contest,  and  all  their  batteries  taken ; 
and  in  attempting  the  passage  of  a  river  by  a  floating  bridge  in  their  rear, 
the  weight  of  the  masses  that  crowded  upon  it  caused  it  to  break  down,  and 
more  than  10,000  Sikhs  were  killed,  wounded,  or  drowned.  The  British 
loss  was  2383  men ;  fought  Feb.  10,  1846. 

SOCIETY  ISLANDS  seized  by  the  French  admiral,  Dupetit  Thenars,  and 
queen  Pomare  deposed,  Nov.  9,  1843,  but  the  transaction  was  disavowed  by 
the  French  government. 

SOCIALISM.  This  is  the  name  given  to  the  doctrine  which  teaches  that  all 
men  have  common  interests,  and  that  society  ought  to  be,  accordingly,  or- 


534  THE   world's    progress.  I  SOR 

ganized  on  that  principle.  It  has  been  taught,  more  or  less  distinctly,  in 
all  ages  and  nations:  by  Pythagoras  b.  c.  466,  and  Plato  b.  c.  422,  among 
the  Greeks  ;  by  the  sect  of  Essenes,  in  the  time  of  our  Saviour,  among  the 
Jews ;  by  the  first  Christians  a.  d.  34 ;  by  several  of  the  fathers  of  the 
Church ;  by  sir  Thomas  More,  in  his  Utopia,  a.  d.  1515 ;  by  Campunella, 
A.  D.  1623  ;  and  byBabeau,  in  France,  a.  d.  ;  but  the  principal  modern 

teachers  of  it  have  been  Charles  Fouriei",  whowasbornatBesangoninl772; 
and  who  published  a  variety  of  able  works  on  the  subject ;  by  Claude  Henri 
St.  Simon,  born  also  in  France,  at  Paris,  in  a.d.  1760 ;  and  by  Robert  Owen,  of 
England,  who  first  taught  it  publicly  in  London  in  1834.  Through  the  instru- 
mentality of  their  writings  it  has  been  been  spread  over  Germany,  France, 
England,  and  the  United  States,  where  socialism,  in  different  forms,  has  a 
considerable  number  of  disciples.  In  February,  1848,  an  attempt  was  made 
by  Louis  Blanc,  one  of  the  Provisional  Government  of  Paris,  to  organize 
labor  on  socialist  principles,  but  without  success.  A  great  many  religious 
sects,  such  as  the  Moravians,  the  Rappites,  the  Zoarites,  and  the  Shakers, 
adopt  the  doctrine  of  common  property  in  their  social  arrangements. 

SOCINIANS.  So  called  from  their  founders,  Faustus  and  L^lius  Socinus. 
They  taught  that  Jesus  was  a  mere  man,  who  had  no  existence  before  he- 
was  conceived  by  the  Virgin  ;  that  the  Holy  Ghost  was  not  a  distinct  per- 
son ;  and  that  the  Father  only  is  truly  God.  They  maintained  that  Christ 
died  only  to  give  mankind  a  pattern  of  heroic  virtue,  and  to  seal  his  doc- 
trines with  his  death.  Original  sin,  grace,  and  predestination  they  treated 
as  mere  chimeras.    Socinianism  was  propagated  about  a.  d.  1560. — Pardon. 

SODOM  AND  GOMORRAH.  These  cities,  with  all  their  inhabitants,  destroyed 
by  fire  from  heaven,  1897  b.  c. — Bible,  Blair,  Usher.  The  offence  of  sodomy 
was  first  sown  in  England  by  the  Lombards.  By  an  old  English  law,  the  cri- 
minal was  burnt  to  death,  though  Fleta  says  he  should  be  buried  alive. 
The  crime  was  subject  to  ecclesiastical  censure  only  at  the  time  of  Henry 
VIII.,  who  made  it  felony  without  benefit  of  clergy,  1538.  Confirmed  by 
statute  5  Elizabeth,  1562. 
SOLAR  SYSTEM.  The  system  nearly  as  now  accepted,  after  the  investiga- 
tions and  discoveries  of  many  enlightened  centuries  and  ages,  was  taught 
by  Pythagoras  of  Samos,  about  529  b.  c.  In  his  system  of  the  universe  he 
placed  the  sun  in  the  centre,  and  all  the  planets  moving  in  elliptical  orbits 
round  it — a  doctrine  deemed  chimerical  and  improbable,  till  the  deep  in- 
quiries of  the  philosophy  of  the  sixteenth  century  proved  it,  by  the  most 
accurate  calculations,  to  be  true  and  incontestable.  The  system  of  Pytha- 
goras was  revived  by  Copei-nicus,  and  it  is  hence  called  the  Copernican 
system.  Its  truth  was  fully  demonstrated  by  sir  Isaac  Newton,  in  1695. 
How  truly  the  poet  says — 

"  He  who  through  vast  immensity  can  pierce, 

See  worlds  on  worlds  compose  one  universe. 

Observe  how  system  into  system  runs, 

What  other  planets  circle  other  suns, 

What  varied  beings  people  every  star, 

May  tell  why  Heaven  has  made  us  what  we  are." — Pope. 

SOLOMON'S  TEMPLE.  The  foundation  laid,  480  years  after  the  deliverance 
from  Egypt,  1012  b.  c.  The  temple  solemnly  dedicated,  Friday,  October 
30,  1004  B.  c,  being  1000  years  before  the  birth  of  the  Redeemer. —  Usher, 
Lienglct. 

SORCERERS  and  MAGICIANS.  A  law  was  enacted  against  their  seductions, 
33  Henry  VIII.  1541 ;  and  another  statute  equally  severe  was  passed  5  E'i- 
zabeth,  1563.  The  pretension  to  sorcery  and  witchcraft  and  the  conversing 
with  evil  spirits  was  made  capital,  1  James  I.,  1603.  For  shocking  instances 
of  the  punishment  of  sorcerers,  see  Witchcraft. 


spa]  dictionary  of  dates.  535 

SOUDAN  OR  SOUJAH.  The  title  of  the  lieutenant-generals  of  the  caliphs, 
which  they  went  by  in  their  provinces  or  armies.  These  officers  afterwards 
made  themselves  sovereigns.  Saladin,  general  of  the  forces  of  the  Nora- 
dine,  king  of  Damascus,  was  the  first  that  took  upon  him  this  title  in  Egypt, 
A.  D.  1165,  after  having  killed  the  caliph  Caym. 

SOUND.  Fewer  than  thirty  vibrations  in  a  second  give  no  sound ;  and  when 
the  vibrations  exceed  7520  in  a  second,  the  tones  cease  to  be  discriminated. 
Robesval  states  the  velocity  of  sound  at  the  rate  of  560  feet  in  a  second  ; 
Gassendus,  at  1473  ;  Derham,  at  1142  feet.  At  Paris,  where  cannon  were 
fired  under  many  varieties  of  weather  in  1738,  it  was  found  to  be  1107  feet. 
The  fire  of  the  British  on  landing  in  Egypt  was  distinctly  heard  130  miles 
on  the  sea.    See  Acoustics. 

SOUNDINGS  AT  SEA.  Captain  Ross,  of  H.  M.  S.  CEdipus,  took  extraordinary 
soundings  at  sea.  One  of  them  was  taken  900  miles  west  of  St.  Helena, 
where  it  extended  to  the  depth  of  5000  fathoms.  Another  sounding  was 
made  in  latitude  of  33  degrees  S.  and  longitude  9  degrees  W.,  about  300 
mile  from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  when  2266  fathoms  were  sounded  ;  the 
weight  employed  amounted  to  450  lbs.,  1840. 

SOUTH  CAROLINA.  One  of  the  United  States ;  first  settlement  was  made 
under  Governor  Sayle,  at  Port  Royal,  in  1670,  and  at  Charleston  1671 ;  re- 
ceived a  colony  of  French  refugees,  exiled  by  the  revocation  of  the  Edict 
of  Nantes,  1690 ;  church  of  England  established  by  law,  1703 ;  proprietary 
government  in  the  two  Carolinas  superseded  by  one  established  by  the  peo- 
ple in  1719  ;  the  country  purchased  of  the  proprietors  by  the  English  par- 
liament in  1729,  when  the  country  was  divided  into  North  and  South 
Carolina  ;  received  colonies  of  Swiss,  Germans,  and  Irish  at  various  times. 
This  State  early  resisted  the  claims  of  the  mother  country,  and  was  active 
in  the  revolutionary  war.  Charleston  and  a  large  part  of  the  State  taken  by 
the  British  in  1780 ;  battle  of  Eutaw  Springs,  1781 ;  Federal  Constitution 
adopted  May  23,  1788,  by  149  to  73 ;  "  nullification  ordinance "  passed 
Nov.  1832.  Population  in  1790  was  249,000 ;  in  1810,  415,115 ;  in  1830. 
581,458 ;  in  1840,  594,398,  including  327,538  slaves. 

SOUTH  SEA  BUBBLE.  This  destructive  speculation  was  commenced  in 
1710  ;  and  the  company  incorpoi-ated  by  statute,  1716.  The  bubble,  which 
ruined  thousands  of  families,  exploded  in  1720,  and  the  directors'  estates, 
to  the  value  of  2,014,000/.  were  seized  in  1721.  Mr.  Knight,  the  cashier, 
absconded  Avith  100,OOOZ. ;  but  he  compounded  the  fraud  for  10,000/.,  and 
returned  to  England  in  1743.  Almost  all  the  wealthy  persons  in  the  king- 
dom had  become  stock-jobbers  and  speculators  in  this  fatal  scheme.  The 
artifices  of  the  directors  had  raised  the  shares,  originally  of  100/.,  to  the 
enormous  price  of  1000/.     See  Law^s  Bubble. 

SOUTHCOTT,  JOANNA.    See  Impostors,  &c. 

SPAIN.  The  first  settlers  are  supposed  to  have  been  the  progeny  of  Tubal, 
fifth  son  of  Japheth.  The  Phoenicians  and  Carthaginians  successively 
planted  colonies  on  the  coasts  ;  and  the  Romans  possessed  the  whole  coun- 
try. In  the  decline  of  the  Roman  empire,  Spain  was  seized  by  the  Vandals, 
Alans,  and  Suevi ;  afterwards  subdued  by  the  Visigoths,  who  laid  the  foun- 
dation of  the  present  monarchy.     See  Tabular  Views,  p.  65,  et  scq. 


The  Vandals  and  Suevi  wrest  Spain 

from  the  Romans     -  -        a.  d.    412 

The  Visigoths  enter  Spain  under  their 

leader,  Euric    -  -  .  .   472 

The  Saracens  from  Arabia  invade  the 

country       -  -  -         713  et  seq. 

Pelagius,  a  royal  Visigoth,  proclaimed 

Jfing  of  Asturias  •  -  -   718 


Alphonsus  n.  refusing  to  pay  the  Sara- 
cens the  annual  tribute  of  100  virgins, 
war  is  declared ;  Alphonsus  is  victo- 
rious, and  obtains  the  appellation  of 
"  the  chaste"        -  -  a.  d.  791  st  sea. 

Inigo,  first  king  of  Navarre,  &c.  -   830 

Ferdinand  I.,  count  of  Castile,  takes  the 
title  of  king  -  -  -      -  KGO 


536 


TrtE    world's    progress. 


fSPA 


SPAIN,  continued. 

Union  of  Navarre  and  Castile    -     a.  d.  1031 
The  kingdom  of  Arragon  commenced 

under  Ramirez  I.  -  -  -      -  1035 

Leon  and  Asturias  united  to  Castile     -  1037 
Portugal  taken  from  the  Saracens  by 

Henry  of  Bourbon       -  -  -  1087 

The  Saracens,  beset  on  all  sides  by  the 
Christians,  call  in  the  aid  of  the  Moors 
from  Africa,  who  seize  the  dominions 
they  came  to  protect,  and  subdue  the 
Saracens       -  -  -     1091  et  seq 

The  Moors  defeated  in  several  battles 

by  Alphonsus  I.  of  Navarre  -  -  1118 

Twelve  Moorish  kings  overcome  in  one 

great  pitched  battle  -  -      -  1 135 

University  of  Salamanca  founded        -  1200 
Leon  and  Castile  re-united  -  -      -  r2'26 

Cordova,  the  residence  of  the  first  Moor- 
ish kings,  taken  by  Ferdinand  of  Cas- 
tile and  Leon    -  -  -  -  1236 
The  kingdom  of  Granada  begun  by  the 
Moors,  their   last  refuge  from    the 
power  of  the  Christians         -           -1238 
Reign  of  Alphonsus  the  Wise        -      -  1252 
The  crown  of  Navarre  passes  to  the 

royal  family  of  France  -  -  1276 

200,000  Moors  invade  Spain  -      -  1327 

They  are  defeated  by  Alphonsus  XI., 

with  great  slaughter    -  -  -  1340 

The  infant  Don  Henriquez,  son  of  John 
the  First  of  Castile,  tirst  had  the  title 
of  prince  of  Asturias  -  -  -  1388 

Ferdmand  IT.  of  Arragon  marries  Isa- 
bella of  Castile ;  and  nearly  the  whole 
Christian  dominions  of  Spain  are  uni- 
ted in  one  monarchy  -  -  -  1474 
Granada  taken  after  a  two  years'  siege ; 
and  the  power  of  the  Moors  finally 
extirpated  by  the  valor  of  Ferdinand  - 1492 
Columbus  is  sent  from  Spain  to  explore 

the  western  world  -  -      -  1492 

Ferdinand  conquers  the  greater  part  of 

the  kingdom  of  Navarre         -  -1512 

Accession  of  the  house  of  Austria  to  the 

throne  of  Spain  -  -  -  1516 

Charles  V.  of  Spain  and  Germany  re- 
tires from  the  world         .  -      -  1556 
Philip  I.  commences  his  bloody  perse- 
cution of  the  Protestants        -  -1561 
The  Escurial  began  building    -  -  1562 
Portugal  united  to  Spain    -           ■      -  1580 
The  invincible  Spanish  Armada  de- 
stroyed.   See  Armada,  and  Naval 
Battles            .           .           -  -  1588 
Philip  III.  banishes  the  Moors  and  their 
descendants,  to  the  number  of  900,000, 
from  Spain            -           -           -      -  1610 
Philip  IV.  loses  Portugal          -  -  1640 
Gibraltar  taken  by  the  English      -      -1704 
Philip  V.  invades  Naples          -  -  1714 
Charles  III. ,  king  of  the  Two  Sicilies, 

succeeds  to  the  crown  -  -  1759 

Battle  of  Cape  St.  Vincent    -   Feb.  14, 1797 
Spanish  treasure-ships,  valued  at  3,000,- 
000  dollars,  seized  by  the  English 

Oct.  29, 1804 
Battle  of  Trafalgar.     See  Trafalgar, 

Battle  of  -  -  Oct.  31, 1505 

Sway  of  the  prince  of  Peace     -  -  1806 

Conspiracy  of  the  prince  of  Asturias 

against  his  father  -       July  25,  1807 

Treaty  of  Fontainebleau     -      Oct.  27, 1807 


The  French  take  Madrid  -  a.  d.  March,  1808 
The  prince  of  Peace  dismissed  by  the 

king  of  Spain  -  March  18,  IStB 

Abdication  of  Charles  IV.  in  favor  of 

Ferdinand  -  -     March  19,  1803 

And  at  liayonne,in  favor  of  his  "friend 
and  ally,"'   Napoleon,  when  Ferdi- 
nand relinquished  the  crown,  May  1,  1808 
The  Frencli  are  massacred  at  Madrid, 

May  2, 1808 
Napoleon   assembles  the   notables  at 

Bayonne  -  -  May  25,  1808 

Joseph  Bonaparte  enters    Jladrid,  as 

king  of  Spain  -  -  July  12,  1808 

He  retires  Irom  the  capita!   -   July  29,  1808 
Supreme  Junta  installed       -       Sept.  1808 
Madrid  retaken  by  the  French,  and  Jo- 
seph restored  -  -    Dec.  2, 1808 
The  royal  family  of  Spain  imprisoned 
in  the  palace  of  Chambery,  in  Savoy, 

Dec.  5,  1008 
[Spain  now  becomes  the  scene  of  the 
struggle  called  the  Peninsular  War, 
for  the  events  of  which  see  the  arti- 
cles severally.] 
Constitution  of  the  Cortes     -    May  8, 1812 
Ferdinand  VII.  restored       -     May  14,  1814 
Spanish  revolution  began        -   Jan.  1,  1820 
Ferdinand  sweare  to  the  constitution  of 

the  Cortes  -  -       March  8,  1820 

Removal  of  the  king  to  Seville,  and 

thence  to  Cadiz      '-  March  20, 1823 

The  French  enter  Spain    -       April  7,  1823 
They  invest  Cadiz        -        -    June  25,  1823 
Battle  of  the  Trocadero  -       -  Aug.  31,  1823 
Despotism  resumed ;   the  Cortes  dis- 
solved; executions  -  Oct.  1823 
Riego  put  to  death           -        Nov.  27, 1823 
The  French  evacuate  Cadiz  -  Sept.  21, 1828 
Cadiz  made  a  free  port      -       Feb.  24,  1829 
Salique  law  abolished    -       March  25,  1830 
Queen  of  Spain  appointed  regent  dur- 
ing the  king's  indisposition,  and  a 
complete  change  made  in  the  minis- 
try          -           -           -         Oct.  25,  1832 
Don  Carlos  declares  himself  legitimate 
successor   to   liis    brother's  throne, 
should  the  king  die       -       April  29, 1833 
Death  of  Charles  IV.,  and  his  queen 
assumes  the  title  of  governing  queen, 
until  Isabella  II.,  her  infant  daughter, 
attains  her  majority       -      Sept.  29, 1833 
The  royalist  volunteers  disarmed,  with 

some  bloodshed,  at  Madrid  -  Oct.  27, 1833 
Don  Carlos  lands  at  Portsmouth  with 

his  family  -  -       June  18, 1834 

He  suddenly  appears  among  his  ad- 
herents in  Spain  -         July  10, 1834 
Tlie  peers  vote  the  perpetual  exclusion 
of  Don  Carlos  from  the  throne,  Aug.  30, 1334 
[Here  cominences  the  desolating  civil 
war,  in  which  British  auxiliaries  take 
the  side  of  the  queen.] 
Espartero  gains  the  ^battle  of  Bilboa, 

and  is  ennobled       -  -   Dec.  25,  1836 

General  Evans  retires  from  the  com- 
mand of  the  auxiliary  legion,  and  ar- 
rives in  London,  after  having  achieved 
various  successes  in  Spain  -  June  20,  1837 
Madrid  is  declared  in  a  state  of  siese. 

Augfll,  18:i7 
[Espartero  and  other  Christino  generals 


spa] 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES. 


537 


SPAIN,  continued. 


engage  with  the  Carlists,  and  nume- 
rous conflicts  take  place  with  various 
success.] 

JNIadrid  is  again  declared  in  a  state  of 
siege  -  -       A.  D.  Oct.  30,  1838 

The  Spanish  Cortes  dissolved  -  June  1,  1839 

The  Carlists  imder  Marota  desert  Don 
Carlos       -  -  -      Aug.  25,  1839 

Marota  and  Espartero  conclude  a  treaty 
of  peace  -  -  Aug.  29,  1839 

Don  Carlos  seeks  refuge  in  France 

Sept.  13,  1839 

Cabrera,  the  Carlist  general,  unable  to 
maintain  the  war,  enters  France  with 
a  body  of  his  troops         -       July  7, 1840 

The  British  auxiliaries  evacuate  St.  Se- 
bastian and  Passages        -    Aug.  25,  1840 

Espartero  makes  his  triumphal  entry 
into  Madrid       -         -         -    Oct.  5, 1840 

The  queen  regent  appoints  a  new  min- 
istry, who  are  nominated  by  Espar- 
tero      ....  Oct.  5.  1810 

The  abdication  of  the  queen  resent  of 
Spain       -  -  -        Oct.  12,  1840 

[She  subsequently  leaves  the  kingdom ; 
visits  France ;  next  settles  in  Sicily ; 
but  returns.to  France.] 

Espartero,  duke  of  Victory,  expels  the 
papal  nuncio       -  -       Dec.  29,  1840 

The  Spanish  cortes  declare  Espartero 
regent  during  the  minority  of  the 
young  queen       -  -     "  Apr.  12,  1841 

Insurrection  in  favor  of  Christina  is 
commenced  at  Pampeluna  by  Gen. 
O'Donnell's  army    -  -     Oct.  2, 1841 

It  spreads  to  Vittoria  and  other  parts  of 
the  kingdom  -  -  Oct.  1811 

Don  Diego  Leon  attacks  the  palace  at 
Madrid,  and  his  followers  are  repuls- 
ed, and  numbers  of  them  slain  by  the 
queen's  guard       -  -        Oct.  7,  1841 

Don  Diego  Leon,  having  been  seized,  is 
shot  at  Madrid  -  -  Oct.  15,  1841 

Zurbano  captures  Bilboa    -      Oct.  21.  1841 

Hodil,  the  constitutional  general,  enters 
Vittoria        -  -  -    Oct.  21,  1841 

Espartero  decrees  the  suspension  of 
queen  Christina's  pension  -   Oct.  26,  1841 

Espartero  makes  his  triumphal  entry 
into  Madrid         -  -        Nov.  23,  1841 

An  insurrection  breaks  out  at  Barce- 
lona ;  the  national  guard  joins  the 
populace  -  -         Nov.  13,  1812 

Battle  in  the  streets  between  the  national 
guard  and  the  troops :  the  latter  lose 
500  in  killed  and  wounded,  and  retreat 
to  the  citadel       -  -        Nov.  15,  1842 


The  troops  evacuate  the  citadel,  and 
retire  to  Montjuich       -        Nov.  17, 1812 

The  regent  Espartero  arrives  before 
Barcelona,  and  demands  its  uncondi- 
tional surrender       -        -    Nov.  29, 1842 

Bombardment  of  Barcelona  -    Dec.  2,  1842 

It  capitulates  -  -        Dec.  4, 1842 

The  disturbances  of  Malaga  -  May  25, 1843 

The  revolutionary  junta  is  re-establish- 
ed ^t  Barcelona       -  -  June  11, 1843 

[Corui.na,  Seville,  Burgos,  Santiago, 
and  numerous  other  towns,  shortly 
afterwards  "  pronounce"  against  the 
regent  Espartero.] 

Arrival  of  Gen.  Narvaez  at  Madrid, 
which  surrenders       -        -   July  15,  1843 

Espartero  bombards  Seville  -  July  21,  1843 

The  siege  is  raised     -        -        July  27,  1843 

[The  revolution  is  completely  success- 
ful, and  Espartero  flies  to  Cadiz,  and 
embarks  on  board  her  Majesty's  ship 
Mtdabar.] 

The  new  government  deprive  Espartero 
of  his  titles  and  rank        -     Au^.  16,  1843 

Espartero  and  his  suite  and  friends  ar- 
rive in  London        -  -    Aug.  23, 1843 

Reaction  against  the  new  govermnent 
breaks  out  at  Madrid     -        Aug.  29,  1843 

The  young  queen  Isabella  II.,  13  years 
old,  is  declared  by  the  cortes  to  be  of 
age  -  -  -     ■    Nov.  8,  1843 

The  queen- mother.  Christina,  returns  to 
Spain       -  ■-  -    March  23,  1844 

Don  Carlos,  from  Bourges,  formally  re- 
linquishes his  right  to  the  crown,  in 
favor  of  his  son     -  -     May  18, 1845 

Narvaez  and  his  ministry  resign,  Feb. 
12;  they  return  to  power,  March  17  ; 
and  again  resign    -        -     March  28,  184G 

The  queen  is  publicly  affianced  to  her 
cousin,  don  Francisco  d'Assiz,  duke 
of  Cadiz        -  -         -    Aug.  27, 1846 

Escape  of  Don  Carlos  and  others  from 
France        -  -  -     Sept.  14,  1846 

Marriage  of  the  queen ;  and  marriage 
also  of  the  infanta  Louisa  to  the  duke 
de  Montpensier   -  ■        Oct.  10,  1846 

[The  Montpensier  marriage  occasions 
the  displeasure  of  England,  and  dis- 
turbs the  friendly  relations  of  the 
French  and  English  governments.] 

Amnesty  granted  by  the  queen  to  po- 
litical offenders    -  -       Oct.  18,  1846 

The  queen  has  a  son  born,  who  dies  the 
same  day    -  -  -      July  1,  1850 


KINGS   OP   SPAIN. 

548. 


A..D.  406.  Alaricl.,  king  of  the  Goths;  murdered. 
411.  Athalsus;  murdered  by  his  soldiers. 
415.  Wallia. 

420.  Theodoric  I.;  killed  in  battle. 
450.  Torrismunn ,  assassinated  by  his  fa- 
vorite. 
452.  Theodoric  II. 
466.  Euric. 

484.  Alaric  11. ;  killed  in  battle. 
507.  Geaalric;  killed  in  battle. 
511.  Anialaric;  killed  in  battle. 
531.  Theodat ;  assassinated  by  a  madman. 

2-3* 


Theodisele ;  murdered  for  female  vio- 
lation. 

549.  Agila ;  taken  prisoner  and  put  to  death. 

554.  Athanagild. 

507.  From  tfiis  year  to  the  year  C87,  sixteen 
kings  reigned. 

687.  Egica  or  Egiza. 

697.  Vitizza. 

741.  Roderick;  killed  in  battle  in  714. 
An  interregnum  till 

718.  Pelagius. 

736.  Favila;  killed  by  a  boar  in  hunting. 


538 


THE   world's    progress. 


[spa 


SPAIN,  continued. 

738.  Alphonsus  I. ;  Catholic. 
757.  Fioila  I. ;  killed  by  his  brother  Aure- 

lius. 
768.  Aurelius. 
774.  Silo. 
783.  Mauregat. 
789.  Veremond. 

791.  Alphonsus  II.  ;  the  chaste. 
324.  Ramiro  I. ;  he  put  70,000  Saracens  to 

the  sword  in  one  battle. 
860.  Ordogno  I. 
862.  Alphonsus  III. ;  sumamed  the  great ; 

deposed  by  his  son. 
910.  Garcias. 
914.  Ordogno  n. 

923.  Froila  II. 

924.  Alphonsus  IV. ;  abdicated. 
931.  Rarairo  II. ,  killed  in  battle. 
950.  Ordogno  III. 

955.  Ordogno  IV. 

956.  Sanchol.,  the  Fat;  poisoned  with  an 

apple 

967.  Ramiro  III. 

982.  Veremund  II. ;  the  Gouty. 
999.  Alphonsus  V. ;  killed  at  the  siege  of 
Viscu. 

1028.  Veremund  III. ;  killed  in  battle. 

1035.  Ferdinand  the  Great,  king  of  Leon  and 
Castile. 

10G5.  Sancho  II.,  the  Strong,  king  of  Castile  ; 
Alphonsus  in  Leon  and  Asturias ;  and 
Garcias  in  Galicia. 

1072.  Alphonsus  VI.,  the  Valiant;  in  Castile 
and  Leon. 

1109.  Alphonsus  VII. 

1122.  Alphonsus  VIIL 

1157.  Sancho  IIL,  the  Beloved,  in  Castile  ; 
Ferdinand  in  Leon. 

11.58.  Alphonsus  IX.,  in  Castile. 

1214.  Henry  L 

1236.  Ferdinand  III.  the  Holy ;  in  him  Cas- 
tile and  Leon  were  reunited,  and  per- 
petually annexed. 

1252.  Alphonsus  the  Wise ;  deposed. 

1284.  Sancho  IV.,  the  Brave ;  Peter  III.  in 
Arragon. 

1295.  Ferdinand  IV. 

1312.  Alphonsus  X. ;  John  in  Arragon. 


1350.  Peter  the  Cruel ;  deposed.  Reinstated 
by  Edward  the  Black  Prince  of  Eng- 
land; afterwards  beheaded  by  his 
subjects. 

1368.  Henry  II.,  the  Gracious ;  poisoned  by 
a  monk. 

1379.  John  I. ;  he  united  Biscay  to  Castile. 

1390.  Henry  111.,  the  Sickly. 

1406.  John  II. 

14.54.  Henry  IV,  the  Impotent. 

1474.  Ferdinand  v.,  the  Catholic,  in  whom, 
by  his  marriage  with  Isabella,  the 
vingdoms  of  Castile  and  Arragon 
were  united. 

1504.  Philip  I.  of  Austria,  and  his  queen 
Joan. 

1.506.  Joan  alone  over  both  kingdoms. 

1516.  Charles  I,  and  emperor  of  Germany, 
resigned  both  crowns,  and  retired  to 
a  monastery. 

1555.  Philip  II.,  married  Mary,  queen-reg- 
nant of  England. 

1598.  Philip  IIL,  son  of  the  preceding;  he 
drove  the  Moors  from  Grenada  and 
the  adjacent  provinces. 

1621.  Philip  IV.,  his  son ;  a  reign  of  nearly 
continuous  and  unfortunate  wars  with 
the  Dutch  and  France. 

1665.  Charles  IL 

1700.  Philip  v.,  duke  of  Anjou,  grandson  to 
Louis  XIV.  of  France;  resigned. 

1724.  Lewis  I. ;  who  reigned  only  a  few 
months. 

1724.  Philip  V. ;  again. 

1745.  Ferdinand  VI.,  surnamedthe  Wise ;  he 
distinguished  his  reign  by  acts  of 
liberality  and  beneficence. 

17.59.  Charles  III.,  king  of  the  Two  Sicilies. 

1788.  Charles  IV. ;  abdicated  in  favor  of  hia 
son  and  successor. 

1808.  Ferdinand  VII.,  whom  Napoleon,  of 
of  France,  also  forced  to  resign. 

IS08.  Joseph  Bonaparte,  brother  of  Napo- 
leon ;  deposed. 

1814.  Ferdinand  VII. ;  restored ;  succeeded 
by  his  daughter. 

1833.  Isabella  II.,  Sept.  29 ;  who  came  to  the 
throne  when  three  years  of  age. 

While  nearly  all  the  other  nations  of  the  world  have  been  at  peace,  this  coun- 
try, for  the  last  quarter  of  a  century,  has  been  a  prey  to  the  most  deplor- 
able commotions,  and  almost  continuous  and  destructive  civil  war.  From 
the  death  of  Ferdinand,  the  intrigues  of  Christina,  the  queen-mother,  and 
the  parties  in  her  interest,  have  led  to  successive  revolutions  in  the  state, 
and  caused,  in  18i0,  her  own  abdication  of  the  regency,  and  expulsion  from 
the  kingdom. 

SPANISH  ARMADA  ag.a.inst  England.     See  article  Armada. 

SPARTA.  The  capital  of  Laconia,  one  of  the  most  considerable  republics  of 
the  Peloponnesus,  and  the  formidable  rival  of  Athens.  Though  without 
walls,  it  resisted  the  attacks  of  its  enemies  by  the  valor  of  its  citizens,  for 
eight  centuries.  The  epoch  of  its  foundation  is  much  disputed.  Lelex  is 
supposed  to  have  been  the  first  king,  1516  b.  c.  From  Lacedsemon  the  fourth 
king,  and  his  wife  Sparta,  who  are  also  spoken  of  as  the  founders  of  the 
city,  it  obtained  the  names  by  which  it  was  most  known.  The  history  of 
Lacedffimon  may  be  divided  into  five  eras,  viz.,  1st.  Under  the  ancient  kings, 
from  Lelex  to  the  settlement  of  the  Heraclidie,  comprising  about  four  bun- 


SPI  ]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  539 

dred  and  twelve  years.  2d.  Under  the  Heraclidae  as  absolute  monarchs,  till 
Lycurgns  instituted  a  senate,  by  which  the  people  obtained  a  share  in  the 
government,  including  about  two  hundred  and  twenty  years.  3d.  From  the 
establishment  of  the  senate,  to  the  introduction  of  ephori,  or  five  inspectors 
by  Theopompus,  about  one  hundred  and  twenty-four  years.  4th.  From  the 
appointment  of  the  ephori,  to  the  total  abolition  of  royalty,  about  five  hun- 
dred and  forty  years.  5th.  From  the  abolition  of  the  monarchy,  to  the  sub- 
jugation of  the  country  to  the  Roman  power,  a  period  of  about  seventy- 
two  years,  147  b.  c. — Abbe  Lenglet.  See  Tabular  Views ;  Greece,  page  7,  et 
seq.  See  also  Greece.  The  Lacedaemonians  were  a  nation  of  soldiers.  They 
cultivated  neither  the  arts,  sciences,  commerce,  nor  agriculture.  All  their 
laws,  all  their  institutions,  all  their  education,  in  a  word,  the  very  constitu- 
tion of  their  republic,  Avere  calcvilated  to  make  them  warriors.  And  never 
were  men  brought  into  the  field  more  capable  of  enduring  fatigue.  They 
hardened  their  bodies  by  stripes,  and  by  manly  exercises,  accustoming  them- 
selves to  undergo  hardships,  and  even  to  die  without  fear  or  regret.  The 
women  were  as  courageous  as  the  men,  and  celebrated  with  festivals  the  fall 
of  their  sons,  when  killed  in  battle,  or  coolly  put  them  to  death  with  their 
own  hands,  if  by  a  shameful  flight,  or  the  loss  of  their  arms,  they  brought 
disgrace  upon  their  country. — Abbe  Lenglet. 

SPECTACLES  and  READING-GLASSES.  See  Optics.  Spectacles  were  un- 
known to  the  ancients.  They  are  generally  supposed  to  have  been  invented 
in  the  13th  century,  by  Alexander  de  Spina,  a  monk  of  Florence,  in  Italy, 
about  A.  D.  1285. — Gen.  Hist.  They  were  invented  by  Roger  Bacon,  our  own 
illustrious  countryman,  according  to  Dr.  Plott.  The  hint  was  certainly 
given  by  Bacon  about  1280.  Some  affirm  that  the  real  inventor  was  Salvi- 
no ;  and  Mr.  Manni  gives  proofs  in  favor  of  Salvino  in  his  Treatise  on  Spec- 
tacles. 

SPHERES.  The  celestial  and  terrestrial  globes,  and  also  sun-dials,  were  invent- 
ed by  Anaximander,  552  b.  c.  The  armillary  sphere  is  said  to  have  been  in- 
vented by  Eratosthenes  about  255  b.  c.  The  planetarium  was  constructed 
by  Archimedes  before  212  b.  c.  It  was  maintained  by  Pythagoras  that  the 
motions  of  the  twelve  spheres  must  produce  delightful  sounds,  inaudible  to 
the  ears  of  mortals,  which  he  called  the  music  of  the  spheres. 

SPINNING.  The  art  of  spinning  was  ascribed  by  the  ancients  to  Minerva,  the 
goddess  of  wisdom,  such  was  their  veneration  for  it.  Areas,  king  of  Arca- 
dia, taught  his  subjects  the  art  of  spinning  about  1500  b.  c.  Lucretia  with 
her  maids  was  found  spinning,  when  her  husband  Collatinus  paid  a  visit  to 
her  from  the  camp.  The  wife  of  Tarquin  was  an  excellent  spinner ;  and  a 
garment  made  by  her,  worn  by  Servius  Tullius,  was  preserved  in  the  tenj- 
ple  of  Fortune.  Augustus  Caasar  usually  wore  no  garments  but  such  as 
were  made  by  his  wife,  sister,  or  daughter.  The  spinning-wheel  was  in- 
vented at  Brunswick,  about  a.  d.  1530.  Till  1767,  the  spinning  of  cotton 
was  performed  by  the  hand-spinning-wheel,  when  Hargrave,  an  ingenious 
mechanic,  near  Blackburn,  made  a  spinning-jenny,  with  eight  spindles. 
Hargrave  also  erected  the  first  carding-machine,  with  cylinders.  Arkwright's 
machine  for  spinning  by  water  was  an  extension  of  the  principle  of  Har- 
grave's ;  but  he  also  applied  a  large  and  small  roller  to  expand  the  thread, 
and,  for  this  ingenious  contrivance,  took  out  a  patent  in  1769.  At  first,  he 
worked  his  machinery  by  horses ;  but  in  1771  he  built  a  mill  on  the  stream 
of  the  Derwent,  at  Cromford.  In  1779,  Crompton  invented  the  mule,  which 
is  a  further  and  wonderful  improvement  of  this  art. — P  dllips. 

SPIRES.  In  ancient  times  the  emperors  held  many  diets  at  Spires,  and  it  was 
the  seat  of  the  imperial  chamber  till  1689,  Avhen  the  city  was  burnt  by  the 
French,  and  not  rebuilt  till  after  the  peace  of  Ryswick  in  1697.    The  diet  to 


540  THE   world's   progress.  [  STA 

condemn  the  reformers  was  held  at  Spires,  called  there  by  the  emperor 
Charles  V.,  1529.    This  was  the  era  of  Protestantism.    See  Protestants. 

SPIRITS.  See  Distillation.  No  human  invention  has  ever  tended  more  to  cor- 
rupt the  morals,  and  ruin  the  character,  constitution,  and  circumstances  of 
numbers  of  mankind,  than  distillation.  In  all  nations  spirituous  liquors 
have  been  considered  as  a  proper  subject  of  heavy  taxation  for  the  support 
of  the  state.  In  1840,  England  made  about  ten  millions  of  gallons  of  spirits, 
Scotland  made  about  seven  millions  of  gallons,  and  Ireland  about  nine  mil- 
lions of  gallons.  In  England,  Ireland,  and  Scotland,  duty  was  paid,  in  1840, 
on  the  following  quantities  of  spirits,  viz. — Rum,  2,830,263  gallons ;  brandy, 
1,107,756  gallons ;  Geneva,  18,640  gallons ;  on  other  foreign  spirits,  8,758 
gallons ;  and  on  British,  Irish,  and  Scotch  spirits,  25,190,843  gallons ;  mak- 
ing in  the  whole  nearly  thirty  millions  of  gallons,  upon  which  the  duty 
amounted  to  about  eight  millions  of  pounds  sterling ! — Pari.  Returns. 

SPITZBERGEN.  Discovered  in  1533,  by  sir  Hugh  Willoughby,  who  called  it 
Greenland,  supposing  it  to  be  a  part  of  the  western  continent.  In  1595,  it 
was  visited  by  Barentz  and  Cornelius,  two  Dutchmen,  who  pretended  to  be 
the  original  discoverers,  and  called  it  Spitzbergen,  or  sharp  mountains,  from 
the  many  sharp-pointed  and  rocky  mountains  with  which  it  abounds. 

STAMP-DUTIES  in  England.  The  first  institution  of  stamp-duties  was  by 
statute  5  and  6  William  and  Mary,  June  23,  1694,  when  a  duty  was  imposed 
upon  paper,  vellum,  and  parchment.  The  stamp-duty  on  newspapers  was 
commenced  in  1713,  and  every  year  added  to  the  list  of  articles  upon  which 
stamp-duty  was  made  payable.  The  American  Stamp  Act,  a  memorable 
statute,  one  of  those  imposts  levied  by  the  parliament  of  Great  Britain 
which  produced  the  American  Avar,  and  led  to  the  independence  of  the 
United  States,  was  passed  March  22,  1765.  Stamp-duties  in  Ireland  com- 
menced 1774.  Stamps  on  notes  and  bills  of  exchange  in  1782.  The  stamp- 
duties  produced  in  England,  in  1800,  the  revenue  of  3,126,535Z. ;  and  in 
1840,  for  the  United  Kingdom,  6,726,817^.    See  Newspapers,  &c. 

STANDARDS.  See  Banners,  Flags,  &c.  The  practice  in  the  army  of  using  the 
cross  on  standards  and  shields  arose  in  the  miraculous  appearance  of  a  cross 
to  Constantine,  previously  to  his  battle  with  Maxentius  :  this  fact  rests  on 
the  authority  of  Eusebius,  who  states  that  he  had  received  it  from  the  em- 
peror himself,  a.  d.  312.  For  the  celebrated  French  standard,  see  LUy. 
Standard  or  Mahomet  ;  on  this  ensign  no  infidel  dare  look.  It  was  car- 
ried in  procession  about  1768,  when  several  hundred  Christians  who  igno- 
rantly  looked  iipon  it,  were  massacred  by  the  Turkish  populace.  The 
Imperial  Standard  was  first  hoisted  on  the  Tower  of  London,  and  on  Bed- 
ford Tower,  Dublin,  and  displayed  by  the  Foot  Guards,  on  the  union  of  the 
kingdoms,  Jan.  1,  1801. 

STAR-CHAMBER,  Court  of.  So  called  haply  from  its  roof  being  garnished 
with  stars. —  Coke.  This  court  of  justice,  so  tremendous  in  the  Tudor  and 
part  of  the  Stuart  reigns,  was  called  Star-chamber,  not  from  the  stars  on  its 
roof  (which  were  obliterated  even  before  the  reign  of  queen  Elizabeth), 
but  from  the  Starra,  or  Jewish  covenants,  deposited  there  by  order  of  Ri- 
chard I.  No  Star  was  allowed  to  be  valid  except  found  in  those  reposito- 
ries, and  here  they  remained  till  the  banishment  of  the  Jews  by  Edward  I. 
The  court  was  instituted  2  Henry  VII.  1487,  for  trials  by  a  committee  of 
the  privy  council.  In  Charles  I.'s  reign,  it  exercised  its  power,  independent 
of  any  law,  upon  several  bold  innovators  in  liberty,  who  only  gloried  in 
their  sufferings,  and  contributed  to  render  government  odious  and  con- 
temptible.—  Golds'inilh.    It  was  abolished  16  Charles  I.,  1641.    Thei'e  were 


STE  J  DICTIONARY    OF   DATES.  541 

from  26  to  42  judges,  the  lord-chancellor  having  the  casting  foice. — 
Gibbon. 
STARS.  They  were  classed  into  constellations,  it  is  supposed,  about  1200  b.  c 
Hicetas,  of  Syracuse,  taught  that  the  sun  and  the  stars  were  motionless,  and 
that  the  earth  moved  round  them  (this  is  mentioned  by  Cicero,  and  probably 
gave  the  first  hint  of  this  system  to  Copernicus),  about  344  a.  c.  Job,  He- 
siod,  and  Homer,  mention  several  of  the  constellations.  The  Royal  Library 
at  Paris  contains  a  Chinese  chart  of  the  heavens,  made  about  600  b.  c,  in 
which '1460  stars  are  correctly  inserted.  The  aberration  of  the  stars  dis- 
covered by  Dr.  Bradley,  1727.    See  Astronomy  and  Solar  System. 

STA.TES-GENERAL  op  FRANCE.  An  ancient  assembly  of  France.  Pre- 
viously to  the  Revolution  it  had  not  met  since  a.  d.  1614.  The  states  con- 
sisted of  three  orders,  the  nobility,  clergy,  and  commons.  They  were  con- 
vened by  Louis  XVI.,  and  assembled  at  Versailles,  May  5,  1789.  Here  a 
a  contest  arose,  whether  the  three  orders  should  make  three  distinct  houses, 
or  but  one  assembly.  The  commons  insisted  upon  the  latter,  and,  assuming 
the  title  of  the  National  Assembly,  declared  that  they  were  competent  to 
proceed  to  business,  without  the  concurrence  of  the  two  other  orders,  if 
they  refused  to  join  them.  The  nobility  and  clergy  found  it  expedient  to 
concede  the  point,  and  they  all  met  in  one  hall.     See  National  Assembly. 

STATIONERS.  Books  and  paper  were  formerly  sold  only  at  stalls,  hence  the 
dealers  were  called  stationers.  The  company  of  stationers  of  London  is  of 
great  antiquity,  and  existed  long  before  printing  was  invented ;  yet  it  was 
not  incorporated  until  3  Philip  and  Mary,  1555.  Their  old  dwelling  was  in 
Paternoster-row. — Mortimer. 

.STATUES.  See  Moulds,  Sculpture,  &c.  Phidias,  whose  statue  of  Jupiter 
passed  for  one  of  the  wonders  of  the  world,  was  the  greatest  statuary  among 
the  ancients,  440  b.  c.  He  had  previously  made  a  statue  of  Minerva  at  the 
request  of  Pericles,  which  was  placed  in  the  Parthenon.  It  was  made  with 
ivory  and  gold,  and  measured  39  feet  in  height.  Acilius  raised  a  golden 
statue  to  his  lather,  the  first  that  appeared  in  Italy.  Lysippus  invented  the 
art  of  taking  likenesses  in  plaster  moulds,  from  which  he  afterwards  cast 
models  in  wax,  326  b.  c.  Michael  Angelo  was  the  greatest  artist  among 
the  moderns.  The  first  equestrian  statute  erected  in  Great  Britain  was  that 
of  Charles  I.  in  1678. 

STEAM  ENGINE.  This  is  the  most  important  prime  mover  that  the  inge- 
nuity of  man  has  yet  devised.  The  first  idea  of  it  was  suggested  by  the 
marquis  of  Worcester  in  his  Century  of  Inventions,  as  "a  way  to  drive  up 
water  by  fire,"  A.  D.  1663.  It  does  not,  however,  appear  that  the  noble  in- 
ventor could  ever  interest  the  public  in  favor  of  this  great  discovery. 

Watt's  expansion  engine  -       -        -    -  1778 


Papin's  digester  invented       -      a.  d.  1681 

Captain  Savery's  engine  constructed 
lor  raising  water         -  -  -  1698 

Pain's  engine,  exhibited  to  the  Royal 
Society,  about       -  -  -      -  1699 

Atmospheric  engine  by  Savery  and 
Newcomen      ....  1713 

First  idea  of  steam  navigation  set  fortli 
in  a  patent  obtained  by  Hulls  -  1736 

Watt's  invention  of  performing  conden- 
sation in  a  separate  vessel  from  tlie 
cylinder  ....  1765 

His  first  patent  -  ...  1769 

His  engines  upon  a  large  scale  erected 
in  manufactories,  and  his  patent  re- 
newed by  act  of  parliament  .  .1775 

Thomas  Paine  proposed  the  application 
of  steam  in  America  -        -        -        .  1773 

Engine  made  to  give  a  rotary  motion  -  1778 


Double  acting  engines  proposed  by  Dr. 
Falck  on  Newcomen's  principle       -  1779 

Watt's  double  engine,  and  his  first  pa- 
tent for  it  granted       -        -        -        .  1781 

The  marquess  .Jouffroy  constructed  an 
engine  on  the  SaSne    -  -  .  1781 

Fitchs'  experiments  in  steam  naviga- 
tion on  the  Delaware,  (See  Smith's 
Am.  Curios.-)  ....  1783-4 

Oliver   Evans'  experiments  in  the 
same 1785-6 

Rurasey's  experiments  in  the  same  in 
Virginia      1787 

W.  Symington  made  a  passage  on  the 
Forth  and  Clyde  canal  -        -        .    .  17S0 

First  steam-engine  erected  in  Dublin  by 
Henry  Jackson 1791 

Jouffroy's  experiments  in  France  -       ■  179-.i 


542 


THE   WORLD  S   PROaRESS. 


[  STE 


STEAM  ENGINE,   continued. 

Chancellor  Livingston  builds  a  steamer 
on  the  Hudson 1797 

First  experiment  on  the  Thames  -        -  1801 

The  experiment  of  Mr.  Symington  re- 
peated with  success  -        -        -        -  1802 

Trevethick's  high-pressure  engine       -  1802 

Oliver  Evans'  experiments  lu  locomo- 
tive engines  in  Pemi.         -        -        -  1804 

WoolPs  double  cylinder  expansion  en- 
gine constructed         .        -       .        .  1804 

Manufactories  warmed  by  steam         -  1806 

Fulton  started  a  steam-boat  on  the  river 
Hudson,  built  by  himself,  and  named 
"The  North  River;"  engine  by  Boul- 
ton  and  Watt  j  passage  to  Albany  in  33 
Iiours :  FIRST  steam  navigation  on 
record  -  ...  1807 

The  next  three  steam-boats  in  the  world 
were  the  Car  of  Neptune,        -       -  ISOS 

T\\6  Paragon 1811 

The  Richmond 1812 

all  in  New  York. 

Steam  power  to  convey  coals  on  a  rail- 
way, employed  by  Blenkinsop  -        -  1811 

Stecim  vessels  first  commenced  plying 
on  the  Clyde  (first  in  Europe)      -  1812 


Steam  applied  to  printmg  in  the  Timea 
office.    See  Press      .        .        -        .  1814 

There  were  five  steam  vessels  in  Scot- 
land iParl.  Returns)  in   -        -        - 1813 

First  steam  vessel  on  the  Thames 
brought  by  Mr.  Dodd,  from  Glasgow  1815 

The  first  steamer  built  in  England  {Pari. 
Returns') 1815 

The  Savannah  steamer,  of  350  tons, 
went  from  New  York  to  Liverpool 
in  26  days     ....  July  15,  1313 

First  steamer  in  Ireland        -       -        -  1830 

Captain  Johnson  obtained  10,OOOZ.  for 
making  the  first  steam  voyage  to  In- 
dia, in  the  Enterprise,  which  sailed 
from  Falmouth       -        -      Aug.  16,  1825 

Locomotive  steam  carriages  on  rail- 
ways, at  Liverpool       -       -      Oct.  1829 

The  Railway  opened  (see  Liverpool)  ■  1830 

The  Great  Western  arrives  from  Bris- 
tol at  New  York,  and  the  Sirius  from 
Cork,  same  day,  being  their  first  voy- 
age, in  18  days       -       -       June  17, 1838 

War  steamers  built  in  England    -       -  1838 

First  steamer  of  the  Cunard  line  was 


the  Bi"itannia  to  Boston ;  after  a  pas- 
sage of  14  ds.  8  hrs.,  arrived  July  18,  ISIO 

STEAM  BOATS  in  the  UNITED  STATES.  In  1838  returns  from  23  States 
gave  an  aggregate  of  700  vessels — whole  tonnage,  153,600  tons ;  but  these 
retui'ns  were  not  complete.  The  increase  from  1838  to  1850  was  very  great : 
probably  there  are,  in  1850,  at  least  1500  vessels,  with  an  aggregate  of  300,000 
tons.  The  first  American  ocean  steamer  of  any  note  was  the  Washington, 
which  made  her  first  passage  to  Southampton  in  June  1847.  The  whole 
number  of  steam-boats,  locomotive  and  stationarj'  engines,  in  the  United 
States,  in  1838,  was  3,010. 

STEAM  VESSELS  op  the  BRITISH  EMPIRE. 

STEAM  VESSELS  BELONGING  TO  THE  BRITISH  EMPIRE  AT  THE  FOLLOWING  PERIODS; 


Year. 

England. 

iScotland. 

Ireland. 

Dependencies. 

Total. 

1814      - 

0 

5 

0 

1 

6 

1815 

-        .      3 

5 

0 

2 

10 

1820      - 

17 

14 

3 

9 

43 

1825 

-       -112 

36 

3 

17 

168 

1830      - 

-     203 

61 

31 

20 

315 

1835 

-344 

85 

68 

48 

645 

1815      - 

-     694 

139 

79 

89 

1001 

STEEL-YARD.  A  most  ancient  instrument,  the  same  that  is  translated  6a- 
lance  in  the  Pentateuci  The  Statera  Romana,  or  Roman  steel-yard,  is  men- 
tioned in  815  B.  c. 

STENOGRAPHY.  The  art  of  wi-iting  in  short-hand  is  said  to  have  been  prac- 
tised by  most  of  the  ancient  nations.  It  is  said  to  have  followed  from  the 
hieroglyphics  of  the  Egyptians.  It  is  also  attributed  to  the  poet  Ennius, 
improved  upon  by  Tyro,  Cicero's  freed-man,  and  still  more  by  Seneca.  The 
Ars  Scribendl  Characteris,  printed  about  a.  d.  1412,  is  the  oldest  system  ex- 
tant. Peter  Bales,  the  famous  penman,  published  on  stenography  in  1590. 
There  are  now  numerous  systems  of  it,  many  of  them  of  easy  acquirement 
and  great  simplicity. 

STEREOMETRY.  The  instrument  by  which  is  compassed  the  art  of  taking 
the  contents  of  vessels  of  liquids  by  gauging,  invented  about  a.  d.  1350. — 
Anderson. 

STEREOTYPE.  See  Printing.  It  is  said  that  stereotyping  was  known  in 
1711 ;  but  this  is  doubted.    It  is  said  to  have  been  suggested  by  Wm.  Ged 


STO  J  DICTION.iRY    OF   DATES.  543 

of  Edinburgh,  1735. — Nichols.  This  species  of  printing  is  ascribed  by 
others  to  Mr.  Tilloch,  1779.  The  invention  of  it  is  also  attribiited  to  Fran- 
cis Ambrose  Didot,  of  Paris,  about  that  year. — Ferguson.  But  stereotype 
printing  was  in  use  in  Holland,  in  the  last  century ;  and  a  quarto  Bible  and 
Dutch  folio  Bible  were  printed  there. — Phillips.  Stereotyping  was  intro- 
duced into  London,  by  Wilson,  in  1804. — Idem. 

STEREOTYPING.  The  foregoing  is  from  Haydn.  But  this  art  is  said  to  have 
been  invented  by  Cadwallader  Golden  of  New  York,  who  sent  the  details  of  his 
plan  in  1779  to  Dr.  Franklin,  then  in  Paris.  Franklin  communicated  the  plan 
to  Didot,  the  famous  printer,  and  Herbau,  a  German,  who  had  been  an  assist- 
ant of  Didot,  took  it  up  in  opposition  to  Didot.  It  is  affirmed,  on  good  au- 
thority, that  Herbau's  method  of  stereotjqDing  is  i^recisely  similar  to  that 
which  Golden  invented.  Stereotj'ping  was  first  actually  practised  in  New 
York  in  1813,  when  John  Watts  stereotyped  the  Larger  Gatechism.  In 
June  1815  the  Bruces  of  New  York  stereotj^ped  a  duodecimo  Bible. — Dr. 
J.  W.  Francis. 

STOGKINGS.  Those  of  silk  were  first  worn  by  Henry  II.  of  France,  1547-  In 
1560,  queen  Elizabeth  was  presented  with  a  pair  of  black  knit  silk  stock- 
ings, by  her  silk-woman,  Mrs.  Montague,  and  she  never  wore  cloth  ones 
any  more. — Huwell.  He  adds,  "  Henry  VIII.  wore  ordinarily  cloth  hose, 
except  there  came  from  Spain,  by  great  chance,  a  pair  of  silk  stockings ; 
for  Spain  very  early  abounded  with  silk."  Edward  VI.  was  presented  with 
a  pair  of  Spanish  silk  stockings  by  his  merchant,  sir  Thomas  Gresham  ;  and 
the  present  was  then  much  taken  notice  of — Idem.  Others  relate  that  Wil- 
liam Rider,  a  London  apprentice,  seeing  at  the  house  of  an  Italian  merchant, 
a  pair  of  knit  worsted  stockings  from  Mantua,  ingeniously  made  a  pair  like 
them,  which  he  presented  to  the  earl  of  Pembroke,  the  first  of  the  kind 
made  in  England,  1564. — Stowe. 

STOGKS.  The  public  funding  system  originated  in  Venice,  and  was  introduced 
into  Florence  in  1340.  The  English  funding  system  may  be  said  to  have 
had  its  rise  in  1694.  The  number  of  stockholders  in  1840  amounted  to 
337,481.  By  a  return  of  the  average  price  of  the  public  funds  by  the  com- 
missioners for  the  reduction  of  the  national, debt,  it  appears  that  Consols 
averaged  in  the  year — 


1780  -  £63  13 

6  1795 

-  £74  8 

6  1810 

-  £67  16 

3 

1825 

-  £90  0 

8 

1785  -   -  68  6 

6  1800  - 

-66  3 

3  1815  - 

-58  13 

9 

1830  - 

-89  15 

7 

1790   -   71  2 

6  1805 

-   58  14 

0  1820 

-   68  12 

0 

1840 

-   89  17 

6 

See  Public  Debt. 

STOIGS.  Disciples  of  Zeno,  the  cynic  philosopher;  they  obtained  the  name 
of  stoics  because  they  listened  to  his  instructions  and  harangues  in  a  porch 
or  portico  at  Athens,  called  in  Greek  Stoa.  Zeno  taught  that  man's  su- 
preme happiness  consisted  in  living  according  and  agreeable  to  nature  and 
reason,  and  that  God  was  the  soul  of  the  world.  The  Pharisees  aflected 
the  same  stiffness,  patience,  apathy,  austerity,  and  insensibility,  which  this 
sect  is  famous  for. — Stanley. 

STONE.  Stone  buildings  were  introduced  into  England,  a.  d.  670. '  A  stone 
bridge  was  built  at  Bow  in  1087,  and  is  accounted  the  first ;  but  a  bridge 
exists  at  Growland,  which  is  said  to  have  been  built  in  860.  See  Bridges. 
The  first  stone  building  in  Ireland  was  a  castle,  1161.  See  Building.  Stone 
china-ware  was  made  by  Wedgwood  in  1762.  Artificial  stone  for  statues 
was  manufactured  by  a  Neapolitan,  and  introduced  into  England,  1776. 
Stone  paper  was  made  in  1796. 

STONEHENGE.  Among  the  most  celebrated  monuments  of  British  antiquity. 
Said  to  have  been  erected  on  the  counsel  of  Merlin  by  Aurelius  Ambrosius, 
in  memory  of  460  Britons  who  were  murdered  by  Hengist,  the  Saxon,  a.  d^ 


544 


THE    world's   progress. 


[STO 


475. — Geoffrey  of  Monmouth.  Erected  as  a  sepulchral  monument  of  Am- 
brosius,  a.  d.  500. — Polydore  Vergil.  An  ancient  temple  of  the  Britons,  in 
which  the  Druids  oflSciated.— I>r.  Stukeley.  Tlie  Britons  had  annual  meet- 
ings at  Abury  and  Stonehenge,  where  laws  were  made,  and  justice  adminis- 
tered, and  heinous  crimes  punished,  by  bui'ning  alive  in  wicker-baskets. 

STORMS.  The  following  are  among  the  best  authenticated  and  most  memo- 
rable. In  London  a  storm  raged  which  destroyed  1500  houses,  a.  d.  944. 
One  in  several  parts  of  England,  the  sky  being  very  dark,  the  wind  coming 
from  the  S.W. ;  many  churches  were  destroyed  ;  and  in  London  500  houses 
fell,  October  5,  1091.  One  on  the  coast  of  Calais,  when  Hugh  de  Beauvais, 
and  several  thousand  foreigners,  on  their  voyage  to  assist  king  John  against 
the  barons,  perished,  1215. — Holinshed. 


It  thundered  15  days  successively,  with  tem- 
pests of  rain  and  wind,  a.d.  12:33. 

A  storm  with  violent  lightnings ;  one  flash 
passed  through  a  chamber  where  Edward 
1.  and  his  queen  were  conversing,  did  them 
no  damage,  but  killed  two  of  their  attend- 
ants: 1285. — Hoveden. 

A  violent  storm  of  hail  near  Chartres,  in 
France,  which  fell  on  the  army  of  Edward 
III.,  then  on  its  march.  The  hail  was  so 
large  that  the  army  and  horses  suffered 
very  much,  and  Edward  was  obliged  to 
conclude  a  peace,  1339. — Matt.  Paris. 

When  Richard  II. 's  queen  came  from  Bohe- 
mia, on  setting  foot  on  shore  an  awful 
storm  arose,  and  her  ship  and  a  number 
of  others  were  dashed  to  pieces  in  the  har 
bor,  Jan.  1382. — Ilolins/ied. 

Richai-d's  second  queen  also  brought  a  storm 
with  her  to  the  English  coasts,  in  which 
the  king's  baggage  was  lost,  and  many 
ships  cast  away,  1389. — Idem. 

A  hurricane  throughout  Europe,  which  did 
very  considerable  damage  ;  more  remark- 
ed in  England,  happening  Sept.  3, 1G58,  the 
day  that  Cromwell  died. — Mortimer. 

A  storm  on  the  eastern  coasts  of  England ; 
200  colliers  and  coasters  lost,  with  most  of 
their  crews,  1696. 

The  storm  called  the  "Great  Storm,"  one  of 
the  most  terrible  that  ever  raged  in  Eng- 
land. The  devastation  on  land  was  im- 
mense ;  and  in  the  harbors,  and  on  the 
coasts,  the  loss  in  shipping  and  in  lives 
was  still  greater,  Nov.  26,  1703.* 

A  snow  stoi'm  in  Sweden,  wlien  7000  Swedes, 
it  is  said,  perished  upon  the  mountains,  in 
their  march  to  attack  Dronthcim,  a.  d. 
1719. 

One  in  India,  when  many  hundreds  of  ves- 
sels were  cast  away,  a  fleet  of  Iirdiamen, 


greatly  damaged,  and  some  ships  lost,  and 
30,000  persons  perished,  Oct.  11, 1737. 

A  dreadful  hurricane  at  the  Havana ;  many 
public  edifices  and  4048  houses  were  de- 
stroyed, and  1000  inhabitants  perished, 
Oct.  25, 1768. — Annual  Register. 

An  awful  storm  in  the  north  of  England,  in 
which  many  vessels  were  destroyed,  and 
4  Dublin  packets  foundered,  Oct.  29, 1775. 

At  Surat,  in  the  East  Indies ;  destroyed  7000 
of  the  inhabitants,  April  22,  1782. 

One  hundred  and  thirty-one  villages  and 
farms  laid  waste  in  France,  1785. 

A  dreadful  hurricane,  which  ravaged  the 

.  Leeward  Islands,  from  20th  to  22d  Sept. 
1819.  At  the  Island  of  St.  Thomas  alone, 
104  vessels  were  lost. 

At  Gibraltar,  where  more  than  a  hundred 
vessels  were  destroyed,  Feb.  18,  1828. 

Awful  hurricane  on  the  western  coast  of . 
England,  and  in  Ireland.  The  storm  raged 
through  Cheshire,  Staffordshire,  and  War- 
wickshire ;  20  persons  were  killed  in  Li- 
verpool, by  the  falling  of  biuldings,  and 
100  were  drowned  in  the  neighborhood; 
the  coast  and  harbors  were  covered  with 
wrecks ;  the  value  of  two  of  the  vessels 
lost  being  nearly  half  a  million  sterling.  In 
Limerick,  Galway,  Athlone,  and  other 
places,  more  than  200  houses  were  blown 
down,  and  as  inany  more  were  burnt,  the 
wind  spreading  the  fires.  Dublin  sufler- 
ed  dreadfully ;  London  and  its  neighbor- 
hood scarcely  sustained  any  damage,  Jan. 
6-7,  1839. 

Hurricane  at  Havana,  92  vessels  sunk,  1275 
houses  destroyed,  and  1038  injured,  Oct. 
10-11,  1846. 

Hurricane  at  Antigua,  St.  Thomas,  &c.  Aug. 
21. 1848, 


STOVES.    The  ancients  used  stoves  which  concealed  the  fire,  as  the  German 
stoves  yet  do.    They  lighted  the  fire  also  in  a  large  tube  in  the  middle  of 


*  The  loss  sustained  in  London  alone  was  calculated  at  2,000.000?.  sterling.  The  number  of  per- 
sons drowned  in  the  floods  of  the  Severn  and  Thames,  and  lost  on  the  coast  of  Holland,  and  in 
ships  blown  from  their  anchors  and  never  heard  of  afterwards,  is  thought  to  have  been  8000.  Twelve 
men-of-war,  with  more  than  ISOO  men  on  board,  were  lost  within  sight  of  their  own  shore.  Trees 
were  torn  up  by  the  roots,  17,000  of  them  in  Kent  alone.  The  Eddystone  light-house  was  destroyed, 
and  in  it  the  ingenious  contriver  of  it,  Winstanley,  and  the  persons  who  were  with  him.  The  bi- 
shop of  Bath  and  Wells  and  his  lady  were  killed  in  bed  in  their  palace,  in  Somersetshire.  Multi- 
tudes of  cattle  were  also  lost;  in  one  level  15,000  sheep  were  drowned. 


sugJ  dictionary  of  dates.  545 

the  room,  the  roof  being  open.  Apartments  were  warmed  too  by  port- 
able braziers.     See  Chinnieys. 

STRASBURG.  The  attempt  at  insurrection  in  the  city  of  Strasburg,  by  Louis- 
Napoleon  Bonaparte,  a  nephew  of  the  deceased  emperor,  aided  by  two  offi- 
cers and  some  privates,  which  was  instantly  suppressed  by  the  arrest  of 
the  parties.  The  prince  was  afterwards  shipped  off  to  America  by  the 
French  government,  Oct.  29,  1836.  This  enthusiast  made  another  attempt, 
by  a  descent  at  Boulogne,  Aug.  6,  1840.     See  France: 

STRATTON-HILL,  Battle  op,  in  Devonshire,  between  the  royal  army  and  the 
forces  of  the  parliament,  headed  by  the  poet  Waller ;  in  this  battle  the 
victory  was  gained  over  the  parliamentarians,  who  lost  numbers  in  killed 
and  wounded,  and  Waller  was  obliged  to  fly  to  Bristol ;  fought  May  16, 
1643. 

STUCCO-WORK.  The  art  was  known  to  the  ancients,  and  was  much  prized 
by  them,  particiilarly  by  the  Romans,  who  excelled  in  it. — Abbe  Lenglet. 
It  was  revived  by  D'Udine  about  a.  d.  1550;  and  is  now  exquisitely  per- 
formed in  Italy  and  France,  and  is  advancing  rapidly  to  perfection  in 
England. 

STYLE.  The  style  was  altered  by  Augustus  Cassar's  ordering  leap-j'ear  to  be 
but  once  in  four  years,  and  the  month  Sextillis  to  be  called  Augustus,  8b.c. 
Again  at  Rome,  by  taking  twelve  daj^s  off  the  calendar,  a.  d.  1582.  See 
Calendar.  Introduced  into  most  of  the  other  states  of  Europe,  1710.  Act 
passed  to  change  the  style  in  England  from  the  Julian  to  the  Gregorian, 
1751.     It  took  effect  Sept.  3,  1752.     See  New  Style  and  Year. 

STYLE,  ROYAL,  of  the  KINGS  of  ENGLAND.  See  articles  Majesty  and 
Titles. 

SUBSIDIES.  Subsidies  to  the  kings  of  England  formerly  granted  in  kind,  par- 
ticularly in  wool ;  30,000  sacks  were  voted  to  Edward  III.  on  account  of  the 
war  with  France,  1340. — Anderson.  Subsidies  raised  upon  the  subjects  of 
England  for  the  last  time  by  James  I.,  1624,  but  they  were  contained  in  a 
bill  for  the  redress  of  grievances,  1639.  England  granted  subsidies  to  fo- 
reign powers  in  several  wars,  particularly  in  the  war  against  the  revolution- 
ists of  France,  and  the  war  against  Bonaparte.  One  of  the  most  remarkable 
of  these  latter  was  June  20,  1800,  when  a  treaty  of  subsidies  was  ratified  at 
Vienna,  between  Austria  and  England,  stipulating  that  the  war  should  be 
vigorouslj  prosecuted  against  France,  and  that  neither  of  the  contracting 
powers  should  enter  into  a  separate  peace.  Subsidies  to  Austria,  Prussia, 
Russia,  the  Porte,  and  other  powers,  were  afterwards  given  by  England,  to 
the  amount  of  many  tens  of  millions  sterling. — Phillips. 

SUB-TREASURY.  Bill  providing  for  the  safe  keeping  of  the  moneys  belonging 
to  the  United  States,  passed  the  Senate  by  24  to  l8,  Jan.  23,  1840  ;  repealed 
Aug.  9,  1841.    Re-enacted  in  a  new  form,  184-. 

SUCCESSION,  ACT  op.  The  memorable  act  to  exclude  Roman  Catholics 
from  ascending  the  throne  of  Great  Britain  was  passed  in  1689 ;  and  the 
crown  of  England  was  settled  upon  the  present  royal  family  by  the  act  of 
June  12,  1701. 

SUCCESSION,  The  WAR  of.  This  celebrated  war,  alike  distinguished  by 
the  glorious  achievements  of  the  duke  of  Marlborough  and  its  barren  and 
unprofitable  results,  arose  m  the  question  whether  an  Austrian  or  a  French 
prince,  grandson  of  Louis  XIV.,  should  succeed  to  the  throne  of  Spain. 
Our  court  opposed  Louis,  and  Marlborough  was  victorious ;  but  the  allies 
withdrew,  one  after  another,  and  the  French  prince  succeeded ;  1702  to 
1713.     See  Utrecht,  Peace  of. 

SUGAR,  Saccharum  officinaruvi.    Sugar  is  supposed  to  have  been  known  to  the 


546  THE  world's  progress.  [  SUI. 

ancient  Jews.  Found  in  the  East  Indies  by  Nearchus,  admiral  of  Alexander, 
325  B.  c. — Strabo.  An  oriental  nation  in  alliance  with  Pompey  used  the 
juice  of  the  cane  as  a  common  beverage. — Lucan.  The  best  sugar  was 
produced  in  India. — Pliny.  It  was  prescribed  as  a  medicine  by  Galen. — 
Encyclop.  Brought  into  Europe  from  Asia,  a.  d.  625.  In  large  quantities, 
1150.  It  was  attempted  to  be  cultivated  in  Italy;  but  not  succeeding,  the 
Portuguese  and  Spaniards  carried  it  to  America  about  1510. — Robertson's 
History  of  Charles  V* 

SUGAR-REFINING.  The  art  of  refining  sugar  was  made  known  to  the  Eu- 
ropeans by  a  Venetian,  a.  d.  1503.  It  was  hrst  practised  in  England  in  1659. 
though  some  authorities  say  that  we  had  the  art  among  us  a  few  years 
sooner.  Sugar  was  first  taxed  by  name,  1  James  11.,  1685. — Anderson ;  Mor- 
timer.    See  Beet  Root. 

SUICIDE.  The  first  instance  of  it  (passing  that  of  Samson)  recorded  in  Jewish 
history  is  that  of  Saul,  1055  b.  c. — ApoUodoriis.  The  Greek  and  Roman 
philosophers  deemed  it  a  crime,  and  burned  the  offending  hand  apart  from 
the  rest  of  the  bodJ^  In  the  earlj^  part  of  the  Roman  history,  the  only  in- 
stance recorded  occurs  ia  the  reign  of  Tarquin  I.,  when  the  soldiers,  tliink- 
ing  themselves  disgraced  by  being  ordered  to  make  common  sewers,  des- 
troyed themselves,  606  b.  c.  Instances  afterwards  occurred,  however,  of 
illustrious  men  committing  suicide,  as  Cato,  45  b.  c.  In  the  Catholic  church, 
in  the  sixth  century,  it  was  ordained  that  no  commemoration  should  bo 
made  in  the  Eucharist  for  such  as  committed  self-murder.  This-  ecclesias- 
tical law  continued  till  the  Reformation,  when  it  was  admitted  into  the 
statute  law  of  England  by  the  authority  of  parliament,  with  the  confiscation 
of  land  and  goods. 

A  FEW   OP   THE   MOST   MEMORABLE   RECENT    CASES   OP    SUICIDE   IN  ENGLAND,   &C. 


Of  Mr.  Simpson,  the  traveller  July  24,  1840 
or  I(ml  James  Beresford  -  April  27,  18-11 
Of  the  earl  of  Mimster  -  March  20.  18=12 
Of  Laman  Blanchard  -  -  Feb.  25;  1845 
Of  col.  Gurvvood  -  -  Dec.  29, 1845 
Of  Haydon,  the  eminent  painter 

June  22,  ]8'15 


Suicide  of  gen.  Pichegru  -  April  7,  1804 
Of  marshal  Berthier  -  -  June  1,  1815 
OfSamuel  Whitbred,  esq.  •  Sept.  6,  1815 
Of  sir  Samuel  Romilly  -  -  Nov.  2,  1818 
Of  Christophe,  king  oi"  Hayti  Oct.  8, 1820 
Of  marquess  of  Londonderry  Aug.  12,1822 
Of  hon.  colonel  Stanhope     -    Jan.  26,  1825 

There  have  been  only  three  instances  of  self-destruction  by  fire ;  that  of 
the  philosopher  Empedocles,  who  threw  himself  into  the  crater  of  Mount 
Etna ;  of  a  Frenchman,  who,  in  imitation  of  him,  threw  himself,  in  1820, 
into  the  crater  of  Vesuvius  ;  and  of  an  Englishman,  who  jumped  into  the 
furnace  of  a  forge  about  the  year  1811.  Plutarch  relates  that  an  unaccount- 
able passion  for  suicide  seized  the  Milesian  virgins,  from  which  thej'-  could 
not  be  prevented  bj'  the  tears  and  prayers  of  their  friends ;  but  a  decree 
being  issued  that  the  body  of  every  young  maid  who  did  self-murder  should 
be  drawn  naked  through  the  streets,  a  stop  was  soon  put  to  the  extraordi- 
nary frenzy.  In  England,  the  body  was  buried  in  cross-roads,  a  stake  being 
previously  driven  through  it,  until  the  statute  4  George  IV.,  1823. 
SULTAN.  A  Turkish  title,  from  the  Arabic,  signifying  Jang  of  kings,  and 
given  to  the  grand  signior  or  emperor  of  Turkey.  It  was  first  given  to  the 
Turkish  princes  Angrolipex  and  Musgad,  about  a.  d.  1055. —  Vatticr.     It 

*  About  the  year  1 138  the  sugar-cane  was  transported  from  Tripoli  and  Syria  to  Sicily,  thence 
to  Madeira.,  and  finally  to  the  West  Indies  and  America.  It  is  not  known  at  vchat  date  su^ar 
was  introduced  into  England,  but  it  seems  to  have  been  prior  to  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.  Mr. 
Whittaker,  in  the  History  of  Whalley,  p.  109,  quotes  an  earlier  instance,  in  1497.  A  manuscript 
;ettei-,  from  sir  Edward  Wotton  to  lord  Cobham,  dated  Calais,  6th  March,  1546,  advertises  him  that 
sir  Edward  had  taken  up  for  his  lordship,  25  sugar  loaves  at  six  shillings  a  loaf,  "  whiche  is  eighte 
penco  a  pounde."  In  1840,  the  imports  of  sugar  into  the  United  Kingdom  were  nearly  5,000,000  cwts., 
"if  which  nearly  four  millions  were  for  home  consumption;  and  the  duty  amounted  to  about  five 
•nillion:;  and  a  half  sterling. 


SUP  ]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  547 

was  first  given,  according  to  others,  to  the  emperor  Mahmoud,  in  the  fourth 
century  of  the  Hegira. 

SUMMATRA,  Island  of.  The  Malays  at  Qualla  Battoo  having  committed 
piracies  on  American  vessels,  the  town  was  destroyed  by  the  United  States 
frigate  Potomac,  and  150  Malays  killed,  Feb.  6,  1832. 

SUMPTUARY  LAWS.  Laws  to  restrain  excess  in  dress,  furniture,  eating,  &c. 
Those  of  Zaleucus  ordained  that  no  Avoman  should  go  attended  by  more 
than  one  maid  in  the  street,  unless  she  were  drunk ;  and  that  she  should 
not  wear  gold  or  embroidered  apparel,  unless  she  designed  to  act  unchastely, 
450  B.  c. — Diog.  Laert.  This  law  checked  luxury.  The  Lex  Orchia  among 
the  Romans  limited  the  guests  at  feasts,  and  the  number  and  quality  of  the 
dishes  at  an  entertainment ;  and  it  also  enforced  that  during  supper,  which 
was  the  chief  meal  among  the  Romans,  the  doors  of  every  house  should  be 
left  open.  The  English  sumptuary  laws  were  chiefly  in  the  reigns  of  Ed- 
ward III.  and  Henrj^  VIII.     See  Dress,  Luxury,  &c. 

SUN.  Pythagoras  taught  that  the  sun  was  one  of  the  twelve  spheres,  about 
529  B.  c.  The  relative  distances  of  the  sun  and  moon  were  first  calculated 
geometrically  by  Aristarchus,  who  also  maintained  the  stability  of  the  sun, 
about  280  b.  c.  Numerous  theories  were  ventured  during  fifteen  centuries, 
and  astronomy  lay  neglected  until  about  a.  d.  1200,  when  it  was  brought 
into  Europe  by  the  Moors  of  Barbary  and  Spain.  The  Copernican  system, 
was  made  kno'svn  in  1530.  See  Copernican  System  and  Solar  System.  Ga- 
lileo and  Newton  maintained  that  the  sun  was  an  igneous  globe.  Macute 
were  first  discovered  byChr.  Scheiner,  1611.  Transit  of  Mercury  observed 
by  Gassendi.  By  the  observations  of  Dr.  Halley  on  a  spot  which  darkened 
the  sun's  disk  in  July  and  August,  1676,  he  established  the  certainty  of  its 
motion  round  its  own  axis.  Parallax  of  the  sun.  Dr.  Halley,  1702.  A  ma- 
cula, three  times  the  size  of  the  earth,  passed  the  sun's  centre,  April  21, 
1766,  and  frequently  since.  Herschel  measured  two  spots  whose  length 
taken  together  exceeded  50,000  miles,  April  19,  1779. 

SUN-DIALS.  Invented  by  Anaximander,  550  b.  c— Pliny,  1,  2.  The  first 
erected  at  Rome  was  that  by  Papirius  Cursor,  when  the  time  was  divided 
into  hours,  298  b.  c.  Sun-dials  were  first  set  up  in  churches,  a.  d.  613.-^ 
Abbe  Lenglet. 

SUNDAY,  OR  LORD'S  DAY.  Sunday  was  the  day  on  which,  anciently,  di- 
vine adoration  was  paid  to  the  Sun.  Among  Christians  it  is  called  the 
Lord's  daj^,  on  account  of  our  Saviour's  rising  from  the  dead  on  that 
day,  which,  according  to  the  Jewish  account,  was  the  next  day  after  the 
sabbath.  The  apostles  transferred  that  religious  rest  observed  by  the  Jews 
on  the  sabbath  to  this  day.  The  first  civil  law  for  its  proper  observance 
■was  made  by  Constantino,  a.d.  321. — E-usebius.  The  council  of  Orleans 
prohibited  country  labor,  338.  The  Book  of  Innocent  Simday  Sports,  au- 
thorizing certain  sports  and  pastimes  after  divine  service  on  Sundays,  pub- 
lished in  England  14  James  I.  in  1617,  was  violently  opposed  by  the  clergy 
and  puritans.  Its  sanction  by  the  unfortunate  Charles  I.  was  a  primary 
cause  of  the  civil  war  which  ended  in  his  death.  This  book  was  burnt  by 
the  hangman,  and  the  sports  suppressed  by  order  of  parliament. — Ra.pin. 
Sunday  schools  were  established  in  England  first  by  Mr.  Raikes  in  1780. 
Act  of  parliament  closing  all  the  post-offices  on  Sunday  passed  May  1850. 

SUPREMACY  OVER  the  CHURCH.  The  supremacy  of  the  king  over  the 
church  as  well  as  sovereignty  over  the  state,  whereby  the  king  was  made 
head  of  the  church  of  England,  was  established  in  1534,  when  Henry  VHI. 
shook  olF  the  yoke  of  Rome,  and  settled  the  supremacy  in  himself  Our 
kings  have  from  that  time  had  the  title  of  supreme  head  of  the  church  con- 
ferred upon  them  by  parliament.    The  bishop  of  Rochester  (Fisher)  and 


§48  THE  world's   PKOGRESS.  [  SWB 

the  ex-lord  chancellor  (sir  Thomas  More)  were,  among  numerous  others, 
beheaded  for  denying  the  king's  supremacy,  1535. — Haydn. 

SURGERY.  It  was  not  until  the  age  of  Hippocrates  that  diseases  were  made 
a  separate  study  from  philosophy,  &c.,  about  410  b.  c.  Hippocrates  mentions 
the  ambe,  the  ancient  instrument  with  which  they  reduced  dislocated  bones. 
Celsus  flourished  about  a.  d.  17  ;  Galen,  170 ;  -S^tius,  500  ;  Paulus  ^gineta 
in  640.  The  Arabians  revived  surgery  about  900 ;  and  in  the  16th  century 
sprung  up  a  new  era  in  the  science ;  between  these  periods  surgery  was 
confined  to  ignorant  priests  or  barbers.  Anatomy  was  cultivated  under  the 
illustrious  Vesalius,  the  father  of  modern  surgery,  in  1538.  In  England 
surgeons  and  doctors  were  exempted  from  bearing  arms  or  serving  on  juries, 
1513,  at  which  period  there  were  only  thirteen  in  London. 

SURGEONS,  College  of.  The  first  charter  for  surgeons  was  granted  by  Hen- 
ry VIII.,  1540.  Formerly  bai'bers  and  surgeons  were  united,  until  it  was 
enacted  that  "no  person  using  any  shaving  or  barbery  in  London  shall 
occupy  any  surgery,  letting  of  blood,  or  other  matter,  excepting  only  the 
drawing  of  teeth."  The  surgeons  obtained  another  charter  in  1745 ;  and 
a  new  charter  in  1800. 

SURPLICES.  First  worn  by  the  Pagan  priests.  First  used  in  churches,  a.  d. 
316,  and  generally  introduced  by  pope  Adrian,  786.  Every  minister  saying 
public  prayers  shall  wear  a  comely  surplice  with  sleeves,  Can.  58.  The 
garb  prescribed  by  Stat.  2  Edward  VI.,  1547  ;  and  again  1  Elizabeth,  1558  ; 
and  13  and  14  Charles  IL,  1662. 

SUSPENSION  BRIDGES.  The  greatest  and  oldest  in  the  world  is  in  China, 
near  King-tung ;  it  is  formed  of  chains.  Rope  suspension  bridges,  from 
rocks  to  rocks,  are  also  of  Chinese  origin.  In  these  realms  chain  suspen- 
sion bridges  are  of  recent  construction.  The  bridge  over  the  Menai  Strait 
is  the  most  surprising  Avork,  every  way  considered,  of  modern  times. 

SUTTEES,  OR  THE  BURNING  of  WIDOWS.  This  custom  began  in  India  from 
one  of  the  wives  of  "  Bramah,  the  son  of  God,"  sacrificing  herself  at  his 
death,  that  she  might  attend  him  in  heaven.  So  many  as  seventeen  widows 
have  burned  themselves  on  the  funeral  pile  of  a  rajah  ;  and  in  Bengal  alone, 
700  have  thus  perished,  until  lately,  in  each  year.  Mr.  Holwell was  present 
at  many  of  these  sacrifices.  On  February  4.  1743,  he  saw  a  young  and 
beautiful  creature,  only  seventeen  years  of  age,  the  mother  of  two  children, 
thus  sacrifice  herself,  with  a  fortitude  and  courage  that  astonished  every 
witness  of  the  scene. — HolwcU.  The  English  government  in  India  have  dis- 
couraged these  s-lf-immolations,  while  yet  avoiding  any  undue  interference 
with  the  religion  and  prejudices  of  the  natives.  Suttees  were  abolished  by 
English  colonial  law,  Dec.  7,  1829 ;  but  they  have  since  occasionally,  though 
rarely,  taken  place. 

SWEARING  ON  THE  GOSPEL.  First  used  a.  d.  528.  Introduced  in  judicial 
proceedings  about  600. — Rapin.  Frofane  Swearing  made  punishable  by 
fine ;  a  laborer  or  servant  forfeiting  Is.,  others  2s.  for  the  first  offence  ;  for 
the  second  offence,  4s. ;  the  third  offence,  6s. ;  6  William  III.,  1695.  See 
Oaths. 

SWEDEN.  The  ancient  inhabitants  were  the  Fins,  now  the  modem  inhabi- 
tants of  Finland,  a  diminutive  race,  who  retired  to  their  present  territory 
on  the  appearance  of  the  Scandinavians  or  Goths,  who  have  ever  since  been 
masters  of  the  country. 

Gylf  reigns  in  Sweden  -        -        -  B.C.     57  1       barbarians,  falls  upon  the  North  of 
During  this  reign,  Odin,  sumamed  the  Europe,  making  vasts  conquests       .  •*•• 

Divine,  at  the  head  of  a  swarm  ol  | 


SWE  j 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES. 


549 


SWEDEN,  contbmed. 

Ynge,  founder  of  the  family  of  the  Yn- 

lingars,  reigns  -  -  -      B.C.      32 

[Tlie  early  histoiy  of  the  kingdom  is 
altogether  involved  in  fables  and  ob- 
scurity.] 

Olif  the  Infant  is  baptized,  and  intro- 
duces Christianity  among  his  people, 
about      .  -  .  .    A.D.  1000 

Gothland,  so  celebrated  for  its  warlike 
people  and  invasions  of  other  coim- 
tries,  is  annexed  to  Sweden    -  -  1132 

Waldemar  I.  of  Denmark  subdues  Ru- 

gen,  and  destroys  the  Pagan  temples  1168 
Stockholm  founded         -  -  -  1260 

Magnus  Ladelus  establishes  a  regular 

form  of  government    -  -  -  1279 

Tlie  crown  of  Sweden,  which  had  been 
hereditary,  is  made  elective  ;  and 
Steenchel  Magnus,  surnamed  Smeek, 
or  the  Foolish,  king  of  Norway,  is 

elected  1318 

Waldemar  lays  Gothland  waste  -  -  1361 

The  crown  niade  elective    -  -        1320 

Albert  of  Mecklenburg  reigns    -  -1365 

Sweden  united  to  the  crowiiof  Denmark 

and  Norway,  under  Margaret     -         1394 
University  of  Upsal  founded         -        -  t476 
Christian  II.,  "  tlie  Nero  of  the  North," 
massacres  all  the  Svvedisli  nobility,  to 
fix  his  despotism         -  -  -  1520 

The  Swedes  delivered  from  the  Danish 

yoke  by  the  valor  of  Guslavus  Vasa  1523 
He  makes  the  crown  hereditary,  and 

introduces  the  reformed  religion        -  1544 
The  titles  of  count  and  baron  introduced 

by  Eric  XIV.    .  -  -  .  1561 

.The  conquests  of  Gustavus  Adolphus, 

between  1612  and        -  -  -  1617 

He  is  slain  at  Lutzen      -  -  -  1633 

Rugen  ceded  to  Sweden  by  Denmark  -  1648 
Abdicatiori  of  Christina  -  -  -  1654 

Charles  X.  overruns  Poland      -  -  1657 

Arts  and  sciences  begin  to  flourish        -  1660 
Charles    XII.,  ''  the  madman  of  the 

North,"  begins  his  reign         -  -  1699 

He  makes  himself  absolute  abolishes 
the  senate         -  -  .  • » >  • 

KINGS   OP 

A  1)   825  Regnard  Lobrock. 
*  * '   "Reigns  uncertain.] 

906  Eric,  the  Victor. 

994  Olaf,  or  Olif  Sckotkong. 
1026  Edmund  Jacobson. 
1035  Edmund,  or  Amaod  III. 
1041  Haquin. 

1056  Stenkell,  or  Steenchel. 
1060  Ingo  I. ;  assassinated  by  his  brother. 
1064  Halstan. 
1080  Philip. 

1100  Ingo  II. ;  died  in  a  monastery. 
1130  Ragwald ;  murdered  by  the  Visigoths. 
1133  Magnus  I. ;  assassinated  in  Scania. 
1144  Suercher  II. 

1150  EricX. ;  beheaded  by  rebels. 
1162  Charles  VII. ;  made  prisoner  by  Ca- 
nute, who  reigns. 
1168  Canute,  son  of  Eric  X. 
1192  Suercher  III.,  son  of  Charles ;  killed  in 

battle. 
1211  Eric  XI. 
1220  John  1. 


Battle  of  Pultowa,  where  Charlea  is 
defeated  by  the  czar  of  Russia.  See 
Pultowa  -  -  -     A.D.  1709 

He  escapes  to  Bender,  where  after  three 
years'  protection,  he  is  made  prison- 
er by  the  Turks  -  -  -  1713 

He  is  restored ;  and  after  ruinous  wars, 
and  fighting  numerous  battles,  he  is 
at  length  killed  at  the  siege  of  Frede- 
rickshall        -  -  -  Dec.  11,  1718 

Queen  Ulrica  Eleanor  abolishes  despot- 
K  government  -  -  -  .  1719 

Royal  Academy  founded  by  Linne,  af- 
terwards called  Linnffius        -  - 1741 

Conspiracy  of  counts  Brahe  and  Home, 
who  are  beheaded  -  -      -  1756 

Despotism  re-established  ■  -  1772 

Order  of  the  Sword  instituted        -      -  1772 

Assassination  of  Gustavus  III.  by  .  cunt 
Ankerstrom,  at  a  ball,  March  16 :  he 
expired  the  29th  -  -  -  1792 

The  regicide  was  dreadfully  scourged 
with  whips  of  iron  thongs  three  suc- 
cessive days ;  his  right  hand  was  cut 
off,  then  his  head,  and  his  body  im- 
paled -  -  -     May  18, 1792 

Gustavus  IV.  dethroned,  and  the  go- 
vernment assumed  by  his  uncle,  the 
duke  of  Stidermania      -     March  13,  1809 

Sweden  cedes  Finland  to  the  czar  of 
Russia         -  -  -    Sept.  17,  1809 

Marshal  Bernadotte,  the  prince  of  Ponte 
Corvo,  is  chosen  the  crown  prince  of 
Sweden  -  -  Aug.  21,  1810 

Gustavus  IV.  arrived  in  London, 

Nov.  12,  1810 

Swedish  Pomerania  seized  by  Napo- 
leon Bonaparte  -  -  Jan.  9,  1812 

Alliance  with  England       -      July  12,  1812 

Sweden  joins  the  grand  alliance  against 
Napoleon         -  -        March  13,  1813 

Norway  is  ceded  to  Sweden  by  the  trea- 
ty of  Kiel  -  -  Jan.  14,  1814 

Bernadotte  ascends  the  throne  of  Swe- 
den as  Charles  John  XIV.    -    Feb.  5,  1818 

Treaty  of  navigation  between  Great 
Britain  and  Sweden       -        May  19,  1826 

SWEDEN. 

1223  Eric  XII. 

12.50  Waldemar. 

1276  Magnus  II. 

1290  Birger  II. 

1318  Magnus^IlI. ;  dethroned  by  his  subjects 

1365  Albert. 

1397  Margaret. 

1411  EricXIII. ;  abdicated. 

1441  Christopher. 

1448  Charles  VIII. 

1458  Christian  I. 

1497  John  II. 

1520  Christian  II. 

1528  Gustavus  I.,  Vasa. 

1556  Eric  XIV. ;  died  in  prison. 

1569  John  III. 

1592  Sigismond  I.,  king  ot  Poland. 

1606  Charles  IX. 

1611  Gustavus  Adolphus  II. 

1632  Christina ;  resigned  her  crown  to 

1654  Charles  X.,  Gustavus  duke  of  Deux 

Fonts. 
1660  Charles  XI. 


550 


THE   world's    progress. 


I.SWU 


1771  GustavusIII.,  Adolphus. 

1792  Gustavus  Adolphus  IV. 

1809  Charles  XIII. 

1818  Charles  .John  XIV.,  Beruadotte,  Feb.  5. 

1844  Oscar,  his  son,  March  8. 


SWEDEN,  continued. 

1699  Charles  XII.;   killed  at  the  siege  of 

Frederickshall. 
1718  Ulrica  Eleanora ;  resigned  when  her 

husband  was  elected. 
1720  Frederick,  landgrave  of  Hesse-Cassel. 
1751  AdoJphus  Frederick,  duke  of  Holstein. 

SWEDENBORGIANS.  A  sect  of  mystics,  so  called  from  the  learned  but  ec- 
centric Emanuel  Swedenborg,  a  Swedish  nobleman.  He  considered  the  New 
Jerusalem,  foretold  in  the  Apocalypse,  to  be  a  church  now  about  to  be  es- 
tablished, in  which  will  be  known  the  true  nature  of  God  and  of  man,  of 
the  Word,  of  heaven  and  of  hell — concerning  all  which  subjects  error  and 
ignorance  now  prevail,  and  in  which  church  this  knowledge  will  bear  its 
])roper  fruits — love  to  the  Lord  and  to  one's  neighbor,  and  purity  of  life. 
His  first  work  on  theology  was  published  in  1743  ;  his  sect  rose  about  1760, 
but  it  did  not  spread  in  England  until  1782.  His  doctrines  have  a  conside- 
rable number  of  respectable  advocates  in  the  United  States. 

SWITZERLAND.  The  ancient  Helvetians  were  a  Gaulish  people,  conquered 
by  Julius  Caesar,  and  afterwards  subject  to  the  Burgundians  and  Germans. 
Many  Franks  also  settled  here  in  the  early  ages.  The  canton  of  Schweitz 
was  peopled  by  the  Cimbrians,  who,  leaving  their  original  habitation  in 
Scandinavia,  invaded  Italy,  and  were  defeated  by  the  Roman  general  Marius ; 
after  which  they  fled  into  Helvetia,  about  100  b.  c.  This  canton  has  given 
name  to  the  whole  confederacy. 


The  Helvetiann  converted  to  Christian- 
ity by  Irish  missionaries     -        a.  d.    612 
Helvetia  ravaged  by  the  Huns    -         -    909 
Becomes  subject  to  Germany         -      -  1032 
Fribourg  built  by  Berthold  IV.   -         -  1179 
Tyranny  of  Geszler,  which  occasions 
the  memorable  revolt  under  the  pa- 
triot William  Tell.  -  -  1306 
Swiss  independence        -           Nov.  7,  1307 
A  malignant  fever  carries  off,  in  the  can- 
ton of  Basle,  11,000  souls        -  -  1314 
Form  of  government  made  perpetual  -  1315 
Lucerne  joins  the  confederacy       -      •  1335 
The  canton  of  Zurich  joins,  and  be- 
comes head  of  the  league       -  -  13o0 
Berne,  Glaris,  and  Zug'join           -      -  1351 
The  Grisons  league  (see  Caddee)       ■  1400 
Second  league  of  the  Grisons         -      -  1424 
The  third  league  of  the  Grisons  -  1436 
Swiss  soldiers  first  enter  into  the  pay 

of  France,  under  Louis  XI.         -      -1480 
Union  of  Fribourg  and  Soleure  -  14S1 

Maximilian  I.   emperor,  acnowledges 

Swiss  independence    -  -  -  1499 

Scharfhausen  joins  the  union         -      -1501 
The  Swiss  confederacy  acknowledged 

by  France  and  other  powers  -  1516 

The  Reformation  begins  at  Basle  ;  the 

bishop  compelled  to  retire  -      -  1519 

The  Grison  leagues  join  the  Swiss  con- 
federacy as  allies        -  -  -  1514 
Appenzel  joins  ihe  other  cantons         -  1597 
Charles  Emanuel  of  Savoy  attempts 
Geneva  by  surprise,  scales  the  walls, 
and  penetrates  the  town  ;  but  in  the 
end  is  defeated             -           -  -  1602 
[This  circumstance  gives  rise  to  an  an- 
nual festival  commemorative  of  their 
escape  from  tyranny.] 


Independence  of  Switzerland  recognized 
by  the  treaty  of  Westphalia  (see 
Wes/phalia,  Peace  of }  -    a.  D.  1648 

[From  this  period  until  the  French  Re- 
volution the  canton  enjoyed  tranquil- 
Jity,  disturbed  only  by  the  changes 
arising  out  of  their  various  constitu- 
tions.] 

Alliance  with  France  -     May  25,  1777 

Domestic  sti'ife  in  Geneva,  between  the 
aristocratic  and  democratic  parties; 
France  interferes         -  -  -  1781 

1000  fugitive  Genevans  seek  an  asylum 
in  Ireland  (see  Geneva)         ■  •  1782 

Swiss  guards  ordered  to  quit  France    -  1792 

Helvetic  confederatioia  dissolved;  its 
subjugation  by  France  -  - 1798 

The  number  of  cantons  increased  to  19 : 
the  federal  government  restored;  and 
a  landamman  appointed  by  France, 

May  12,  1802 

Uri,  Schweitz,  and  Undervvald  separate 
from  the  republic  -        July  13, 1802 

Switzerland  joins  France  with  6,000 
men      -  -  -  Aug.  24,  1811 

The  Allies  entered  Switzerland  in  the 
spring  of  1814.  The  number  of  can- 
tons increased  to  22,  and  the  indepen- 
dence of  Switzerland  secured  by  the 
treaty  of  Vienna  -  -  -  1815 

Federal  diet  opened        -  Oct.  16,  1847 

—  passes  resolves  against  the  Sonder- 
bund,  and  troops  of  Uri  attack  canton 
Tessino  -  -  Nov.  4, 1847 

Forces  of  the  diet  attack  Friburg,  Nov. 
10,  and  take  Lucerne        -    Nov.  24,  1847 

Neufchatel  declares  independence, 

Feb.  29,  1848 


SWORDS. 

1879   E. 


They  were  formed  of  iron  taken  from  a  mountain  by  the  Chinese, 
c. —  UiiU-.   Hisl.      The  sword  is  one   of  th<    earliest  implements 


syr] 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  551 


of  war.  The  Roman  swords  were  from  20  to  30  inches  long.  The  broad- 
sword and  scimitar' are  of  modern  adoption.  The  sword  of  state  carried  at 
an  English  king's  coronation  by  a  king  of  Scotland,  1194.  Damascus  steel 
swords  are  the  most  prized ;  and  next,  the  sword  of  Ferrara  steel.  The 
Scotch  Highlanders  were  accustomed  to  procure  the  latter  from  a  celebrated 
artificer,  named  Andrea  di  Ferrara,  and  used  to  call  them  their  Andrew 
Pcrraras.  The  broad-sword  was  forbidden  to  be  worn  in  Edinburgh  in 
1724. 

SYCAMORE-TREE.  This  tree  is  called  by  some  the  Egyptian  Fig-tree.  The 
date  of  its  being  planted  in  England  is  not  known,  but  it  was  very  early. 
In  Mrs.  Jamieson's  Memoirs  of  Female  Sovereigns,  we  are  told  that  Mary 
queen  of  Scots  brought  over  from  France  a  little  sycamore-tree,  which  she 
planted  in  the  gardens  of  Holyrood,  and  that  from  this  little  tree  have 
sprung  all  the  beautifal  groves  of  sycamore  now  to  be  seen  in  Scotland. 

SYDNEY,  New  South  Wales.  Founded  by  governor  Philip,  on  a  cove  of  Port 
Jackson,  in  1788.  as  a  British  settlement  for  the  colony  of  convicts  originally 
intended  for  Botany  Bay  ;  but  now  the  principal  seat  of  the  government  of 
the  colony.  It  was  denominated  S3^dney  in  compliment  to  lord  Sydney. 
The  town  is  now  becoming  considerable  in  extent  and  population  ;  and  it 
has  a  legislative  council,  which  was  tirst  held  July  13,  1829.  See  New  South 
Wales;  Convicts,  C^c. 

SYNAGOGUE.  Authors  are  not  agreed  as  to  the  time  when  the  Jews  first  had 
synagogues.  Some  refer  it  to  the  time  of  the  ceremonial  law,  and  others 
to  the  times  after  the  Babylonish  captivity.  In  Jerusalem  were  480  syna- 
gogues.    There  are  in  London  six  synagogues. 

SYNOD.  The  first  general  synods  were  called  by  emperors,  and  afterwards  by 
Christian  princes ;  but  the  pope  ultimately  usurped  this  power,  one  of  his 
legates  usuallj'  ijresiding  (see  Councils).  National,  were  those  of  one  nation 
only.  The  first  of  this  kind  held  in  England  was  at  Hertford,  a.  d.  673  :  the 
last  was  held  by  cardinal  Pole  in  1555.  Made  unlawful  to  hold  synods  but 
by  royal  authority,  25  Henry  VIII. ,  1533. 

SYNOD  OF  DORT.  The  famous,  or  general  assembly  of  Dort  in  Holland,  to 
which  deputies  were  sent  from  England  and  all  the  reformed  churches  in 
Europe,  to  settle  the  difference  between  the  doctrines  of  Luther,  Calvin, 
and  Arminius,  principally  upon  the  points  of  justification  and  grace,  1618. 
— Aitzema. 

SYRACUSE.  Founded  by  Archias,  732  b.  c.—Eusebius.  749  b.  c— Univ.  Hist. 
Taken  by  Marcellus,  when  Archimedes,  the  illustrious  mathematician,  v/as 
slain,  212  b.  c.  (see  Sicily).  Syracuse  was  destroyed  by  an  earthquake,  with 
many  thousands  of  its  inhabitants,  January  1693.  Again  nearly  destroyed, 
Aug.  6,  1757. 

SYRIA.  Of  the  early  history  of  ancient  Syria,  a  few  particulars  are  gleaned 
from  Scripture ;  and  it  otherwise  aftbrds  nothing  peculiar,  being  involved 
in  the  histories  of  the  Assyrian,  Babylonian,  and  Persian  empires  {which 
see).  The  capital  of  Syria  was  originally  Damascus  ;  but  after  the  battle 
of  Ipsus,  Seleucus  (the  chief  of  the  Seleucidte)  founded  the  celebrated  city 
of  Antioch. 


Seleucus,  surnamed  Nicator,  i.  e.  Con- 
queror, enters  Babylon      -        -    B.C.  312 

jEra  of  tlie  Seleucidce  (2t)AicA  see)        •   312 

Great  Battle  of  Ipsus,  defeat  and  death 
ofAntieonus     •        -  -  -       301 

City  of  Antioch  founded     ■  -  299 


Aniiochus,  son  of  Seleucus,  falling  in 
love  with  his  faihe.s'  queen,  Straton- 
ice,  he  pines  away  nearly  to  death ; 
but  the  secret  being  discovered,  she 
is  divorced  by  the  father  and  married 
by  tlie  son.'      -  -  -     e.g.    297 


*  This  is  related  as  one  of  ihe  most  stranse  events  connected  with  the  early  history  of  physia 
Erasistratus,  the  illustrious  lather  of  anaioiny  (jointly  with  Ilerophilu.s),  had  observed,  than  when- 


552 


THE   world's    progress. 


[SYR 


SYRIA,  continued. 

Battle  of  Cyropsedion         •  -B.C. 

Seleucus  i3  foully  assassinated  by  Ce- 
raunus. — Lenglet. 

Antlochus  defeats  the  Gauls,  and  takes 
the  name  of  Soier,  or  Saviour 

Reign  of  Antiochus  II. ,  surnamed  by  the 
Milesi^s  Theos,  or  God  ! 

Seleucus  11.  makes  a  treaty  of  alliance 
with  Smyrna  and  Magnesia'   - 

Reign  of  Seleucus  III.,  surnamed  Ce- 
raunus,  or  Thunder    - 

Battle  of  Raphia,  in  which  Antiochus 
III.  is  signally  defeated 

Antiochus'  conquest  of  Judea  - 

War  with  the  Romans  begins  - 

Reign  of  Antiochus  IV.,  who  assumes 
the  title  of  Theos-Epqyhanes,  or  the 
Illustrious  God! 

He  sends  Appolonius  into  Judea ;  Jeru- 
salem is  taken;  the  temple  pillaged; 
40,000  inhabitants  destroyed  ;  and 
40.000  more  sold  as  slaves 

Cleopatra,  the  queen,  murders  her  son 
Seleucus  with  her  own  hand 

Reign  of  her  son  Antiochus  Grypus, 
whom  she  attempts  to  poison ;  but  he 
compels  his  mother  to  swallow  the 
deadly  draught  herself 

Reign  of  Cyzicenus  at  Damascus,  and 
of  Grypus  at  Antioch 

Defeat  of  Tigranes  by  Pompey,  who  en- 
ters Syria,  and  dethrones  Aniiochus 
Asiatichus,  about 


Conquest  of  Syria  -  -     a.d.    970 

[This  conquest  is  made  by  the  Fatimite 

caliphs  who  rule  in  Egypt.] 
Revolt  of  the  emirs  of  Damascus         -  1067 
The  emirs  of  Aleppo  revolt       -  -  106S 

The  Crusades  from  Europe  commence 

(see  article  Crusades')  -  -  1095 

[The  Christians  ultimately  conquer  that 

part  of  Syria  called  the  Holy  Land. — 

See  Jerusalem.'] 


Noureddin  conquers  Syria  -  a.d.  1166 
Saladin  puts  an  end  to  the  power  of  the 

Fatimite  dynasty         -  -  - 1171 

The  Tartars  overrun  all  Syria  -  -  1259 

Recovered  by  the  sultans  of  Egypt,  who 

expel  the  Crusaders   -  -  -  1291 

Syria  overrun  by  Tamerlane    -  -  1400 

Conquered  by  the  Turks  under  Selim  -  1517 

After  the  conquest  by  Selim,  Syria  con- 
tinued in  possession  of  the  Turks  till 
the  invasion  of  Esypt  by  the  French, 

July  1,  1793 

Bonaparte  defeats  the  Mamelukes  with 
great  loss        -  -  -  Aug.  6,  1798 

He  overruns  the  country,  and  takes  Ga- 
za and  Jaffa      ....  1793 

Siege  of  Acre      -    March  6  to  May  27, 1799 

Bonaparte  returns  to  France  from  E- 
gypt  ....  Aug.  23,  1799 

Egypt  is  evacuated  by  the  French  army 

Sept.  10, 1801 

Mehemet  Ali  attacks  and  captures  A"ve, 
and  overruns  the  whole  of  Syria,   I83i-32 

Ibrahain  Pacha,  his  son,  defeats  the  ar- 
my of  the  grand  signior     -    July  30, 1832 

[Numerous  battles  and  conflicts  follow 
with  various  success.] 

Ibrahim  Pacha  defeats  the  Turkish  ar- 
my, making  10,000  prisoners,  June  25, 1839 

The  Turkish  fleet  arrives  at  Alexandria 
and  places  itself  at  the  disposal  of 
Mehemet  Ali  -  -  -Julyl4,  ia39 

The  Five  Powers  propose  to  the  Porte 
to  negotiate  with  Mehemet  Ali,     July 

16,  ia39 

Death  of  the  celebrated  lady  Hester 
Stanhope       -  -  -  June  23,  1840 

Treatv  of  London  (not  signed  by  offend- 
ed France)    -  -  -  July  15,  laiO 

Capttu-eofSidon  -  Sept.  27,  1840 

Fall  of  Beyrout  (see  Beyrout)  Oct.  IC  1840 

Fall  of  Acre  (see  Acre)  -    Nov.  3, 1840 


After  much  expostulation  with  the  sultan,  the  four  powers,  England,  Aus- 
tria, Russia,  and  Prussia,  prevail  upon  hini  to  make  the  pachalic  of  Egypt 
hereditary  -u  the  family  of  Mehemet  Ali,  who  surrenders  to  the  Turkish 
fleet,  and  whose  troops  evacuate  Syria.  A  treaty  to  that  effect  signed  at 
London,  between  the  representatives  of  those  powers,  July  13,  1841.  This 
result  conciliates  France,  and  promises  peace  in  the  East,  and  its  continu- 
ance among  the  great  powers  of  Europe. 


ever  the  queen  appeared,  the  young  prince  her  step-son  blushed,  a  tremor  overspread  his  frame, 
his  pulse  quickened,  and  his  voice  grew  weak.  She  was  of  his  own  age,  and  of  exceeding  beauty. 
On  discovering  the  true  cause  of  his  patient's  disorder,  Erasistratus  adopted  an  expedient  which 
was  the  foundation  of  his  great  fame.  He  informed  the  king  that  his  heir  must  die,  as  he  languished 
under  a  hopeless  passion.  '"Who,"  asked  Seleucus,  "  is  the  object  of  his  love  7"  '■'■My  wife" 
answered  the  physician.  " Then  resign  her  to  him,"  said  the  king.  "But  if,"  said  Erasistratus 
"  it  were  the^2(eerehe  loved,  would  you,  Seleucus,  yield  up  the  idol  of  your  affections  to  another?' 
"  Yes,"  replied  Seleucus,  "  I  would  readily  relinquish  both  my  queen  and  kingdom  to  save 
my  son's  life."  "  Then  be  at  ease,"  Erasistratus  rejoined,  "  for  the  object  of  his"  love  is  Stra 
lonice  !" — Biog.  Diet, 

'  This  treaty  was  engraved  on  a  marble  column,  now  in  the  court  of  the  Theatre  of  Oxfora.    I 
was  presented  to  Oxford  by  the  carl  of  Arunde'  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II. 


thr]  dictionary  of  dates.  553 

T. 

TAHITI.    The  French,  or  abbreviated  name  for  Otaheite.    See  Otaheite. 

TALAVERA,  Battle  of,  between  the  united  British  and  Spanish  armies  under 
sir  Arthur  Wellesley  (19,000  British  and  30,000  Spaniards),  and  the  French 
army,  amounting-  to  47,000,  commanded  by  marshals  Victor  and  Sebastiani, 
July  27  and  28,  1809. 

TALMUD.  There  are  two  books  of  the  doctrine  of  the  religion  and  morality 
of  the  Jews, — the  Talmud  of  Jerusalem,  and  the  Talmud  of  Babylon.  The 
one  composed  by  the  Rabbi  Juda  Hakkadosh,  about  the  close  of  the  second 
century;  the  second,  being  commentaries,  &c.,  by  succeeding  rabbis,  were 
collected  by  Ben  Eliezer,  about  the  sixth  century.  Abridged  by  Maimon- 
ides  in  the  twelfth  century. 

TAMERLANE.  The  conqueror  of  Persia,  India  and  Egypt,  and  plunderer  of 
Bagdad,  Delhi,  and  Cairo.  He  subdued  the  renowned  warrior  Bajazet,  sul- 
tan of  the  Turks,  whom  he  exposed  in  a  large  iron  cage,  the  fate  the  latter 
had  destined  for  his  adversary  if  he  had  been  the  victor.  Bajazet  dashed 
his  head  against  the  bars  of  this  prison,  and  killed  himself,  1403. — Chalcon- 
dila's  Hist.  Turk. 

TANNING.  Was  early  practised  by  various  nations.  The  use  of  tan  was  in- 
troduced into  these  countries  from  Holland  by  William  III.  for  raising 
orange-trees,  It  was  discontinued  until  about  1719,  when  ananas  were  first 
brought  into  England.  Since  then,  tan  has  been  in  general  use  in  garden- 
ing.    Great  improvements  were  made  in  tanning  in  1795,  et  seq. 

TAPESTRY.  An  art  of  weaving  borrowed  from  the  Saracens,  and  hence 
its  original  workers  in  France  were  called  Sarazinois.  The  invention  of 
tapestry  hangings  belongs  [the  date  is  not  mentioned]  to  the  Netherlands. 
— CHiicciardini.  Manufactured  in  France  under  Henry  IV.,  by  artists  in- 
vited from  Flanders,  1606.  The  art  was  brought  into  England  by  WiUiam 
Sheldon ;  and  the  first  manufactory  of  it  was  established  at  Mortlake  by  sir 
Francis  Crane,  17  James  I.,  1619. — Salmon.  Under  Louis  XIV.  the  art  of 
tapestry  was  much  improved  in  France.  See  Gobelin  Tapestry.  Very  early 
instances  of  making  tapestry  are  mentioned  by  the  ancient  poets,  and  also 
in  Scripture  ;  so  that  the  Saracens'  manufacture  is  a  revival  of  the  art.  For 
the  tapestry  wrought  by  Matilda  of  England,  see  Bayeux  Tapestry. 

TARENTUM,  War  of.  The  war  which  the  people  of  Tarentum  supported 
against  the  Romans,  assisted  by  Pyrrhus,  king  of  Epii-us,  and  which  is 
greatly  celebrated  in  history.  This  war,  which  had  been  undertaken  b,  c. 
281,  by  the  Romans,  to  avenge  the  insults  the  Tarentines  had  ofiered  to  their 
ships  when  near  their  harbors,  was  terminated  after  ten  years ;  300,000  pri- 
soners were  taken,  and  Tarentum  became  subject  to  Rome. 

TARTARY.  This  name  is  given  to  several  nations  of  the  East.  The  Tartar 
race  was  known  and  celebrated  in  antiquity  under  the  name  of  Scythians. 
It  was  during  the  decline  of  the  Roman  empire  that  these  tribes  began  per- 
manently to  forsake  their  own  plains,  in  search  of  more  fertile  regions ;  and 
the  first  of  these  ravagers  whose  terror  and  fame  reached  the  frontier  of 
Italy  were  the  Huns,  the  ancestors  of  the  modern  race  of  Mongols.  The 
first  acknowledged  sovereign  of  this  vast  country  was  the  famous  Jenghis 
Khan,  a.  d.  1206.  His  empire,  by  the  conquest  of  China,  Persia,  and  all 
Central  Asia,  became  one  of  the  most  formidable  ever  established ;  but  it 
was  split  into  parts  in  a  few  reigns.  Tiniur,  or  Tamerlane,  again  conquered 
Persia,  again  broke  the  power  -of  the  Turks  in  Asia  Minor,  1402,  and 
founded  a  dynasty  in  India,  which  formed  the  most  splendid  court  in  Asia, 
till  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century. 

TAVERNS.   In  England,  were  places  of  entertainment,  under  various  names, 

24 


554  THE  world's  progress.  [tea 

in  ancient  times.    Taverns,  as  so  called,  may  be  traced  to  the  13th  century. 

"In  the  raigne  of  king  Edward  the  Third  only  th^-ee  taverns  yvere  allowed 
in  London :  one  in  Chepe,  one  in  Walbroke,  and  the  other  in  Lombard- 
street." — Sir  Henry  Spelman.  The  Boar's  Head,  in  Eastcheap,  existed  in 
the  reign  of  Henry  IV.,  and  was  the  rendezvous  of  prince  Henry  and  his 
dissolute  companions.  Shakspeare  mentions  it  as  the  residence  of  Mrs. 
Quickly,  and  the  scene  of  sir  John  Falstaff' s  merriment. — Shakspeare, 
Henry  IV.  Of  little  less  antiquity  is  the  White  Hart,  Bishopsgate,  estab- 
lished in  1480 :  this  house  was  rebuilt  in  1829.  Taverns  were  restrained  by 
an  act  of  Edward  VI.,  1552,  to  40  in  London,  8  in  York,  4  in  Norwich,  3 
in  Westminster,  6  in  Bristol,  3  in  Lincoln,  4  in  Hull,  3  in  Shrewsbury,  4  in 
Exeter,  3  in  Salisbury,  4  in  Gloucester,  4  in  Chester,  3  in  Hereford,  3  in 
Worcester,  3  in  Southampton,  4  in  Canterbury,  3  in  Ipswich,  3  in  Winchester, 
3  in  Oxford,  4  in  Cambridge,  3  in  Colchester,  4  in  Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 
Taverns  were  licensed  in  1752. 

TAXES.  The  first  levied  on  the  people  was  by  Solon,  the  first  Athenian  legis- 
lator, 540  B.  c.  The  first  class  of  citizens  paid  an  Attic  talent  of  silver, 
about  55Z.  English  money.  The  next  was  by  Darius,  the  son  of  Hystaspes, 
which  was  a  land-tax  by  assessment,  and  deemed  so  odious  that  his  subjects 
styled  him,  by  way  of  derision,  Darius  the  Trader,  480  b.  c. — D'Eon's  His- 
toire  des  Finances.  Taxes  in  specie  were  first  introduced  into  England  by 
William  I.,  1067,  and  he  raised  them  arbitrarily;  yet  siibsidies  in  kind,  as 
in  wool,  corn,  leather,  and  other  products  of  the  country,  continued  till 
the  accession  of  Richard  11. ,  1377. — Camde^i.  First  taxation  of  the  British 
colonies  in  America,  1764 ;  produced  active  resistance,  1765 ;  stamp  act 
repealed,  1766 :  re-enacted  1767.  See  Income,  Revenue,  Cost  of  Govern- 
ment, &c. 

TE  DEUM.  A  kind  of  hymn  or  song  of  thanksgiving  used  in  the  church, 
beginning  with  the  words  Te  De^im  laudanms — We  praise  thee,  0  God.  It 
is  generally  supposed  to  be  the  composition  of  Augustin  and  Ambrose, 
about  A.  D.  390;  and  is  sung  in  the  Romish  church  with  extraordinary  pomp 
and  solemnity  on  some  happy  event,  such  as  a  national  thanksgiving  for  a 
great  victory  or  for  a  bounteous  harvest. 

TEA.  First  kno^vn  in  Europe,  being  brought  from  India  by  the  Dutch,  1610. 
Brought  into  England  in  1666,  by  lord  Ossory  and  lord  Arlington,  from 
Holland ;  and  being  admired  by  persons  of  rank,  it  was  imported  from 
thence,  and  generally  sold  for  60  shillings  per  pound,  till  our  East  India 
Company  took  up  the  trade. — Anderson.  Green  tea  began  to  be  used  in  1715. 
The  duty  imposed  on  tea  in  America,  1767.  This  tax  occasioned  the  de- 
struction of  17  chests  at  New  York,  and  340  at  Boston,  November  1773, 
and  was  one  of  the  causes  of  the  Revolutionary  war. 

TEAS   IMPORTED   INTO   ENGLAND    OR  CHARGED   WITH  DUTY  IN   THE  FOLLOWING  YEARS. 

lbs.  24,133,000  I  1825.  -    lbs.  27,803,668 

25,414,000  I  1830.  -           -     30,544,404 

-  26,368,000    1835.  -       -  44,360,550 

25,662,474  |  1840.  -           -     38,068,555 

In  England,  the  duty  derived  on  tea  is  now  about  4,000,OOOZ.  annually. 
Millions  of  pounds  weight  of  sloe,  liquorice,  and  ash-tree  leaves,  are  every 
year  mixed  with  Chinese  teas  in  England. — Report  of  the  House  of  Coinmons, 
1818.  The  consumption  of  the  whole  civilized  world,  exclusively  of  Eng- 
land, is  about  22,000,000  of  pounds,  while  the  annual  consumption  in  Great 
Britain  is  30,000.000. — Evidence  in  the  Honse  of  Commons,  1830.  The  first 
tea-sale  in  London  on  the  abolition  of  the  exclusive  privilege  of  the  East 
India  Company,  Aug.  19,  1834.  The  value  of  teas  imported  into  the  United 
States  for  one  year,  ending  July  1, 1847,  was  ^4.278.463  ;  while  that  of  coffee 
was  $9,102,872. 


1726. 

lbs.   700,000 

1805. 

1766.  - 

7,000,000 

1810. 

1792. 

-  13,185,000 

1815. 

1800.  - 

23,723,000 

1820. 

TEM  ]  DICTIONAKY    OF    DATES.  55L 

TEA-TREE.  Thea  Bohea.  Brouglit  to  England  from  China,  about  1768. 
The  finest  tea-plant  known  in  England  was  raised  in  Kew  Gardens ;  but  the 
first  that  ever  flourished  in  Europe  was  one  belonging  to  the  duke  of  Nor- 
thumberland at  Sion. 

TELEGRAPHS.  They  were  early  in  use.  Polybius  calls  the  different  in- 
struments used  by  the  ancients  for  communicating  information  pyrsics, 
because  the  signals  were  always  made  by  fire.  The  most  ingenious  of  the 
moderns  had  not  thought  of  such  a  machine  as  a  telegraph  until  1663,  when 
the  plan  was  suggested  by  the  marquis  of  Worcester.  The  first  idea  of  a 
telegraph  on  the  modern  construction  was  suggested  by  Dr.  Hooke,  1684. 
M.  Amontons  is  also  said  to  have  been  the  inventor  of  telegraphs  about 
this  period.  It  was  not  till  1793  that  the  instrument  was  applied  to  useful 
purposes :  M.  Chappe  then  invented  the  telegraph  first  used  by  the  French. 
Two  erected  over  the  admiralty-office,  London,  1796.  The  Semaphore  was 
erected  there  1816.  The  naval  signals,  by  telegraph,  enable  400  previously- 
concerted  sentences  to  be  transmitted  from  ^hip  to  ship,  ty  varying  the 
combinations  of  two  revolving  crosses;  and  also  to  spell  any  particular 
words,  letter  by  letter.    See  Electric  Telegraph. 

TELESCOPES.  This  invention  is  noticed  by  Leonard  Digges,  about  1571. 
Roger  Bacon,  about  A.  D.  1250,  described  telescopes  and  .  microscopes  ex- 
actly, and  yet  neither  were  made  till  one  Metius,  at  Alkamaer,  and  Jansen, 
of  Middleburgh,  made  them  about  the  same  time ;  the  latter  from  an  ac- 
cidental discovery  made  by  his  children,  1590 — 1609.  Galileo  imitated 
their  invention  by  its  description,  and  made  three  in  succession,  one  of 
which  magnified  a  thousand  times.  With  these  he  discovered  Jupiter's 
moons  and  the  phases  of  Venus.  Telescopes  became  very  popular,  and 
were  improved  by  Zucclii,  Huygens,  Gregory,  and  Newton ;  and  finally  by 
Martin,  Hall,  Dolland,  and  Herschel.  Achromatic  telescopes  were  made  by 
More  Hall,  about  1723.  A  telescope  was  made  in  London  for  the  observa- 
tory of  Madrid,  which  cost  11.000^.  in  1802;  but  the  Herschel  telescope, 
made  1789 — 1795,  is  superior :  it  has  the  great  speculum  48  inches  in  dia- 
meter, BJ  inches  thick,  weighs  2118  lbs.,  and  magnifies  6400  times.  See 
Herschel  Telescope. 

TEMPERANCE  SOCIETIES.  It  is  to  the  credit  of  the  American  people  that 
the  first  great  public  movement  in  behalf  of  temperance  was  made  in  this 
country.  Temperance  societies  began  to  be  formed  in  1825-6.  One  of  the 
most  prominent  of  the  first  promoters  of  the  reform  was  the  Rev.  Dr.  Hewitt 
of  Connecticut,  who  was  worthily  styled  the  Apostle  of  Temperance.  The 
exertions  of  this  and  other  energetic  advocates  of  temperance  and  total 
abstinence  have  effected  a  wonderful  change  for  the  better  in  the  general 
habits  of  the  people.  Several  thousand  temperance  societies,  under  various 
names,  have  been  formed,  and  a  large  number  of  vessels  now  sail  from 
various  ports  of  the  United  States,  the  crews  of  which  are  unsupplied  with 
spirituous  liquors  of  any  kind.  The  movement  has  spread  to  some  extent 
in  Europe,  but  by  far  the  most  successful  of  its  promoters  has  been  the 
Rev.  Theobald  Mathew,  a  Roman  Catholic  clergyman  in  Ireland,  who  has 
administered  the  "total  abstinence"  pledge  to  about  two  millions  of  his 
countrymen.  He  commenced  his  ministry  in  this  cause  in  1880.  In  Ger- 
many there  were  300  temperance  societies  in  1846. 

TEMPLARS.  The  first  military  order  of  Knights  Templars  was  founded  in 
A.  D.  1118  by  Baldwin  II.,  king  of  Jerusalem.  The  templars  were  numerous 
in  several  countries,  and  came  to  England  in  1185.  The  order  was  sup- 
pressed by  the  council  of  Vienna,  and  its  revenues  were  bestowed  upon 
other  orders,  in  1312.  Numbers  of  the  order  were  burnt  alive  and  hanged, 
and  it  suft'  red  great  persecutions  throughout  Eiirope,  particularly  in  France 


656  THE  world's  progress.  [tew 

in  the  reign  of  Philip  of  Valois,  1342.    They  were  several  times  suppressed 
in  England,  and  finally  in  1340. 

TEMPLE,  London.  Thus  called,  because  it  was  anciently  the  dwelling  house 
of  the  Knights  Templars.  At  the  suppression  of  that  order,  it  was  purchased 
by  the  professors  of  the  common  law,  and  converted  into  inns.  They  are 
called  the  Inner  and  Middle  Temple. 

TEMPLES.  They  originated  in  the  sepulchres  built  for  the  dead. — Busebius. 
The  Egyptians  were  the  first  who  erected  temples  to  the  gods. — Herodotus. 
The  first  erected  in  Greece  is  ascribed  to  Deucalion. — ApoUonius.  For  tem- 
ple of  Belus,  see  Babel.  The  temple  of  Jerusalem,  built  by  Solomon,  1012 
B.  c.  Fired  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  587  b.  c.  Rebuilt,  536  b.  c.  Pillaged  by 
Antiochus,  170  b.  c.  Rebuilt  by  Herod,  18  b.  c.  Destroyed  by  Titus,  a  -... 
70. — The  temple  of  Apollo,  at  Delphos,  first  a  cottage  with  boughs,  built 
of  stone  by  Trophorius,  about  1200  b.  c.  Burnt  by  the  Pisistratidfe,  548  b.c. 
A  new  temple  raised  by  the  family  of  the  Alcm;Bonid«,  about  518  b.  c. — 
Temple  of  Diana  at  Ephesus,  built  seven  times ;  plamned  by  Ctesiphon,  544 
B.  c.  Fired  by  Erostratus,  to  perpetuate  his  name,  856  b.  c.  To  rebuild  it, 
employed  220  years.  Destroyed  by  the  Goths,  a.  d.  260. — The  Temple  of 
Piety  was  built  by  Aciiius,  on  the  spot  where  once  a  woman  had  fed  w,)ch 
her  milk  her  aged  father,  whom  the  senate  had  imprisoned,  and  excluded 
from  all  aliments. —  Val.  Max.  Temple  of  Theseus,  built  480  years  b.  c, 
is  at  this  day  the  most  perfect  ancient  edifice  in  the  world. — ^The  heathen 
temples  were  destroyed  throughout  the  Roman  empire  by  Constantino  the 
Great,  a.  d.  331.     See  Heathen  Temples. 

TENNESSEE.  One  of  the  United  States  ;  was  originally  included  in  the  char- 
ter of  North  Carolina  by  Charles  II.  in  1664  ;  first  settlement  on  Wetangp 
river,  1757  ;  attacked,  and  200  men,  women,  and  children  massacred  by  the 
Indians  in  1760 ;  the  Indians  chastised  next  j^ear,  but  continued  frequent 
contests  with  the  colonists  for  several  years.  The  territory  ceded  by  North 
Carolina  to  the  United  States  in  1790  ;  admitted  into  the  Union  as  a  State, 
1796.  Population  in  1790,  35,691;  in  1810,  261,727;  in  1830,  681.904;  in 
1840,  829,210,  including  183,059  slaves. 

TEST  ACT.  The  statute  of  Charles  II.,  directing  all  officers,  civil  and  mili- 
tary, under  government,  to  receive  the  sacrament  according  to  the  forms  of 
the  Church  of  England,  and  to  take  the  oaths  against  transubstantiation, 
&c.,  was  enacted  March  1673 ;  repealed,  1828. 

TEUTONI,  OR  TEUTONES.  A  people  of  Germany,  who  with  the  Cimbri 
made  incursions  upon  Gaul,  and  cut  to  pieces  two  Roman  armies.  They 
were  at  last  defeated  by  the  consul  Marius,  and  an  infinite  number  made 
prisoners,  101  b.  c.     See  Cimbri. 

TEUTONIC  ORDER.  The  order  of  military  knights  established  in  the  Holy 
Land  towards  the  close  of  the  twelfth  century.  The  institution  arose  in 
the  humanity  of  the  Teutones  to  the  sick  and  wounded  of  the  Christian 
army  under  the  celebrated  Guy  of  Lusignan  when  before  Acre.  The 
order  was  confirmed  by  a  bull  of  pope  Cselestine  lU.,  a.d.  1191.  See 
Prussia,  &c. 

TEWKSBURY,  Battle  of,  in  which  Edward  IV.  gained  a  decisive  victory  over 
the  Lancastrians.  Queen  Margaret,  the  consort  of  Henry  VI.,  and  her  son, 
were  taken  prisoners.  The  queen  was  conveyed  to  the  Tower  of  London, 
where  king  Henry  expired  a  few  days  after  this  fatal  engagement ;  being, 
as  is  generally  supposed,  murdered  by  the  duke  of  Gloucester,  aftei-- 
wards  Richard  III.  The  queen  was  ransomed  in  1475,  hj  the  French  king, 
Lewis  XL,  for  50,000  crowns.  This  was  the  last  battle  between  the  houses 
of  York  and  Lancaster,  Mav  4,  1471.     See  Roses. 


the]  dictionary  of  dates.  557 

TEXAS.  One  of  the  United  States  ;  first  settled  by  the  Spaniards  at  San  Fran- 
cisco in  1690 ;  made  one  of  the  federal  States  of  Mexico,  in  conjunction 
with  the  adjacent  State  of  Coahuila,  on  the  formation  of  the  Mexican  re- 
public— an  unpopular  Union  to  the  Texans,  and  productive  of  the  first  dis- 
agreement with  the  central  government ;  colonization  of  Texas  by  emigrants 
from  the  United  States,  commenced  1821 ;  war  with  Mexico  for  indepen- 
dence commenced  1833,  and  ended  by  the  defeat  and  capture  of  the  Mexican 
president,  Santa  Anna,  at  San  Jacinto,  21st  April,  1836,  which  secured  the 
independence  of  Texas ;  admitted  into  the  Union  as  a  State  (the  28th), 
after  active  opposition  with  reference  to  the  exclusion  of  slavery,  Feb.  20, 
1845.  Population  at  that  time  about  200,000.  [The  first  treaty  for  its  an- 
nexation was  I'cjected  by  the  United  States  Senate,  35  to  16,  June  8,  1844.] 

THAMES  TUNNEL.  Projected  by  Mr.  Brunei,  to  form  a  communication 
between  the  two  sides  of  the  river,  at  Rotherhithe  and  Wapping,  the  most 
extraordinary  construction  of  ancient  or  modern  times.  The  shaft  was 
begun  in  1825.  At  a  distance  of  544  feet  from  the  shaft  the  first  irruption 
took  place,  May  18,  1827.  The  second  irruption,  by  which  six  workmen 
perished,  Jan.  12,  1828.  The  length  of  the  tunnel  is  1300  feet ;  its  width 
is  35  feet ;  height,  20  feet ;  clear  width  of  each  archway,  including  footpath, 
about  14  feet ;  thickness  of  earth  beneath  the  crown  of  the  tunnel  and  the 
bed  of  the  river,  about  15  feet.  The  tunnel  was  opened  throughout  for  foot 
]3assengers,  March  25,  1843. 

THANE.  A  title  much  in  use  anciently,  and  which  sometimes  signified  a 
nobleman,  sometimes  a  freeman,  and  sometimes  a  magistrate ;  but  most 
properly,  an  officer  under  the  king.  The  Saxons  had  a  nobility  called 
thanes,  and  the  Scots  also.  The  title  was  abolished  in  England  at  the  Con- 
quest, upon  the  introduction  of  the  feudal  system.  Abolished  in  Scotland 
by  king  Malcolm  III.,  when  the  title  of  earl  was  adopted,  1057. 

THEATRES.  That  of  Bacchus,  at  Athens,  built  by  Philos,  420  b.  c,  was  the 
first  erected.  Marcellus'  theatre  at  Rome  was  built  about  80  b.  c.  Theatres 
were  afterwards  numerous,  and  were  ei-ected  in  most  cities  of  Italy.  There 
was  a  theatre  at  Pompeii  where  most  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  town  were 
assembled  on  the  night  of  August  24,  a.  d.  79,  when  an  eruption  of  Vesu- 
vius covered  Pompeii.  Scenes  were  introduced  into  theatres,  painted  by 
Balthazar  Sienna,  a.  d.  1533.  The  first  royal  license  for  a  theatre  in  England 
was  in  1574,  to  master  Burbage  and  four  others,  servants  of  the  earl  of 
Leicester,  to  act  plays  at  the  Globe,  Bankside.  See  Globe.  But  long  before 
that  time,  miracle  plays  were  represented  in  the  fields.  The  prices  of  ad- 
mission in  the  reign  of  queen  Elizabeth  were,  gallery,  2d. ;  lords'  room,  Is. 
— Dickens.  The  first  play-bill  was  dated  Aj^ril  8,  1663,  and  issued  frcca 
Drury-lane;  it  runs  thus:  " By  his  Majestie,  his  company  of  Comedians  at 
the  New  Theatre  in  Drury  Lane,  will  be  acted  a  comedy  called  the  Humov- 
rovs  Lievtenant."  After  detailing  the  characters,  it  concludes  thus  :  "The 
play  will  begin  at  three  o'clock  exactly."  Lincoln's-inn  theatre  was  opened 
in  1695.  The  first  attempt  at  theatrical  performances  in  the  United  States 
was  the  acting  of  Otway's  Orphan,  in  Boston,  in  1750 ;  but  all  such  exhibi- 
tions were  immediatelj^  afterwards  prohibited  there.  A  strolling  company 
acted  in  a  sail-loft  in  New  York  in  1758.  The  first  regular  theatre  was  in 
New  York  in  1793  ;  the  second  in  Boston  ;  and  the  third  in  Philadelphia 
soon  after.  Dunlap's  History  of  the  American  Theatre  was  j)ublished  in  New 
York,  1832.     See  Drama,  Plays,  &c. 

THEBES.  The  ancient  celebrated  city  of  Thebais  in  Egypt,  called  also  Heca- 
tompylos,  on  accoimt  of  its  hundred  gates,  and  Diospolis,  as  being  sacred  to 
Jupiter.  In  the  time  of  its  splendor,  it  extended  above  twenty-three  miles, 
and  upon  any  emergency  could  send  into  the  field,  by  each  of  its  hundred 


558  THE  wokld's  progress.  [thr 

gates,  20,000  flgliting  men  and  200  chariots.  Thebes  was  ruined  by  Cam, 
byses.  king  of  Persia,  and  few  traces  of  it  were  seen  in  the  age  of  Juvenal. 
— Plutarch.  Also  Thebes,  the  capital  of  the  country  successively  called 
Aonia,  Messapia.  Ogygia,  Hyantis,  and  Bceotia.  See  Baotia.  Thebes  was 
called  Cadmeis,  from  Cadmus,  the  founder  of  the  city.  It  rose  to  a  cele- 
brated republic,  styled  the  Theban,  about  820  b.  c.  It  was  dismantled  by 
the  Romans,  145  b.  c. — Livy ;   Thiocydides. 

THEFT.  This  offence  was  punished  by  heavy  fines  among  the  Jews.  By  death 
at  Athens,  by  the  laws  of  Draco.  See  Draco.  The  Anglo-Saxons  nominal- 
ly punished  theft  with  death,  if  above  12d.  value ;  but  the  criminal  could 
redeem  his  life  by  a  ransom.  In  the  9th  of  Henry  I.  this  power  of  redemp- 
tion was  taken  away,  1108.  The  laws  against  theft,  until  lately,  were  very 
severe  in  England ;  they  were  revised  by  Mr.  (afterwards  Sir  Robert)  Peel's 
acts,  9  and  10  George  IV. 

IHEISTS.  The  sect  so  called  came  in  with  the  Restoration,  about  1660.  and 
they  taught  a  union  with  all  men  who  believed  in  one  God,  but  who  reject- 
ed public  worship  and  exterior  forms  of  religion.  They  maintained  that 
their  religion  was  better  because  older  and  more  simple  than  that  which  waa 
given  by  God  to  the  Hebrews. 

THEOLOGICAL  SCHOOLS.  The  first  in  the  United  States  was  that  at  Ando- 
ver,  founded  1808. 

THERMOMETER.  The  invention  of  this  instrument  is  ascribed  to  several 
scientific  person  all  about  the  same  time.  Invented  by  Drebbel  of  Alcmaer, 
A.  D.  1609. — Boerhaave.  Invented  by  Paulo  Sarpi,  1609. — Fulgenho.  Invent- 
ed by  Sanctorio  in  1610. — Borelli.  Fahrenheit's  thermometer  was  invented 
about  1726 ;  and  the  scale  called  Reaumur's  soon  after,  1730.  The  mode  of 
construction  by  substituting  quicksilver  for  spirits  was  invented  some  years 
subsequently. 

THERMOPYL^,  Battle  op.  Leonidas  at  the  head  of  300  Spartans,  at  the 
defile  of  Thermopylae,  withstands  the  whole  force  of  the  Persians  during  three 
days,  when  Ephialtes,  a  Trachinian,  perfidiously  leading  the  enemy  by  a  se- 
cret path  up  the  mountains,  brings  them  to  the  rear  of  the  Greeks,  who, 
thus  placed  between  two  assailants,  devote  themselves  to  the  good  of  their 
country,  and  perish  gloriously  on  heaps  of  their  slaughtered  foes.  Of  300 
heroes  who  engaged  in  this  conflict  with  hundreds  of  thousands  of  the  Per- 
sians, one  man  only  returned  home,  and  he  was  received  with  reproaches  and 
insults  for  having  fled  from  a  battle  in  which  his  brave  companions,  with 
their  royal  leader,  had  fallen.  Twenty  thousand  Persians  perished  by  the 
hands  of  the  Spartans,  Aug.  7,  480  b.  c. —  Vossius  de  Grcec.  Hist. 

THESSALY.  This  country  is  much  celebrated  in  classical  history,  as  being 
the  seat  of  many  of  the  adventures  described  by  the  poets.  The  first  king 
of  whom  we  have  any  certain  knowledge  was  Hellen,  son  of  Deucalion,  from 
whom  his  subjects  were  called  Hellenists,  a  name  afterwards  extended  to  all 
Greece.  From  Thessaly  the  most  powerful  tribes  of  Greece  derived  their 
origin,  as  the  Acha;ans,  the  ^tolians,  the  Dorians,  the  Hellenists,  &c.  The 
two  most  remarkable  events  in  the  early  history  of  this  country,  are  the 
deluge  of  Deucalion,  1508  b.  c,  and  the  expedition  of  the  Argonauts,  1263. 
See  them  severally. 

THRACE.  So  called  from  Thrax,  the  son  of  Mars.  Conquered  by  Philip  and 
Alexander,  and  annexed  to  the  Macedonian  empire  about  385  b.  c.  ;  and  it 
so  remained  till  the  conquest  of  Macedonia  by  the  Romans,  .168  b.  c.  By- 
zantium was  the  capital  of  Thrace,  on  the  ruins  of  which  C'-iistantinople 
was  built.  The  Turks  took  the  country  under  Mahomet  II.,  a.d.  1453. — 
Priestley. 


TIM  ]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  559 

THRASHING-MACHINES.  The  flail  was  the  only  instrument  formerly  in  use. 
The  Romans  used  a  machine  called  the  triiulum,  a  sledge  loaded  with  stones 
or  iron,  drawn  over  the  corn-sheaves  by  horses.  The  first  machine  attempted 
in  modern  times  was  invented  by  Michael  Menzies,  at  Edinburgh,  about 
1732  ;  Miekles,  in  1776. 

THRASYMENUS,  Battle  of.  A  most  bloody  e"ngagement  between  the  Car- 
thaginians under  Hannibal  and  the  Romans  under  Flaminius,  217  b.  c.  No 
less  than  15,000  Romans  were  left  dead  on  the  field  of  battle,  and  10,000  taken 
prisoners ;  or,  according  to  Livy,  6000 ;  or  Polybius,  15,000.  The  loss  of 
Hannibal  was  about  1500  men.  And  about  10,000  Romans  made  their  es- 
cape, all  covered  with  wounds. — Livy ;  Polybius. 

THUMB-SCREW.  An  inhuman  instrument  which  was  commonly  used  in  the 
first  stages  of  torture  by  the  Spanish  inquisition.  It  was  in  use  in  England 
also.  The  Rev.  Wm.  Carstairs  was  the  last  who  suflered  by  it  before  the 
privy  council,  to  make  him  divulge  secrets  entrusted  to  him,  which  he  firmly 
resisted.  After  the  revolution  in  1688,  the  thumb-screw  was  given  him  as  a 
present  by  the  council.  King  William  expressed  a  desire  to  see  it,  and  tried  it 
on,  bidding  the  doctor  to  turn  the  screw ;  but  at  the  third  turn  he  cried  out, 
"  Hold !  hold!  doctor ;  another  turn  would  make  me  confess  any  thing." 

rHTJRSDAY.  The  fifth  day  of  the  week,  derived  from  Thor,  a  deified  hero 
worshipped  by  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  the  northern  nations,  particularly 
by  the  Scandinavianis  and  Celts.  The  authority  of  this  deity  extended  over 
the  winds  and  seasons,  and  especially  over  thunder  and  lightning.  He  is 
said  to  have  been  the  most  valiant  of  the  sons  of  Odin.  This  day,  which 
was  consecrated  to  Thor,  still  retains  his  name  in  the  Danish,  Swedish,  and 
Low-Dutch  languages,  as  well  as  in  the  English.  Thursday,  or  Thors-day, 
has  been  rendered  into  Latin  by  dies  Jovis,  or  Jupiter's  day. 

TIDES.  Homer  is  the  earliest  profane  author  who  speaks  of  the  tides.  Posi- 
donius  of  Apamea  accounted  for  the  tides  from  the  motion  of  the  moon, 
about  79  B.  c. ;  and  Ciesar  speaks  of  them  in  his  fourth  book  of  the  Gallic 
War.  The  theory  of  the  tides  was  first  satisfactorily  explained  by  Kepler, 
A.  D.  1598 ;  but  the  honor  of  a  complete  explanation  of  them  was  reserved 
for  sir  Isaac  Newton,  who  laid  hold  of  this  class  of  phenomena  to  prove 
universal  gravitation,  about  1683. 

TILSIT,  Peace  of.  The  memorable  treaty  concluded  between  France  and  Rus- 
sia, when  Napoleon  restored  to  the  Prussian  monarch  one-half  of  his  terri- 
tories, and  Russia  recognized  the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine,  and  the  ele- 
vation of  Napoleon's  three  brothers,  Joseph,  Louis,  and  Jerome,  to  the  thrones 
of  Naples,  Holland,  and  Westphalia.  Signed  July  7,  1807,  and  ratified  July 
19  following. 

TILTS  AND  TOURNAMENTS.  Were  greatly  in  vogue  in  England  in  the 
eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries.  Notwithstanding  many  edicts  against  them, 
and  anathemas  from  Rome,  they  were  not  abolished  till  the  reign  of  Henry 
IV.,  about  A.  D.  1400. — Rapin.  They  first  took  their  rise  in  Italy  upon  the 
suppression  of  the  gladiators  in  the  fifth  century.  They  were  suppressed  in 
France  in  1560. —  Voltaire's  Gen.  Hist. 

TIMBER.  The  annual  demand  of  timber  for  the  British  navy,  in  war,  is  60,000 
loads,  or  40,000  full-grown  trees,  a  ton  each,  of  which  thirty-five  will  stand 
on  an  acre ;  in  peace,  32,000  tons,  or  48,000  loads.  A  seventy-four  gun  ship 
consumes  3000  loads,  or  2000  tons  of  trees,  the  produce  of  fifty-seven  acres 
in  a  century.  Hence  the  whole  navy  consumes  102,600  acres,  and  1026  per 
annum. — Allnut.  England  imports  about  800,000  loads  of  timber  annually, 
exclusively  of  masts,  yards,  staves,  lathwood,  &.C.,  together  with  about  8,000,- 
000  of  deals  and  deal-ends. — Pari.  Ret. 


560  THE  world's  phogress.  [tob 

TIME-MEASURE.  That  of  Scipio  Nasica  was  invented  159  b.  c.  Early  au- 
thors inform  us  that  Alfred's  time-keeper  was  six  large  wax  tapers,  each 
twelve  inches  long ;  but  as  they  burnt  unequally,  owing  to  the  wind,  he  in- 
vented a  lantern  made  of  wood,  and  thin  plates  of  ox-horns,  glass  being  a 
great  rarity,  a.  d.  887.  The  ancients  had  three  time-measures :  hour-glasses, 
sun-dials,  and  a  vessel  full  of  water  with  a  hole  in  its  bottom.  See  Clocks, 
Watches,  &c. 

TIN.  The  Phoenicians  traded  with  England  for  this  article  for  more  than  1100 
years  before  the  Christian  era.  It  is  said  that  this  trade  first  gave  them 
commercial  importance  in  the  ancient  world.  Under  the  Saxons,  our  tin- 
mines  appear  to  have  been  neglected  ;  but  after  the  coming  in  of  the  Nor- 
mans, they  produced  considerable  revenues  to  the  earls  of  Cornwall,  paz'- 
ticularly  to  Richard,  brother  of  Henry  III. ;  a  charter  and  various  immuni- 
ties were  granted  by  Edmund,  earl  Richard's  brother,  who  also  framed  the 
stannary  laws,  laying  a  duty  on  the  tin,  payable  to  the  earls  of  Cornwall. 
Edward  III.  confirmed  the  tinners  in  their  privileges,  and  erected  Cornwall 
into  a  dukedom,  with  which  he  invested  his  son,  Edward  the  Black  Prince, 
1535.  Since  that  time,  the  heirs-apparent  to  the  ciown  of  England,  if  eldest 
sons,  have  enjoyed  it  successively.  Tin-mines  were  discovered  in  Germany, 
which  lessened  the  value  of  those  in  England,  till  then  the  only  tin-mines  in 
Europe,  a.  d.  1240. — Anderson.  Discovered  in  Barbary  1640 ;  in  India,  1740 ; 
in  New  Spain,  1782.  England  exports  at  present,  on  an  average,  1500  tons 
of  unwrought  tin,  besides  manufactured  tin  and  tin-plates,  of  the  value  of 
400,000;. 

TITHES  AND  TENTHS.  Were  first  given  by  Moses  to  the  tribe  of  Levi,  1490 
B.  0. — Joseplm.s.  For  the  first  800  years  of  the  Christian  church  they  were 
given  purel}^  as  alms,  and  were  voluntary. —  Wickllffe.  "I  will  not  put  the 
title  of  the  clergy  to  tithes  upon  any  divine  right,  though  such  a  right 
certainly  commenced,  and  I  believe  as  certainly  ceased,  with  the  Jewish  the- 
ocracy."— Blackstone.  The  first  mention  of  them  in  any  English  written  law, 
is  a  constitutional  decree  made  in  a  synod  strongly  enjoining  tithes,  a.  d.  786. 
Ofla,  king  of  Mercia,  gave  unto  the  church  the  tithes  of  all  his  kingdom',  to 
expiate  for  the  death  of  Ethelbert,  king  of  the  East  Angles,  whom  he  had 
caused  to  be  basely  murdered,  a.  d.  794. — Burn's  Eccles.  Law.  Tithes  were 
first  granted  to  the  English  clergy  in  a  general  assembly  held  by  Ethelwold, 
A.  D.  844. — Henry's  Hist,  of  Eng.  They  were  established  in  France  by 
Charlemagne,  about  800. — Henault.  Tenths  were  confirmed  in  the  Lateran 
councils,  1215. — Rainaldi. 

TITLES,  ROYAL.  The  following  is  the  succession  in  which  the  royal  titles 
swelled  in  England.  Henry  IV.  had  the  title  of  "  Grace"  and  "  My  liege" 
conferred  upon  him,  1399.  The  title  of  "Excellent  Grace"  was  conferred 
upon  Henry  VI.,  1422.  Edward  IV.  had  that  of  "  Most  High  and  Mighty 
Prince,"  1461.  Henry  VII.  had  the  title  "  Highness,"  1485 ;  and  Henry  VIIL 
had  the  same  title,  and  sometimes  "  Grace,"  1509,  et  seq.  But  these  two  last 
were  absorbed  in  the  title  of  "  Majesty,"  being  that  with  which  Francis  I. 
of  France  addressed  Henry  at  their  memorable  interview  in  1520. — See  Field 
of  the  Cloth  of  Gold.  Henry  VIII.  was  the  first  and  last  king  who  was  styled 
"  Dread  Sovereign."  James  I.  coupled  to  "  Majesty"  the  present  "  Sacred/' 
or  "  Most  Excellent  Majesty."  "  Majesty"  was  the  style  of  the  emperors  of 
Germany ;  the  first  king  to  whom  it  was  given  was  Louis  XI.  of  France, 
about  1463. 

TOBACCO,  Nicotiana  Tabacum.  This  plant  received  its  name  from  Tabacco, 
a  province  of  Yucatan,  New  Spain.  Some  say  from  the  island  of  Tobago, 
one  of  the  Caribees ;  others,  from  Tabasco,  in  the  gulf  of  Florida.  It  was 
first  observed  at  St.  Domingo,  a.  d.  1496 ;  and  was  used  freely  by  the  Span- 


TOP  ]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  661 

iards  in  Yucatan  in  1520.  Tobacco  was  first  carried  to  England,  7  Elizabeth, 
1565,  by  sir  John  Hawkins ;  but  sir  Walter  Raleigh  and  sir  Francis  Drake 
are  also  mentioned  as  having  first  introduced  it  there.  It  was  manufactured 
only  for  exportation  for  some  years. — Stowe's  Chron.  In  1584  a  proclama- 
tion was  issued  against  it.  King  James  I.  issued  his  famous  Counter-Blast 
against  Tobacco  in  16  .  The  star-chamber  ordered  the  duties  to  be  65.  lO^^. 
per  pound,  1614.  Its  cultivation  was  prohibited  in  England  by  Charles  11. 
An  act  laying  a  duty  on  the  importation  was  passed,  1684.  The  cultivation 
was  allowed  in  Ireland  1779.  The  tax  was  increased,  and  put  under  the 
excise,  1789. — Anderson;  Ashe.  Various  statutes  have  passed  relative  to 
tobacco.  Act  to  revive  the  act  prohibiting  the  culture  of  tobacco  in  Ire- 
land passed  1831.  Act  directing  that  tobacco  grown  in  Ireland  be  purchased 
in  order  to  its  being  destroyed,  1832.  The  quantity  consumed  in  England 
m  1791  was  nine  millions  and  a  half  of  pounds,  and  in  1829  about  fifteen 
millions  of  pounds. — Chan,  of  the  Ex.  In  1840,  the  quantity  had  reached 
to  forty  millions  of  pounds. — Pari.  Ret.  In  the  United  States,  tobacco  is 
grown  chiefly  in  Maryland  and  Virginia ;  but  to  some  extent  in  all  t'ae 
southern  states.  The  value  of  the  croj)  exported  in  1848  was  S7,551,122. 
Tobacco  is  produced  also  in  France,  in  India,  &c. ;  that  of  the  United 
States  is  considered  the  best  in  flavor,  but  that  of  Cuba  is  preferred  for 
smoking.  Several  works  have  been  published  on  the  evil  effects  and  bad 
taste  of  this  weed. 

TOBAGO.  Settled  by  the  Dutch,  a.  d.  i  642.  Taken  by  the  English,  1672 ;  re- 
taken, 1674.  In  1748  it  was  declared  a  neutral  island ;  but  in  1768  it  was 
ceded  to  the  English.  Tobago  was  taken  by  the  French  under  De  Grasso 
in  1781,  and  confirmed  to  them  in  1788.  Again  taken  by  the  English,  April 
14,  1793,  but  restored  at  the  peace  of  Amiens,  Oct.  6, 1802.  The  island  was 
once  more  taken  by  the  British  under  general  Grinfield,  July  1,  1803,  and 
was  confirmed  to  them  by  the  peace  of  Paris  in  1814. 

TOLERATION  ACT.  To  WiUiam  III.  is  due  the  honor  and  wisdom  of  the 
first  toleration  act  known  in  the  history  of  this  country,  passed  in  1689.  The 
•dissenters  have  ever  since  enjoyed  the  benefits  of  this  act  without  interi'up- 
tion,  though  their  liberties  were  greatly  endangered  in  the  latter  end  of 
queen  Anne's  reign. 

TOLLS.  They  were  first  paid  by  vessels  passing  the  Stade  on  the  Elbe,  a.  d. 
1109.  They  were  first  demanded  by  the  Danes  of  vessels  passing  the  Sound, 
1341.  Toll-bars  in  England  originated  in  1267,  on  the  grant  of  a  penny  for 
every  wagon  that  passed  through  a  certain  manor.  Toll-gates  or  turnpikes 
were  used  in  1663. 

TONNAGE  AND  POUNDAGE.  An  ancient  duty  levied  on  wine  and  other  goods, 
commenced  in  England  about  21  Edward  III.,  1846.  The  first  granted  to 
the  kings  of  England  for  life,  5  Edward  IV.,  1465.  Cunmgham's  Hist. 
T^axes. 

TONTINES.  Loans  given  for  life  annuities  with  benefit  of  survivorship,  so 
called  from  the  inventor  Laurence  Ton ti,  a  Neapolitan.  They  were  first  set  on 
foot  at  Paris  to  reconcile  the  people  to  cardinal  Mazarin's  government,  by 
amusing  them  with  the  hope  of  becoming  suddenly  rich,  a.  d.  1653. —  Vol- 
taire. The  late  celebrated  Mr.  Jennings  was  an  original  subscriber  for  a 
lOOZ.  share  in  a  tontine  company ;  and  being  the  last  survivor  of  the  share- 
holders, his  share  produced  him  8000Z.  per  annum.  He  died  worth  2,115,- 
244Z.,  aged  103  years,  June  19,  H'i8.— Haydn. 

TOPLITZ,  Battle  of.  A  battle  was  fought  at  Toplitz  between  the  Austrians 
and  Prussians,  in  which  the  latter  were  defeated,  1762.  Battle  of  Toplitz, 
August  30,  1813.  Here  the  allied  sovereigns  had  their  head-quarters  a 
considerable  time  in  this  latter  year.     Treaty  of  Toplitz,  being  a  triple 

24* 


562  THE  world's  progress.  [too 

alliance  between  Russia,  Austria,  and  Prussia,  Sept.  9,  1813.  Ti'eaty  of 
Toplitz,  between  Austria  and  Great  Britain,  Oct.  3,  same  year, 
TORTURE.  It  has  disgraced  humanity  in  the  earliest  ages  in  every  country. 
It  was  only  permitted  by  the  Romans  in  the  examination  of  slaves.  It  was 
used  early  in  the  Catholic  church  against  heretics.  Occasionally  used  in 
England  so  late  as  the  1st  Elizabeth,  1558 ;  and  in  Scotland  until  1690. 
The  trial  by  torture  was  abolished  in  Portugal,  1776 ;  in  France,  by  order 
of  Louis  XVI.,  in  1780,  although  it  had  not  been  practised  there  some  time 
before.  Ordered  to  be  discontinued  in  Sweden  by  GustaTtis  III.,  1786.  It 
yet  continues  in  other  countries. 

TORY.  Various  authors  have  differently  described  this  term.  It  is  said  to  be 
derived  from  an  Irish  word,  originally  signifying  a  savage,  or  rather  a  col  • 
lector  of  tithes  and  taxes. — Encyclop.  The  names  of  Cavaliers  and  Round- 
heads, which  existed  in  the  time  of  Charles  I.  were  changed,  some  tell  us, 
into  those  of  Tories  and  Whigs.  The  Tories  were  those  who  vindicated 
the  divine  right  of  kings,  and  held  high  notions  of  their  prerogatives ; 
while  "  the  Whigs  "  denoted  a  friend  to  civil  and  religious  liberty. — Ashe. 
The  name  of  Tory  was  given  by  the  country  party  to  the  court  party,  com- 
paring them  to  Popish  robbers ;  and  arose  out  of  the  Meal-tub  plot  (which 
see),  in  1679.  The  terms  are  defined  by  extreme  politicians,  as  of  two  par- 
ties in  the  aristocracy :  the  Whigs,  Avho  would  curb  the  power  of  the  crown  ; 
and  the  Tories,  who  would  curb  the  power  of  the  people. — Phillips.  In  our 
revolutionary  war  the  term  was  applied  to  the  royalists ;  but,  oddly  enough, 
at  the  time  of  president  Jackson,  it  was  given  to  the  ultra  democratic  party, 
while  the  other  great  party  called  themselves  WJiigs.    See  Whigs. 

TOULON,  France.  In  1706  this  town  was  bombarded  by  the  allies,  both  by 
land  and  sea,  by  which  almost  the  whole  town  was  reduced  to  a  heap  of 
ruins,  and  several  ships  burned ;  but  they  were  at  last  obliged  to  raise 
the  siege.  It  surrendered,  August  23,  1793,  to  the  British  admiral,  lord 
Hood,  who  took  possession  both  of  the  to^vn  and  shipping  in  the  name  of 
Louis  XVII.,  under  a  stipulation  to  assist  in  restoring  the  French  constitu- 
tion of  1789.  A  conflict  took  place  between  the  English  and  French 
forces,  when  the  latter  were  i-epulsed,  Nov.  15,  1793.  Toulon  was  evacuated 
by  the  British,  Dec.  19,  same  year,  when  great  cruelties  were  exercised 
towards  inhabitants  as  were  supposed  to  be  favorable  to  the  British. 

TOULOUSE,  France.  Founded  about  615  b.  c.  A  dreadful  tribunal  was  es- 
tablished here  to  extirpate  heretics,  a.  d.  1229.  The  troubadours,  or  rheto- 
I'icians  of  Toulouse,  had  their  origin  about  a.  d.  850,  and  consisted  of  a  frater- 
nity of  poets,  whose  art  was  extended  throughout  Europe,  and  gave  rise  to 
the  Italian  and  French  poetry.     See  Troubadours. 

'OULOUSE,  Battle  op.  The  final  battle  between  the  British  Peninsular  army 
under  lord  Wellington  and  the  French — one  of  the  most  bloody  that  had 
been  fought  from  the  time  lord  Wellington  had  received  the  command  of 
the  troops  in  Portugal.  The  French  were  commanded  by  marshal  Soult, 
whom  the  victorious  British  hero  forced  to  retreat,  after  twelve  hours  fight- 
ing, from  seven  o'clock  in  the  morning  until  seven  at  night,  the  British 
forcing  the  French  intrenched  position  before  Toulouse.  The  loss  of  the 
allies  in  killed  and  wounded  was  between  four  and  five  thousand  men ;  that 
of  the  French  exceeded  10,000.  At  the  period  of  this  battle  Bonaparte 
had  abdicated  the  throne  of  France ;  but  neither  of  the  commanders  was 
aware  of  that  feet,  or  the  close  of  the  war  at  Paris.    Fought  April  10,  1814. 

TOURNAMENTS  or  JOUSTS.  Some  authors  refer  them  to  Trojan  origin, 
such  as  Ascanius  instituted  among  the  Romans.  The  tournament  is  a  mar- 
tial sport  or  exercise  which  the  ancient  cavaliers  used  to  perform,  to  show 


TOW  J  DICTIONARY  OF  DATES.  563 

tlieir  bravery  and  address.  It  is  derived  from  the  French  word  tourner, 
"  to  turn  round,"  because,  to  be  expert  in  these  exercises,  much  agility, 
both  of  horse  and  man,  was  necessary.  They  wei-e  much  practised  a.  d. 
890;  and  were  regulated  and  countenanced  by  Henry  I.,  emperor,  about 
919.  The  Lateran  council  published  an  article  against  their  continuance 
in  1136.  One  was  held  in  Smithfield  so  late  as  the  12th  century,  when  the 
taste  for  them  declined  in  England.  Henry  II.  of  France,  in  a  tilt  with  the 
count  de  Montgomery,  had  his  eye  struck  out,  an  accident  which  caused 
the  king's  death  in  a  few  days,  June  29,  1559.  Tournaments  were  from 
this  event  abolished  in  France,  and  with  them  "  the  age  of  chivalry  is 
fled."  A  magnificent  and  costly  feast  and  splendid  tournament  took 
place  at  Eglinton  castle,  August  29,  1839,  and  the  following  week :  many 
of  the  visitors  assumed  the  characters  of  ancient  knights,  lady  Seymour 
being  the  "  Queen  of  Beauty,"  as  fairest  of  the  female  throng.  But  this  fes- 
tivity is  not  likely  to  lead  to  a  revival  of  the  old  tournament. 

TOUENAY.  Taken  by  the  allies  in  1709,  and  ceded  to  the  house  of  Austria 
by  the  treaty  of  Utrecht ;  but  the  Dutch  were  allowed  to  place  a  garrison 
in  it,  as  one  of  the  barrier  towns.  It  was  taken  by  the  French  under  ge- 
neral Labourdonnaj-e,  Nov.  11, 1792.  Battle  near  Tournay,  by  the  Austrians 
and  British  on  one  side,  and  the  French  on  the  other,  the  former  victorious, 
May-  8,  1793.  Another  battle  was  fought  between  the  British  and  French, 
when  the  latter  were  repulsed,  at  Rousalaer,  losing  200  men  and  three  field- 
pieces.  May  6,  1794. 

TOURS,  Battle  of.  One  of  the  glorious  victories  of  Charles  Martel,  and  that 
which  most  established  his  fame,  gained  over  the  Saracens  near  Tours, 
and  from  which  he  acquired  the  name  of  Martel,  signifying  hammer.  We 
are  told  that  but  for  this  timely  victory  of  Charles  Martel,  all  Europe,  as 
well  as  Asia  and  Africa,  must  have  become  Mahomedan;  October  10, 
A.  D.  732. 

TOWERS.  That  of  Babel,  the  first  of  which  we  read,  built  in  the  plains  of 
Shinar  {Genesis  xi.),  2247  b.  c.  See  Babel.  The  Tower  of  the  Winds  at 
Athens,  built  550  b.  c.  The  Tower  of  Pharos  (see  Pharos),  280  b.  c.  Tow- 
ers were  built  early  in  England ;  and  the  round  towers  in  Ireland  may  be 
reckoned  among  the  most  ancient  curiosities.  They  were  the  only  struc- 
tures of  stone  found  in  Ireland  before  the  first  arrival  of  the  English, 
except  some  buildings  in  the  maritime  towns  founded  by  the  Danes. 
These  towers  were  tall,  hollow  pillars,  nearly  cylindrical,  but  narrowing 
towards  the  top,  pierced  with  lateral  holes  to  admit  the  light,  high  above 
the  ground,  and  covered  with  conical  roofs  of  the  same  materials.  Of  these 
productions  of  old  Irish  masonry,  fifty-six  still  remain,  from  50  to  130  feet 
high. 

TOWER  OP  LONDON.  Anciently  a  royal  palace,  and  consisted  of  no  more 
than  what  is  now  called  the  White  Tower,  which  appears  to  have  been  first 
marked  out  by  William  the  Conqueror,  a.  d.  1076,  commenced  in  1078,  and 
completed  by  his  son  William  Rufus,  who,  in  1098,  surrounded  it  with  walls, 
and  a  broad,  deep  ditch.  Several  succeeding  princes  made  additions  to  it, 
and  king  Edward  III.  built  the  church.  In  1638  the  White  Tower  was  re- 
built ;  and  since  the  restoration  of  king  Charles  E.  it  has  been  thoroughly 
repaired,  and  a  great  number  of  additional  buildings  made  to  it.  Here  are 
the  Armory,  Jewel-office,  and  various  other  divisions  and  buildings  of 
peculiar  interest ;  and  here  were  many  executions  of  illustrious  persons, 
and  many  murders      See  England. 

TOWTON,  Battle  of.  This  great  battle  is  supposed  to  be  the  most  fierce  and 
bloody  that  ever  happened  in  any  domestic  war.  It  was  fought  between 
the  houses  of  York  (Edward  IV.)  and  Lancaster  (Henry  VI.),  to  the  latter 


664  THE    world's   progress.  [  TRA 

of  whom  it  was  fatal,  and  on  whose  side  more  than  37,000  of  his  subjects 
fell.  Edward  issued  orders  to  give  no  quarter,  and  the  most  merciless 
slaughter  ensued.  Henry  was  made  prisoner  and  confined  in  the  Tower  ; 
his  queen,  Margaret,  fled  to  Flanders  :  fought  March  29,  1461. 

TRAFALGAR,  Battle  of,  the  greatest  naval  victory  ever  obtained  by  Eng- 
land, fought  by  the  British,  under  command  of  the  immortal  Nelson,  against 
the  combined  fleets  of  France  and  Spain,  commanded  by  admiral  Villeneuve 
and  two  Spanish  admirals.  The  enemy's  force  was  eighteen  French  and 
fifteen  Spanish  vessels,  all  of  the  line  ;.  that  of  the  British  twenty-seven  ships. 
After  a  bloody  and  protracted  fight,  admiral  Villenexive  and  the  other  ad- 
mirals Avere  taken,  and  nineteen  of  their  ships  captured,  sunk,  or  destroyed. 
But  the  hero  of  England  lost  his  life  in  this  memorable  battle ;  and  admiral 
Collingwood  succeeded  to  the  command.  Nelson's  ship  was  the  Victory ;  and 
his  last  signal  on  going  into  the  engagement,  was  "  England  expects  every 
man  to  do  his  duty."    Oct.  21,  1805. 

TRAGEDY.  That  of  Alcestis  was  the  first  represented  by  Thespis,  the  first 
tragic  poet  at  Athens,  536  b.  c. — Arund.  Marbles.  Prizes  instituted,  and  the 
first  gained  bj^  .lEschylus,  486  b.  c. — Ibid.  Another  prize  carried  by  Sopho- 
cles, 470  B.  c. — Ibid.  Another  by  Euripides,  442  b.  c. — Ibid.  Another  by 
Astydamus,  377  b.  c. — Ibid.     See  Drama ;  Plays;  Theatres. 

TRAJAN'S  PILLAR.  Erected  a.  d.  114,  by  the  directions  of  the  emperor 
Trajan,  and  executed  by  ApoUodorus.  This  column,  which  still  exists  at 
Rome,  was  built  in  the  large  square  called  the  Forum  Romanum ;  it  is 
140  feet  high,  of  the  Tuscan  order,  and  commemorates  the  victories  of  the 
emperor. 

TRANSFUSION  of  the  BLOOD.  It  began  to  be  practised  in  the  fifteenth 
century,  and  was  successful  in  France,  where  Louis  XL,  when  dj'ing,  went 
farther  still,  and  drank  the  warm  blood  of  infants,  in  the  vain  hope  of  pro- 
longing life,  A.  D.  1483. — HenauU.  After  trials  of  the  efficacy  of  transfusion 
upon  animals,  M.  Denis  revived  the  practice  in  Paris,  where,  out  of  five 
persons  upon  whom  he  operated,  two  died,  and  the  magistracy  prohibited 
the  expei'iment  upon  human  bodies  afterwards,  1668.  Lower,  an  English 
physician,  who  died  in  1691,  practised  in  this  way. — Friend's  Hist,  of  Phys. 
Transfusion  again  attempted  in  France,  in  1797  ;  and  recently  in  Gi'eat  Bri- 
tain, but  seldom  with  success.     See  article  Blood. 

TRANSPORTATION  of  FELONS  in  ENGLAND.  The  first  criminals  were 
ordered  for  transportation  instead  of  execution,  a.  d.  1590 ;  but  banishment 
for  lighter  offences  than  those  adjudged  death  was  much  earlier.  England 
is  reproached  abroad  for  transporting  persons  whose  offences  are  compara- 
tively venial.  John  Eyre,  esq.,  a  man  of  fortune,  was  sentenced  to  trans- 
portation for  stealing  a  few  quires  of  paper,  Nov.  1,  1771. — Phillips.  More 
recently,  the  reverend  Dr.  Halloran,  tutor  to  the  earl  of  Chesterfield,  was 
transported  for  forging  a  frank,  (10^.  postage)  Sept.  9,  1818.  The  first 
transportation  of  felons  to  Botany  Bay  was  in  May  1787 ;  thej'-  arrived  at  the 
settlement  in  January  1788.  Returning  from  transportation  was  punished 
with  death  until  1834,  when  an  act  passed  making  the  offence  punishable 
by  transportation  for  life. 

TR  ANSUBSTANTIATION.  This  doctrine  was  first  introduced  by  a  friar,  about 
A.  D.  840.  It  became  a  confirmed  article  of  Christian  faith  about  1000.  It 
was  opposed  in  England  about  1019  ;  but  the  English  church  admitted  the 
doctrine  before  1066.  Belief  in  it  as  necessary  to  salvation  was  finally  es- 
tablished by  the  coiincil  of  Placentia,  1095.  The  word  "  transubstantiation" 
was  first  used  by  Peter  of  Blois  about  1165.  John  Huss,  in  subseq\ient 
times,  was  the  first  opposer  of  this  doctrine ;  he  was  burnt  by  order  of  the 
council  of  Constance,  a.  d.  1415. — Caves  Hist.  Lit. 


TRE  ] 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES. 


565 


TRAPPISTS,  OR  MONKS  of  LA  TRAPPE.  A  French  order  ia  the  depart- 
ment of  Orne,  famed  in  the  days  of  superstition  for  their  austerity  of  dis- 
ciphne,  and  for  keeping  a  perpetual  silence.  This  order  was  charged  with 
rebellion  and  conspiracy  in  France,  and  64  English  and  Irish  Trappists  were 
shipped  by  the  French  government  at  Painbceuf,  Nov.  19,  and  were  landed 
from  the  Hebe  French  frigate  at  Cork,  Nov.  30,  1831.  They  have  established 
themselves  at  Mount  Melleray,  county  of  Waterford ;  but  do  not  maintain 
there  the  extreme  rigor  of  their  order. 

TRAVELLING  ABROAD.  See  article  Absentees.  In  order  to  discourage 
English  subjects  from  travelling  to  foreign  countries  and  spending  money 
there,  a  tax  was  levied  (but  of  very  inadequate  amount)  by  way  of  license 
for  going  abroad,  and  paid  to  the  crown,  10  Charles  I.,  1685. — Rapin. 

TREAD-MILL.  An  invention  of  the  Chinese,  and  used  in  China  to  raise 
water  for  the  irrigation  of  the  fields.  The  tread-mill  lately  introduced  into 
the  prisons  of  Great  Britain  is  of  a  more  complicated  construction.  It  is 
the  invention  of  Mr.  Cubitt  of  Ipswich.  The  first  was  erected  at  Brixton 
jail,  1817.    This  punishment  has  not  been  introduced  in  the  United  States. 

TREASON.  See  High  Treason.  It  was  punished  in  England  only  by  banish- 
ment till  after  Henry  I. — Baker^s  Chronicle.  Ascertained  by  law,  Edward 
III.,  1349.  Trials  regulated,  and  two  witnesses  required  to  convict,  1695. 
The  laws  relating  to  treason  are  numerous,  and  formerly  the  punishment 
was  dreadful — hanging,  quartering,  beheading,  &c.,  and  even  burning  alive. 
Mr.  Martin  brought  in  a  bill  for  the  abolitioii  of  burning  alive  for  treason, 
which  passed  both  houses  in  1788.  Petty  treason  may  happen  three 
ways  :  a  wife's  murder  of  her  husband  ;  a  servant's  murder  of  his  master ; 
and  an  ecclesiastical  person's  murder  of  his  prelate  or  other  superior — so 
declared  by  statute  25  Edward  III.,  1350. 

TREATIES.  The  first  formal  and  written  treaty  made  by  England  with  any 
foreign  nation  was  entered  into  a.  d.  1217.  The  first  commercial  treaty  Avas 
with  the  Flemings,  1  Edward,  1272  ;  the  second  with  Portugal  and  Spain, 
1308. — Anderson.  The  chief  treaties  of  the  principal  civilized  nations  of 
Europe  will  be  found  described  in  their  respective  places :  the  following 
forms  an  index  to  them.     See  Conventions ;  Coalitions;  Leagues,  &c. 


Abo,  peace  of     - 

-  1743 

Aix-la-Chapelle 

-     -  1668 

Aix-la-Chapelle,  peace  of 

-  1748 

Akermann,  peace  of 

-     - 1826 

Alt  Radstadt 

-  1706 

America,  peace  with 

-     - 1783 

Amiens,  peace  of 

-  1802 

Armed  Neutrality    - 

-     -  1800 

Arras,  treaty  of 

-  1435 

Arras,  ditto    - 

-     -  1482 

Augsburgh,  league  of   • 

- 1686 

Baden,  peace  of 

-     -  1714 

Barrier  treaty     • 

-  1715 

Basle,  peace  of 

-     -  1795 

Bassein,  India     - 

-  1802 

Bayonne,  treaty  of    - 

-     -1808 

Belgium,  treaty  of  London 

-  1839 

Belgrade,  peace  of    - 

-     -  1739 

Berlin,  peace  of 

-  1742 

Berlin  decree 

-     -  1806 

Berlin  convention 

-  1808 

Breda,  peace  of 

-     -  1667 

Bretigny,  peace  of 

- 1360 

Bucharest,  treaty  of 

-     -  1812 

Cambray,  league  of     - 

-  1508 

Cambray,  peace  of 

-     -  1529 

Campo-Formio,  treaty  of 

- 1797 

Carlowitz,  peace  of 

-     -1699 

Carlsbad,  congress  of    - 
Cateau-Cambresis,  peace  of 
Chaumont,  treaty  of 
Chunar,  India 
Cintra,  convention  of    - 
Closterseven,  convention  of 
Coalition,  first,  against  France 
Coalition,  second,  ditto 
Coalition,  third,  ditto     - 
Coalition,  fourth,  ditto 
Coalition,  fifth,  ditto 
Coalition,  sixth,  ditto 
Concordat 
Conflans,  treaty  of 
Constantinople,  peace  of 
Constantinople,  treaty  of    • 
Copenhagen,  peace  of 
Cressy 
Dresden 

Family  compact 
Fontainebleau,  peace  of 
Fontainebleau,  treaty  of 
Fontainebleau,  concordat  at 
Friedwald,  treaty  of 
Fuessen,  peace  of 
Ghent,  pacification  of 
Ghent,  peace  o<"   America) 


1819 
1559 
1814 
1781 
1803 
1757 
1792 
1799 
1805 
1806 
1809 
1813 
1801 
1465 
1712 
1833 
1660 
1544 
1745 
1761 
1679 
1785 
1813 
1551 
1745 
1576 
1814 
1356 


566 


THE   world's   progress. 


[raa 


TREATIES,  contimved. 

Grand  Alliance 

-1689 

Greece,  treaty  of  London    - 

-     - 1829 

Hague,  treaty  of  the 

-  1659 

Hague,  treaty  of  the 

-     -  1669 

Halle,  treaty  of 

-  1610 

Hamburgh,  peace  of 

-     ■  1762 

Hanover  treaty   - 

■  1725 

Holland,  peace  with 

-      -  1784 

Holy  Alliance     - 

-1815 

Hubertsberg,  peace  of 

-      -  1763 

Interim     - 

-  1548 

Kiel,  treaty  of 

-      -  1814 

Laybach,  congress  of     - 

-  1721 

League 

.      -  1576 

Leipsic,  alliance  of 

-  1631 

Leoben,  peace  of 

-      -  1797 

Lisbon,  peace  of 

-1668 

I/Ondon,  treaty  of  (Greece) 

-      -  1829 

London,  convention  of  (Turkey 

-1840 

Lubeck,  peace  of     - 

-      -  1629 

Limeville,  peace  of 

-1801 

Madrid,  treaty  of 

-      -  1526 

Methuen  treaty    - 

-1703 

Milan  decree 

.      -  1807 

Munster,  peace  of 

-1648 

Nantes,  edict  of 

-      -  1598 

Naumberg,  treaty  of 

-  1554 

Nice,  treaty  of 

-      -  1518 

Nimeguen,  peace  of 

-  1678 

Noyon,  treaty  of 

-      ■  1516 

Nuremberg,  treaty  of    - 

-  1532 

Olivia,  peace  of 

-      -  1660 

Paris,  peace  of  (see  Paris) 

-1763 

Paris,  treaty  of 

-      -  1796 

Paris,  peace  of  (Sweden) 

-1810 

Paris,  capitulation  of 

-      -  1814 

Paris,  treaty  of    - 

-  1814 

Paris,  peace  of 

-      -  1815 

Paris,  treaty  of   - 

-  1817 

Partition,  first  treaty 

-      -  1698 

Partition,  second  treaty  - 

-  1700 

Passarowitz,  peace  of 

-      -  1718 

Passau,  treaty  of 

-1552 

Petersburgh,  peace  of 

-      -  1762 

Petersburgh,  treaty  of    - 

-1772 

Petersburgh,  treaty  of 

-     .-  1805 

Petersburgh,  treaty  of    - 

-  1810 

Peterswalden,  convention  of 

-      -  1813 

Pilnitz,  convention  --f    - 

-1791 

Poland,  partition  of  - 

-      -  1795 

Pragmatic  Sanction 

-1439 

Pragmatic  Sanction 

-      -  1713 

Prague,  peace  of 

■  1653 

Presburg,  peace  of  - 

-      ■  1805 

Public  good,  league  for  the 

-  1464 

TREATIES  OF  the  UNITED  STATES, 


Pyrenees,  treaty  of  the 
Quadruple  Alliance 
Radstadt,  peace  of  - 
Radstadt,  congress  of     - 
Ratisbon,  peace  of  - 
Ratisbon,  treaty  of         •  - 

Religion,  peace  of   - 
Rhine,  Confederation  of  the 
Ryswick,  peace  of  - 
St.  Germam's,  peace  of 
St.  Germain-en-Laye 
St.  Ildefonso,  alliance  of  Spain 

France  -  -  .  . 

Seville,  peace  of 
Siorod,  peace  of  - 
Smalcald,  league  of - 
Spain,  pacification  of  (London) 
Stettin,  peace  of       - 
Stockholm  - 

Stockholm,  peace  of 
Stockholm,  treaty  of  - 
Stockholm,  treaty  of 
Teineswar,  truce  of 
Teschen,  peace  of  - 
Teusin,  peace  of 
Tilsit,  peace  of 
Tolentino,  treaty  of 
Toplitz,  treaty  of  - 
Triple  Alliance  - 
Triple  Alliance  of  the  Hague 
Troppau,  congress  of  - 
Troyes,  treaty  of 
Turkmauchay,  peace  of 
Ulm,  peace  of 
Utretht,  union  of 
Utrecht,  peace  of  - 
Valencay,  treaty  of 
Verona,  congress  of 
Versailles,  peace  of 
Vienna,  treaty  of 
Vienna,  treaty  of  alliance 
Vienna,  definitive  peace 
Vienna,  peace  of 
1762  I  Vienna,  treaty  of,  March  23 
Vienna,  treaty  of,  May  31 
Vienna,  treaty  of,  June  4  - 
Vossem,  peace  of 
Warsaw,  treaty  of  - 
Warsaw,  alliance  of 
Westmin.ster,  peace  of 
Westminster  (with  Holland) 
Westphalia,  peace  of 
Wilna,  treaty  of  - 
Worms,  edict  of 
Wurtzburg,  treaty  of     - 

Some  of  the  most  important 


with 


■  1659 

•1718 

•  1714 
•1797 
•1630 

■  1806 
1.555 
1806 
1697 
1570 
1679 

1795 

1792 

1613 

1529 

-1834 

-  1570 

-1630 

■  1719 

■  1724 

■  1813 

•  1664 
■1779 

•  1.595 

■  1807 
•1793 
•1813 
•1717 

1668 

•  1820 

■  1420 
•1838 

•  1620 
•1579 
•1713 
•1813 

1822 

•  1783 

•  1725 
.1731 
.1737 
.1809 

1815 
1815 

•  1815 

•  1673 
•1768 

■  1683 
1674 
1716 
1648 
1561 
1521 
1610 


Alliance  with  France  -       Feb.  6, 1779 

Treaty  of  Paris  (independence  secured) 

Sept.  3, 1783 
Treat)'  of  commerce  with  Prussia  -  1785 
Treaty  with  Morocco     -  -  -  1787 

Treaty  of  commerce  with  Great  Britain 

(Jay's) 1794 

Treaty  with  the  Six  Nations  and  other 

Indian  tribes    -  -  -  -  1794 

Treaty  with  Spain,  by  Pinckney  ;  and 

Algiers,  by  Humphries    -  -      -  1795 

Treaty  with  Tunis;  with  Prussia  (by 

J.  a.  Adams)  -  -  -  -  1799 

Treaty  with  France,  by  Ellsworth,  Pa- 
trick; Henry,  &c.  Sept.  30, 1800 


Treaty  with  Great  Britain,  by  Monroe 
and  Pinckney — rejected  by  the  Ame- 
rican government 
Treaty  of  Ghent,  with  Great  Britain, 
signed  by  J.  Q,.  Adams,  Gallatin,  and 
H.  Clay,  for  the  l  j.ited  States,  clos- 
ing the  "  war  of  1812,"  tut  leavmg 
the  orierinal  dispute  much  as  before  - 
Ratified  by  the  United  States,    Feb.  17, 
Treaty  with  the  Choctaws  and  Chero- 
kees      .  -  .  .  . 

Treaty  with  the  republic  of  Colombia  - 
Treaty  with  the  Creeks,  Osages,  &c.  - 
Treaty  with  Great  Britain,  indemnify- 
ing American  citizens  for  spoliations 


180C 


1814 
1815 

1816 
1325 
1925 


TRi] 


DICTIONARY    OP    DATES. 


567 


Gushing ;  ratified  by  the  senate 

Jan.  16,  1845 

Treaty  of  peace  with  Mexico,  signed  at 
Guadaloupe  Hidalgo,  Feb.  2,  1848  ; 
ratified  by  the  senate  (with  modifica- 
tions) ;  ratified  at  Queretaro  by  Ame- 
rican commissioners  Sevier  and  Clif- 
ford, and  Mexican  minister  Rosas 

May  30,  1848 

Treaty  with  Great  Britain,  respecting 
Nicaragua,  on  the  Isthmus  between 
North  and  South  America;  signed 
at  Washington  by  Sir  H.  L.  Bulwer 
and  J.  M.  Clayton  -  June,  1850 


Elms,  in  Switzerland,  335  years. 

Cedars  on  Lebanon,  800  years. 

Olives,  in  the  Garden  of  Olives,  Jerusalem, 
800  years. 

Banian,  in  Hindostan,  3,000  years. 

Cypresses,  at  Grenada,  800  years. 

[For  proofs  and  details  see  the  article  re- 
ferred to.] 


TREATIES,  contimied. 

during  the  war  with  Napoleon 

Nov.  13,  1826 

Treaty  with  Brazil       -       March  18,  1829 

Treaty  with  Turkey  -        May  7,  1830 

Treaty  with  Mexico  (commercial)  Ap.5, 1831 

Treaty  with  do.        -  -     April  5,  1832 

Treaty  with  Naples       -  Oct.  14,  1832 

Treaty  with  Russia  (commercial) 

Dec.  18,  1832 

Treaty  with  Great  Britain,  respecting 
the  N.  E.  boundary,  signed  at  Wash- 
ington by  Lord  Ashburton  and  Mr. 
Webster ;  ratified  by  the  senate  (39 
to  9)  -  -  -     Aug.  20, 1842 

Treaty  with  China,  negotiated  by  C. 

TREES,  Age  of.  Among  others  mentioned  in  an  article  in  the  American  Al 
manac  for  1838,  p.  102,  are, 

The   Wallace  oak  at    EUerslie,  Scotland, 

700  years. 
(Some  oaks  are  supposd  to  have  lived  1,500 

years.) 
Oak  on  estate  of  James  Wads  worth,  Gene- 

seo.  New  York,  500  years. 
Yew  trees  at  Fountam's  Abbey,  England, 

1,200  years ;  and  in  Scotland,  said  to  be 

2,500  years.  i 

TRENT,  Council  of.  This  celebrated  council  is  reckoned  in  the  Catholic 
church  as  the  eighteenth  or  last  general  council.  Its  decisions  are  impli- 
citly received  as  the  standard  of  faith,  morals,  and  discipline  in  that  church. 
The  first  council  assembled  a.  d.  1545,  and  continued  (but  with  interrup- 
tions) under  pope  Paul  III.,  Julius  III.,  and  Pius  IV.,  to  1563,  when  the  last 
council  was  held. 

TRIALS.  Alfred  is  said  to  have  been  the  contriver  of  trial  by  jury ;  but  there 
is  good  evidence  of  such  trials  long  before  his  time.  In  a  cause  tried  at 
Hawarden,  nearly  a  hundred  years  before  the  reign  of  Alfred,  we  have  a 
list  of  the  twelve  jurors  ;  confirmed,  too,  by  the  fact  that  the  descendants  of 
one  of  them,  of  the  name  of  Corbyn,  of  the  Gate,  still  preserve  their  name 
and  residence  at  a  spot  in  the  parish  yet  called  the  Gate. — Phillips. 

TRIBUNES  OF  THE  PEOPLE.  Tribuni  Plebis.  Magistrates  of  Rome,  first 
chosen  from  among  the  commons  to  represent  the  people,  492  b.  c,  at  the 
time  the  people,  after  a  quarrel  with  the  senators,  had  retired  to  Mons  Sa- 
cer.  The  first  two  were  C.  Licinius,  and  L.  Albinus ;  but  their  number  was 
soon  after  raised  to  five,  and  87  years  after  to  ten,  which  remained  fixed. 
Their  office  was  annual,  and  as  the  first  had  been  created  on  the  4th  of  the 
ides  of  December,  that  day  was  ever  after  chosen  for  the  election. 

TRINIDAD.  This  island  was  discovered  by  Columbus  in  1498,  and  was  taken 
from  the  Spaniards  by  sir  Walter  Raleigh  in  1595 ;  but  the  French  took  it 
from  the  English  in  1676.  Taken  by  the  British,  with  four  ships  of  the 
line,  and  a  military  force  under  command  of  sir  Ralph  Abercrombie,  to  whom 
the  island  capitulated,  Feb.  21,  1797  ;  they  captured  two,  and  burnt  three 
Spanish  ships  of  war  in  the  harbor.  This  possession  was  confirmed  to  Eng- 
land by  the  peace  of  Amiens  in  1802.  The  insurrection  of  the  negroes 
occurred  Jan.  4,  1832.     See  Colonies. 

TRINITY  AND  TRINITARIANS.  The  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  is  received  by 
all  Christian  sects  except  those  called  Unitarians  {which  see).  Theophilus, 
bishop  of  Antioch,  who  flourished  in  the  second  century,  the  first  who  used 
the  term  Trinity,  to  express  the  three  sacred  persons  in  the  Godhead.  His 
Defence  of  Christianity  was  edited  by  Gesner,  at  Zm-ich,  in  1546. —  Waikins. 


568  THE    world's    progress.  [  TRO 

An  order  of  the  Trinity  was  founded,  a.  d.  1198,  by  John  de  Matha  and  Felix 
de  Valois.  The  Trinity  fraternity,  originally  of  fifteen  persons,  was  insti- 
tuted at  Rome  by  St.  Philip  Neri,  in  1548.  An  act  to  exempt  from  penal- 
ties persons  denying  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  was  passed  in  England  in 
1813. 

TRIPLE  ALLIANCE.  This  celebrated  treaty  of  alliance  was  ratified  between 
the  States-General  and  England,  against  France,  for  the  protection  of  the 
Spanish  Netherlands ;  Sweden  afterwards  joining  the  league,  it  was  known 
as  the  Triple  Alliance,  Jan.  28,  1668. 

TRIUMPHS.  The  triumph  was  a  solemn  honor  done  generals  of  armies  after 
they  had  won  great  victories,  by  receiving  them  into  the  town  with  great 
magnificence  and  public  acclamations.  Among  the  Romans  there  were  two 
sorts — the  great,  that  was  called  simply  the  triumph ;  and  the  little,  styled 
the  ovation.  They  also  distinguish  triumphs  into  land  and  sea  triumphs, 
accordingly  as  the  battles  were  fought.    See  Ovation. 

TRIUMVIRI.  Three  magistrates  appointed  ec^ually  to  govern  the  Roman  state 
with  absolute  power.  These  oflScers  gave  a  fatal  blow  to  the  expiring  inde- 
pendence of  the  Roman  people,  and  became  celebrated  for  their  difierent 
pursuits,  their  ambition,  and  their  various  fortunes.  The  first  triumvirate, 
B.  c.  60,  was  in  the  hands  of  Julius  Caesar,  Pompey,  and  Crassus,  who  at  the 
expiration  of  their  ofiice  kindled  a  civil  war.  The  second  and  last  triumvi- 
rate, B.  c.  43,  was  under  Augustus,  Mark  Antony,  and  Lepidus,  through 
whom  the  Romans  totally  lost  their  liberty.  Augustus  disagreed  with  his 
colleagues,  and  after  he  had  defeated  them,  he  made  himself  absolute  in 
Rome.  The  triumvirate  was  in  full  force  at  Rome  for  about  12  years.  See 
RoTtie. 

TROUBADOURS  or  JONGLEURS.  They  first  appeared  in  the  ninth  century, 
and  were  so  encouraged  by  the  patronage  of  the  court  of  Poitou,  and  by 
several  powerful  princes,  that  thej'  spread  in  process  of  time  throughout 
Europe.  They  cultivated  poetry  and  music,  and  refinement  followed  in 
their  steps,  greatly  improving  the  taste  and  temper  of  the  times.  To  the 
troubadours  we  owe  Latin  and  French  poetry. 

TROY.  The  history  of  Troas,  or  Phrygia  Minor,  is  at  best  but  obscure,  and 
more  particularly  so  in  times  prior  to  the  reign  of  Dardanus,  who  came 
hither  from  Italy  (or  Crete)  about  the  year  1506  b.  c,  and  married  the 
daughter  of  Teucer,  prince  of  the  country,  Avhom  he  succeeded.  Dardanus 
built  a  city,  and  named  it,  after  himself,  Dardania :  Troas,  the  second  in 
succession  from  Dardanus,  changed  the  name  to  Troy ;  and  Ilus,  his  succes- 
sor, converted  it  into  Ilium. 

Arrival  of  Soamander  in  Phrygia  Mi-           •  War  of  Hercules  and  Laodemon    B.C.  1224 

noY.— Blair               ■           -       B.C.  1546  '  Reign  of  Priam  or  Podarces          -     -1224 

Teucer  succeeds  his  father           -          1502  Rape  of  Helen,  by  Alexander  Paris, 

Dardanus  succeeds  Teucer,  and  builds          ;  son  of  Priam,  20  years  before  the 


the  city  of  Dardania 

Reign  of  Ericthonius 

Reign  of  Troas,  from  whom  the  peo- 
ple are  called  Trojans 

The  rape  of  Ganymede 

Ilus,  son  of  Troas,  reigns 

Reign  of  I.aomedon 

Arrival  of  Hercules  in  Phrygia;  He 
sione  delivered  from  the  sea-monster. 
— Blair,  Usher 


sacking  of  Troy. — Homer's    Iliad, 
1449  i       book  xxiv.,  line  964,  Pope's  edit.     - 1204 

I   Commencement  of  the  invasion  of  the 
1374  !       Greeks  to  recover  Helen  -     - 1193 

1.341  I  Troy  taken  and  burned  in  the  night  of 
1314  ;      the  11th  of  .lune,  i.  e.  23d  of  the 
1260  ,       month    Thargelion. — Parian  Mar- 
bles.    408    years    before    the    first 
Olympiad. — ApoVodorus       ■  - 1184 

1225  I   ^neas  arrives  in  Italy. — Lenglet       -  1183 


Some  time  after  the  destruction  of  old  Troy,  a  new  city  was  built,  about 
thirty  stadia  distant  from  the  old  site ;  but  though  it  bore  the  same  name, 
and  received  ample  donations  from  Alexander  the  Great  in  his  Asiatic  expe- 


TUN  J  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  569 

dition,  it  never  rose  to  much  importance,  and  in  the  age  of  Strabo  was 
nearly  in  ruins. — Priestley. 
TROY  WEIGHT.  The  Romans  left  their  ounce,  now  our  avoirdupois  ounce,  in 
Britain. — Arbuthnot.  The  present  ounce  of  this  weight  was  brought  from 
Grand  Cairo  into  Europe,  about  the  time  of  the  Crusades,  a.  d.  1095.  It 
was  first  adopted  at  Troj'es,  a  city  of  France,  whence  the  name ;  and  is  used 
to  weigh  gold,  silver  and  precious  stones.  The  troy  weight,  Scots,  was  es- 
tablished by  James  VI.  (our  James  I.)  in  1618. 

TROYES,  Treaty  of,  between  England,  France,  and  Burgundy,  whereby  it 
was  stipulated  that  Henry  V.  should  marry  Catherine,  daughter  of  Charles 
VI.,  be  appointed  regent  of  France,  and  after  the  death  of  Charles  should 
inherit  the  crown.  May  24,  1420.  The  French  were  driven  from  Troyes  by 
the  allied  armies,  Feb.  7 ;  it  was  retaken  by  Napoleon,  Feb.  23 ;  and  was 
finally  reoccupied  by  the  allies,  March  4,  1814. 

TRUMPET.  Some  of  the  Greek  historians  ascribe  the  invention  of  the  trum- 
pet to  the  Tyrrhenians,  and  others  to  the  Egj='ptians.  It  was  in  use  in  the 
time  of  Homer,  but  not  at  the  time  of  the  Trojan  war.  First  torches,  then 
shells  of  fish,  sounded  like  trumpets,  were  the  signals  of  primitive  wars. — ■ 
Potter.  The  speaking-trumpet  is  said  to  have  been  used  by  Alexander  the 
Great  in  335  b.  c.  Trumpets  were  first  sounded  before  the  king  in  the  time 
of  Offa,  king  of  Mercia,  a.  d.  790.  Speaking-trumpets  were  improved  by 
Kircher  in  1652.  Made  by  Salland,  1654.  Pliilosophically  explained  by 
Moreland,  1671. 

TUESDAY.  The  third  day  of  the  week,  so  called,  as  it  is  supposed,  from  Tit- 
isco,  or  Tltv,  a  Saxon  deity,  that  was  particularly  worshipped  on  this  day. 
Tuesday,  in  Latin  Dies  Martis,  was  called  the  third  day  among  the  Jews. 
See  Week  Days. 

rUILERIES,  Paris.  One  of  the  royal  palaces  of  that  city,  commenced  by 
Catharine  de  Medici,  after  the  plans  of  Philibert  de  Lorme,  a.  d.  1564 ;  con- 
tinued by  Henry  IV. ;  and  finished  by  Louis  XIV.  This  palace  was  the 
scene  of  great  events  during  the  three  memorable  revolutions,  ^particularly 
those  of  1789  and  1848. 

TULIPS.  They  came  to  England  from  Vienna,  a.  d.  1578,  and  have  always 
been  among  our  most  esteemed  flowers.  They  became  an  object  of  com- 
merce in  the  16th  century ;  and  it  is  recorded  in  the  register  of  the  city  of 
Alcmaer,  in  Holland,  that  in  the  year  1639,  120  tulips,  with  the  offsets,  sold 
for  90,000  florins ;  and  in  particular,  that  one  of '  them,  called  the  viceroy, 
sold  for-  4203  guilders !  The  States  at  last  put  a  stop  to  this  extravagant 
and  ruinous  passion  for  flowers.  The  tulip-tree,  Liriodendron  tulipifera,  was 
carried  to  England  from  America,  about  1663. 

TUNBRIDGE-WELLS.  The  celebrated  springs  here  were  first  discovered  by 
Dudley  lord  North,  who  had  retired  into  the  neighborhood  in  the  last  stage 
of  consumption,  and  became  perfectly  restored  to  health  by  the  use  of  its 
waters,  a.  d.  1606. 

TUNIS  AND  TRIPOLI.  The  former  stands  near  where  Carthage  was  built.  The 
territories  of  both  formed  part  of  the  celebrated  Carthaginian  state,  and 
were  entirely  destroyed  by  the  Romans  after  the  third  Punic  war,  148  b.  c. 
Besieged  by  Louis  IX.  of  France,  1270.  It  remained  under  African  kings 
till  taken  by  Barbarossa,  under  Solyman  the  Magnificent.  Barbarossa  was 
expelled  by  Charles  V. ;  but  the  country  was  recovered  by  the  Turks,  under 
Selim  II.  Taken,  with  great  slaughter,  by  the  emperor  Charles  V.,  when 
10,000  Christian  slaves  were  set  at  liberty,  1535.  The  bey  of  Tunis  was 
first  appointed  in  1570.  Tunis  was  reduced  by  admiral  Blake,  on  the  bey 
refusing  to  deliver  up  the  British  captives,  1656. 


57C 


THE    world's   progress. 


[Tua 


TURBAN.  The  head-dress  of  many  of  the  Eastern  nations,  consisting  of  two 
parts,  a  cap  and  a  sash,  the  latter  artfully  wreathed  about  the  head.  The 
sash  of  the  Turk's  turban  is  white  linen ;  that  of  the  Persians,  red  woollen. 
These  are  the  distinguishing  marks  of  their  different  religions.  Sophi,  king 
of  Persia,  being  of  the  sect  of  Ali,  was  the  first  who  assumed  the  red  color, 
to  distinguish  himself  from  the  Turks,  who  are  of  the  sect  of  Omar. 

TURIN.  The  French  besieged  this  city  in  1706  ;  but  prince  Eugene  defeated 
their  army,  and  compelled  them  to  raise  the  siege.  In  1798,  the  French 
republican  army  took  possession  of  Turin,  seized  all  the  strong  places  and 
arsenals  of  Piedmont,  and  obliged  the  king  and  his  family  to  remove  to  the 
island  of  Sardinia.  In  1799,  the  French  were  driven  out  by  the  Austrians 
and  Russians  ;  but  shortly  afterwards  the  city  and  all  Piedmont  surrendered 
to  the  French.  In  1814,  it  was  delivered  up  to  the  allies,  when  they  restor- 
ed it  to  the  king  of  Sardinia. 

TURKEY.  The  Turks  themselves  were  originally  a  tribe  of  Tartars ;  but  by 
reason  of  the  number  of  people  whom  they  conquered,  and  with  whom  they 
became  incorporated,  the  modern  Turks  must  be  regarded  as  a  mixture  of 
many  races  of  men. 


Birlh  of  Mahomet  the  prophet,  at  Mecca 

(see  Mecca)         -  ■  -  ad.    .571 

His  imposture  commenced  (see  Malio- 

metanisvi)       ....   604 
The  Koran  written  (see  Koran)  -    610 

Flight  to  Medina  (sea  Medina)  -   622 

.Slra  of  the  Hegira  (see  Hegira)  -    C22 

Death  of  Mahomet  -  -  -    631 

Holy  wars  beghi  (see  Crusades)         •  1095 
The  Turkish  empire  fii-st  formed  under 

Othman  at  Bythinia       -  -       .  1298 

The  Turks  penetrate  into  Thrace,  and 

take  Adrianople  -  -  -  1360 

Amurath  I.  institutes  the  Janizaries,  a 
guard  composed  of  Christian  slaves 
hred  Mahometans       -  -  -  1362 

Bajazet  I.  overruns  the  provinces  of  the 

Eastern  empire  -  -  1389,  et  seq. 

He  lays  siege  to  Constantinople ;  but  is 
at  length  taken  by  Tamerlane  (see 
Tamerlane)     ....  1403 
The  Turks  invading  Hungary,  are  re- 
pelled by  Huniades     .  -  -  1450 
Constantinople  taken  by  the  Turks  un- 
der  Mahomet   II,,  which  ends  the 
Eastern  Roman  empire          -  -  1453 
Greece  made  subject  to  the  Mahome- 
tans (see  Greece)        -           -  -  1458 
The  Turks  penetrate  into  Italy,  and 
take  Otranto,  which  diffuses  terror 
throughout  Europe     -           -  -  1480 
Selim  I.  raised  to  the  throne  by  the  Ja- 
nizaries ;  he  murders  his  father,  bro- 
thers, and  their  sons    -           -  -  1512 
He  takes  the  islands  of  the  Arcliipelago 

from  the  Christians    -  -  -  1514 

He  overruns  Syria  -  -  -  1515 

Adds  Egypt  to  his  empire         -  -  1516 

Solyman  II.  takes  Belgrade       -  -  1521 

Rhodes  taken  froin  the  knights  of  St. 

John,  who  go  to  Malta  -  -  1522 

Solyman  II.,  with  2.50,000  men,  is  repuls- 
ed before  Vienna  -  -  -  1529 
Cyprus  taken  from  the  Venetians         -  1571 
Great  battle  of  Lepanto,  which  puts  an 
end  to  the  fears  of  Eiu-ope  from  Turk- 
ish power  (see  Lepanlo)        -  -  1571 
Amurath  II.  ascends  the  throne ;  stran- 
gles his  five  brothers  •           -  -  1574 


[Dreadful  persecutions  of  the  Christians 

during  this  reign] 
The  Turks  driven  out  of  Persia  by  the 

famous  Schah  Abbas  -  -    a.  d.  1585 

Bloody  reign  of  Mahomet  HI.    -  -  1595 

Great  fire  in  Constantinople      -  -  1606 

Reign  of  Amurath  IV.,  who  strangles 

his  father  and  four  brothers  -  -  1624 

The  Turks  defeat  the  Persians,  and  take 

the  city  of  Bagdad       -  -  -  1639 

The  island  of  Candia,  or  Crete,  taken 

after  a  25  years'  siege  -  -  1669 

Vienna  besieged  by  Mahomet  IV.,  but 

relieved  by  John  of  Poland    -  -  1683 

Mahomet  IV.  deposed  by  Solyman      -  1687 
Peace  of  Carlovitz  -  -  -  1699 

Mustapha  III.  deposed   ...  1703 
The  Morea  retaken  by  the  Turks         -  1715 
Belgrade  taken  from  Austria;  and  Rus- 
sia relinquishes  AzotT  -  -  1739 
Great  sea-fight  in  the  channel  of  Scio  ; 
the  English  and  Russian  fleets  defeat 
the  Turkish      -           -           -  -  1770 
The  Crimea  falls  to  Russia       -     Jan.  1783 
[This  ends  the  disastrous  war  with  Rus- 
sia and  Austria  (begun  in  1787),  the 
Turks  having  lost  more  than  200,000 
men. — Ashe^] 
War  against  Russia     -           -  Dec.  30, 1806 
Passage  and  repassage  of  the  Darda- 
nelles efl^ected  by  the  British  fleet,  but 
with  great  loss  (see  Dardanelles) 

Feb.  19, 1807 
The  sultan  Selim  is  deposed  and  mur- 
dered, and  Mustapha  IV.  called  to 
the  throne  -  .       May  29,  IGCT 

Treaty  of  Bucharest  iwhich  see)  May 

28,  ■ 812 
A  caravan  consisting  of  2000  souls,  re- 
turning from  Mecca,  destroyed  by  a 
pestilential  wind  in  the  deserts  of 
Arabia ;  20  only  were  saved    Aug.  9,  1812 
Subjection  of  the  Wachabees    -  .1819 

Ali  Pacha  of  Janina,  in  Greece,  declares 

himself  independent   -  -  -  1820 

Insurrection  of  Moldavia  and  Wallachia 

March  6, 1821 
The  Greek  Patriarch  put  to  death  at 
Constantinople        -  .  April  23, 1821 


TUE.  J 


DICTIONARY   OF   DATES. 


571 


TURKEY,  continue  i. 

Horrible  massa  :re  at  Scio ;  the  most 
dreadful  in  modern  history  (see  note 
to  Greece)    -  ■  -  April  23,  1822 

Sea-fight  near  Mitylene  -    Oct.  6,  1824 

New  Mahometan  army  announced  to  be 
organized       -  -  -  May  29,  1826 

Insurrection  of  the  Janizaries  at  Con- 
stantinople   -  -  -  June  14,  1826 

Firman  of  the  s  jLtan  abolishing  the  Ja- 
nizaries ....  1826 

Fire  at  Consta-  itinople ;  6000  houses  re- 
duced to  ashes      -  -  August  30,  1826 

Battle  of  Navarino;  the  Turkish  fleet 
destroyed  by  the  fleets  of  England, 
France,  and  Russia  (see  Navarino) 

Oct.  20.  1827 

Banishment  of  132  French,  ]  20  English, 
and  85  Russian  settlers,  from  the 
Turkish  empire  -      January  5,  1828 

War  with  Russia       -  -  AprirSo,  1828 

The  emperor  Nicholas  takes  the  field 
against  the  Turks  -        May  20,  1828 

The  Russian  emperor  arrives  before 
Varna  ....  Aug.  5,  1828 

Battle  of  Akhalzic       -  -  Aug.  24, 1828 

Fortress  of  Bajazet  taken        -  Sept.  9,  1828 

The  sultan  leaves  his  capital  for  the 
camp,  bearing  with  him  the  sacred 
standard       -  -  -  Sept.  26,  1828 

Dardanelles  blockaded       -         Oct.  1, 1828 

Suii-ender  of  Varna      -  -  Oct.  15,  1828 


Russians  retreat  from  before  Schumla, 

October  16,  1828 

Surrender  of  the  castle  of  the  Morea  to 
the  French     -  -  -  Oct.  30,  1828 

Siege  of  Silistria  raised  by  the  Russians 

Nov.  10,  1828 

Victory  of  the  Russians  at  Kulertsaa 
near  Schumla  -  -  June  11, 1829 

Adrianople  is  entered  by  the  Russian 
troops  -  -  -  Aug.  20,  1829 

Armistice  between  the  Russian  and 
Turkish  armies       -  -  Aug.  29,  1&49 

Treaty  of  peace  -  -  Sept.  14,  1829 

Treaty  with  the  U.  States      -     May  7,  1830 

St.  Jean  d'Acre  taken  by  Ibrahim  Pa- 
cha son  of  Mehemet  Ali        -  July  2,  1832 

He  defeats  the  army  of  tl.  e  sultan  in  Sy- 
ria, with  great  loss    -  -  July  30. 1832 

A  series  of  successes  brings  the  ar;  ny  of 
Ibrahim  Pacha  within  eighty  leagues 
of  Constantinople,  and  the  sultan  has 
recourse  to  the  aid  of  Russia    -  Jan.  1833 

A  Russian  force  enters  the  Turkish  ca- 
pital   ....  April  3,  1833 

Treaty  with  Russia,  offensive  ijid  de- 
fensive -  -  •  July  S,  1&33 

Office  of  grand  vizier  abolished  by  the 
sultan  -  -  -  March  30, 1838 

Insurrection  in  Wallachia        June  18,  1848 

Mehemet  Ali  dies  at  Alexandria  Aug.  2, 1849 


1296  Ossraan,  or  Ottoman  I. 
1325  Orcham,  his  youngest  son. 
1359  Amurath  I.,  his  son;  assassinated. 
1388  Bajazet  1.,  his  son  ;  died  in  prison. 
1397  Isa  Belis ;  killed  by  his  brotiier. 
1403  Solyman ;  killed  by  his  brother. 
1410  Musa ;  strangled  by  his  brother. 
1413  Mahomet  I.  ;  succeeded  by  his  son. 
1421  Amurath  II. ;  succeeded  by  his  son. 
1451  Mahomet  II. ;   left  the  empire  to  his 

two  sons. 
1481  C(?  -tacus,  his  grandson ;  succeeded  by 

his  father. 
1481  Xemin;  obliged  to  abdicate  in  favor  of 

his  brother. 
1481  Bajazet  II. ;  deposed  by  his  son. 
1520  Solyman,  the  Magnificent. 
1566  Selim  II. ;  succeeded  by  his  son. 
1512  Selim ;  succeeded  by  his  son. 
1574  Amurath  III. ;  succeeded  by  his  son. 
1595  Mahomet  III. .  succeeded  by  his  son. 
1604  Achmet ;  succeeded  by  his  brother. 
1617  Mustaphal.;  succeeded  by  his  nephew, 
1617  Osman  I. ;  strangled  by  the  Janizaries, 


TtJEKISH  EMPEROES. 

and  his  uncle  restored. 

1622  Mustapha  I. ;  again  deposed  and  suc- 
ceeded by  his  grandson. 

1623  Amurath  IV.,  succeeded  by  his  brother. 
1640  Ibrahim,  strangled  by  the  Janizaries, 

succeeded  by  his  son. 

1655  Mahomet  IV.,  deposed;  succeeded  by 
his  brother. 

1687  Solyman  III. ;  succeeded  by  his  bro- 
ther. 

1691  Achmet  II. ;  succeeded  by  his  nephew. 

1695  Mustapha  II.,  eldest  son  of  Mahomet 
IV.,  deposed  and  succeeded  by  his 
brother. 

1703  Achmet  III.  ;  deposed. 

1730  Mahomet  v.;  succeeded  by  his  brother. 

1754  Osman  II. ;  succeeded  by  his  brother. 

1757  Mustapha  III. ;  succeeded  by  his  bro- 
ther. 

1774  Abelhamet,  or  Achmet  IV. 

1789  Selim  III. 

1807  Mustapha  IV. 

1808  Mah.  Khan  II. 
1839  Abdul-Medjid,  June  27. 


TURKEYS  AND  GUINEA  FOWLS.  First  brought  to  England  a.  d.  1524,  and 
to  France  in  1570.  Turkeys  are  natives  of  America,  and  were,  consequent- 
ly, unknown  to  the  ancients.  Mr.  Pennant  has  established  this  fact  by  vari- 
ous particulars  in  the  history  of  these  birds ;  evincing  that  they  are  natives 
neither  of  Europe,  Asia,  nor  Africa ;  a  circumstance  since  placed  beyond 
controversy,  by  the  researches  of  Mr.  Beckmann.  Wild  turkeys  are  met 
with  in  flocks  of  some  thousands  in  parts  of  the  new  world,  and  except  be- 
ing larger  do  not  differ  from  om-s. — Smyth. 

TURNING.  According  to  Pliny  this  art  Avas  known  to  the  ancients,  by  whom 
articles  of  wood,  ivory,  iron,  and  gold  were  formed.    The  precious  vases, 


S72  THE  world's   progress.  [  TYR 

enriched  with  figures  in  half  relief,  which  at  this  day  adorn  the  cahinets  of 
the  antiquary  and  curious,  were  produced  by  turning.  The  lathes  made  for 
turnery  in  England  are,  many  of  them,  wonderful  in  their  machinery ;  and 
in  some  of  our  dock-yards,  blocks  and  other  materials  for  our  ships  of  war 
are  now  produced  by  almost  instantaneous  processes,  from  rough  pieces  of 
oak,  by  the  machinery  of  Mr.  Brunei. 

TURNPIBIES.  See  Tolls.  Turnpike-gates  for  exacting  tolls,  which  were  other- 
wise previously  collected,  were  set  up  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II.,  1663. — 
Chalmers.    The  statutes  relating  to  turnpike-roads  are  very  numerous. 

TUSCANY.  This  country  was  created  into  a  dukedom,  a.  d.  1530.  It  came 
into  the  Austrian  family  in  1737.  It  was  seized  by  the  French  in  March 
1799.  Ferdinand  IV.,  the  grand  duke,  was  dispossessed  by  France,  and  his 
dominions  given  to  Louis,  son  of  the  king  of  Spain,  with  the  title  of  king 
of  Etruria,  February  26,  1801.  He  died  June  80,  1803 ;  and  soon  after- 
wards this  state  was  transformed  into  an  appendage  to  the  crown  of  Italy ; 
but  was  restored  to  Austria  in  1814.  The  present  grand-  iuke  Leopold  11. 
(cousin  to  the  emperor),  ascended  June  18,  1824. 


Disturbances  and  i-evolutions  of  1847-8 
began  at  Leghorn      -  -  Sept.  2, 1847 

Grand-duke  grants  a  national  militia. 

The  grand-duke  granted  a  liberal  con- 
stitution  -  -  -  -  Feb.  1848 

Insurrection  at  Leghorn        -     Sept.  5,  1848 

The  grand-duke  flees  from  Florence 


The  chambers  meet. 

Provisional    government  proclaimed, 

Feb.  9,  iai9 

Leghorn  attacked  and  carried  by  Tus- 
can troops      -  -  -  May  10,  1849 

Tlie  grand-duke  re-enters  Florence  and 
resumes  his  authority  -  July  27, 1849 


TWELFTH-DAY.  The  church-festival  called  the  Epiphany,  or  manifestation 
of  Christ  to  the  Gentiles.  See  Epiphany.  The  custom  of  drawing  king 
and  queen  on  this  daj^  was  borrowed  from  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  who,  on 
the  tabernacle,  or  Christmas  festivals,  drew  lots  for  kings,  by  putting  a  piece 
of  money  in  the  middle  of  a  cake,  which  whoever  found,  was  saluted  as 
king. 

TYLER,  WAT,  his  Insurrection.  It  arose  in  the  opposition  of  the  people  to 
the  poll-tax,  which  was  levied  in  1378.  Owing  to  the  indecent  rudeness  of 
one  of  the  collectors  to  Tyler's  daughter,  with  a  view  to  prove  her  of  suffi- 
cient age  (fifteen)  to  pay  the  tax  (Tyler  striking  him  dead  for  the  ofience), 
the  provoked  populace  gathered  upon  Blackheath  to  the  number  of  100,000 
men.  The  king,  Richard  II.,  invited  Tyler  to  a  parley  at  Smithfleld,  where 
the  latter  addressed  the  king  in  a  somewhat  menacing  manner,  now  and 
again  lifting  up  his  sword."  His  insolence  raised  the  indignation  of  the 
mayor,  Walworth,  who  stunned  Tyler  with  a  blow  of  his  mace,  and  one  of 
the  knights  attending  the  king  dispatched  him.  The  death  of  their  leader 
awed  the  multitude,  to  whom  Richard  promised  a  charted,  and  they  dis- 
persed, 1381. 

TYRE.  This  great  city  was  first  built  by  Agenor.  Another  city  was  built 
1257  B.  c.  It  was  besieged  by  the  Assyrians,  719  b.  c,  and  they  retired  from 
before  it,  after  a  siege  of  upwards  of  five  years,  713  b.  c.  Taken  by  Nebu- 
chadnezzar, 572  B.  c,  and  the  city  demolished,  when  the  Tyreans  removed 
to  an  opposite  island,  and  built  a  new  and  magnificent  city.  It  was  taken 
by  Alexander  with  much  difficulty,  and  only  after  he  had  joined  the  island 
to  the  continent  by  a  mole,  after  a  siege  of  seven  months,  Aug.  20,  332  b.  c. 
— Strabo.  Two  of  the  most  atrocious  acts  in  the  history  of  human  crimes 
were  the  tiege  and  destruction  of  Tyre  by  Alexander,  and  of  Jerusalem  by 
Titus.  Histories  which  laud  such  monsters  ought  to  be  consigned  to  the 
flames. — Phillips. 

17RE,  Era  of.  Began  on  the  19th  of  October,  125  b.  c,  with  the  month  Hy- 
perberetteus.  The  month  was  the  same  as  those  used  in  the  Grecian  era, 
and  the  year  is  similar  to  the  Julian  j^ear.    To  reduce  this  era  to  ours,  sub- 


dot]  dictionary  of  dates.  575 

tract  124 ;  and  ii  tlie  given  year  be  less  than  125,  deduct  it  from  125,  and 
the  remainder  will  be  the  year  before  Christ. 

U. 

UBIQUARIANS.  A  sect  of  Lutherans  which  arose  and  spread  through  Ger- 
many and  other  countries,  and  who  believed  the  natural  body  of  Christ  to 
be  every  where  present.    This  sect  arose  under  Brentius,  about  a.  d.  1540. 

UKRAINE.  The  name  signifies  a  frontier.  By  a  treaty  between  Russia  and 
Poland,  these  states  divided  the  Ukraine  in  1693.  Poland  having  the  west 
side  of  the  Dnieper,  and  Russia  the  east.  But  the  whole  country  (the  bor- 
ders of  Poland,  Russia,  and  Little  Tartary)  was  assigned  to  Russia  by  the 
treaty  of  Partition  in  1795. 

ULM,  Peace  op,  by  which  Fredrick  V.  lost  Bohemia  (having  been  driven  from 
it  previously),  July  3,  1620.  Ulm  was  taken  by  the  French  in  1776.  Great 
battle  between  the  French  and  Austrians,  in  which  the  latter,  imdcr  gen- 
eral Mack,  were  defeated  with  dreadful  loss,  by  marshal  Ney,  whose  vic- 
tory was  consummated  by  the  surrender  of  Ulm,  and  36,000  men,  the  flower 
of  the  Austrian  army,  Oct.  17,  19,  1805.  From  this  time  the  ruin  of  the 
confederates,  and  grandeur  and  power  of  Napoleon,  had  their  date. 

UMBRELLA.  Described  in  early  dictionaries  as  "a  portable  pent-house  to 
carry  in  a  person's  hand  to  screen  him  from  violent  rain  or  heat."  Umbrel- 
las are  very  ancient :  it  appears,  by  the  carvings  at  Persepolis,  that  umbrel- 
las were  used  at  very  remote  periods  by  the  Eastern  princes.  Niebuhr,  who 
visited  the  southern  parts  of  Arabia,  informs  us  that  he  saw  a  great  prince 
of  that  country  returning  from  a  mosque,  preceded  by  some  hundreds  of 
soldiers,  and  that  he  and  each  of  the  princes  of  his  numerous  family  caused 
a  large  umbrella  to  be  carried  by  his  side.  The  old  china-ware  in  our  pan- 
tries and  cupboards  show  the  Chinese  shaded  by  an  umbrella.  It  is  said 
that  the  first  person  who  used  an  umbrella  in  the  streets  of  London  was 
the  benevolent  Jonas  Hanway,  who  died  in  1786.* 

UNCTION,  EXTREME.  Unction  was  frequent  among  the  Jews.  At  their 
feasts,  and  other  times  of  rejoicing,  they  anointed  sometimes  their  whole 
body,  and  at  other  times  their  head  or  feet  only :  their  kings  and  high 
priests  were  anointed  at  their  inauguration ;  they  also  anointed  the  vessels 
of  the  temple  to  consecrate  them.  None  of  the  emperors,  it  is  said,  were 
anointed  before  Justinian,  Aug.  1,  a.  d.  527.  As  a  religious  rite,  extreme 
unction  was  in  common  use,  a.  d.  550.  St.  Asaph  was  the  first  who  received 
unction  from  the  pope,  590. — Bayle.  It  is  administered  in  dying  cases  as 
extreme  unction.     See  Anointing. 

UNIFORMS.    Militar}  imiforms  were  first  used  in  France,  "  in  a  regular  man- 

*  For  a  long  while  it  was  not  usual  for  men  to  carry  them  without  incurring  the  hrand  of  effe- 
minacy. At  first,  a  single  umbrella  seems  to  have  been  kept  at  a  coffee-house  for  extraordinary 
occasions — lent  as  a  coach  or  chair  in  a  heavy  shower,  but  not  commonly  carried  by  the  walkers. 
The  Female  Tattler  advertises  "  The  young  gentleman  belonging  to  the  Custom-house  who,  in 
fear  of  rain,  borrowed  the  umbrella  from  Wilks's  Coffee-house,  shall  the  next  time  be  welcome  to 
the  maid's  pattens."  As  late  as  1778,  one  John  Macdonald,  a  footman,  who  wrote  his  own  life, 
informs  us,  that  he  had  "  a  fine  silk  umbrella,  which  he  brought  from  Spain ;  but  he  could  not 
with  any  comfort  to  himself  use  it,  the  people  calling  out  '  Frenchman !  why  don't  you  get  a 
coach  V  "  The  fact  was,  the  hackney-coachmen  and  chairmen,  joining  with  the  true  esprit  de  corps, 
were  clamorous  against  this  portentous  rival.  The  footman  in  1778,  gives  us  some  farther 
information.  "At  this  time,  there  were  no  umbrellas  worn  in  London,  except  in  noblemen's  and 
gentlemen's  houses,  where  there  was  a  large  one  hung  in  the  hall  to  hold  over  a  lady  if  it  rained, 
between  the  door  and  her  carriage."  This  man's  sister  was  compelled  to  quit  his  arm  one  day 
from  the  abuse  he  drew  down  on  himself  and  his  umbrella.  But  he  adds,  that  "he  persisted 
for  three  month.s,  till  they  took  notice  of  this  novelty.  Foreigners  began  to  use  theirs,  and  then 
tlie  English.     Now  it  is  become  a  great  trade-in  London." — Neic Monthly  Magazine. 


574  THE   world's    progress,  [  JNl 

ner,"  by  Louis  XIV.,  1668.    In  England  the  uniform  was  soon  afterwards 
adopted.    For  an  account  of  naval  uniforms,  see  Naval  Unifor-ms. 

UNIFORMITY,  Act  of.  An  Act  of  Uniformity  passed  1  Elizabeth,  1559.  But 
the  statute  known  as  the  Act  of  Uniformity  was  passed  13  and  14  Charles 
IT.,  1661,  2.  It  enjoined  uniformity  in  matters  of  religion,  and  obliged  all 
clergy  to  subscribe  to  the  thirty-nine  articles,  and  use  the  same  form  of 
worship,  and  same  book  ol  common  i^rayer.  This  act  caused  upwards  of 
2000  conscientious  ministers  to  quit  the  Church  of  England,  and  take  their 
lot  among  the  dissenters,  who  thereby  received  so  large  an  addition  to  their 
numbers  that  they  may  be  considered  as  the  fathers  of  the  dissenting  interest. 

I'NION  OF  THE  CROWNS.  The  crowns  of  England  and  Scotland  were  united 
by  the  accession  of  James  VI.  of  Scotland  as  James  I.  of  England,  March 
24,  1603.  The  legislative  union  of  the  two  kingdoms  was  attempted  in  1604, 
but  the  project  failed.  It  was  again  attempted,  but  again  failed,  in  1670.  In 
the  reign  of  Anne  it  was  once  more  tried,  and  in  the  end  with  better  suc- 
cess. Commissioners  were  appointed,  the  articles  discussed,  and,  notwith- 
standing great  opposition  made  by  the  Tories,  every  article  in  the  union 
was  approved  by  a  great  majority,  first  in  the  House  of  Commons,  and  af- 
terwards by  the  peers,  July  22,  1706,  and  ratified  by  the  Scottish  parlia- 
ment, Jan.  16,  1707.    It  became  a  law.  May  1,  same  year. 

UNION  WITH  IRELAND.  The  Union  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  propos- 
ed in  the  Irish  parliament,  Jan.  22,  1799.  The  act  passed  in  the  British 
parliament,  July  2,  1800. 

UNITARIANS.  This  sect  began  a.  d.  1550.  The  Unitarians  believe  in  and 
woi'ship  only  one  self-existent  God,  in  opposition  to  those  who,  besides  the 
Father,  worship  his  Son  Jesus.  They  arose  under  Servetus.  This  learned 
man,  excited  by  the  discussions  of  the  reformers,  began  to  read  the  Scrip- 
tures, and  conducted  his  researches  with  so  free  a  spirit,  that  he  printed  a 
tract  in  disparagement  of  the  orthodox  doctrine  of  the  Trinity.  In  1533, 
proceeding  to  Naples  through  Geneva,  Calvin  induced  the  magistrates  to 
arrest  him  on  a  charge  of  blasphemy  and  heresy  :  and  refusing  to  retract 
his  opinions,  he  was  condemned  to  the  flames,  which  sentence  was  carried 
into  execution,  October  27,  1553.  Servetus  is  numbered  among  those  ana- 
tomists who  made  the  nearest  approach  to  the  doctrine  of  the  circulation 
of  the  blood,  before  Harvey  established  that  doctrine.  In  the  United  States, 
especially  in  New  England,  the  Unitarians  form  a  large,  intelligent,  and  in- 
fluential portion  of  the  community.  The  celebrated  philanthropist  and 
eloquent  writer,  Dr.  W.  E.  Channing,  was  a  Unitarian. 

UNITED  KINGDOM  of  GREAT  BRITAIN  and  IRELAND.  The  British 
realm  was  so  named,  on  the  union  with  Ireland,  Jan.  1,  1801,  when  a  new 
imperial  standard  was  hoisted  on  the  Tower  of  London  and  Castle  of  Dub- 
lin.    See  Union. 

UNITED  PROVINCES,  the  SEVEN.  Established  by  throwing  off  the  Span- 
ish yoke,  a.  d.  1579.  The  revolted  states,  with  William,  prince  of  Orange, 
at  their  head,  after  long  deliberations  at  the  Hague,  published  an  edict  ex- 
cluding king  Philip  from  any  sovereignty,  right,  or  authority  over  the  Ne- 
therlands. Tlie  deputies  from  the  provinces  of  Holland,  Zealand,  Utrecht, 
Friesland,  Groningen,  Overyssell,  and  Guelderland,  met  at  Utrecht,  Jan.  28, 
1579 ;  signed  a  treaty  for  their  mutual  defence ;  appointed  the  prince  of 
Orange  as  tlieir  stadtholder ;  and  formed  the  alliance  ever  since  known  as 
the  "  Union  of  Utrecht,"  the  basis  of  the  commonwealth  so  renowned  by 
the  appellation  of  tlie  '■  Seven  United  Provinces."  Their  independence  was 
acknowledged  in  1607.  United  to  France  in  1796.  Louis  Bonaparte  was 
crowned  king  bythe  authority  of  Napoleon,  June  5.  18^",;.     Louis  abdicated. 


UNl] 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES. 


575 


July  1,  1810.  Restored  to  the  house  of  Orange,  and  Belgium  annexed 
Nov.  18,  1813.  Belgium  separated  from  Holland,  and  Leopold  of  Sase- 
Coburg  elected  king,  July  12,  1831.     See  Holland  and  Bdgmm. 

UNITED  STATES  of  AMERICA.  See  America;  and  the  separate  States, 
3Iaine,  &c.  The  first  colonial  Congress,  for  the  redress  of  grievances,  con. 
sisting  of  delegates  from  the  several  colonies,  met  at  New  York,  June  7, 
1765.  The  Continental  Congress  at  Philadelphia  adojjts  Declaration  of 
Rights,  1774 ;  revolutionary  war  commenced  at  Lexington,  April  19,  1775. 
See  War.  Declaration  of  Independence  adopted  by  the  Congress,  July  4, 
1776.  The  title  of  "  United  States  "  adopted  by  Congress,  Sept.  9,  1776, 
Independence  acknowledged  by  Great  Britain  in  the  Treaty  of  Paris, 
Sept.  23,  1783.  Constitution  adopted  Sept.  17,  1787.  War  against  Great 
Britain  declared  by  Congress,  June  19,  1812.  Treaty  of  peace  signed  at 
Ghent,  Dec.  3,  1814.  War  with  Mexico  commenced  April,  1846.  Treaty 
of  peace  signed  May  30,  1848.  See  Wars  of  the  United  States,  &c. ;  also 
Naval  Battles ;  also  Administrations,  Exports,  National  Debt,  Treaties,  Po- 
pulation, &c.  [The  various  occurrences  in  the  history  of  the  United  States 
are  given  more  at  large  under  that  head  in  the  Tabular  Views  in  this 
vol.,  page  122,  et.  seq.'\ 
UNIVERSALISTS.  Those  who  believe  in  the  final  salvation  of  all  men.  Sects 
of  Universalists  existed  in  various  countries  and  ages.  The  learned  and 
celebrated  Dr.  Tillotson  appears  from  some  of  his  sermons  to  have  adopted 
the  opinion  of  this  universal  salvation. — Johnson.  Certain  it  is,  about  1691, 
he  entertained  a  design  for  forming  a  new  book  of  homilies ;  and  a  sermon 
which  he  preached  before  the  queen  (Mary)  against  the  absolute  eternity 
of  hell  torments,  involved  this  doctrine. 
UNIVERSITIES.  They  sprang  from  the  convents  of  regular  clergy,  and  from 
the  chapters  of  cathedrals  in  the  church  of  Rome.  The  most  ancient  uni- 
versities in  Europe  are  those  of  Oxford,  Cambridge,  Paris,  Salamanca,  and 
Bologna.  The  British  universities  were  vested  with  the  lands  of  ex-Catho- 
lics, and  permitted  to  send  members  to  Parliament  by  James  I.  The  fol- 
lowing are  the  principal  universities  in  Europe : 

Aberdeen  founded 

Abo,  Finland 

Aix,  1409 ;  re-established 

Alba  Julia,  Transylvania    - 

Altorf,  Franconia 

Andrew's,  St., Scotland 

Angers,  chiefly  law 

Anjou,  1349 ;  enlarged 

Avignon.  France 

Bamberg       .... 

Baale,  Switzerland 

Berlin  -  '        - 

Besancon,  Burgundy 

Bologna,  Italy 

Bruges,  French  Flanders 

Caen,  Normandy 

Cambridge,  began,  626 — according  t 
others,  900.    See  Cambridge. 

Cambridge,  New  England,  projected 

Cologne,  in  Germany,  re-founded 

Compostella,  Spain 

Coirabra,  Portugal 

Copenhagen.  1497 ;  enlarged 

Cordova,  Spain   - 

Cracow,  Poland,  700 ;  enlarged 

Dijon,  France 

Dillingin,  Sv^abia     - 

Dole,  Burgundy  - 

Douay,  French  Flanders     - 

Dresden,  Si.xony 


-  1494 

Dublin     -           .           .           . 

-1591 

-  1640 

Edinburgh,  founded  by  .lames  VI. 

-1582 

-1603 

Erfurt,  Thuringia ;  enlarged 

-1390 

-1629 

Florence,  Italy ;  enlarged 

-1438 

-1581 

Frankfort-on-the-Oder 

-1506 

-1411 

Fribourg,  Germany 

-1460 

-1398 

Geneva 

-1365 

-1364 

Glasgow  -           -           -           - 

-1450 

-1388 

Gottingen      - 

-1734 

-1585 

Granada,  Spain  - 

-1537 

-1458 

Gripswald     - 

-1547 

-  1812 

Groningen,  Friesland     - 

-1614 

-1540 

Halle,  Saxony 

-1694 

-    423 

Heidelberg           -            -          .- 

■  1346 

-  1665 

Ingoldstadt,  Bavaria 

-1573 

-1417 

Jena,  or  Sala,  Thuringia 

-1548 

0 

Kiel,  Holsteiu 

-1665 

King's  College,  London 

-1829 

-  16.30 

Konigsberg,  Prussia 

-1544 

-1389 

Leips'ic,  Saxony  -           -           • 

-1409 

-1517 

Leyden,  Holland 

■      -  1575 

-1391 

Lima,  in  Peru     - 

-1614 

-1539 

Lisbon,  1290 ;  removed  to  Coimbr 

1     -  1391 

-    968 

London  University 

-1826 

-  1402 

Louvaine,  Flanders,  926 ;  enlargec 

-  1427 

-  1722 

Lyons,  France     - 

-   830 

-1565 

Mechlin,  Flanders    - 

-      -  1440 

-  1426 

Mentz         .... 

-1482 

•  \mz 

Montpelier    - 

-1195 

-  1694 

Moscow    -           -           -           • 

■1754 

576 


THE   world's   progress. 


[UXR 


Saltzburg 1623 

Saragossa,  Arragon 1474 

Seville 1631 

Sienna 1387 

Siguenza,  Spain 1517 

Sorbonne,  Paris 1253 

Strasburg 1538 

Toledo,  Spain 1518 

Treves,  Germany  ....  1473 

Tubingen,  Wirtemberg    -       -       •    -  1477 

Turin 1405 

llpsal,  Sweden 1477 

Uirecht,  Holland 1636 

Valence,  Dauphine 1475 

Valencia  in  the  thirteenth  century. 

Valladolid 1346 

Venice -  1592 

Vienna 1236 

Wirtemberg      -       -  ....  1502 

Wittenberg    ...  .       .  ^02 

Wurtzburg       .       .  -    - 1403 


UNIVERSITIES,   continued. 

Munster 1491 

Naples 1216 

Orleans,  France 1312 

Oxford  (see  Oxford)       -       -        -    -    886 

Paderborn 1592 

Padua,  Italy 1179 

Palenza,  1209 ;  removed  to  Salamanca  1249 
Paris,  792;  renovated  -        -        -       -1100 

Parma 1599 

Pavia,  791 ;  enlarged    ....  1361 

Perpignan 1349 

Perugia,  Italy 1307 

Petersburgh 1747 

Pisa,  1339;  enlarged     ■       •        •        -1552 

Poictiers   -       -  " 1430 

Prague  1348 

Rheims,  1145;  enlarged  -  -  -  -1560 
Rome  Sapienza  -  .  -  -  -  -  1303 
Rostock,  Mecklenburgh   -       -        -    -  1419 

Salamanca 1240 

Salerno 1233 

UNIVERSITIES  in  UNITED  STATES.    See  Colleges. 

UNKNOWN  TONGUE.  A  disturbance  in  the  Rev.  Mr.  IrvinjL,s  chapel,  in 
London,  occasioned  by  a  Miss  Hall  interrupting  a  discourse  on  prophecy, 
by  holding  forth  in  what  was  denominated  the  "  Unknown  Tongue."  She 
was  removed  to  the  vestry.  On  the  same  evening,  a  Mr.  Taplin  rose,  and 
commenced,  with  the  permission  of  Mr.  Irving,  a  violent  harangue  in  the 
same  unknown  language.  A  scene  of  most  alarming  confusion  ensued,  the 
whole  congregation  rising  from  their  seats  in  affright,  and  the  females 
screaming,  while  Mr.  Irving  listened  with  the  most  profound  attention  to 
the  ravings  of  the  inspired  teacher,  October  16,  1831.  From  this  period, 
much  of  the  same  mummery,  followed  by  a  translation  into  English  rhap- 
sody, was  played  ofi';  and  large  crowds  assembled,  not  on  Sundays  only,  but 
as  early  as  six  o'clock  on  the  mornings  of  week-days  also,  some  to  be  edi- 
fied by  prophetic  spirits,  and  some  to  laugh  at  the  ravings  of  fanatics. — 
Ann.  Register. 

URANUS.  This  planet,  with  its  satellites,  was  discovered  by  Herschel,  by 
whom  it  was  called  the  Georgian  planet,  in  honor  of  his  majesty  George  III. 
The  name  of  Herschel  is  also  given  to  it,  in  compliment  to  its  illustrious 
discoverer,  by  the  astronomers  of  Great  Britain ;  but  by  foreigners  it  is 
asually  called  Uranus.  It  is  about  twice  as  distant  from  the  sun  as  the 
planet  Saturn;  and  was  discovered  on  the  13th  March,  1781. 

USURY.  Forbidden  by  parliament,  1341.  Two  shillings  per  week  were  given 
for  the  loan  of  twenty,  in  1260.  This  was  at  the  rate  of  43Z.  6s.  8d.  per 
annum  for  100^.,  which  was  restrained  by  an  act,  1275,  against  the  Jews. 
Until  the  fifteenth  century  no  Christians  were  allowed  to  receive  interest 
of  money,  and  Jews  were  the  only  usurers,  and,  therefore,  often  banished 
and  persecuted  (see  Jews).  Bj^the  37th  of  Henry  VIII..  the  rate  of  interest 
was  fixed  at  10  per  cent.,  1545.  This  statute  confirmed  by  the  13th  Eliza- 
beth, 1570.  Reduced  to  8  per  cent.,  21  James  I.,  1623,  when  the  word  in- 
terest was  first  used  for  the  Avord  usury.  Reduced  to  5  per  cent.,  13  Anne, 
1714.     See  Interest. 

f  JTRECHT,  Treaty  of,  &c.  The  Union  of  the  Seven  United  Provinces  began 
here  (see  United  Provinces),  a.d.  1579.  The  celebrated  Treaty  of  Utrecht, 
which  terminated  the  wars  of  queen  Anne,  was  signed  by  the  ministers  of 
Great  Britain  and  France,  as  well  as  of  all  the  other  allies,  except  the  minis- 
ters of  the  empire.  The  most  important  stipulations  of  this  treaty  were 
the  security  of  the  Protestant  succession  in  England,  the  disuniting  the 


VAL  ]  DICTIONARY    OF   DATES.  577 

French  and  Spanish  crowns,  the  destruction  of  Dunkirk,  the  enlargement 
of  the  British  colonies  and  plantations  in  America,  and  a  full  satisfaction 
for  the  claims  of  the  allies,  April  11,  1713.  Utrecht  surrendered  to  the 
Prussians,  May  9,  1787 ;  and  was  possessed  by  the  French,  Jan.  18,  1795. 


VACCINE  INOCULATION.  Variola  vacdiia,  discovered  by  Dr.  Jenner.  He 
made  the  first  experiment  in  vaccination,  by  transferring  the  fus  from 
the  pustule  of  a  milk-maid,  who  had  caught  the  cow-pox  from  the  cows,  to 
a  healthy  child,  in  May  1796.  Dr.  Jenner  subsequently  published  the  result 
to  the  world,  and  the  cure  became  general  in  1799.  The  cure  was  intro-. 
duced  Jan.  21,  in  that  year.  The  genuine  cow-pox  appears,  in  the  form  of 
vesicles,  on  the  teats  of  the  cow.  Dr.  Jenner  received  10,000Z.  for  the  dis- 
covery from  parliament  in  1802 ;  and  the  first  national  institution  for  the 
promotion  of  the  cure,  called  the  Royal  Jennerian  Institution  was  founded 
Jan.  19,  1803.  Vaccination  was  practised  throughout  all  Europe  previously 
to  1816. 

VAGRANTS.  After  being  whipped,  a  vagrant  was  to  take  an  oath  to  return 
to  the  place  where  he  was  born,  or  had  last  dwelt  for  three  years,  22  Henry 
VIII.,  1530.  A  vagrant  a  second  time  convicted,  to  lose  the  upper  part  of 
the  gristle  of  his  right  ear,  27  Henry  VIII.,  1535  ;  and  a  third  time  convicted, 
death.  By  1  Edward  III.,  a  vagabond  to  be  marked  with  a  V.  and  be  a 
slave  for  two  years.  Vagrants  were  punished  by  whipping,  jailing,  boring 
the  ears,  and  death  for  a  second  offence,  14  Elizabeth,  1571.  The  milder 
statutes  were  those  of  17  George  11. ;  32,  35,  and  59  George  III.  The  laws 
against  vagrancy  are  still  very  severe  in  England,  and  operate  unequally  as 
respects  the  character  of  the  offender. 

VALENCIA.  Its  university  was  founded,  it  is  said,  in  the  13th  century,  and 
was  revived  in  1470.  Valencia  was  taken  by  the  earl  of  Peterborough  in 
1705,  but  was  soon  lost  again.  It  was  taken  from  the  Spaniards  by  the 
French,  under  Suchet,  with  a  garrison  of  more  than  16,000  men,  and  im- 
mense stores,  Jan.  9,  1812. 

VALENCIENNES,  Siege  op.  This  city  was  besieged  from  May  23  to  July  14, 
when  the  French  garrison  surrendered  to  the  allies  under  the  duke  of  York, 
1793.  It  was  retaken,  together  with  Conde,  by  the  French,  on  capitulation, 
the  garrison  and  1100  emigrants  made  prisoaers,  with  immense  stores,  viz. 
— 300  pieces  of  cannon,  one  million  pounds  of  gunpowder,  eight  millions 
of  florins  in  specie,  six  millions  of  livres,  1000  head  of  cattle,  and  vast 
quantities  of  other  provisions,  Aug.  30,  1794. 

VALENCAY,  Treaty  of,  between  Napoleon  of  France  and  Ferdinand  VII. 
of  Spain,  whereby  the  latter  was  put  in  full  possession  of  that  kingdom,  on 
agreeing  to  maintain  its  integrity.  This  celebrated  treaty  was  signed  De- 
cember 8,  1813. 

VALENTINE'S  DAY.  The  practice  of  "choosing  a  Valentine,"  as  it  is 
called,  on  this  day,  is  too  well  known  to  need  explanation.  The  origin  of 
the  custom  has  been  miich  controverted  ;  it  is  indisputably  of  very  ancient 
date.  Valentine  was  a  presbyter  of  the  church,  who  suffered  martyr- 
dom under  Claudius  II.  at  Rome,  a.  d.  271.  It  is  said  that  on  this  day 
the  birds  choose  their  mates ;  whence,  probably,  came  the  custom  of 
young  people  choosing  Valentines  or  particular  friends  on  the  feast  of 
Valentine. 

VALENTINIANS.  This  sect  of  enthusiastics  were  followers  of  the  opinions 
of  one  Valentine,  a  priest,  who,  upon  being  disappointed  of  a  bishopric 

25 


578  THE  world's  progress.  [vew 

forsook  the  Christian  faith,  and  published  that  there  were  thirty  gods  and 
goddesses,  fifteen  of  each  sex,  which  he  called  ^ones,  or  Ages.  He 
taught  in  the  second  century,  and  piibhshed  a  gospel  and  psalms :  to 
these  his  followers  added  several  other  errors,  declaring  there  was  no  ob- 
ligation to  suSer  martyrdom ;  some  declared  against  baptism,  and  others 
practised  it  in  a  peculiar  manner,  and  all  indulged  themselves  in  licen- 
tiousness. 

VANCOUVER'S  VOYAGE.  Captain  Vancouver  served  as  a  midshipman 
under  captain  Cook ;  and  a  voyage  of  discovery,  to  ascertain  the  existence 
of  any  navigable  communication  between  the  Nortli  Pacific  and  North 
Atlantic  oceans  being  determined  on,  he  was  appointed  to  command 
it.  He  sailed  in  1790,  and  returned  September  21,  1795.  He  compiled  an 
account  of  this  voyage  of  survey  of  the  Northwest  coast  of  America,  and 
died  in  1798. 

VANDALS.  The  Vandal  nations  began  their  ravages  in  Germ  Any  and  Gaul, 
A.  D.  406-414.  Their  kingdom  in  Spain  was  founded  in  411.  They  invaded 
and  conquered  the  Roman  territories  in  Africa,  under  Genseric,  who  took 
Carthage,  Oct.  24,  439.  They  were  driven  out,  and  attacked  in  turn  by  the 
Saracen  Moors.  The  Vandalii  oven-an  a  vast  portion  of  Europe  and  spread 
devastation  wherever  they  appeared. 

VAN  DIEMEN'S  LAND.  This  country  Avas  discovered  by  Tasman  in  1633. 
It  was  visited  by  Furneaux  in  1773  ;  by  captain  Cook  in  1777 ;  and  was 
deemed  the  south  extremity  of  New  Holland  until  1799.  A  British  settle- 
ment was  established  on  the  south-east  part,  within  the  mouth  of  the  Der- 
went,  and  named  Hobart  Town,  which  is  the  seat  of  government,  1804. 

VASSALAGE.  See  Feudal  Laws  and  Villanage.  Vassalage  was  introduced 
by  the  Saxons,  and  its  slavery  increased  under  William  I.  Under  the  Nor- 
man princes  there  were  vassal  boors  and  free  boors ;  those  who  were  sold 
with  the  land,  and  those  who  were  free  to  choose  an  employer.  To  this  day 
the  distinction  prevails  in  some  countries,  and  particularly  in  Russia,  where 
the  vassal  boors  are  divided  into  classes ;  as  boors  belonging  to  the  sover- 
eign ;  mining  boors,  who  are  sold  with  the  property ;  and  private  boors,  who 
belong  to  the  nobility,  and  perform  the  labor  on  their  estates.  In  ELgland, 
a  vassal  did  homage  to  a  lord  on  account  of  land,  &c.,  held  of  him  in  fee. 
Vassalage  was  abolished  in  Hungary  in  October  1785 ;  in  Holstein,  in  May 
1797 ;  and  Courland,  in  Sept.  1818. 

VATICAN.  Tlie  magnificent  palace  of  the  pope  at  Rome,  adjoining  St.  Peter's, 
said  to  contain  7000  rooms.  In  this  .palace,  the  library,  founded  a.  d.  1448, 
is  noted  for  its  collection  of  MSS.,  but  the  number  of  books  is  compara- 
tively moderate.  See  libraries.  The  phrase  "  thunders  of  the  Yatican," 
was  first  used  by  Voltaire,  1748. 

VENEZUELA.  When  the  Spaniards  landed  here  in  1499,  they  observed  some 
huts  built  upon  piles,  in  an  Indian  village  named  Cora,  in  order  to  raise  them 
above  the  stagnated  water  that  covered  the  plain ;  and  this  induced  them  to 
give  it  the  name  of  Venezuela,  or  Little  Venice.  This  state  declared  in  a 
congressional  assembly  the  sovereignty  of  its  people,  in  July  1814.  It  sep- 
arated from  the  federal  union  and  declared  itself  sole  and  independent  in 
1830.     See  Colombia. 

VENI,  VIDI,  VICJ. — "I  came,  I  saw,  I  conquered."  This  well-known  sen- 
tence formed  the  whole  of  Caesar's  dispatch  to  the  Roman  senate  when  he 
vanquished  Pharnaces,  king  of  Cimmerian  Bosphorus,  47  b.  c.  See  Zela, 
Battle  of. 

VENICE.  So  called  from  the  Venetii  who  inhabited  its  site,  when  it  was  made 
a  kingdom  by  the  Gauls.  \\\\o  conquered  it  about  356  b.  c.     Marcellus  con- 


VEa 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES. 


57& 


qnered  it  for  the  Roman  republic,  and  slew  tlie  Gaulish  king,  221  b.  c.  The 
islands  on  which  the  city  is  built  began  to  be  inhabited,  a.  d.  421,  by  Ital- 
ians, who  fled  here  as  a  jjlace  of  safety  from  the  Goths,  and  other  barbar- 
ous nations,  when  they  ravaged  Italy.  The  first  house  was  erected  on  the 
morass  by  Entinopus,  by  whom  the  people  of  Padua  were  assisted  in  build- 
ing the  eighty  houses  which  first  formed  the  city. — Priestley.  Venice  was 
first  governed  by  a  doge  (Anafesto  Paululio),  a.  d.  697.  The  republic  was 
not  completely  founded  until  803.  The  city  reduced  to  ashes,  1101.  The 
ceremony  of  the  doges  of  Venice  marrying  the  Adriatic  was  instituted  by 
pope  Alexander  III.  in  1173.  Venice  carried  on  a  vast  commerce  until  the 
discovery  of  America,  and  a  passage  to  the  East  Indies  by  the  Cape,  gave 
it  another  direction,  about  1500.  By  the  treaty  of  Campo  Formio,  the  ter- 
ritory to  the  north  and  west  of  the  Adige  were  ceded  to  Austria,  and  the 
rest  was  annexed  to  what  the  French  then  styled  the  Cisalpine  Republic, 
1797.  This  disposition  was  altered  by  the  treaty  of  Presburg,  and  the 
whole  country  annexed  to  the  kingdom  of  Italy,  1805.  Venice  returned 
under  the  power  of  Austria  in  1814.  The  city  declared  a  free  port,  Jan.  24, 
1830. 

Venice,  after  a  gallant  resistance,  capi- 
tulates to  Marshal  Radetzky,  and  is 
again  in  the  power  of  Austria, 

Aug.  22,  1&13 


Venice  declares  herself  an  independent 
republic  -  -  Aug.  18,  I84S 

Provisional  government  decrees  an  as- 
sembly with  full  powers  to  be  elected 
by  universal  suffrage,  1  to  every  1,500 
inhabitants  -  -        Dec.  29, 1848 


VENTRILOQUISM.  Persons  who  had  this  art  were  by  the  Latins  called  Ven- 
triloqui,  and  by  the  Greeks,  Engasti-imythoi,  i.  e.  people  that  speak  out  of 
their  bellies,  or  who  have  the  art  of  throwing  out  the  voice  in  an  extraordi- 
nary manner.  Exhibitors  of  this  kind  have  appeared  in  England  in  various 
ages,  but  some  of  extraordinary  capabilities  in  their  art  exhibited  in  the 
last  century.  Mr.  Thomas  King  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  man  whose 
experimental  philosophy,  shown  in  this  line,  excited  great  wonder,  about 
1716.  One  of  the  most  accomplished  professors  of  ventriloquism  that  ever 
appeared  in  France  or  England,  was  M.  Alexandre,  about  1822. 

VRNUS.  This  planet's  transit  over  the  sun,  it  was  ascertained  by  Horrox,  in 
1633,  would  take  place  Nov.  24,  1639.  He  was  the  first  who  predicted,  or 
rather  calculated  this  passage,  from  which  he  deduced  many  useful  obser- 
vations. Maskelyne  was  sent  to  St.  Helena  to  observe  her  transit,  in  Jan. 
1761.  Captain  Cook  made  his  first  voyage,  in  the  Endeavor,  to  Otaheita, 
to  observe  a  transit  of  Venus,  in  1769.  See  note  to  article  Cook's  Voyages. 
The  diurnal  rotation  of  Venus  was  discovered  by  Cassini  in  1712.  This 
planet  will  not  be  again  so  brilliant  as  in  1769  to  our  globe  until  1874. 

VERMONT,  one  of  the  United  States,  first  settled  by  colonists  from  Massachu- 
setts. 1723.  The  territory  was  claimed  by  New  Hampshire,  from  1741  to 
1764 :  claimed  also  by  New- York,  and  granted  to  that  colony  by  parliament 
in  1664.  Owing  to  these  conflicting  claims,  the  state  was  not  admitted  into 
the  confederacy  during  the  Revolution,  but  it  still  performed  its  part  in 
that  struggle.  The  British  defeated  at  Bennington  by  gen.  Stark,  in  1777. 
Claims  of  New- York  withdrawn  on  payment  of  S30,000,  in  1790.  The  state 
admitted  into  the  Union.  1791.  Population  in  1790,  was  85.589;  in  1810, 
217,895  ;  in  1830,  280,679 ;  in  1840,  291,948. 

V'ERSAILLES,  Palace  of.  In  the  reign  of  Louis  XIII.,  Versailles  was  only  a 
small  village,  in  a  forest  thirty  miles  in  circuit ;  and  here  this  prince  built  a 
hunting-seat  in  1630.  Louis  XIV.,  in  1687,  enlarged  it  into  a  magnificent 
palace,  which  was  finished  in  1708.  and  was  the  usual  residence  of  the  kings 
of  France  till  1789,  when  Louis  XVI.  and  his  family  were  removed  from  it 
to  Paris.     Louis  Philipj)e  appropriated  the  whole  of  the  immense  building 


580  THE  world's  progress.  [ve* 

to  a  grand  national  museum  of  paintings  and  statues,  dedicated  a  tous  lei 
gloires  de  France ;  and  freely  opened  to  the  public. 

VERSAILLES,  Peace  op.  The  definitive  treaty  of  peace  between  Great  Bri- 
tain and  the  United  States,  signed  at  Paris ;  when  the  latter  power  was  ad- 
mitted to  be  sovereign  and  independent.  On  the  same  day,  the  definitive 
treaty  was  signed  at  Versailles  between  Great  Britain,  France,  and  Spain, 
Sept.  3,  1783.  In  pursuance  of  the  treaty  of  Versailles,  Pondicherry  and 
Carical,  with  the  former  possessions  in  Bengal,  were  restored  to  France. 
Trincomalle  at  the  same  time  restored  to  the  Dutch. 

VERSE,  BLANK.  Blank  verse  and  the  heroic  couplet,  now  in  general  use  for 
grave  or  elevated  themes,  are  both  of  comparatively  modern  date.  Surrey 
translated  part  of  Virgil's  JEneid  into  blank  verse,  which  is  the  first  compo.«' 
tion  of  the  kind,  omitting  tragedy,  extant  in  the  English  language ;  and  the 
other  measure  was  but  little  affected  till  the  reign  of  Charles  II.  The  verse 
previously  used  in  our  grave  compositions  was  the  stanza  of  eight  lines,  the 
ottava  rima,  as  adopted  with  the  addition  of  one  line  by  Spenser  (in  his 
Faery  Queen),  who  probably  borrowed  it  from  Ariosto  and  Tasso,  the  Italian 
language  being  at  that  time  in  high  repute.  Boccaccio  first  introduced  it  into 
Italy  in  his  heroic  poem  L,a  Tcselde,  having  copied  it  from  the  old  French 
chansons. — JMetropoUtan.  Trissino  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  introducer  of 
blank  verse  among  the  moderns,  about  1508. —  Vossius.     See  Poetry. 

VESTA.  The  planet  Vesta  (the  ninth)  was  discovered  by  Dr.  Olbers,  of  Bre- 
men, on  March  28,  1807.  She  appears  like  a  star  of  the  sixth  magnitude. — 
Annual  Register. 

VESTALS.  Priestesses  of  the  goddess  Vesta,  who  took  care  of  the  perpetual 
fire,  consecrated  to  her  worship.  This  office  was  very  ancient,  as  the  mother 
of  Romulus  was  one  of  the  vestals.  -lEneas  is  supposed  to  have  first  chosen 
the  Vestals.  Numa,  in  710  e.  c,  first  appointed  four,  to  which  number  Tar- 
quin  added  two.  They  were  always  chosen  by  the  monarchs  ;  but  after  the 
expulsion  of  the  Tarquins,  the  high-priest  was  intrusted  with  the  care 
of  them.  As  they  were  to  be  virgins,  they  were  chosen  young,  from 
the  age  of  six  to  ten;  and  if  there  was  not  a  sufficient  number  that 
presented  themselves  as  candidates  for  the  office,  twenty  virgins  were 
selected;  and  they  upon  whom  the  lot  fell  were  obliged  to  become  priestesses. 
The  vestal  Minutia  was  buried  alive  for  violating  her  virgin  vow,  337  b.  c. 
The  vestal  Sextilia  was  buried  alive  for  incontinence,  274  b.  c.  ;  and  the  ves- 
tal Cornelia  Maximiliana  on  the  same  charge,  a.  d.  92. — Bibliotheqiie  Uni- 
verselle. 
TESUViUS,  MOFNT.  The  dreadful  eruption  of  Mount  Vesuvius,  when  it 
emitted  such  a  qnantitj''  of  flame  and  smoke  that  the  air  was  darkened,  and 
the  cities  of  Pompeii  and  Herculaneum  were  ovei'whelmed  by  the  burning 
lava,  A.  D.  79.  More  than  250,000  persons  perished  by  the  destruction  of 
those  cities ;  the  sun's  light  was  totally  obscured  for  two  days  throughout 
Naples ;  great  quantities  of  ashes  and  sulphureous  smoke  were  carried  not 
only  to  Rome,  but  also  beyond  the  Mediterranean  into  Africa ;  birds  were 
suffocated  in  the  air  and  fell  dead  upon  the  ground,  and  the  fishes  perished 
in  the  neighboring  waters,  which  were  made  hot  and  infected  by  it :  this 
eruption  proved  fatal  to  Plinj'-  the  naturalist.  Herculaneum  was  discovered 
in  1737,  and  many  curious  articles  have  been  dug  from  the  ruins  since  that 
time ;  but  every  thing  combustible  had  the  marks  of  having  been  burned  by 
fire.  Numei'ous  eruptions  have  occurred,  causing  great  devastation  and 
loss  of  lives.  In  1631  the  town  of  Torre  del  Greco,  with  4000  persons,  and 
a  great  part  of  the  surrounding  country,  were  destroyed.  One  of  the  most 
dreadful  eruptions  ever  known  took  place  suddenly,  Nov.  24,  1759.  The 
violent  burst  in  1767  was  the  thirtv-fourth  from  the  the  time  of  Titus,  when 


VIE  J  DICTIONARY   OF    DATES.  •  581 

Pompeii  was  buried.  One  in  1794  was  most  destructive  :  tlie  lava  flowed 
over  5000  acres  of  rich  vinej'ards  and  cultivated  lands,  and  the  town  oi 
Torre  del  Greco  was  a  second  time  burned  ;  the  top  of  the  mountain  fell  in, 
and  the  crater  is  now  nearly  two  miles  in  circumference.  There  have  been 
several  eruptions  since. 

VETOES  OP  THE  PRESIDENTS  of  the  UNITED  STATES.  The  power  of  can- 
celling acts  of  Congress  by  executive  veto,  was  exercised  as  follows : — by 
Washington,  twice;  Madison,  four  times;  Monroe,  once;  Jackson,  five 
times ;  Tyler,  three  times ;  Polk,  twice.  Bill  relating  to  steam-vessels  in  the 
navy  vetoed  by  president  Tyler,  and  afterwards  passed  by  vote  of  two  thirds 
of  both  houses,  and  became  a  law :  the  first  instance  of  the  kind,  February 
20,  1845.  River  and  Harbor  bill,  vetoed  by  president  Polk,  August  3,  1846. 
French  Spoliation  Indemnity  bill,  by  the  same,  Aug.  8,  1846. 

VIENNA.  The  former  capital  of  the  German  empire,  and  from  1806  the  ca- 
pital of  the  Austrian  dominions  onlj^  Vienna  was  made  an  imperial  city 
in  1136,  and  was  walled  and  enlarged  with  the  ransom  paid  for  Richard  I. 
of  England.  40,000Z.,  in  1194.  Besieged  by  the  Turks  under  Solyman  the 
Magnificent,  with  an  army  of  300,000  men  :  but  he  was  forced  to  raise  the 
siege  with  the  loss  of  70.000  of  his  best  troops,  1529.  Again  besieged  in 
1683,  when  the  siege  was  raised  by  John  Sobieski,  king  of  Poland,  who 
totallj'  defeated  the  Turkish  army  of  100,000,  which  had  cannonaded  the 
city  from  July  24  to  the  beginning  of  November.  Vienna  was  taken  by 
the  French,  under  prince  Murat,  Nov.  14,  1805  ;  and  evacuated  January  12, 
following.  They  again  captured  it.  May  13,  1809 ;  but  restored  it  once 
more  on  the  conclusion  of  peace  between  the  two  countries,  Oct.  14,  same 
year.  Conference  of  the  ministers  of  the  allies  and  France,  September  28, 
1814.  Congress  of  sovereigns,  Oct.  2,  1814.  See  Austria  and  Hungary. 
See  next  articles. 

VIENNA,  Treaty  op,  with  Spain.  The  celebrated  treaty  signed  between  the 
emperor  of  Germany  and  the  king  of  Spain,  by  which  they  confirmed  to 
each  other  such  parts  of  the  Spanish  dominions  as  they  were  respectively 
possessed  of,  and  by  a  private  treat}'  the  emperor  engaged  to  employ  a  force 
to  procure  the  restoration  of  Gibraltar  to  Spain,  and  to  use  means  for  placing 
the  Pretender  on  the  throne  of  Great  Britain.  Spain  guaranteed  the  Prag- 
matic Sanction,  April  30,  1725. 

VIENNA,  Treaty  of  Alliance,  between  the  emperor  of  Germany,  the  king 
of  Great  Britain,  and  Holland,  by  which  the  Pragmatic  Sanction  was  gua- 
ranteed, and  the  disputes  as  to  the  Spanish  succession  terminated  (Spain 
acceded  to  the  treaty  on  the  22d  of  July) ;  signed  March  16,  1731. 

VIENNA,  Treaty  of  with  France.  A  definitive  treaty  of  peace  between  the 
emperor  of  Germany  and  king  of  France,  by  which  the  latter  power  agreed 
to  guarantee  the  Pragmatic  Sanction,  and  Lorraine  was  ceded  to  France  ; 
signed  Nov.  18,  1738. 

ViENNA,  Peace  op,  between  Napoleon  of  France  and  Francis  (II.  of  Germany) 
I.  of  Austria.  Bj  this  treaty  Austria  ceded  to  France  the  Tyrol,  Dalmatia, 
and  other  territories,  which  were  shortly  afterwards  declared  to  be  united 
to  France  under  the  title  of  the  Illyrian  Provinces,  and  engaging  to  adhere 
to  the  prohibitory  system  adopted  towards  England  by  France  and  Russia, 
October  14,  1809. 

VIENNA,  Treaties  op.  The  treaty  of  Vienna  between  Great  Britain,  Austria, 
Russia,  and  Prussia,  confirming  the  principles  on  which  they  had  acted  by 
the  treaty  of  Chaumont,  March  1,  1814;  signed  March  23,  1815.  The 
treaty  of  Vienna  between  the  king  of  the  Low  Countries  on  the  one  part, 
and  Great  Britain,  Russia,  Austria,  and  Prussia,  on  the  other,  agreeing  to 


582         •  THE  world's  progress.  f  VIN 

the  enlargement  of  the  Dutch  territories,  and  vesting  the  sovereignty  in  the 
house  of  Orange,  May  31,  1815.  The  treaty  of  Vienna :  Denmark  cedes 
Swedish  Pomerania  and  Rugen  to  Prussia,  in  exchange  for  Lauenburg, 
June  4,  1815.  The  federative  constitution  of  Germany  signed  at  Vienna, 
June  8,  1815. 
VILLAIN.  The  name  of  a  vassal  under  the  Norman  princes,  his  hard  labor 
being  the  tenure  by  which  he  lived  upon  the  land.  Of  and  pertaining  to 
the  vill  or  lordship ;  was  a  servant  during  life,  and  was  devisable  as  chat- 
tels in  the  feudal  times.  Queen  Elizabeth  gave  the  principal  blow  to  this 
kind  of  severe  service,  by  ordering  her  bondsmen  of  the  western  counties 
to  be  made  free  at  easy  rates,  a.  d.  1574. — Sto2ve's  Chroii. 

VIMEIRA,  Battle  op,,  between  the  British,  under  sir  Arthtr  WeUesley,  and 
the  whole  of  the  French  and  Spanish  forces  in  Portugal,  under  marshal 
Junot,  duke  of  Abrantes,  whom  the  British  signally  defeated,  August  21, 
1808.  For  this  victory  the  British  hero  and  the  officers  and  soldiers  under 
his  command  were  voted  the  thanks  of  parliament,  the  first  of  many  si- 
milar honors  that  marked  sir  Arthur's  (now  duke  of  Wellington's)  triumph- 
ant career. 

VINCENT'S,  St.  This  was  long  a  neutral  island ;  but  at  the  peace  of  1763, 
the  French  agreed  that  the  right  to  it  should  be  vested  in  the  English. 
The  latter,  soon  after,  engaged  in  a  war  against  the  Caribs,  on  the  windward 
side  of  the  island,  who  were  obliged  to  consent  to  a  peace,  by  which  they 
ceded  a  large  tract  of  land  to  the  British  crown.  The  consequence  of  this 
was,  that  in  1779  they  greatly  contributed  to  the  reduction  of  this  island 
by  the  French,  who,  however,  restored  it  in  1783.  In  1795  the  French 
landed  some  troops,  and  again  instigated  the  Caribs  to  an  insurrection,  which 
was  not  subdued  for  several  months.  The  great  eruption  of  the  Scouffrier 
mountain,  after  the  lapse  of  nearly  a  century,  occurred  in  1812. 

VINE.  The  vine  was  kno'wn  to  Noah.  A  colony  of  vine-dressers  from  Phocea, 
in  Ionia,  settled  at  Marseilles,  and  instructed  the  South  Gauls  in  tillage, 
vine-dressing,  and  commerce,  about  600  b.  c.  Some  think  the  vines  are 
aborigines  of  Languedoc,  Provence,  and  Sicily,  and  that  they  grew  sponta- 
neously on  the  Mediterranean  shores  of  Italy,  France,  and  Spain.  The 
vine  was  carried  into  Champagne,  and  part  of  Germany,  a.  d.  279.  The 
vine  and  sugar-cane  were  planted  in  Madeira  in  1420.  It  was  planted  in 
England  in  1552 ;  and  in  the  gardens  of  Hampton-court  palace  is  an  old  and 
celebrated  vine,  said  to  surpass  any  known  vine  in  Europe.  See  Grapes, 
and  Wi7ie.* 

VINEGAR.  Known  nearly  as  soon  as  wine.  The  ancients  had  several  kinds 
of  vinegar,  which  they  used  for  drink.  The  Roman  soldiers  were  accus- 
tomed to  take  it  in  their  marches.  The  Bible  represents  Boaz,  a  rich  ci- 
tizen of  Bethlehem,  as  providing  vinegar  for  his  reapers,  into  which  they 
might  dip  their  bread,  and  kindly  invitmg  Ruth  to  share  with  them  in  their 
repast :  hence  we  may  infer  that  the  harvesters,  at  that  period,  partook  of 
this  liquid  for  their  refreshment ;  a  custom  still  prevalent  in  Spain  and  Italy. 
It  is  conjectured  that  the  vinegar  which  the  Roman  soldiers  offered  to  our 
Saviour  at  his  crucifixion  was  that  which  they  used  for  their  own  drinking. 


*  The  following  is  a  tradition  in  relation  to  the  vine : — When  Adam  planted  the  first  vine,  an.l 
left  it,  Satan  approached  it,  and  said,  "Lovely  plant!  I  will  cherish  thee  ;"  and  thereupon  taking 
three  animals,  a  lamb,  a  lion,  and  a  hog,  he  slayed  them  at  the  root  of  the  tree,  and  their  blood  has 
been  imbibed  by  the  fruit  to  this  day.  Thus,  if  you  take  one  goblet  of  wine,  yoti  are  cheered  by  its 
influence,  yet  are  mild  and  docile  as  the  lamb;  if  you  take  two  goblets,  you  become  furious,  and 
rave  and  bellow  like  the  lion ;  and  if  you  drink  of  the  third  goblet,  your  reason  sink&.  and,  like  tha 
hog,  you  wallow  in  the  mire. — Ashe. 


VUt,]  DICTIONARY   OF   DATES,  583 

There  was,  however,  a  kind  of  potent  vinegar,  which  was  not  proper  for 
drinking  till  diluted. 
VIOL  AND  VIOLIN.  As  the  lyre  of  the  Greeks  was  the  harp  of  the  moderns, 
so  the  viol  and  vielle  of  the  middle  ages  became  the  modern  violin.  The 
viol  was  of  various  sizes  formerly,  as  it  is  at  present,  and  was  anciently  very 
much  in  use  for  chamber  airs  and  songs.  That  of  three  strings  was  intro- 
duced into  Europe  by  the  jugglers  of  the  thirteenth  century.  The  violin 
was  invented  towards  the  close  of  the  same  century. — Abbe  Lengiet.  The 
fiddle,  however,  is  mentioned  as  early  as  a.  d.  1200,  in  the  legendary  life  of 
St.  Christopher.    It  was  introduced  into  England,  some  say,  by  Charles  II. 

VIRGIN.  The  Assumption  of  the  Virgin  is  a  festival  in  the  Greek  and  Latin 
churches,  in  honor  of  the  miraculous  ascent  of  Mary  into  heaven,  according 
to  their  belief,  August  15,  a.  d.  45.  The  Presentation  of  the  Virgin,  is  a 
feast  celebrated  November  21,  said  to  have  been  instituted  among  the 
Greeks  in  the  eleventh  century;  its  institution  in  the  West  is  ascribed  to 
Gregory  XI.,  1372.  A  distinguished  writer  says  :  "  The  Indian  incarnate 
god  Chrishna,  the  Hindoos  believe,  had  a  virgin-mother  of  the  royal  race, 
and  was  sought  to  be  destroyed  in  his  infancy,  about  900  years  b.  c.  It 
appears  that  he  passed  his  life  in  working  miracles  and  preaching,  and 
was  so  humble  as  to  wash  his  friends'  feet ;  at  length  dying,  but  rising 
from  the  dead,  he  ascended  into  heaven  in  the  presence  of  a  multitude. 
The  Cingalese  relate  nearly  the  same  things  of  their  Budda." — Sir  William 
Jonci. 

VIRGINIA,  daughter  of  the  centurion  L.  Virginius.  Appius  Claudius,  the 
decemvir,  became  enamored  of  her,  and  attempted  to  remove  her  from  the 
place  where  she  resided.  She  was  claimed  by  one  of  his  favorites  as  the 
daughter  of  a  slave,  and  Appius,  in  the  capacity  and  with  the  authority  of 
judge,  had  pronounced  the  sentence,  and  delivered  her  into  the  hands  of  his 
friend,  when  Virginius,  informed  of  his  violent  proceedings,  arrived  from 
the  camp.  The  father  demanded  to  see  his  daughter,  and  when  this  re- 
quest was  granted,  he  snatched  a  knife  and  plunged  it  into  Virginia's  breast, 
exclaiming,  "  This  is  all,  my  daughter  !  I  can  give  thee,  to  preserve  thee 
from  the  lust  of  a  tyrant."  No  sooner  was  the  blow  given  than  Virginius 
ran  to  the  camp  with  the  bloody  knife  in  his  hand.  The  soldiers  were  as- 
tonished and  incensed,  not  against  the  murderer,  but  the  tyrant,  and  they 
immediately  marched  to  Rome.  Appius  was  seized,  but  he  destroyed  him- 
self in  prison,  and  prevented  the  esecution  of  the  law.  Spurius  Oppius, 
another  of  the  decemvirs,  who  had  not  opposed  the  tyrant's  views,  killed 
himself  also ;  and  Marcus  Claudius,  the  favorite  of  Appius,  was  put  to 
death,  and  the  decemviral  power  abolished,  449  b.  c. 

VIRGINIA.  One  of  the  United  States;  sometimes  called  the  "  Old  Dominion," 
having  been  settled,  April,  1607,  at  Jamestown,  on  James  river — the  first 
white  settlement  in  the  United  States.  Named  Virginia  in  honor  of  queen 
Elizabeth,  who  had  granted  the  country  to  Sir  Walter  Raleigh.  A  settle- 
ment attempted  by  Raleigh  but  failed,  and  the  grant  was  vacated  on  his 
attainder  and  execution.  The  country  granted  by  James  I.  to  two  compa- 
nies, the  London  and  the  Plymouth.  Jamestown  settled  by  the  former,  and 
named  in  honor  of  their  royal  patron.  The  colony  suffered  much  from  the 
Indians,  and  by  various  disasters ;  proved  loyal  during  the  English  revolu- 
tion; was  the  first  to  proclaim  Charles  II.  on  his  restoration;  established 
the  Church  of  England  by  law,  1662 ;  took  an  early  and  prominent  part  in 
the  struggle  for  independence.  Surrender  of  the  British  army  under  Corn- 
wallis,  at  Yorktown,  October  19,  1782.  Constitution  of  the  United  States 
adopted  June  25,  1788,  by  89  to  79.  Virginia  has  given  birth  to  six  presi- 
dents of  the  United  States,  viz :  Washington,  Jefferson,  Madison,  Monroe, 


584  THE   world's   progress.  [        lO 

Harrison,  and  Taylor ;  and  also,  Patrick  Henry,  John  Marshall,  and  :  jdny 
distinguished  patriots.  Population  in  1790  was  747,610 ;  in  1810,  974,622 ; 
in  1830,  1,211,272  ;  in  1840,  1,239,737,  including  448,937  slaves. 

VTSIER  OR  VIZIER,  GRAND.  An  officer  of  the  Ottoman  Porte,  first  appointed 
in  1370.  Formerly  this  officer  governed  the  whole  empire  immediately 
under  the  grand  seignior ;  he  is  sometimes  called  the  grand  seignior's  lieu- 
tenant, or  vicar  of  the  empire  ;  at  his  creation,  the  prince's  seal  is  put  into 
his  hand,  upon  which  is  engraven  the  emperor's  name,  which  he  places  in 
his  bosom,  and  carries  away  with  him. — Knolles. 

VITTORIA,  Battle  of.  One  of  the  most  brilliant  victories  recorded  in  the 
annals  of  England,  obtained  by  Wellington  over  the  French  army  com- 
manded by  Jerome  Bonaparte  and  marshal  Jourdan,  June  21, 1818.  Mar- 
shal Jourdan  lost  151  pieces  of  cannon,  451  wagons  of  ammunition,  all  his 
baggage,  provisions,  cattle,  and  treasure,  with  his  baton  as  a  marshal  of 
France.  Continuing  the  pursuit  on  the  25th,  Wellington  toti.  Jourdan's 
only  remaining  gun ! 

VOLCANOES.  In  different  parts  of  the  earth's  surface,  there  are  above  200 
volcanoes,  which  have  been  active  in  modern  times.  The  eruptions  of 
Mount  Etna  are  recorded  as  early  as  734  b.  c.  by  authentic  historians.  See 
Etna.  The  first  eruption  of  Vesuvius  was  in  a.  d.  79.  See  Vesuvius. 
The  first  eruption  of  Hecla  is  said  to  have  occurred  a.  d.  1004.  For  an  ac- 
count of  the  awful  eruption  of  this  volcano  in  1783.  see  Iceland.  In  Mexico, 
a  plain  was  filled  up  into  a  mountain  more  than  a  thousand  feet  in  height 
by  the  burning  lava  from  a  volcano  in  1759.  A  volcano  in  the  isle  of  Ferro 
broke  out,  Sept.  13,  1777,  which  threw  out  an  immense  quantity  of  red 
water,  that  discolored  the  sea  for  several  leagues.  A  new  volcano  appeared 
in  one  of  the  Azore  islands.  May  1,  1808. 

VOLUNTEERS.  This  species  of  force  armed  in  England,  in  apprehension  of 
the  threatened  invasion  of  revolutionary  France,  1794.  Besides  their  large 
army,  and  85,000  men  voted  for  the  sea,  England  subsidized  40,000  Germans, 
raised  the  militia  to  100,000  men,  and  armed  the  citizens  as  volunteers. 
Between  the  years  1798  and  1804,  when  this  force  was  of  greatest  amount, 
it  numbered  410,000  men,  of  which  70,000  were  Irish.  The  English  volun- 
teers were,  according  to  official  accounts,  341,600  on  Jan.  1,  1804.  In  the 
United  States,  on  the  breaking  out  of  the  Mexican  war.  Congress  authorized 
the  enlistment  of  50,000  volunteers.  A  much  larger  number  responded, 
but  less  than  30,000  were  actually  needed  or  enrolled. 

VOYAGES.  The  first  great  voyage,  or  voyage  properly  so  called,  was  by  order 
of  Necho,  pharoah  of  Egypt,  when  some  Phcenician  pilots  sailed  from 
Egypt  down  the  Arabic  Gulf,  round  what  is  now  called  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  entei-ed  the  Mediterranean  by  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar,  coasted  along 
the  north  of  Africa,  and  at  length  arrived  in  Egypt,  after  a  navigation  of 
about  three  years,  604  b.  c. — Blair,  Herodotus.  The  first  voyage  round  the 
world  was  made  by  a  ship,  part  of  a  Spanish  squadron  which  had  been 
under  the  command  of  Magellan  (who  was  killed  at  the  Philippine  Is- 
land in  a  skirmish)  in  1519-20.  The  era  of  voyages  of  discovery  was 
the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century.  See  Circumn&vigators,  and  Norsk-  Wesi- 
Passage. 

\  W. 

WAGES  IN  ENGLAND.  The  wages  of  sundry  workmen  in  England  were  first 
fixed  by  act  of  parHament,  25  Edward  III.,  1350.  Haymakers  had  but  one 
penny  a  day.  Master  carpenters,  masons,  tylera,  and  other  coverers  of 
hou.ses,  had  not  more  than  Zd.  per  day  (about  9^.  of  our  money) ;  and  their 


wal] 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  585 


servants,  l^d. —  Vinefs  Statutes.  By  the  the  23d  Henry  VI.,  1441,  the  wages 
of  a  baiiift'  of  husbandry  was  23s.  M.  per  annum,  and  clothing  of  the  price 
of  6s.  with  meat  and  drink;  chief  hind,  carter,  or  shepherd,  20s.,  clothing 
4s. ;  common  servant  of  husbandry,  15s.,  clothing  40^. ;  woman-servant,  10s., 
clothing  4s.  By  the  11th  Henry  VII.,  1495,  there  was  a  like  rate  of  wages, 
only  with  a  little  advance  ;  as,  for  instance,  a  free  mason,  master  carpenter, 
rough  mason,  bricklayer,  master  tyler,  plumber,  glazier,  carver,  or  joiner, 
was  allowed  from  Easter  to  Michaelmas  to  take  &d.  a  day,  without  meat  and 
drink  ;  or  with  meat  and  drink  M. ;  from  Michaelmas  to  Easter,  to  abate 
\d.  A  master  having  under  him  sis  men  was  allowed  Id.  a  day  extra.  The 
following  were  the 

WAGES   OP  HARVEST-MEN  IN  ENGLAND   AT   DIFFERENT  PERIODS. 


Year. 

s. 

d. 

Year. 

In  1350 

per  diem. 

0 

1 

In  1688 

per  diem 

In  1460 

ditto 

0 

2 

In  1716 

ditto 

In  1568 

ditto 

0 

4 

In  1740 

ditto 

In  1632 

ditto 

0 

6 

In  1760 

ditto 

s.  d. 

Year. 

s.  d. 

0    S 

In  1788 

per  diem. 

I    4 

0    9 

In  1794 

ditto 

1    6 

0  10 

In  ISOO 

ditto 

2    0 

1    0 

In  1840 

ditto 

3    0 

WAGRAM,  Battle  of,  between  the  Austrian  and  French  armies,  in  which  the 
latter  was  completely  victorious,  and  the  former  entirely  overthrown.  The 
slaughter  on  both  sides  was  dreadful ;  20,000  Austrians  were  taken  i  y  the 
French,  and  the  defeated  army  retired  to  Moravia,  July  5,  1809.  This 
battle  led  to  an  armistice,  signed  on  the  12th ;  and  on  Oct.  24,  to  a  treaty 
of  peace,  by  which  Austria  ceded  all  her  sea-coast  to  France,  and  the 
kingdoms  of  Saxony  and  Bavaria  were  enlarged  at  her  expense.  The  em- 
peror was  obliged  also  to  yield  a  part  of  his  plunder  of  Poland  in  Gallicia 
to  Russia.  The  emperor  also  acknowledged  Joseph  Bonaparte  as  king  of 
Spain. 

WAKEFIELD,  Battle  of,  in  England,  between  Margaret,  the  queen  of  Henry 
VI.,  and  the  duke  of  York,  in  which  the  latter  was  slain,  and  3000  Yorkists 
fell  upon  the  field.  The  death  of  the  duke,  who  aspired  to  the  crown, 
seemed  to  fix  the  good  fortune  of  Margaret;  but  the  earl  of  Warwick  es- 
poused the  cause  of  his  son,  the  earl  of  March,  afterwards  Edward  IV.,  and 
the  civil  war  that  was  continued  from  that  time  devastated  all  England. 
This  battle  was  fought  December  31,  1460. 

WAKES.  Every  church  at  its  consecration  received  the  name  of  some  par- 
ticular saint;  this  practice  existed  among  the  Romans  and  Britons,  and 
was  continued  among  the  Saxons. —  Wliitaker.  Women  were  hired  among 
the  ancient  Romans  to  weep  at  funerals :  they  were  called  Carina.  The 
Irish  howl  originated  from  this  Roman  outcry  at  the  decease  of  their 
friends.  They  hoped  thus  to  awaken  the  soul,  which  they  supposed  might 
lie  inactive. 

WALDENSES.  The  persecution  of  this  sect  in  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth 
century  led  to  the  establishment  of  the  Holy  Office  or  Inquisition.  Pope 
Innocent  III.  had  commissioned  some  monks  to  preach  against  the  heresies 
of  the  Waldenses  in  Narbonne  and  Provence;  but  the  Catholic  bishops 
were  at  first  jealous  of  this  mission,  armed  as  it  was  with  great  power,  and 
the  feudal  chiefs  refused  to  obey  the  orders  of  the  legates,  a.  d.  1203-4. 
One  of  the  monks,  the  first  inquisitor,  Peter  Chateauneuf,  having  been  as- 
sassinated, the  aspiring  pontiff  called  on  all  the  neighboring  powers  to 
ma  .'ch  into  the  heretical  district.  All  obstinate  heretics  were  placed  at 
the  disposal  of  Simon  de  Montfort,  commander  of  this  crusade,  and  the 
whole  race  of  the  Waldenses  and  Albigenses  M^ere  ordered  to  be  pursued 
with  fire  and  sword.  Neither  sex,  age,  nor  condition  was  spared ;  the  coun- 
try became  a  wilderness,  and  the  towns  heaps  of  smoking  ruins.  Such  was 
the  era  of  the  Inquisition.  Doiuinic  de  Guzman  was  constituted  first  inqui- 
sitor-general, 1208 


586  THE   WOKLD's    progress  [  WAN 

WALES.  After  the  Roman  emperor  Honorius  quitted  Britain,  Vortigern  was 
elected  king  of  South  Britain,  and  he  invited  over  the  Saxons  to  defend  his 
counti-y  against  the  Picts  and  Scots ;  but  the  Saxons  perfidiously  sent  for 
reinforcements,  consisting  of  Saxons,  Danes,  and  Angles,  by  which  they 
made  themselves  masters  of  South  Britain,  and  most  of  the  ancient  Britons 
retired  to  "Wales,  and  defended  themselves  against  the  Saxons,  in  its  inac- 
cessible moimtains,  about  a.  d.  447.  In  this  state  Wales  remained  uncon- 
quered  till  Henry  II.  subdued  South  Wales  in  1157  :  and  in  1282  Edward  I. 
entirely  reduced  the  whole  country,  putting  an  end  to  its  independency  by 
the  death  of  Llewellyn,  the  last  prince.  The  Welsh,  however,  were  not 
entirely  reconciled  to  this  revolution,  till  the  queen  happening  to  be  brought 
to  bed  of  a  son  at  Carnarvon  in  1284,  Edward  with  great  policy  styled  him 
prince  of  Wales,  which  title  the  heir  to  the  crown  of  Great  Britain  has 
borne  almost  ever  since.  Wales  Avas  united  and  incorporated  with  England 
by  act  of  parliament,  27  Henry  VIII.  1535.    See  Britam. 

WALES,  PRINCE  of.  The  first  prince  of  this  title  was  Edward,  the  son  of 
Edward  I.,  who  was  born  in  Carnarvon  castle  on  the  25th  April,  1284,  Im- 
mediately after  his  birth  he  was  presented  by  his  father  to  the  Welsh  cnief- 
tains  as  their  future  sovereign,  the  king  holding  up  the  royal  infant  in  his 
arms,  and  saying,  in  the  Welsh  language,  "  Eich  Dyn,"  literally  in  English, 
"This  is  your  man,"  but  signifying,  "This  is  your  countryman  and  king." 
These  words  were  afterwards  changed,  or  corrupted,  as  some  historians 
assert,  to  "  Ich  Dien,"  Avhich  is  the  motto  attached  to  the  arms  of  the  prince 
of  Wales  to  this  day.  Owing  to  the  premature  death  of  his  elder  brother,  this 
prince  succeeded  to  the  throne  of  England,  by  the  title  of  Edward  II.,  in 
1307. — Myvijrian  Archczology.  Hist.  Wales.  For  another  and  very  different 
account  of  the  origin  of  the  motto  "  Ich  Dkn"  see  the  article  under  that 
head. 

WALLOONS.  The  people  who  fled  to  England  from  the  persecution  of  the 
cruel  duke  of  Alva,  the  governor  of  the  Low  Countries  for  Philip  II.  of 
Spain.  On  account  of  the  duke's  religious  proscriptions,  those  countries 
revolted  from  Philip,  1566. — Mariana's  Hist,  of  Spain.  The  Walloons  were 
Avell  received  in  England.  A  large  Protestant  church  was  given  to  them  by 
queen  Elizabeth,  at  Canterbury,  and  many  of  their  posterity  still  remain  in 
this  part  of  England. — Pardon. 

WALPOLE'S  ADMINISTRATIONS.  Mr.  Walpole  (afterwards  sir  Robert, 
and  earl  of  Orford)  became  first  lord  of  the  treasury  in  1715.  He  resigned, 
on  a  disunion  of  the  cabinet,  in  1717,  bringing  in  the  sinking  fund  bill 
on  the  day  of  his  resignation.  Resumed  as  head  of  the  ministry,  on 
the  earl  of  Sunderland  retiring,  in  1721 ;  and  continued  as  premier  until 
1742,  Avhen  his  administration  was  finally  shaken  by  its  unpopular  endeavors 
for  some  time  previously  to  maintain  peace  with  Spain. 

WANDERING  JEW.  The  following  is  the  strange  account  given  of  this  per- 
sonage : — His  original  name  was  Calaphilus,  Pontius  Pilate's  porter.  When 
they  were  dragging  Jesus  out  of  the  door  of  the  Judgment-hall,  he  struck 
him  on  the  back,  saying,  "Go  faster,  Jesus  !  go  faster;  why  dost  thou  lin- 
ger V  Upon  which  Jesus  looked  on  him  with  a  frown,  and  said,  "I  am  in- 
deed going ;  but  thou  shalt  tarry  till  I  come."  Soon  after  he  was  converted, 
and  took  the  name  of  Joseph.  He  lives  for  ever  ;  but  at  the  end  of  every 
hundred  years  falls  into  a  fit  or  trance,  upon  which  when  he  recovers,  he 
returns  to  the  same  state  of  youth  he  was  in  when  our  Saviour  suffered, 
being  about  thirty  years  of  age.  He  always  preserves  the  utmost  gravity 
of  deportment.  He  was  never  seen  to  smile.  He  perfectly  remembers  the 
death  and  resurrection  of  Christ. — Calmet's  Hist,  of  the  Bible. 


WAR  ] 


DICTIONARY    OF   DATES. 


587 


WARS.  War  is  called  by  Erasmus  "  the  malady  of  princes."  Scriptural  wri- 
ters date  the  first  war  as  having  been  begun  by  the  impious  son  of  Cain 
3563  B.C.  Osymandyas  of  Egypt  was  the  first  warlike  king ;  he  passed 
into  Asia,  and  conquered  Bactria,  2100  b.  c. — Usher.  He  is  supposed 
by  some  to  be  the  Osiris  of  the  priests.  The  most  famous  siege  recorded 
in  the  annals  of  antiquity  was  that  of  Troy,  1193 — 1184  b.  c.  The  longest 
siege  was  that  of  Azoth,  647  b.  c.  The  most  famous  sortie  was  that  of  the 
Platseans  from  their  city,  428  b.  c.  It  is  computed  that  from  the  beginning 
of  the  world  to  the  present  time,  no  less  than  6,860;000,000  of  men  have 
perished  in  the  field  of  battle,  being  about  seven  times  as  many  of  the  hu- 
man species  as  now  inhabit  our  whole  earth. 

WARS,  Civil,  op  Great  Britain.  The  most  remarkable  civil  wars  of  Great 
Britain  are  the  following  : — That  of  a.  d.  1215-16.  The  war  of  the  barons 
against  Henry  III.,  1565;  of  the  usurpation  of  Henry  IV.,  1400;  of  the 
White  and  Red  Roses,  or  houses  of  York  and  Lancaster,  from  1452  to  1471. 
The  war  between  Richard  III.  and  Henry  VII.,  1485.  The  war  against 
Charles  I.  from  1642  to  1651.  The  Scottish  civil  war  under  the  Pretender, 
1715-16  ;  that  under  the  Young  Pretender,  1745.  In  Ireland,  that  under  Ty- 
rone, 1599  ;  under  O'Neill,  1641 ;  and  that  produced  by  the  great  rebellion, 
1798. 

WARS,  Foreign,  of  Great  Britain.  The  wars  in  France,  in  which  England 
was  involved  for  nearly  two  centuries,  arose  from  the  dukes  of  Normandy 
being  kings  of  England.  They  held  Normandy  as  a  fief  of  the  crown  of 
France ;  and  when  William  I.  conquered  England,  it  became  an  English 
province,  but  was  lost  in  the  reign  of  king  John,  1204.  The  wars  with 
France  were  many ;  the  English  princes  gained  bloody  victories  at  Cressy, 
Poictiers,  and  Agincourt ;  but  they  were  finally  driven  out  of  France  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  VI.,  and  lost  Calais,  by  surprise,  in  the  reign  of  Mary.  It 
w-as  to  the  English  people  a  fortunate  loss ;  but  the  rival  policy  and  interests 
of  the  two  governments  have,  ever  since  then,  caused  half  as  many  years 
of  war  as  peace.    See  the  countries  respectively.  Battles,  &c. 


FOREIGN 

WARS 

OP   GREAT 

BRITAIN   SINCE 

THE    CONanEST. 

War  with  Scotland 

]0G8 

Peace 

1092 

War  with  Scotland, 

1542        Pt 

ace. 

1546 

France, 

1116 

" 

ins 

Scotland, 

1547 

1550 

Scotland, 

1138 

" 

1139 

France, 

1549 

1550 

France, 

1161 

" 

1186 

France, 

1557 

1559 

France, 

1194 

" 

1195 

Scotland, 

1557 

1560 

France, 

1201 

" 

1216 

France, 

1562 

1564 

France, 

1224 

" 

1234 

Spain, 

1588 

1604 

France, 

1294 

" 

1299 

Spain, 

i6-;4 

1629 

Scotland, 

1296 

" 

1323 

France, 

1627 

1629 

Scotland 

1327 

" 

1328 

a 

Holland, 

1651 

1654 

France, 

1339 

" 

1360 

Spain, 

1655 

1660 

France, 

1368 

" 

1420 

France, 

1666 

1668 

France, 

1422 

" 

1471 

Denmark,  1666 

1668 

France, 

1492 

"  same  year 

Holland, 

1666 

1668 

France, 

1512 

" 

1514 

Algiers, 

1669 

1671 

France, 

1.522 

" 

1527 

Holland, 

1672 

1674 

Scotland, 

1522 

" 

1542 

France, 

1689 

1697 

The  general  peace  of  Ryswick  between 

j^nglanc 

,  Germai 

ly,  Hollanc 

l,Fr 

ance. 

and  Spain 

was  sig 

ned  by  the  minister 

3  of  these  powers,  at  the 

palace  of 

Ryswick,  Sept.  20, 

1697. 

It  concluded  1 

his  last 

war. 

THE   GREAT  MODERN   AND   EXPENSIVE   WARS   OP   GREAT   BRITAIN, 


War  of  the  Succeasioyi,  commenced  May  4, 
1702.     Peace  of  Utrecht,  March  13,  1713. 

War  with  Spain,  Dec.  16,  1718.  Peace  con- 
cluded 1721. 

War;  the  Spanish  War,  Oct.  23,  1730. 
Peace  of  Ai.\'-la-ChaDeIle,  April  30,  1748. 


War  with  France,  ]\Iarch  31,  1744.     Closed 

also  on  April  30,  1748. 
War ;  the  Seven  years'  tear,  June  9,  1756. 

Peace  of  Paris,  Feb.  10,  1763. 
War  with  Spain,  Jan.   4,   1762.     General 

peace  of  Feb.  10,  1763. 


588 


THE    world's    progress. 


[  WAK 


WARS,  Foreign,  of  Great  Britain — continued. 


War  with  the  United  States,  July  14,  1774. 

Peace  of  Paris,  Nov.  30, 1782. 
War  with  France,  Feb.  6,  1778.    Peace  of 

Paris.  Jan.  20,  1783. 
War  with  Spain,  April  17,  1780.    Closed 

same  time,  Jan  20,  1783. 
War  with  Holland,  Dec.  21,  1780.    Peace 

signed  Sept.  2,  1783. 


War  of  the  Revolution,  Feb.  1,  1793.  Peac« 
of  Amiens,  March  27,  1802. 

War  against  Bonaparte,  April  29,  1803.  Fi- 
nally closed,  June  18,  1815. 

War  with  the  United  States,  June  18,  1812. 
Peace  of  Ghent,  Dec.  24,  1814. 

For  the  wars  with  India  and  China,  see  three 
countries  respectively. 


In  the  war  against  Bonaparte,  the  great  powers  of  Europe  leagued  sometimes 
with,  and  sometimes  against  Great  Britain.  England  spent  65  years  in  war, 
and  62  in  peace,  in  the  127  years  previous  to  the  close  of  the  last  war  in 
1815.  In  the  war  of  1688,  she  spent  36  millions  sterling ;  in  the  war  of  the 
Spanish  Succession,  62  millions ;  in  the  Spanish  war,  54  millions ;  in  the 
Seven  Years'  war,  112  millions ;  in  the  American  war,  136  millions  ;  in  the 
war  of  the  French  Revohition,.464:  millions  ;  and  in  the  war  against  Bona- 
parte, 1159  millions ;  thus  forming  a  total  expenditure  for  war,  in  127  years 
(from  the  Revolution  in  1688  to  the  downfall  of  Napoleon  in  1815),  of  2023 
millions  of  pounds  sterling.  M.  de  Pradt  estimates  the  loss  of  life  sustained 
by  the  French  forces  in  the  six  campaigns  of  the  Peninsular  war  at  six 
hundred  thousand  men.  The  loss  sustained  by  the  Spaniards  and  their 
allies  was  probably  as  great.  During  the  war  many  districts  of  the  Penin- 
sula were  from  time  to  time  laid  waste  by  the  contending  armies,  and  the 
inhabitants  Avere  victims  to  all  the  calamities  and  horrors  thus  produced. 
The  total  desti-uction  of  human  beings  in  this  last  war  must  have  amounted 
to  one  million  two  hundred  thousand. 

WAR.  Revolutionary,  ending  in  the  independence  of  the  United  States,  com- 
menced by  the  battle  of  Lexington,  April  19,  1775.  See  Battles.  Ended 
by  the  Treaty  of  Paris,  1783.    This  war  cost  $135,193,700. 

WAR,  The,  op  1812,  between  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain : 


First  difficulty  respecting  the  search  of 

American  vessels        -  -  -  1806 

Chesapeake  United  States  frigate  fired 

on 1807 

Non-intercourse  act  passed       -  •  1809 

United  States  frigate  President,  ent^ag- 

ed  the  British  sloop-of-war  Little  Belt 

May  16,  1811 
President  Madison's  war  message  to 

congress  -  -  -  June  1, 1812 


War  declared   -  -  -  June  19, 1812 

Gen.  II.  Dearborn  appointed  comman- 
der-in-chief 
[See  Battles  and  Naval  Battles.] 
The  war  opposed  in  New  England,  and 
levies  of  troops  refused  by  Mass., 
Conn.,  and  R.  1. 
Treaty  of  peace  ratified  -  Feb.  17,  1815 


WAR  AGAINST  Algiers,  to  punish  piracies,  &c.,  declared  by  the  United  States, 
1815.  Commodores  Decatur  and  Bainbridge  captured  two  Algerine  vessels 
and  "  conquered  a  peace,"  July  4, 

WAR  between  the  UNITED  STATES  and  MEXICO.  [The  annexation  of 
Texas  to  the  United  States  having  been  completed  by  the  vote  of  the  senate 
of  Texas,  Dec.  22,  1845.] 


American  army  of  occupation,  (3500) 
under  Gen.  Taylor  took  post  on  the 
Rio  Grande  opposite  Matamoras, 

March  28,  1846 

First  collision — a  reconnoitring  party 
of  70  from  American  army  under  Col. 
Thornton,  fired  upon  and  taken  pri- 
soners by  the  Mexicans     -  April  24,  1846 

Gen.  Taylor  defeats  the  Mexicans  at 
Palo  Alto,  loses  48  killed  and  126 
wounded.  Mexicans,  262  killed  and 
355  wounded  -  -  May  8-9,  1846 

Bill  passed  both  houses  of  Congress  U. 
S.,  declaring  that  war  with  Mexico 


already  existed,  by  act  of  that  power, 
and    authorizing    50,000   volunteers 

May  12,  1846 

Monterey  taken  by  Com.  Sloaf,  July  6,  1847 
Santa  Fe  occupied  by  Gen.  Kearney 

Aug.  18,  1846 

Mexican  ports  on  the  Pacific  blockaded 
by  Com.  Stockton    -  -  Aug.  19,  laiG 

Battle  of  Monterey,  4700  Americans 
under  Taylor,  10,000  Mexicans  under 
Ampudia.  Monterey  surrendered.  A- 
merican  loss,  120  killed  368  wounded, 
Mexican  much  greater   -  Sept.  21-23, 1846 


WAR  ] 


DICTIONARY    OF    DATES. 


m9 


WAR  WITH  MEXICO,  continioed. 

Stevenson's  California  regiment  sailed 

from  New-York        -  -  Sept.  26, 1846 

Tobasco  bombarded   by  com.   Peny, 

Oct.  25, 1846 
Tampico  occupied  by   com.  Connor, 

Nov.  14,  1846 
Col.  Doniphan  with  450  Missouri  volun- 
teers defeated  1100  Mexicans  atBari- 

to,  the  latter  losing  63  killed  and  150 

wounded.  American  loss  6  wounded. 
Gen.  Kearney  defeats  the  "  revolted  " 

Califomians,    at  San   Gabriel,  &c. 

Jan.  8,  1847 
Major  Borland,  Cassius  M.  Clay,  Major 

Gaines,  and  80  men,  taken  prisoners 

by  the  Mexicans  at  Encarnacion, 

Jan. 23, 1847 
Revolt  against  Americans  in  N.  Mex- 
.  ico,  American  governor  Bent  and  five 

others  murdered        -  -  Jan  14,  1847 

15C0  N.  Mexican  Indians  and  Mexicans 

defeated  by  col.  Price        -     Jan.  24,  1847 
Battle  of  Buena  Vista :  Americans  4759 

mostly  volunteers,  under  gen.  Taylor 

and  gen.  Wool ;  and  Mexicans  22,000 

imder  Santa  Anna;  latter  defeated  and 

loss  6000  killed  and  wounded ;  Ameri- 
can loss  267  killed  and  456  wounded, 

Feb.  22-23,  1847 
Battle  of  Sacramento ;  American  col. 

Doniphan,  924  men,  defeated   4000 

Mexicans  under  Herriilea,  latter  loss 

300  killed,  300  wounded  and  40  pri- 
soners ;  American  loss,  1  killed  and  8 

wounded       -  -  -  Feb.  28,  1847 

Vera  Cruz  surrendered  to  gen.  Scott 

and  com.  Perry;  American  loss  65 

killed  and  wounded        -    March  29,  1847 
Alvarado  surrendered  to  lieut.  Hunter, 

April  2,  1847 
Battle  of  Cerro-Gordo ;  Americans  8500 

under  gen.  Scott,  defeat  12,000  Mex- 
icans under  Santa  Anna;  5  generals 

and  3000  men,  taken  prisoners  by 

Scott:  American  loss  250,  Mexican 

350. 
Taspan  taken  by  com.  Perry,  April  18, 1847 

WARSAW.  Late  the  metropolis  of  Poland.  The  diet  was  transferred  to  this 
city  from  Cracow,  in  1556.  Warsaw  surrendered  to  Charles  XII.  in  1703. 
It  has  been  a  great  prey  to  war  of  late  j'ears.  In  the  beginning  of  1794,  the 
empress  of  Russia  put  a  garrison  into  this  city,  in  order  to  compel  the  Poles 
to  acquiesce  in  the  usurpations  she  had  in  view  ;  but  this  garrison  was  ex- 
pelled by  the  citizens,  with  the  loss  of  2000  killed  and  500  wounded,  and  36 
pieces  of  cannon,  April  17,  1794.  The  king  of  Prussia  besieged  Warsaw  in 
July  1794,  but  was  compelled  to  raise  the  siege  in  September,  same  year. 
It  was  taken  by  the  Russians  in  the  November  following.  See  next  article. 
Warsaw  was  constituted  a  duchy  and  annexed  to  the  house  of  Saxony 
in  August,  1807 ;  but  the  duchy  was  overrun  bj'  the  Russians  in  1813, 
and  soon  afterwards  Warsaw  again  became  the  residence  of  a  Russian  vice- 
roy. Tlie  late  Polish  revolution  commenced  here,  November  29,  1830.  See 
Poland. 

WARSAW,  B.iTTLEs  OP.  The  Poles  suffered  a  great  defeat  in  a  battle  with 
the  Russians,  Oct.  10,  12,  1794 ;  and  Snwarrow,  the  Russian  general,  after 
the  siege  and  destruction  of  Warsaw,  cruelly  butchered  30,000  Poles,  of  all 
ages  and  conditions,  in  cold  blood,  Nov.  8,  1794.     The  battle  preceding  the 


Battles  of  Contreras  and  Churubusco, 
American  gen.  Smith  drives  the  Mexi- 
cans from  these  fortified  posts  towards 
Mexico,  losing  1066  killed  and  wound- 
ed ;  Mexican  loss  6000       -   Aug.  20,  1847 

Armistice  agreed  upon ;  broken  by  the 
Mexicans^   Hostilities  recommenced 

Sept.  7,  1S47 

Battle  of  Molino  del  Rey ;  American 
gen.  Worth  carried  the  fortifications 
defended  by  14,000  Mexicans  under 
Santa  Anna.  American  loss,  787  kil- 
led and  wounded ;  Mexican  loss  3000, 

Sept.  8,  1847 

Battle  of  Chepultepec,  a  height  near 
-Mexico,  carried  by  American  gene- 
rals Worth,  Quitman,  and  Pillow, 
(under  gen.  Scott)  after  a  loss  of  862 

Sept.  12-13,  1847 

This  was  followed  by  the  surrender  of 
the  city  of  Mexico   -  -  Sept.  14,  1817 

Col.  Childs  with  400  men  and  180O 
sick  in  hospitals  besieged  28  days  at 
Puebla,  but  compelled  the  Mexicans 
to  raise  the  siege      -  -  Oct.  12,  1847 

Contribution  of  $600,000  levied  in  Mex- 
ico for  protecting  public  property  in 
the  city        -  -  -  Sept.  17, 1847 

City  of  Huamantla  captured  by  Ame- 
rican gen.  Lane,  who  defeats  Santa 
Anna.  American  loss,  24  killed  and 
wounded ;  Mexican  loss  150,    Oct.  9,  1847 

Port  of  Guayamas  bombarded  and  cap- 
tured by  American  frigate  Congress, 
and  sloop  Portsmouth        -    Oct.  20,  1847 

A  tax  levied  upon  the  states  of  Mexico, 
and  duties  &c.  laid  to  the  amount  of 
about  $3,000,000      -  -    Dec.  31,  1847 

Gen.  Scott  superseded  by  Gen.  Butler, 

Feb.  18,  1848 

Treaty  of  peace  ratified  at  Queretaro, 
by  the  Hon.  A.  H.  Sevier  and  N. 
Clifford,  for  the  United  States,  and 
the  foreign  Mexican  minister,  Signor 
De  la  Rosa    -     "      -  -  May  30,  1848 

American  troops  finally  withdrawn 
from  the  city  of  Mexico,  -    June  12, 1848 


590  THE    world's    PKOGRESS.  [  \TA1 

surrender  was  very  bloody  ;  of  26,000  men,  moi-e  than  10,000  were  killed, 
nearly  10,000  were  made  prisoners,  and  2000  only  escaped  the  fury  of  the 
merciless  conqueror.  Battle  of  Growchow,  near  Warsaw,  in  which  the  Rus- 
sians were  defeated,  and  forced  to  retreat  with  the  loss  of  7000  men,  Feb. 
20,  1831.  Battle  of  Warsaw,  when,  after  two  days'  hard  fighting,  the  city 
capitulated,  and  was  taken  possession  of  by  the  Russians.  Great  part  of 
the  Polish  army  i-etired  towards  Plock  and  Modlin.  This  last  battle  was 
fought  Sept.  7  and  8,  1831. 

WARSAW,  Treaties  of.  The  treaty  of  alliance  of  Warsaw,  between  Austria 
and  Poland,  against  Turkey,  in  pursuance  of  which  John  Sobieski  assisted 
in  raising  the  siege  of  Vienna  (on  the  18th  of  September  following),  signed 
March  31,  1683.    Treaty  of  Warsaw,  between  Russia  and  Poland,  February 

24,  1768. 

WASHINGTON.  The  capita,  of  the  United  States,  founded  in  1791,  and  first 
made  the  seat  of  government  in  1800.  The  house  of  representatives  was 
opened  for  the  first  time.  May  30,  1808.  Washington  was  taken  in  the  late 
war  by  the  British  forces  under  general  Ross,  when  the  Capitol  and  the 
President's  house  were  consumed  by  a  general  conflagration,  the  troops  not 
sparing  even  the  national  library,  August  24,  1814.  General  Ross  was  soon 
afterwards  killed  in  a  desperate  engagement  at  Baltimore,  Sept.  12,  follow- 
ing.    See  United  States. 

WASHINGTON,  GEORGE.  Born  Feb.  22,  1732 ;  in  the  expedition  of  Brad- 
dock  against  fort  Du  Quesne  1755 ;  appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the 
American  army  1775  ;  elected  president  of  Convention  for  forming  Consti- 
tution 1787 ;  elected  President  of  the  United  States  1789 ;  again  in  1793 ; 
died  1799.  Washington  monument  at  New  York,  corner-stone  laid,  Oct.  19, 
1847.  National  monument  to  Washington,  corner-stone  laid  July  4,  1848 ; 
oration  by  Robt.  C.  Winthrop.  Virginia  monument  to  Washington,  corner- 
stone laid  by  President  Taylor,  Feb.  22,  1849. 

WATCHES.  They  are  said  to  have  been  first  invented  at  Nuremberg,  a.  d. 
1477 ;  although  it  is  affirmed  that  Robert,  king  of  Scotland,  had  a  watch 
about  A.  D.  1310.  Watches  were  first  used  in  astronomical  observations  by 
Purbach,  1500.  Authors  assert  that  the  emperor  Charles  V.  was  the  first 
who  had  anything  that  might  be  called  a  watch,  though  some  call  it  a  small 
table-clock,  1530.  Watches  were  first  brought  to  England  from  Germany  in 
1577. — Hume.  Spring  jjocket-watches  (watches  properly  so  called)  have 
had  their  invention  ascribed  to  Dr.  Hooke  by  the  English,  and  to  m..  Huy- 
gens  by  the  Dutc^,  Dr.  Derham,  in  his  Artificial  Clockmaker,  says  that  Dr. 
Hooke  was  the  inventor ;  and  he  appears  certainly  to  have  produced  what 
is  called  the  pendulum  watch.  The  time  of  this  invention  was  about  1658 ; 
as  is  manifest,  among  other  evidences,  from  an  inscription  on  one  of  the 
double-balance  watches  presented  to  Charles  II.,  viz.,  "  Rob.  Hooke  in- 
ven.  1658.  T.  Tompion  fecit,  1675."  Rei^eatiug  watches  were  invented 
by  Barlowe,  1676.  Harrison's  time-piece  was  invented  in  1735  ;  improved 
1739,  1749,  1753.  In  1759,  he  made  the  time-piece  which  procured  him 
the  reward  of  20,000/.,  offered  by  the  Board  of  Longitude,  1763.  Watches 
and  clocks  were  taxed  in  1797.  The  tax  was  repealed  in  1798.  See 
Clocks. 

WATER.  Thales  of  Miletus,  founder  of  the  Ionic  sect,  looked  upon  water 
(as  also  did  Homer,  and  sevei'al  of  the  ancient  philosophers)  as  being  the 
original  principle  of  every  thing  besides,  about  594  b.  c. — ■Stanley.  It  is  the 
universal  drink  of  man.  The  ancients  usually  diluted  their  wines  with 
much  water ;  and  Hesiod  prescribes  three  measures  of  water  to  one  of  wine 
in  summer. — Madame  Dacier.    lu  the  Roman  cliurch  water  was  first  mixed 


WAT  J  DICTIONARY  OF  DATES.  591 

with  the  sacramental  wine,  a.  d.  122. — Lenglet.     "  Honest  M^ater  is  too  weak 
to  bo  a  sinner ;  it  never  left  a  man  in  the  mire." — Shakspeare. 

WATER-CLOCKS.  The  first  instruments  used  to  measure  the  lapse  of  time, 
independently  of  the  sunshine,  were  clepsydrcB  or  water-clocks.  These  were 
most  probably  vessels  of  water,  with  a  small  hole  through  the  bottom ; 
through  this  hole  the  water  ran  out  in  a  certain  time,  possibly  an  hour  ; 
after  which  the  vessel  was  again  filled  to  be  emptied  as  before.  This  in- 
vention was  a  manifest  improvement  on  the  old  sun-dials,  whose  perpendi- 
cular gnomon  gave  hours  of  different  length  at  the  various  seasons  of  the 
year.  Something  similar  to  the  hour-glass  was  occasionally  used;  and 
Alfred  the  Great,  probably  ignorant  of  these  methods,  adopted  the  burning 
of  a  taper  as  a  measure  of  time. 

WATER-MILLS.  Used  for  grinding  corn,  invented  by  Belisarius,  the  general 
of  Justinian,  while  besieged  in  Rome  by  the  Goths,  a.  d.  555.  The  ancients 
parched  their  corn,  and  pounded  it  in  mortars.  Afterwards  mills  were  in- 
vented, which  were  turned  by  men  and  beasts  with  great  labor ;  and  yet 
Pliny  mentions  wheels  turned  by  water. 

WATER  TOE  ANA,  or  Wives'  Poison.  See  article  Poisoning.  The  poison  so 
freely  administered  by  Italians  in  the  17th  century,  called  aqua  tofana,  from 
the  name  of  the  woman  Tofania,  who  made  and  sold  it  in  small  flat  vials. 
She  carried  on  this  traffic  for  half  a  century,  and  eluded  the  police ;  but  on 
being  taken,  confessed  that  she  had  been  a  party  in  poisoning  600  people. 
Numerous  persons  Avere  implicated  by  her,  and  many  of  them  were  publicly 
executed.  All  Italy  was  thrown  into  a  ferment,  and  many  fled,  and  some 
persons  of  distinction,  on  conviction,  were  strangled  in  prison.  It  appeared 
to  have  been  chiefly  used  bj^  married  women  who  were  tired  of  their  hus- 
bands. Four  or  six  drops  were  a  fatal  dose  ;  but  the  effect  was  not  sudden, 
and  therefore  not  suspected.  It  was  as  clear  as  water,  but  the  chemists 
have  not  agreed  about  its  real  composition.  A  proclamation  of  the  pope  de- 
scribed it  as  aqviafortis  distilled  into  arsenic,  and  others  considered  it  as  a 
solution  of  crystallized  arsenic.  The  secret  of  its  preparation  was  conveyed 
to  Paris,  where  the  marchioness  de  Brinvilliers  poisoned  her  father  and  two 
brothers ;  and  she  with  many  others  was  executed,  and  the  preparers  burnt 
alive. — Phillips. 

WATERLOO,  Battle  of.  The  greatest  victory  ever  won  by  British  arms,  and 
the  most  decisive  and  happy  in  its  consequences.  In  this  great  battle  the 
French  army,  with  Napoleon  as  its  chief,  was  signally  overthrown  by  the 
British  and  allies  under  the  duke  of  Wellington,  June  18,  1815.  Napoleon 
attacked  the  British,  whom  he  expected  to  overwhelm  by  superior  num- 
bers, but  they  maintained  their  ground,  and  repiilsed  the  enemy  from  about 
nine  in  the  morning  till  seven  at  night,  when  the  French  line  began  to  waver. 
The  commander  then  gave  orders  to  charge  ;  a  total  rout  ensued,  and  Blu- 
cher,  who  oi:)portunely  came  up  at  this  juncture,  joined  in  the  pursuit. 
On  both  sides  the  carnage  was  immense ;  but  that  of  the  French  was  double 
the  amount  of  the  British.  Napoleon  quitted  the  wreck  of  his  flying  army, 
and  returned  to  Paris,  where  he  attempted,  after  the  destruction  of  three 
great  armies,  to  raise  a  fourth ;  but  finding  this  impossible,  his  abdication 
followed.     See  Bonaparte  and  France. 

WATER-SPOUl'.  Whirlwinds  and  water-spouts  proceed  from  the  same  cause, 
the  only  difference  being  that  water-spouts  pass  over  the  water,  and  whirl- 
winds over  the  land. — Dr.  Franklin.  Two  water-spouts  fell  on  the  Glatx 
mountains  in  Germany,  and  caused  dreadful  devastation  to  Hautenbach,  and 
many  other  villages ;  a  prodigious  number  of  houses  were  destroyed,  and 
many  persons  perished,  July  13,  1827.     A  water-spout  at  Glanflesk,  near  Kil- 


592  THE   world's    progress.  [  WED 

lamey,  in  Ireland,  passed  over  a  farm  of  Mr.  John  Macarthy,  and  destroyed 
his  cottage,  two  other  farmhouses,  and  other  buildings,  of  which  not  a  ves- 
tige remained.  In  this  catastrophe  seventeen  persons  perished.  August  4, 
1831. 
WAX.  This  substance  came  into  use  for  candles  in  the  twelfth  century ;  and 
wax  candles  were  esteemed  a  luxury  in  1300,  being  but  little  used.  In  China, 
candles  of  vegetable  wax  have  been  in  use  for  centuries.  See  Candleberry. 
Wax  candles  are  made  very  cheap  in  America,  from  the  berry  of  a  particu- 
lar species  of  myrtle,  which  yields  excellent  wax,  of  a  green  color.  Sealing- 
wax  was  not  brought  into  use  in  England  until  about  1556.  The  wax-tree, 
Ligusirum  lucidum,  was  brought  from  China  before  1794. 

WE.  The  common  language  of  kings  is  7oe,  which  plural  style  was  begun  with 
king  John,  a.  d.  1199. —  Cokeys  Instib.  Before  this  time  sovereigns  used  the 
singular  person  in  all  their  edicts. — Idem.  The  German  emperors  and  French 
kings  used  the  plural  about  a.  d.  1200. — Henault.  It  is  now  the  style  royal 
of  all  monarchs.  In  the  articles  of  public  journals  they  also  adopt  the  plu- 
ral, indicating  that  what  they  write  proceeds  from  a  plurality  of  pens. 

WEALTH.  This  is  a  relative  term ;  for  as  there  is  only  a  certain  amount  of 
property  in  a  country,  so  the  possession  of  a  large  share  by  one  man  is  the 
poverty  of  others.  The  wealth  of  individuals  is  therefore  no  benefit  to  the 
country,  while  as  to  others  it  is  the  cause  of  their  poverty.  The  instances 
of  wealth  in  the  early  ages  are  many  and  most  extraordinary.  The  mighti- 
est conflagration  of  wealth  on  record  is  that  of  Sardanapalus,  where  riches 
amounting  to  one  thousand  four  hundred  millions  sterling  were  destroyed. 
— Alhenaus.  Cascilius  Isidorus  died  at  Rome  possessed  of  4116  slaves,  3600 
oxen,  200,000  head  of  other  cattle,  and  three  millions  of  our  money  in  coin, 
8  B.  c. —  U)iw.  Hist. 

WEAVING.  The  art  of  weaving  appears  to  have  been  practised  in  China  from 
the  earliest  antiquity — more  than  a  thousand  years  before  it  was  known  in 
Europe  or  Asia.  Poets  assign  the  art  to  the  spider.  Women  originally 
spun,  wove,  and  dj^ed  ;  and  the  origin  of  these  arts  is  ascribed,  by  ancient 
nations,  to  different  women  as  women's  arts.  The  Egyptians  ascribed  it  to 
Isis ;  the  Greeks,  to  Minerva ;  and  the  Peruvians,  to  the  wife  of  Manco  Ca- 
pac.  In  most  easterr.  countries,  the  employment  of  weaving  is  still  per- 
formed by  the  women.  Our  Saviour's  vest,  or  coat,  had  not  any  seam,  being 
woven  from  the  top  throughout,  in  one  whole  piece.  Perhaps,  says  Dr.  Dodd- 
ridge, this  cirrious  garment  might  be  the  work  and  present  of  some  pious 
women  Avho  attended  him,  and  ministered  unto  him  of  their  substance,  Luke 
viii.  3.  The  print  of  a  frame  for  weaving  such  a  vest  may  be  seen  in  Calmet's 
Dictionary^  under  the  word  Veslvients. 

WEAVING  IN  ENGLAND.  Two  weavers  from  Brabant  settled  at  York,  where 
thej'^  manufactured  woollens,  which,  says  king  Edward,  "may  prove  of 
great  benefit  to  us  and  our  subjects,"  1331.  Flemish  dyers,  cloth-drapers, 
linen-makers,  silk-throwsters,  &c.  settled  at  Canterbury,  Norwich,  Colches- 
ter, Southampton,  and  other  places,  on  account  of  the  duke  of  Alva's  perse- 
cution, 1567. 

WEDGWOOD  WARE.  A  fine  species  of  pottery  and  porcelain,  produced  by 
Mr.  Josiah  Wedgwood,  of  Staffordshire,  1762.  The  manufactories  for  this 
ware  employed  10,000  families  in  England.  Previously  to  1763,  most  of  the 
superirr  kinds  of  earthenwares  were  imported  from  France. 

WEDNESDAY.  The  fourth  day  of  the  week,  so  called  from  a  Saxon  idol,  call- 
ed Woden,  supposed  to  be  Mars,  worshipped  on  this  day.  The  name  given 
to  our  Wednesday  by  the  Saxons  was  Woden's  day,  which  was  afterwards 
corrupted  to  Wednesda\'.    See  next  article. 


WES  ]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  593 

WEEK.  The  space  of  seven  days,  supposed  to  be  first  used  among  the  Jews, 
who  observed  the  sabbath  every  seventh  day ;  they  had  three  sorts  of  weeks, 
the  first  the  common  one  of  seven  days,  the  second  of  j'^ears,  which  was 
seven  years,  the  third  of  seven  times  seven  years,  at  tlie  end  of  whicli  was 
the  jubilee.    All  the  present  English  names  are  derived  from  the  Saxon: — 

Latin.  English.  Saxon.  Presided  over  by 

Dies  Saturni,  Saturday,  Saterne's  day,  Satum. 

Dies  Solis,  Sunday,  Sun's  day,  Tlie  sun. 

Dies  Lunae,  Blonday,  Moon's  day,  The  moon. 

Dies  Martis,  Tuesday,  Tiw's  day.  Mars. 

Dies  Mercurii,  Wednesday,  Woden's  day.  Mercury. 

Dies  .Tovis,  Thursday,  Thor's  day,  Jupiter. 

Dies  Veneris,  Friday,  Friga's  day,  Venus. 

WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES.  These,  and  the  stamping  of  gold  and  silver 
money,  were  invented  by  Phydon,  tyrant  of  Argos,  895  b.  c.  et  seq. — Arunde- 
lian  Marbles.  Weights  were  originally  taken  from  grains  of  wheat,  the 
lowest  being  still  called  a  grain. —  Chalmers.  The  standard  measure  was 
originally  kept  at  Winchester  by  the  law  of  king  Edgar,  a  d.  972.  Stand- 
ards of  weights  and  measures  were  provided  for  the  whole  kingdom  of  Eng- 
land by  the^ sheriffs  of  London,  8  Richard  I.,  1197.  A  public  Aveighing- 
machine  was  set  up  in  London,  and  all  commodities  ordered  to  be  weighed 
by  the  city-officer,  called  the  weigh-master,  who  was  to  do  justice  between 
buyer  and  seller,  statute  3d  Edward  II.,  1309. — Stowe.  The  first  statute, 
directing  the  use  of  avordupois  weight,  is  that  of  24  Henry  VIII.,  1532. — 
Philosophical  Transactions,  vol.  65,  art.  3.  The  French  adopt  the  metre  of 
3.28084,  or  the  10  millionth  part  of  the  distance  from  the  Pole  to  the  Equa- 
tor, as  the  standai'd  of  measure;  and  the  kilogramme,  equal  to  2,255  pounds 
avoirdupois,  as  the  standard  of  weight. 

WESLEYAN  METHODISTS.  A  large  body  of  Christians,  whose  sect  was 
founded  by  an  excellent  and  pious  man,  John  Wesley.  In  1730  he  and  his 
brother,  with  a  few  other  students,  formed  themselves  into  a  small  society 
for  the  purpose  of  mutual  edification  in  religious  exercises.  So  singular  an 
association  excited  considerable  notice,  and  among  other  names  bestowed 
upon  the  members,  that  of  Methodists  was  applied  to  them.  Mr.  Wesley 
went  to  Georgia  in  America,  in  1735,  with  a  view  of  converting  the  Indians. 
On  his  return  to  England,  he  commenced  itinerant  preacher,  and  gathered 
many  followers ;  but  the  churches  being  shut  against  him,  he  built  spacious 
meeting-houses  in  London,  Bristol,  and  other  places.  For  some  time  he 
was  united  with  Mr.  Whitefield ;  but  differences  arising  on  account  of  the 
doctrine  of  election,  they  separated,  and  the  Methodists  were  denominated 
according  to  their  respective  leaders.  Mr.  Wesley  was  indefatigable  in  his 
labors,  and  almost  continually  engaged  in  travelling  over  England,  Wales, 
Scotland,  and  Ireland.  His  society  was  well  organized,  and  he  preserved  his 
influence  over  it  to  the  last.    He  died  in  London  in  1791. 

WEST  INDIES.  Discovered  by  Columbus,  St.  Salvador  being  the  first  land  he 
made  in  the  new  world,  and  first  seen  by  him  in  the  night  between  the  11th 
and  12th  Oct.,  1492.     See  the  Islands  respectively. 

WESTERN  EMPIRE.  The  Roman  empire  was  divided  into  Eastern  and 
Western  by  Valentinian  and  Valens,  of  whom  the  former  had  the  western 
portion,  or  Rome,  properly  so  called,  a.  d.  364.  Odoacer,  a  chief  of  the 
Heruli,  entered  Italy,  defeated  Orestes,  took  Rome  and  Ravenna,  deposed 
Augustulus,  and  assumed  the  title  of  king  of  Italy,  August  23,  which  ended 
the  Western  empire,  507  years  after  the  battle  of  Actium,  a.  d.  476.  See 
Eastern  Empire. 

WESTMINSTER  ABBEY.  As  regards  this  magnificent  cathedral,  the  miraci* 
lous  stories  of  monkish  writers  and  of  ancient  historians  have  been  que«- 


594  THE  world's  progress.  [  wm 

tioned  by  sir  Christopher  Wren,  who  was  employed  to  survey  the  present 
edifice,  and  who,  upon  the  nicest  examination,  found  nothing  to  coimtenance 
the  general  belief  that  it  was  erected  on  the  ruins  of  a  pagan  temple.  His- 
torians, agreeably  to  the  legend,  have  fixed  the  era  of  the  first  abbey  in  the 
sixth  century,  and  ascribed  to  Sebert  the  honor  of  erecting  it.  This  church 
becoming  ruinous,  it  was  splendidly  rebuilt  by  Edward  the  Confessor,  be- 
tween A.  D.  1055  and  1065 ;  and  he  stored  it  with  monks  from  Exeter.  Pope 
Nicholas  II.  about  this  time  constituted  it  the  place  for  the  inauguration  of 
the  kings  of  England.  The  church  was  once  more  built  in  a  magnificent 
and  beautiful  style  by  Henry  III.  In  the  reigns  of  Edward  H.,  Edward  III., 
and  Richard  II.,  the  great  cloisters,  abbot's  house,  and  the  principal  mo- 
nastic buildings  were  erected.  The  western  parts  of  the  nave  and  aisles 
were  rebuilt  by  successive  monarchs,  between  the  years  1340  and  1483.  The 
west  front  and  the  great  window  were  built  by  those  rival  princes,  Richard 
III.  and  Henry  VII. ;  and  it  was  the  latter  monarch  who  commenced  the 
magnificent  chapel  which  bears  his  name,  and  the  first  stone  of  which  was 
laid  Jan.  24, 1502-3.  The  abbey  was  dissolved,  and  made  a  bishopric,  1541 ; 
and  was  finally  made  a  collegiate  church  by  Elizabeth,  1560. 

WESTMINSTER  HALL.  One  of  the  most  venerable  remains  of  English  ar- 
chitecture, first  built  by  William  Rufus  in  1097,  for  a  banqueting-hall ;  and 
here  in  1099,  on  his  return  from  Normandy,  "  he  kept  his  feast  of  Whit- 
suntide very  royallj'."  Richard  II.  held  his  Christmas  festival  in  1397,  when 
the  number  of  the  guests  each  day  the  feast  lasted  was  10,000. — Slowe. 
The  courts  of  law  were  established  here  by  king  John. — Idevi.  Westmin- 
ster-hall is  universally  allowed  to  be  the  largest  room  in  Europe  imsupported 
by  pillars :  it  is  270  feet  in  length,  and  74  broad.  The  hall  underwent  a 
general  repair  in  1802. 

WESTPHALIA.  This  duchy  belonged,  in  former  times,  to  the  duke  of  Sax- 
ony. On  the  secularization  of  1802,  it  was  made  over  to  Hesse  Darmstadt ; 
and  in  1814,  was  ceded  for  an  equivalent  to  Prussia.  The  kingdom  of 
Westphalia,  one  of  the  temporary  kingdoms  of  Bonaparte,  composed  of 
conquests  from  Prussia,  Hesse-Cassel,  Hanover,  and  the  smaller  states  to 
the  west  of  the  Elbe,  created  December  1,  1807,  and  Jerome  appointed 
king.  Hanover  was  annexed  March  1, 1810.  This  kingdom  was  overturned 
in  1813. 

WESTPHALIA,  Peace  of,  signed  at  Munster  and  at  Osnaburgh,  between 
France,  the  emperor,  and  Sweden;  Spain  continuing  the  war  against 
France.  By  this  peace  the  principle  of  a  balance  of  power  in  Europe  was 
first  recognised  :  Alsace  given  to  France,  and  part  of  Pomerania  and  some 
other  districts  to  Sweden ;  the  Elector  Palatine  restored  to  the  Lower  Pala- 
tinate ;  the  civil  and  political  rights  of  the  German  States  established ;  and 
the  independence  of  the  Swiss  Confederation  recognised  by  Germany,  Oc- 
tober 24,  1648. 

WHALE  FISHERY  of  the  UNITED  STATES.  In  1845  this  trade  employed 
650  vessels,  aggregate  tonnage  200,000  tons,— cost,  $20,000,000  ;  manned  by 
17,500  olEcers  and  seamen.  ''■  Commercial  history  furnishes  no  parallel  to 
this  whaling  fleet — it  is  larger  than  those  of  all  other  nations  combined.'  — 
Speech  of  Mr.  Grinnell. 

WHEAT  AND  FLOUR.  The  amount  exported  by  the  United  States,  from 
1790  to  1838,  was  10.283,471  bushels.— average,  209,666  bushels  per  annum. 
In  1845  the  amount  exported  was  valued  at  S-5,735,372 ;  in  1846,  $13,350,644. 
This  was  exclusive  of  Corn,  Rye,  &c.  The  amount  was  greatly  increased 
by  the  scarcity  in  Europe,  especially  in  Ireland. 

WHITE  FRIARS.    These  were  an  order  of  Carmelite  mendicants,  who  took 


WIL  ]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES,  595 

their  name  from  Mount  Carmel,  lying  southwest  of  Mount  Tabor,  in  tha 
Holy  Land.  They  pretended  that  Elijah  and  Elisha  were  the  founders  of 
their  order,  and  that  Pythagoras  and  the  ancient  Druids  were  professors  of 
it.  At  first  they  were  very  rigid  in  their  discipline,  but  afterwards  it  was 
moderated,  and  about  the  year  1540  divided  into  two  sorts,  one  following 
and  restoring  the  ancient  severities,  and  the  other  the  milder  regimen. 
They  had  numerous  monasteries  throughout  England :  and  a  precinct  in 
London  without  the  Temple  and  west  of  Blackfriars,  is  called  Whitefriars  to 
this  day,  after  a  community  of  their  order,  founded  there  in  1245. 

WHITEHALL,  London.  Originally  built  by  Hubert  de  Burgh,  earl  of  Kent, 
before  the  middle  of  the  13th  century.  It  afterwards  devolved  to  the  arch- 
bishop of  York,  whence  it  received  the  name  of  York-place,  and  continued 
to  be  the  town  residence  of  the  archbishops  till  purchased  by  Hemy  VIII.  of 
cardinal  Wolsey,  in  1530.  At  this  period  it  became  the  residence  of  the 
court.  Queen  Elizabeth,  who  died  at  Greenwich,  was  brought  from  thence 
to  Whitehall,  by  water,  in  a  grand  procession.  It  was  on  this  occasion, 
Camden  informs  us,  that  the  following  quaint  panegyric  on  her  majesty  was 
written : — 

"  The  queen  was  brought  by  water  to  Whitehall, 
At  every  stroke  the  oars  did  tears  let  fall. 
More  clung  about  the  barge ;  fish  under  water 
Wept  outiheir  eyes  of  pearl,  and  swam  blind  after. 
I  think  the  bargemen  might,  with  easier  thighs, 
Have  rowed  her  thither  in  her  people's  eyes ; 
For  howsoe'er,  thus  much  my  thoughts  have  scann'd, 
She  had  come  by  water,  had  she  come  by  land." 

In  1697,  the  whole  was  destroyed  by  an  accidental  fire,  except  the  banquet- 
ing-house,  which  had  been  added  to  the  palace  of  Whitehall  by  James  I., 
according  to  a  design  of  Inigo  Jones,  in  1619.  In  the  front  of  Whitehalj 
Charles  I.  was  beheaded,  Jan.  30,  1649.  George  I.  converted  the  hall  into  a 
chapel,  1723-4.  The  exterior  of  this  edifice  underwent  repair  between  1829 
and  1833. 

WHITSUNTIDE.  The  festival  of  Whitsunday  is  appointed  by  the  church  to 
commemorate  the  descent  of  the  Holy  Ghost  upon  the  apostles :  in  the  pri- 
mitive church,  the  newly-baptized  persons,  or  catechumens,  used  to  wear 
white  garments  on  Whi'sunday.  This  feast  is  movable,  and  sometimes  falls 
in  May  and  sometimes  in  June  ;  but  is  always  exactly  seven  weeks  after 
Easter.  Rogation  week  is  the  week  before  Whitsunday;  it  is  said  to 
have  been  first  instituted  by  the  bishop  of  Vienne  in  France,  and  called 
Rogation  week  upon  account  of  the  many  extraordinary  prayers  and  pre- 
paratory petitions  made  for  the  devotion  of  Holy  Thursday  for  a  blessing 
on  the  fruits  of  the  earth,  and  for  averting  the  dismal  effects  of  war  and 
other  evils. 

WICKLIFFITES.  The  followers  of  John  WickliflTe,  a  professor  of  divinity 
in  the  university  of  Oxford.  He  was  the  father  of  the  Reformation  of  the 
English  church  from  popery,  being  the  first  who  opposed  the  autho- 
rity of  the  pope,  the  jurisdiction  of  the  bishops,  and  the  temporalities  of 
the  church,  in  1377.  Wicklifie  was  protected  by  John  of  Gaunt,  Edward's 
son  and  Richard's  uncle,  yet  virulently  persecuted  by  the  church,  and  res- 
cued from  martyrdom  by  a  paralytic  attack,  which  caused  his  death,  Dec. 
31,  1384,  in  his  60th  jea.v.— Mortimer. 

WILDFIRE.  An  artificial  fire,  which  burns  under  water.  The  French  call  it 
feu  Grecquois,  because  it  was  discovered  by  the  Greeks,  by  whom  it  was 
first  used,  about  a.  d.  660.  Its  invention  is  ascribed  to  Callinicus  of  Hclio- 
polis. — Nouv.  Diet.     See  article  Greek  Fire. 


696  THE    world's    progress.  [  WIN 

WILKES'  NUMBER.  The  designation  given  to  the  45th  number  of  a  paper 
styled  the  North  Briton,  published  by  John  Wilkes,  an  alderman  of  London. 
He  commenced  a  paper  warfare  against  the  earl  of  Bute  and  his  adminis- 
tration, and  in  this  particular  copy,  printed  April  23,  1763,  made  so  free  a 
use  of  royalty  itself,  that  a  general  warrant  was  issued  against  him  by  the 
earl  of  Halifax,  then  secretai-y  of  state,  and  he  was  committed  to  the  Tower. 
His  warfare  not  only  deprived  him  of  liberty,  but  exposed  him  to  two  duels  ; 
but  he  obtained  .£1,000  damages  and  full  costs  of  suit  for  the  illegal  seizure 
of  his  papers.  He  further  experienced  the  vengeance  of  the  court  of  King's 
Bench,  and  both  houses  of  parliament,  for  the  libel,  and  for  his  obscene 
poem  "An  Essay  on  Woman;"  and  was  expelled  the  commons  and  out- 
lawed; he  was,  however,  elected  a  fifth  time  for  Middlesex  in  October 
1774,  and  the  same  year  served  the  ofiSce  of  lord  mayor ;  but  was  over- 
looked in  a  subsequent  general  election,  and  died  in  1797. 

WILLS,  LAST,  AND  TESTAMENTS.  Wills  are  of  very  high  antiquity.  See 
Genesis,  c.  48.  Solon  introduced  them  at  Athens,  578  b.  c.  There  are 
many  regulations  respecting  wills  in  the  Koran.  The  Romans  had  this 
power,  and  so  had  the  native  Mexicans ;  so  that  it  prevailed  at  least  in 
three  parts  of  the  globe.  Trebatius  Testa,  the  civilian,  was  the  first  person 
who  introduced  codicils  to  wills  at  Rome,  31  b.  c.  The  power  of  bequeath- 
ing lands  by  the  last  will  or  testament  of  the  OAvner,  was  confirmed  to  En- 
glish subjects,  1  Henry  I.,  1100  ;  but  with  great  restrictions  and  limitations 
respecting  the  feudal  system  ;  which  were  taken  off  by  the  statute  of  Henry 
VIII.,  1541. — Blackstone's  Comtnentaries.  The  first  will  of  a  sovereign  on 
record  is  stated  (but  in  error)  to  be  that  of  Richard  II.,  1399.  Edward  the 
Confessor  made  a  will,  1066. 

WIND-MILLS.  They  are  of  great  antiquity,  and  some  writers  state  them  to 
be  of  Roman  invention ;  but  certainly  we  are  indebted  for  the  wind-mill  to 
the  Saracens.  They  are  said  to  have  been  originally  introduced  into  Europe 
by  the  knights  of  St.  John,  who  took  the  hint  from  what  they  had  seen  in 
the  crusades. — Baker.  Wind-mills  were  first  known  in  Spain,  France,  and 
Germany,  in  1299. — Anderson.  Wind  saw-mills  were  invented  by  a  Dutch- 
man, in  1633.  when  one  was  erected  near  the  Strand,  in  London. 

WINDOWS.  See  Glass.  There  were  windows  in  Pompeii,  a.  d.  79,  as  is  evi- 
dent from  its  ruins.  It  is  certain  that  Avindows  of  some  kind  were  glazed 
so  early  as  the  third  centurj^  if  not  before,  though  the  fashion  was  not  in- 
troduced until  it  was  done  by  Bennet,  a.  d.  633.  Windows  of  glass  were 
used  in  private  houses,  but  the  glass  was  imported  1177. — Anderson.  In 
England  about  6000  houses  now  have  fifty  windows  and  upwards  in  each  ; 
about  275,000  have  ten  windows  and  upwards  ;  and  725,000  have  seven  win- 
dows, or  less  than  seven.  The  window-tax  was  first  enacted  in  order  to 
defray  the  expense  of  and  deficiency  in  the  re-coinage  of  gold,  7  William 
m.,  1695. 

WINDSOR  CASTLE.  A  royal  residence  of  the  British  sovereigns,  originally 
built  by  William  the  Conqueror,  but  enlarged  by  Henry  I.  The  monarchs 
who  succeeded  him  likewise  resided  in  it,  till  Edward  III.,  who  was  born 
here,  caused  the  old  building,  with  the  exception  of  three  towers  at  the 
west  end,  to  be  taken  down,  and  re-erected  the  whole  castle,  under  the  di- 
rection of  William  of  Wykeham.  He  likewise  built  St.  George's  chapel. 
Instead  of  alluring  workmen  by  contracts  and  wages,  Edward  assessed 
every  county  in  England  to  send  him  so  many  masons,  tilers,  and  carpen- 
ters, as  if  he  had  been  levying  an  army.  Several  additions  were  made  to 
this  edifice  by  succeeding  sovereigns  ;  the  last  by  George  IV. 

AVJNES.     The  invention  of  wine  is  given  to  Noah. — Abhe  Lengleb.    The  art  of 


WIT  ]  DICTIONARY    OF   DATES.  597 

making  wine  from  rice  is  ascribed  by  the  Chinese  to  their  king,  Ching 
Noung,  about  1998  b.  c. — Univ.  Hist.  The  art  of  making  wine  was  brought 
from  India  by  Bacchus,  as  other  authorities  have  it.  Hosea  spealcs  of  the 
wine  of  Lebanon  as  being  very  fragrant. —  Hosea,  xiv.  7.  Our  Saviour 
changed  water  into  wine  at  the  marriage  of  Cana  in  Galilee. — Joh7i  ii.  3,  10. 

"  The  conscious  waters  saw  their  God,  and  \i\.vs!D.'&."— Addison. 

No  wine  was  produced  in  France  in  the  time  of  the  Romans. — Bossuet. 
Spirits  of  wine  were  known  to  the  alchymists. — Idem.  Concerning  the  ac- 
quaintance which  our  progenitors  had  with  wine,  it  has  been  conjectured 
that  the  Phoenicians  might  possibly  have  introduced  a  small  quantity  of  it ; 
but  this  liquor  was  very  little  known  in  our  island  before  it  was  conquered 
by  the  Romans.  Wine  was  sold  in  England  by  apothecaries  as  a  cordial  in 
A.  D.  1300,  and  so  continued  for  some  time  after,  although  there  is  mention 
of  '■  wine  for  the  king  "  so  eaiiy  as  1249 ;  and  we  are  even  sent  to  a  much 
earlier  period  for  its  introduction  and  use  in  Britain.  In  1400  the  price 
was  twelve  shillings  the  yjipe  A  hundred  and  fifty  biitts  and  pipes  con- 
demned for  being  adulterated,  were  staved  and  emptied  into  tlie  channels 
of  the  streets  by  Rainwell,  mayor  of  London,  in  the  6th  of  Henry  VI.,  1427. 
— Siowe's  Chron.  The  first  importation  of  claret  wine  into  Ireland  was  on 
June  17,  1490.  The  first  act  for  licensing  sellers  of  wine  in  England  passed 
April  25,  1661.  In  1800  England  imported  3,807,460  gallons  of  all  kinds  of 
wine.  In  1815,  the  United  Kingdom  imported  4,806,528  gallons.  In  1880 
were  imported  6,879  558  gallons  ;  and  in  the  year  ending  Jan.  5,  1840,  were 
imported  9,909,056  gallons,  of  which  7,000,486  were  for  home  consumption. 
—Pari.  Ret. 

WIRE.  The  invention  of  drawing  wire  is  ascribed  to  Rodolph  of  Nuremberg, 
A.  D.  1410.  Mills  for  this  purpose  were  first  set  up  at  Nuremberg  in  1563. 
The  first  wire-mill  in  England  was  erected  at  Mortlake  in  1663. — Morttmer. 
The  astonishing  ductility  which  is  one  of  the  distinguishing  qualities  of 
gold,  is  no  way  more  conspicuous  than  in  gilt  wire.  A  cylinder  of  48  ounces 
of  silver,  covered  with  a  coat  of  gold  weighing  only  one  ounce,  is  usually 
drawn  into  a  wire  two  yards  of  which  only  weigh  one  grain ;  so  that  98 
yards  of  the  wire  weigh  no  more  than  49  grains,  and  one  single  grain  of 
gold  covers  the  whole  98  yards ;  and  the  thousandth  part  of  a  grain  is  above 
one-eighth  of  an  inch  long. — Halley.  Eight  grains  of  gold  covering  a  cy- 
linder of  silver  are  coramonh''  drawn  into  a  wire  13,000  feet  long ;  yet  so 
jjerfectly  does  it  cover  the  silver,  that  even  a  microscope  does  not  discover 
any  appearance  of  the  silver  underneath. — Boyle. 

WIRTEMBERG.  One  of  the  most  ancient  states  of  Germany,  and  most  popu- 
lous for  its  extent.  The  dukes  were  Protestant  until  1772,  when  ihe  reign- 
ing prince  became  a  Catholic.  Wirtemberg  has  been  repeatedly  traversed 
by  hostile  armies,  particularly  since  the  revolution  of  France.  Moreau 
made  his  celebrated  retreat  Oct.  28,  1796.  Tlie  prince  of  Wirtemberg  mar- 
ried the  princess  royal  of  England,  daughter  of  George  III.,  May  17,  1797. 
This  state  obtained  now  acquisitions  in  territory  in  1802  and  1805.  The 
elector  assumed  the  title  of  king  Dec.  12,  1805,  and  was  proclaimed  Jan.  1, 
.  1806.  His  majesty,  as  an  ally  of  France,  lost  the  flower  of  his  army  in  Rus- 
sia, in  1812.  The  kingdom  obtained  a  free  constitution  in  1819.  The  king 
granted  hberty  of  the  press,  March  2,  1848. 

WISCONSIN.  One  of  the  western  United  States  was  organized  out  of  the 
North  West  Territory,  and  received  a  territorial  government  in  1836  ;  ad- 
mitted into  the  Union  as  a  state  Feb.  9,  1847.  Population  in  1830,  30,945 : 
cliietly  emigrants  from  the  northern  and  middle  states. 

WFJ'CHCRAFT.     The  pimi.shnient  of  witchcraft  was  first  countenanced  by  the 


598  THE    world's    progress.  [  WIT 

churcli  of  Rome ;  and  persons  suspected  of  the  crime  have  been  subjected 
to  the  most  cniel  and  uni-elenting  punishments.  In  tens  of  thousands  of 
cases,  the  victims,  often  innocent,  were  burnt  alive,  while  others  were 
drowned  by  the  test  applied ;  for  if,  on  being  thrown  into  a  pond,  they  did 
not  sink,  they  were  presumed  witches,  and  either  killed  on  the  spot,  or  re- 
served for  burning  at  the  stake.  Five  hundred  witches  were  burnt  in  Gene- 
va, in  three  months,  in  1515.  One  thousand  were  burnt  in  the  diocese  of 
Como  in  a  year.  An  incredible  number  in  France,  about  1520,  when  one 
sorcerer  confessed  to  having  1200  associates.  Nine  hundred  were  burnt  in 
Lorraine,  between  1580  and  1595.  One  hundred  and  fifty-seven  were  burnt 
at  Wurtzburg,  between  1627  and  1629,  old  and  young,  clerical,  learned,  and 
ignorant.  At  Lindheim,  thirty  were  burnt  in  four  years,  out  of  a  popu.ittion 
of  600;  and  more  than  100,000  perished,  mostly  by  the  flames,  in  Germany. 
Grandier,  the  parish  priest  of  Loudun,  was  burnt  on  a  charge  of  having  be- 
witched a  whole  convent  of  nuns,  1634.  In  Bretagne,  twenty  poor  women 
were  put  to  death  as  witches,  1654.  Disturbances  commenced  on  charges 
of  witchcraft  in  Massachusetts,  1648-9 ;  and  persecutions  raged  dreadfully 
in  Pennsylvania  in  1683.  Maria  Renata  was  tjurnt  at  Wurtzburg  in  1749. 
At  Kalisk,  in  Poland,  nine  old  women  were  charged  with  having  bewitched, 
and  rendered  unfruitful,  the  lands  belonging  to  that  palatinate,  and  were 
burnt  Jan.  17,  1775. — Aim.  Meg.  Five  women  were  condemned  to  death  by 
the  Bramins,  at  Patna,  for  sorcery,  and  executed  Dec.  16,  1802. — Idem. 

WITCHCRAFT  and  CONJURATION  in  ENGLAND.  Absurd  and  wicked 
laws  were  in  force  against  them  in  Great  Britain  in  former  times,  by  which 
death  was  the  punishment,  and  thousands  of  persons  suffered  both  by  the 
public  executioners  and  the  hands  of  the  people.  A  statute  was  enacted 
declaring  all  witchcraft  and  sorcery  to  be  felony  without  benefit  of  clergy, 
33  Henry  VIII.,  1541.  Again,  5  Elizabeth,  1562,  and  1  James,  1603.  Bar- 
rington  estimates  the  judicial  murders  for  witchcraft  in  England  in  200  years 
at  30,000.  The  English  condemned  and  burnt  the  beautiful  and  heroic  Joan 
of  Arc,  the  Maid  of  Orleans,  as  a  sorceress,  a.  d.  1431.  See  Joan  of  Arc. 
•  Sir  Matthew  Hale  burnt  two  persons  for  witchcraft  in  1664.  Three  thousand 
were  executed  in  England  under  the  long  parliament.  Northamptonshire 
and  Huntingdon  preserved  the  superstition  about  witchcraft  later  than  any 
other  counties.  Two  pretended  witches  were  executed  at  Northampton  in 
1705,  while  *he  Spectator  was  in  course  of  publication  in  London,  and  five 
others  sevei.  years  afterwards.  In  1716,  Mrs.  Hicks  and  her  daughter,  aged 
nine,  were  hanged  at  Huntingdon.  In  Scotland,  thousands  of  persons  were 
burnt  in  the  period  of  about  a  hundred  years.  Among  the  victims  were  per- 
sons of  the  highest  rank,  while  all  orders  in  the  state  concurred.  James  I. 
even  caused  a  whole  assize  to  be  prosecuted  for  an  acquittal.  This  king  pub- 
lished his  Dialogues  of  Dccmonologie  first  in  Edinburgh,  and  afterwards  in 
London.*    The  last  sufferer  in  Scotland  was  in  1722,  at  Dornoch.    The  laws 


-  '  All  persons  at  court  who  sought  the  favor  of  James,  praised  his  Damonologie ;  and  parlia- 
ment, to  flatter  him,  made  its  twelfth  law  against  witchcral't  in  1603.  By  this  statute  deatli  was 
iiiMicted  on  sorcerers  in  these  words:  "If  any  person  shall  use  any  invocation  or  conjuration  of  any 
evil  or  wicked  spirit— shall  entertain,  employ,  feed,  or  reward  any  evil  or  cursed  spirit — take  up 
Hiiy  dead  body  to  employ  in  witchcraft,  sorcery,  or  enchantment — or  shall  practise,  or  shall  exor 
cise,  any  sort  of  witchcraft,  sorcery,  &c.,  whereby  any  person  shall  be  killed,  wasted,  consumed, 
phied,  or  lamed."  This  being  the  law  of  the  land,  no  person  presumed  to  doubt  the  existence  ot 
witchcraft;  hence  Shakspeave  gave  countenance  to  the  error,  and  the  learned  bishop  Hall  mentions 
a  place  where,  he  said,  there  were  more  witches  than  houses.  Allaying  of  ghosts,  driving  ou'  evfi 
spirits,  and  abjuring  wiiches  became  in  consequence,  tor  a  century,  a  profitable  employment  to  the 
clergy  of  all  denominations..  Witch- tinders  e.xisted,  too.  as  public  officers;  and,  besides  the  public 
executions,  which  disgraced  every  assizes,  muUiiudes  of  accused  were  destroyed  by  popular  re- 
sentment.— Phillips. 


woo  ]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  599 

against  witclicraft  had  lain  dormant  for  many  years,  when  an  ignorant  person, 
attempting  to  revive  them,  by  finding  a  bill  against  a  poor  old  woman  in  Snr- 
I'ey  for  the  practice  of  witchcraft,  they  were  repealed,  10  George  II.,  1736. — 

Viner's  Abridgment. 

WITENA-MOT,  or  WITENA-GEMOT.  Among  our  Saxon  ancestors,  this  was 
the  term  which  Avas  applied  to  their  deliberations,  and  which  literally  sig- 
nified the  assembling  of  the  wise  men  in  the  great  council  of  the  nation.  A 
witena-mot  was  called  in  London,  a.  d.  833,  to  consult  on  the  proper  means 
to  repel  the  Danes.  This  name  was  dropped  about  the  period  of  the  Norman 
conquest,  and  that  of  parliament  adopted.     See  Parliament. 

V\''OLVES.  These  animals  were  very  numerous  in  England.  Their  heads  were 
demanded  as  a  tribute,  particularly  300  yearly  from  Wales,  by  king  Edgar, 
A.  D.  961,  by  which  step  they  were  totally  destroyed. —  Carte.  Edward  I. 
issued  his  mandate  for  the  destruction  of  wolves  in  several  counties  of  Eng- 
land, A.  D.  1289.  Ireland  was  infested  by  wolves  for  mar^y  centuries  after 
their  extirpation  in  England ;  for  there  are  accounts  of  some  being  found 
there  so  late  as  1710,  when  the  last  presentment  for  killing  wolves  was 
made  in  the  county  of  Cork.  Wolves  still  infest  France,  in  which  kingdom 
834  wolves  and  cubs  were  killed  in  1828-9.  When  wolves  cross  a  river,  they 
follow  one  another  directly  in  a  line,  the  second  holding  the  tail  of  the  first 
in  its  mouth,  the  third  that  of  the  second,  and  so  of  the  rest.  This  figure 
was,  on  this  account,  chosen  by  the  Greeks  to  denote  the  j'ear,  composed  of 
twelve  months  following  one  another,  M'hich  they  denominated  Lycabas,  that 
is,  the  march  of  the  wolves. — Abbe  Pluche. 

WOMAN.  Among  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans,  women  seem  to  have  been 
considered  merely  as  objects  of  sensuality  and  domestic  convenience,  and 
were  commonly  devoted  to  seclusion  and  obscurity ;  it  was  not  until  the 
northern  nations  had  settled  themselves  in  the  provinces  of  the  Roman  em- 
pire that  the  female  character  assumed  new  consequence.  They  brought 
with  them  the  respectful  gallantry  of  the  North,  and  a  complaisance  towards 
females  which  inspired  generous  sentiments  hitherto  little  known  to  the 

■  polished  nations  of  antiquity,  and  which  ultimately  led  to  the  institution  of 
chivahy.  England  is  called  the  paradise  of  women;  Spain,  their  purgatory  ; 
and  Turkejs  their  hell.  The  following  lines  beautifully  describe  Adam's 
first  sight  of  Eve : 

"  He  laid  him  down  and  slept — and  from  his  side 
A  woman  in  her  magic  beauty  rose ; 
Dazzled  and  charmed,  he  called  that  woman  '  bride.' 
And  Iris  first  sleep  became  his  last  repose." — Eesser,  tranilated  by  Bowring. 

The  following  distinguished  men,  though  married,  were  unhappy  in  that 
state :  Arist*  tie,  Socrates,  Pittacus,  Periander,  Euripides,  and  Aristophanes. 
Among  the  moderns :  Boccaccio,  Dante,  Milton,  Steele,  Addison,  Dryden, 
Moliere,  Racine,  Sterne,  Garrick,  and  lord  Bacon. —  Woman ;  as  she  is,  and 
as  she  should  be.  Among  the  most  beautiful  eulogies  on  woman  is  the  fol- 
lowing, addressed  to  a  lovely  Italian  nun  by  an  English  nobleman : 

"  Die  when  you  will,  you  need  not  wear, 
At  heaven's  court,  a  form  more  fair 

Than  beauty  at  your  birth  has  given  ; 
Keep  but  the  lips,  the  eyes  we  see, 
The  voice  we  hear,  and  you  will  be 

An  angel  ready-made  for  heaven !" — Lord  Herbert. 

WOOD-CUTS,  OR  WOOD-ENGRAVING.  See  article  Engraving  on  Wood. 
The  invention  is  ascribed  by  some  to  a  gun-smith  of  Florence ;  by  others,  to 
Reuss,  a  German,  a.d.  1460;  but  it  has  an  earlier  origin,  as  shown  in  the 
article  referred  to.     Brought  to  i)erfection  by  Durer  and  Lucas.     Brought 


600  THE    world's    progress.  [  WOH 

to  great  perfection  by  Bewick,  Nesbett,  Anderson,  &c.,  in  1789-1799;  and 
more  recently  by  Cruikshank,  and  others. 

WOOL.  Dr.  Anderson,  in  a  memorial  subjoined  to  the  "Report  of  the  Com- 
mittee of  the  Highland  Society,"  proves,  from  indisputable  records,  that 
from  the  earliest  times  down  to  the  reign  of  queen  Ehzabeth,  the  wool  of 
Great  Britain  was  not  only  superior  to  that  of  Spain,  but  accounted  the 
finest  in  the  universe ;  and  that  even  in  the  times  of  the  Romans,  a  manu- 
facture of  woollen  cloths  was  established  at  Winchester  for  the  use  of  the 
emperors.  In  later  times,  wool  was  manufactured  in  England,  and  is  men- 
tioned in  A.  D.  1185,  but  not  in  any  quantity  until  1331,  when  the  weaving  of 
it  was  introduced  by  John  Kempe  and  other  artisans  from  Flanders.  This 
was  the  real  origin  of  the  English  wool  manufactures,  Edward  III.,  1331. — 
Rymer^s  Fadera.  The  exportation  prohibited,  1337.  The  exportation  of 
English  wool,  and  the  importation  of  Irish  wool  into  England,  prohibited, 
1696.    The  non-exportation  law  repealed,  1824. 

WOOLLEN  CLOTH.  The  manufacture  of  cloth  was  known,  it  is  supposed,  in 
all  civilized  countries,  and  in  very  remote  ages,  and  probably  of  linen  also. 
Woollen  cloths  were  made  an  article  of  commerce  in  the  time  of  Julius  Cae- 
sar, and  are  familiarly  alluded  to  by  him.  They  were  made  in  England  be- 
fore A.  D.  1200,  and  the  manufacture  became  extensive  in  the  reign  of  Edward 
III.,  1331.  They  were  then  called  Kendal  cloth,  and  Halifax  cloth.  See 
preceding  article.  Blankets  were  first  made  in  England  about  a.  d.  1340. — 
Camden.  No  cloth  but  of  Wales  or  Ireland  to  be  imported  into  England, 
1463.  The  art  of  dyeing  brought  into  England,  1608.  See  article  Dyeing. 
Medleys,  or  mixed  broad-cloth,  first  made,  1614.  Manufacture  of  fine  cloth 
begun  at  Sedan,  in  France,  under  the  patronage  of  cardinal  Mazarine,  1646. 
British  and  Irish  woollens  prohibited  in  France,  1677.  All  persons  obliged 
to  bo  buried  in  woollen,  or  the  persons  directing  the  burial  otherwise  to  for- 
feit 51,  29  Charles  II.,  1678.  The  manufacture  of  cloth  greatly  improved 
in  England  by  Flemish  settlers,  1688.  Injudiciously  restrained  in  Ireland, 
11  William  III.,  1698.  The  exportation  from  Ireland  wholly  prohibited,  ex- 
cept to  certain  ports  of  England,  1701.  English  manufacture  encouraged 
by  10  Anne,  1712,  and  2  George  1.,  1715.  Greater  in  Yorkshire  in  1785, 
than  in  all  England  at  the  Revolution. —  Clialmers. 

Q,nANT  .TY  and    declared   VALUE  OP  CLOTHS  EXPORTED  PROM  GREAT  BRITAIN  IN  THE  FOL- 
LOWING YEARS  : — 


Quantity. 

Pieces     - 
Yards         -    - 
Declared  value 

18(T0. 

1,022,8.3.9 

4,213.677 

je3,914;661 

1825. 

1,741,933 

7,798,610 

£6,194,926 

1830. 

1,747,036 

5,561,877 

£4,608,592 

1840. 

2,143,796 

8,170,642 

£5,921,116 

WORCESTER,  Batti^k  op,  in  the  Civil  War,  fought  between  the  Royalist  army 
and  the  forces  of  the  parliament,  the  latter  commanded  by  Ci'omwell.  A 
large  body  of  Scots  had  marched  into  England  with  a  view  to  reinstate 
Charles  II.,  but  Cromwell  signally  defeated  them ;  the  streets  of  the  city 
were  strewed  with  the  dead,  the  whole  Scots  army  having  been  either  killed 
or  taken  prisoners.  This  famous  battle  aff'orded  Cromwell  what  he  called  his 
crowning  m.ercy.  Charles  with  difficulty  escaped  to  France.  Of  8000  pri- 
soners, most  were  sent  to  bond-service  in  the  American  colonies.  September 
3,  1651. 

WORLD.  According  to  Julius  Africanus,  as  quoted  bj^  Gibbon,  the  world  was 
created  September  1,  5508  b.  c.  Most  chronologers,  however,  mention  the 
year  4004  b.  c.  as  the  period  of  its  first  existence.  The  Jews  celebrate  the 
19th  of  September  as  the  day  of  the  creation,  and  some  suppose  that  it  was 
created  in  spring.  Its  globular  form  was  first  suggested  by  Thales  of  Mile- 
tus, about  610  B.  c.     The  fir.'^t  geographical  table  and  map  of  the  world  was 


WOR  ]  DICTIONARY    OF    DATES.  601 

made  by  Anaximander,  about  560  b.  c. — Pliny.  Discoveries  of  Pythagoras 
and  his  system,  about  539  b.  c. — Stanley.  The  magnitude  of  the  earth  cal- 
culated by  Eratosthenes,  240  b.  c.  The  system  of  Copernicus  promulgated, 
A.  D.  1530.  Map  of  the  world  on  Mercator's  projection,  in  which  the  earth 
is  taken  as  a  plane,  1556.  The  notion  of  the  magnetism  of  the  earth  started 
by  Gilberd,  1583.    Magnitude  of  the  earth  determiaed  by  Picart,  1669. 

WORMS,  Diet  op.  The  celebrated  imperial  diet  before  which  Martin  Luther 
was  summoned,  April  4,  1521,  and  by  which  he  was  proscribed.  Luther 
was  met  by  2000  persons  on  foot  and  on  horseback,  at  the  distance  of  a 
league  from  Worms.  Such  was  his  conviction  of  the  justice  of  his  cause, 
that  when  Spalatin  sent  a  messenger  to  warn  him  of  his  danger,  he  answer- 
ed, "  If  there  were  as  many  devils  in  Worms  as  there  are  tiles  upon  the  roofs 
of  its  houses,  I  would  go  on."  Before  the  emperor,  the  archduke  Ferdinand, 
six  electors,  twenty-four  dukes,  seven  margraves,  thirty  bishops  and  pre- 
lates, and  many  princes,  counts,  lords,  and  ambassadors,  Luther  appeared, 
April  17th,  in  the  imperial  diet,  acknowledged  all  his  writings  and  opinions, 
and  left  Worms,  in  fact,  a  conqueror.  But  Frederick  the  Wise  advised  him 
to  seclude  himself  to  save  his  life,  which  he  did  for  about  ten  months,  and 
his  triumph  was  afterwards  complete. 

WORSHIP.  Athotes,  son  of  Menes,  king  of  Upper  Eg5Tpt,  is  said  to  have  been 
the  author  of  religious  worship:  he  is  supposed  to  be  the  Co'pt  of  the 
Egyptians,  and  the  Totli  or  Hermes  of  the  Greeks ;  the  Mercury  of  the 
Latins,  and  the  Teutates  of  the  Celts  or  Gauls,  2112  b.  c. — Usher.  Religious 
worship  had  an  origin  in  most  tribes  and  nations,  in  their  ignorance  of  the 
causes  of  natural  phenomena.  Benefits  were  ascribed  to  a  good  spirit,  and 
evils  to  a  bad  one.  This  primary  idea  was  enlarged  and  diversified  by 
dreaming  during  imperfect  sleep,  or  thinking  while  the  volition  was  torpid, 
and  by  illusions  of  the  senses,  which  led  to  belief  in  ghosts,  signs,  and  omens, 
and  these  causes  were  augmented  by  enthusiasts. — PJiilUps.  In  all  nations, 
whether  civilized  or  barbarous,  worship  prevails,  but  is  purest  in  Protestant 
states. — Sherlock. 

WORSHIP  IN  ENGLAND.  In  England  were  many  forms  of  worship  at  the 
period  of  the  Roman  invasion.  The  first  Saxons  were  idolaters,  and  de- 
dicated to  their  gods  groves  of  the  tallest  trees  and  thickest  forests,  and 
there  worshipped  them  without  building  any  temples  to  them,  or  represent- 
ing them  by  any  figures  or  images.  Our  days  of  the  week  are  named  after 
Saxon  divinities — the  Sun,  Moon,  Tuesco,  Woden,  Thor,  Friga,  and  Saturn. 
Easter  is  named  from  their  goddess  Eostre  ;  and  Christmas  was  from  their 
great  festival  Geoli.  Faul,  or  Fola,  was  their  dreaded  enemy ;  and  they  be- 
lieved in  elves  and  fairies,  sorcery  and  witchcraft.  The  Saxon  religion  was 
afterwards  mingled  with  the  Christian ;  but  the  former  was  in  time  wholly 
superseded  by  the  latter,  and  in  the  end,  the  Reformation  introduced  our 
present  pure  and  simple  mode  of  worship.  In  Scotland,  the  benign  influence 
of  the  Reformation  soon  put  aside  all  other  forms.  The  following  is  a  re- 
markable document,  given  in  M'Crie's  Life  of  John  Knox,  (Blackwood, 
Edinburgh,  1831,)  relating  to  the  removal  of  images  from  Catholic  places 
of  worship  in  Scotland,  at  the  period  of  the  Reformation : — 


"  To  our  traistfriendis,  the  Lairds  ofArn- 
tiUy  and  Kinvaid. 
"  Traist  friends,  after  maist  harty  com- 
mendacion,  we  pray  you  faill  not  to  pass 
incontinent  to  the  kyrk  of  Diinkeld,  arid  tak 
doun  the  haill  itnages  thereof,  and  bring 
furth  to  the  kyrkzard,  and  burn  thaym  op- 
pinly.  And  siclyk  cast  down  the  altaris, 
and  purge  the  kyrk  of  all  kynd  of  monu- 
ments of  idolatrye.  And  this  ye  faill  not  to 
do,  as  ze  will  do  us  singular  prupleseur ; 

26 


and  so  committis  vow  to  the  protection  of 
God.  From  Edinburgh,  the  xii  of  August. 
1560. 

"  Faill  not,  bot  ze  tak  guid  heyd  that  nei- 
ther the  dasks,  windocks,  nor  durris,  be  ony 

ways  hurt  or  broken either  glassin  wark 

or  iron  wark. 

"  Ar.  Ersyll, 
"James  Stewart 

"  RUTHVEN." 


G02 


THE    WORLD'S   PROGRESS. 


[WKi 


WORSTED.  A  species  of  woollen  fabric,  being  spun  wool,  which  obtained  its 
name  from  having  been  first  spmi  in  a  town  called  Worsted,  in  Norfolk,  in 
which  the  inventor  lived,  and  where  manufactures  of  worsted  are  still  exten- 
sively carried  on,  14  Edward  III.,  1340. — Anderson.  Worsted-stocking 
knave  is  a  term  of  reproach  or  contempt  used  by  Shakspeare. 

WRECKS  OF  SHIPPING.  The  wreckers  of  Cornwall  are  the  inhabitants  of  a 
few  parishes,  on  the  rocky  coast,  between  Mount's  Bay  and  the  Lizard. 
When  a  wreck  takes  place,  thousands  assemble  with  axes,  hatchets,  crow- 
bars, &c. ;  and  many  women  and  children  fight,  by  habit,  for  the  plunder, 
utterly  regardless  of  the  sufferers. — Phillips.  The  loss  of  merchant  and 
other  ships  by  wreck  upon  lee-shores,  coasts,  and  disasters  in  the  open  sea, 
was  estimated  at  Lloyd's,  in  1800,  to  be  about  an  average  of  365  ships  a 
year.  In  1830,  it  appeared  by  Lloyd's  List,  that  677  British  vessels  were 
totally  lost,  under  various  circumstances,  in  that  year.  The  annual  loss 
varies ;  but  it  is  always  many  hundreds. 

SOME   OP   THE  MOST  REMARKABLE   SHIPWRECKS. 

Of  the  Thunderer,  74  guns;  Stirling 
Castle,  64 ;  Phcenix,  44 ;  La  Blanche, 
42 ;  Laurel,  28 ;  Andromeda,  28 ; 
Deal  Castle,  24 ;  Scarborough,  20  ; 
Barbadoes,  14 ;  Cameleon,  14 ;  En- 
deavour, 14 ;  and  Victor,  10  guns ; 
British  vessels  of  war,  alllostinthe 
same  storm,  in  ihe  West  Indies,  in 

October,  1780 

Of  the  Roual  George,  capsized  in  Ports- 
mouth harbor,  England,  when  1,000 
persons  perished         -         June  28,  1782 

Of  the  steamer  Home,  from  New  York 
to  Charleston ;  100  lives  lost,  Oct.  9, 1837 

Of  the  Forfarshire  steamer,  from  Hull 
to  Dundee ;  38  persons  drowned. 
Owing  to  the  courage  of  Grace  Dar- 
ling and  her  fether,  15  persons  were 
saved.     See  Forfarshire    -    Sept.  5,  1838 

Of  the  Pennsylvaiiia,  Oxford,  and  St. 
Andrew,  packet  ships,  ma  great  gale 
off  Liverpool        -  -         Jan.  6, 1839 

Of  the  Poland  from  New  York  to 
Havre,  struck  by  lightning.  May  16, 1840 

Of  the  President  steamer,  from  New 
York  to  Liverpool,  with  fifty  pas- 
sengers on  board ;  sailed  on  March 
11,  encountered  a  terrific  storm  two 

It  is  estimated  at  Lloyd's  that  about  170  British  registered  vessels  are  annu- 
ally lost ;  360  are  annually  rendered  unfit  for  service ;  and  1100  experience 
serious  damage,  requiring  extensive  repairs,  exclusively  of  the  ordinary 
wear  and  tear. 

WRITING.  Pictures  M-ere  undoubtedly  the  first  essay  towards  writing.  The 
most  ancient  remains  of  writing  which  have  been  transmitted  to  us  are  upon 
hard  substances,  such  as  stones  and  metals,  used  by  the  ancients  for  edicts, 
and  matters  of  public  notoriety.  Athotes,  or  Hermes,  is  said  to  have  writ- 
ten a  history  of  the  Egyptians,  and  to  have  been  the  author  of  hierogly- 
phics, 2112  B.  c. —  Usher.  Writing  is  said  to  have  been  taught  to  the  Latins 
by  Europa,  daughter  of  Agenor,  king  of  Phoenicia,  1494  b.  c. —  Thucydides. 
Cadmus,  the  founder  of  Cadmea,  1493  b.  c,  brought  the  Phcenician  letters 
into  Greece. —  Vossius.  The  commandments  were  written  on  two  tables  of 
stone,  1491  b.  c. —  Usher.  The  Greeks  and  Romans  used  waxed  table-books, 
and  continued  the  use  of  them  long  after  papyrus  was  known.  See  Papy- 
rus, Parchment,  Paper.  "I  would  check  the  petty  vanity  of  those  who 
slight  good  penmanship,  as  below  the  notice  of  a  scholar,  bj  reminding 


days  afterwards,  and  has  never  since 
been  heard  of  -  March  13, 1841 

Of  the  Peacock,  one  of  the  United  States 
exploring  expedition,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Columbia  river,  Oregon,  mid- 
day and  smooth  water       -    July  18,  1841 

Of  the  Missouri  United  States  steam- 
frigate,  by  fire,  at  Gibraltar,  Aug.  27,  1843 

Of  the  United  States  schooner  Shark, 
wrecked  at  same  place     -    Sept.  10,  1816 

Of  the  Great  Britain  iron  steam-ship. 
This  stupendous  vessel  grounded  in 
Dundrum  bay,  on  the  east  coast  of 
Ireland  -  -  Sept.  ?2,  1846 

Of  the  United  States  sloop  of  war  Bos- 
ton, on  the  Bahamas       -      Nov.  16,  1846 

Of  the  United  States  brig  Somers,  cap- 
sized in  a  squall,  off  Vera  Cruz  ;  39 
drowned  -  -  Dec.  8, 1846 

Of  the  West  India  mail  packet  Tweed  ; 
about  90  souls  perished     -    Feb.  19, 1847 

Of  the  ship  Ocean  Mo7iarch,  of  Boston, 
burnt  near  Liverpool ;  170  lives  lost, 

Aug.  24, 1848 

Of  the  barque  Charles  Bartlett,  run 
down  at  sea  by  steamer  Europa ;  134 
lives  lost  -  -  June  27,  1849 

See  Fires,  and  Steam  Vessels. 


xer]  dictionary  of  dates.  603 

tliem  that  Mr.  Fox  was  distinguished  by  the  clearness  and  firmness,  Mr. 
professor  Person  by  the  correctness  and  elegance,  and  sir  William  Jones  by 
the  ease  and  beauty,  of  the  characters  they  respectively  employed." — Dk. 
Parr. 


XANTHUS,  SiKGE  OF,  by  the  Romans  under  Brutus.  After  a  great  struggle, 
and  the  endurance  of  great  privations,  the  inhabitants,  being  no  longer  able 
to  sustain  themselves  against  the  enemy,  and  determined  not  to  survive  the 
loss  of  their  liberty,  set  fire  to  their  city,  destroyed  their  wives  and  chil- 
dren, and  then  themselves  perished  in  the  conflagration.  The  conqueror 
wished  to  spare  them,  but  though  he  offered  rewards  to  his  soldiers  if  they 
brought  any  of  the  Xanthians  alive  into  his  presence,  only  150  were  saved, 
much  against  their  will ;  42  b.  c. — Plutarch. 

XENOPHON,  Retreat  of.  Xenophon  surnamed  the  Attic  Muse,  led  in  the 
memorable  retreat  of  the  Greeks,  one  of  the  most  celebrated  events  in 
ancient  history.  The  Greeks  were  mercenaries  of  the  younger  Cyrus,  after 
whose  defeat  and  fall  at  the  battle  of  Cunaxa,  they  were  obliged  to  retreat ; 
but  Xenophon  kept  them  in  a  compact  body,  and  retreated  through  Asia 
into  Thrace.  The  Greeks  proceeded  through  various  fierce  and  barbarous 
nations,  surmounted  all  the  obstacles  and  dangers  that  arose  at  every  step, 
and  accomplished  their  arduous  enterprise,  after  repeated  triumphs  over 
toils,  fraud,  and  force.  This  retreat  is  esteemed  the  boldest  and  best-con- 
ducted exploit  on  record ;  401  b.  c. —  Vossiux. 

XERXES'  CAMPAIGN  in  GREECE.  Xerxes  entered  Greece  in  the  spring 
of  480  B.  0.  with  an  army,  which,  together  with  the  numerous  retinue  of 
servants,  eunuchs,  and  women  that  attended  it,  amounted,  according  to  some 
historians,  to  5,283.220  souls.  But  Herodotus  states  the  armament  to  have 
coasisted  of  3000  sail,  conveying  1,700,000  foot,  besides  cavalry,  and  the 
mariners,  and  attendants  of  the  camp.  This  multitude  was  stopped  at 
Thermopylae,  by  the  valor  of  300  Spartans  under  Leonidas.  Xerxes,  aston- 
ished that  such  a  handful  of  men  should  oppose  his  progress,  ordered  some 
of  his  soldiers  to  bring  them  alive  into  his  presence ;  but  for  three  succes- 
sive days  the  most  valiant  of  the  Persian  troops  were  defeated,  and  the 
courage  of  the  Spartans  might  pei-haps  have  triumphed  longer  if  a  base 
Trachinian,  named  Ephialtes,  had  not  led  a  detachment  to  the  top  of  the 
mountain,  and  suddenly  fallen  upon  the  devoted  band.  The  battle  of  Ther- 
mopylae {which  see)  was  the  beginning  of  the  disgrace  of  Xerxes,  Aug.  7, 
480  B.  c.  The  more  he  advanced,  the  more  he  experienced  new  disasters. 
His  fleet  was  defeated  at  Artemisium  and  Salamis,  and  he  hastened  back  to 
Persia,  leaving  Mardpnius,  the  best  of  his  generals,  behind,  with  an  army  of 
300,000  men.  The  rest  that  had  survived  the  ravages  of  war,  famine,  and 
pestilence,  followed  Xerxes  on  his  route  home. 

XERXES'  BRIDGE.  The  famous  bridge  of  Xerxes  across  the  Hellespont, 
the  strait  which  joins  the  Archipelago  and  the  sea  of  Marmora.  It  was 
formed  by  connecting  together  ships  of  different  kinds,  some  long  vessels  of 
fifty  oars,  others  three-banked  galleys,  to  the  number  of  360  on  the  side 
towards  the  sea,  and  318  on  that  of  the  Archipelago ;  the  former  were 
placed  transversely,  but  the  latter,  to  diminish  the  strain  on  their  cables,  in 
the  direction  of  the  current,  all  secured  by  anchors  and  cables  of  great 
strength.  On  extended  cables  between  the  lines  of  shipping  were  laid  fast- 
bound  rafters,  over  these  a  layer  of  unwrought  wood,  and  over  the  latter 
was  thrown  earth :  on  each  side  was  a  fence,  tfl  prevent  the  horses  and 


604  THE  world's   progress.  [  YEA 

beasts  of  burthen  from  being  terrified  by  the  sea,  in  the  passage  from  shore 
to  shore.    This  wonderful  work  was  completed,  it  is  said,  in  one  week,  480 

B.C. 


YEAR.  The  Egyptians,  it  is  said,  were  the  first  who  fixed  the  length  of  the 
year.  The  Roman  year  was  introduced  by  Romulus  738  b.  c.  ;  and  it  was 
-corrected  by  Numa  713  b.  c,  and  again  by  Julius  Ctesar,  45  b.  c.  See  Calen- 
dar. The  solar  or  astronomical  year  was  found  to  comprise  365  days,  5  hours, 
48  minutes,  51  seconds  and  6  decimals,  265  b.  c.  The  siderial  year,  or  return 
of  the  same  star,  is  365  days,  6  hours,  9  minutes,  and  11  seconds.  A  consid- 
erable variation  prevailed  generally  among  the  nations  of  antiquity,  and  still 
partially  prevails,  with  regard  to  the  commencement  of  the  year.  The  Jews 
dated  the  beginning  of  the  sacred  year  in  the  month  of  March ;  the  Athe- 
nians in  the  month  of  June ;  the  Macedonians  on  the  24th  Sept. ;  the  Chris- 
tians of  Egypt  and  Ethiopia  on  the  29th  or  30tli  of  August ;  and  the  Persians 
and  Armenians  on  the  11th  of  that  month.  Nearly  all  the  nations  of  the 
Christian  world  now  commence  the  year  on  the  1st  of  January.  Charles  IX. 
of  France,  in  1654,  published  an  arr6fc,  the  last  article  of  which  ordered  the 
year  for  the  time  to  come  to  be  constantly  and  universally  begun,  and  written 
on  and  from  January  1.    See  Neio  Style,  &c.  ,         ^ 

YEAR,  LUNAR.  This  is  the  space  of  time  which  comprehends  twelve  lunar 
months,  or  454  days,  8  hours,  48  minutes,  and  was  in  use  among  the  Chal- 
deans, Persians,  and  ancient  Jews.  Once  in  every  three  years  was  added 
another  lunar  month,  so  as  to  make  the  solar  and  lunar  year  nearly  agree. 
But  though  the  months  were  lunar,  the  year  was  solar ;  that  is,  the  first 
month  was  of  thirty  days,  and  the  second  of  twenty-nine,  and  so  alternately ; 
and  the  month  added  triennially  was  called  the  second  Adar.  The  Jews 
afterwards  followed  the  Roman  manner  of  computation. 

YEAR  OF  OUR  LORD.  The  first  sovereign  who  adopted  this  distinction  was 
Charles  IIL,  emperor  of  Germany:  he  added  "In  the  year  of  our  Lord  "  to 
his  reign,  a.  d.  879.  It  was  followed  by  the  French  kings,  and  afterwards  by 
the  English ;  and  is  the  mode  of  designating  the  year  from  the  birth  of  the 
Redeemer  in  aU  Christian  countries.    See  Eras. 

YEAR,  Platonic.  The  doctrine  of  the  Platonic  year  was  believed  among  the 
Chaldeans,  and  in  the  earliest  ages.  It  is  that  space  of  time  at  the  end 
whereof  all  the  planets  are  to  return  to  the  same  point  from  whence  they 
set  out,  and  have  the  same  aspects  and  configurations  one  upon  another. 
Some  afiirm  this  return  to  be  in  15,000  common  years,  others  in  36,000.  The 
ancient  heathens  were  of  opinion,  that  when  this  period  was  completed,  the 
world  would  be  renewed  again,  and  the  departed  souls  re-enter  their  bodies 
and  go  through  a  second  course  of  being. 

YEAR,  Sabbatical.  This  was  every  seventh  year,  atiiong  the  Jews.  In  this 
year  the  people  were  enjoined  by  the  law  to  let  the  ground  lie  fallow  and 

•  have  rest.  Every  seventh  Sabbatical  year,  or  every  forty-ninth  year  was 
called  the  Jubilee  Year,  when  was  joy  and  rejoicing ;  all  debts  were  forgiven. 
and  slaves  set  at  liberty,  and  it  was  usual  to  return  to  the  original  families 
all  estates  and  property  that  had  been  sold  or  mortgaged. — Hist.  Jews. 

YEAR,  Siberian,  and  in  Lapland.  The  year  in  the  northern  regions  of  Siberia 
and  Lapland,  is  described  in  the  following  calendar,  as  given  by  a  recent 
traveller : — 

June  23,  Snow  melts.  1     July  25,  Plants  in  flower. 

July    1,  Snow  gone.  Aug.    2,  Fruits  ripe. 

July    9,  Field  quite  green.  1      Aug.  10,  Plants  shed  their  seed. 

July  17,  Plants  at  full  growth  (     Aug.  18,  Snow. 


YOK,  ]  DICTIONARY    OF   DATES.  605 

The  snow  then  continues  upon  the  ground  for  about  ten  months,  from  Au- 
gust 18th  of  one  year,  to  June  23d  of  the  year  following,  being  309  days  out 
of  365;  so  that  while  the  three  seasons  of  spring,  summer,  and  autumn,  are 
together  only  fifty  six  days,  or  eight  weeks,  the  winter  is  of  forty-four  weeks' 
duration  in  these  countries. 

YEAR  AND  A  DAY.  A  space  of  time,  in  law,  that  in  many  cases  establishes 
and  fixes  a  right,  as  in  an  estray,  on  proclamation  being  made,  if  the  owner 
does  not  claim  it  within  the  time,  it  is  forfeited.  The  term  arose  in  the 
Norman  law,  which  enacted  that  a  beast  found  on  another's  land,  if  unclaim- 
ed for  a  year  and  a  day,  belonged  to  the  lord  of  the  soil.  It  is  otherwise  a 
legal  space  of  time. 

YELLOW  FEVER,  thS,  visited  the  city  of  New  York  in  the  years  1741,  1742, 
1791,  1795,  1798, 1799, 1800, 1803, 1805,  1819,  and  1822.  The  deaths  by  that 
disease  were  as  follows :  732  in  1795 ;  2086  in  1798  (population,  55,000) ; 
670  in  1803 ;  280  in  1805  ;  23  in  1819 ;  366  in  1822.  In  1805,  37,000  of  the 
inhabitants  (out  of  76,000,  the  whole  population)  fled  from  the  city.  In  1804, 
40  persons  died  with  it  at  Brooklyn,  but  New  York  escaped.  Philadelphia 
was  nearly  desolated  by  it  in  1793,  and  again  in  1798.  4041  persons  died  in 
1793,  and  17,000  fled  from  the  city  (population,  50,000).  In  1798,  the  morta- 
lity was  great,  and  50,000,  out  of  70,000  inhabitants,  fled.  Several  thousand 
died,  and  the  greatest  number  of  deaths  in  one  day  was  117.  Baltimore 
sufiered  from  this  disease  in  1798,  1819,  and  1821.  New  Orleans  and  Ha- 
vana have  it  annually.  In  several  of  the  islands  of  the  West  Indies  in  1732, 
1739,  and  1745.  It  broke  out  in  Spain  in  Sept.  1803.  The  yellow  fever  was 
very  violent  at  Gibraltar  in  1804  and  1814 ;  in  the  Mauritius,  July  1815 ;  at 
Antigua,  in  Sept.  1816 ;  and  it  raged  with  dreadful  consequences  at  Cadiz, 
and  the  Isle  of  St.  Leon,  in  Sept.  1819.  The  yellow  fever  rages  more  or  less 
every  year  or  two  at  Charleston,  New  Orleans,  and  other  southern  cities  of 
the  United  States.  It  first  appeared  at  Rio  Janeiro  in  1849-50,  where  it 
proved  fatal  to  many  thousands, 

YOKE.  The  ceremony  of  making  prisoners  pass  under  it,  was  first  practised 
by  the  Samnites  towards  the  Romans,  321  b.  c.  This  disgrace  was  afterwards 
inflicted  by  the  Romans  upon  their  vanquished  enemies. — Abbe  Lenglei, 
Dufresnoy. 

YORK.  The  Eboracum  of  the  Romans,  and  one  of  the  most  ancient  cities  of 
England.  Here  Severus  held  an  imperial  court,  a.  d.  207 ;  and  here  also 
Constantius  kept  a  court,  and  his  son  Constantine  the  Great  was  born,  in 
274.  York  was  burnt  by  the  Danes,  and  all  the  Normans  slain,  1069.  York 
received  its  charter  from  Richard  H.,  and  the  city  is  the  only  one  in  the 
British  kingdoms,  besides  London  and  Dublin,  to  whose  mayors  the  prefix 
of  lord  has  been  granted. 

YORK,  Archbishopric  op,  the  most  ancient  metropolitan  see  in  England,  being, 
it  is  said,  so  made  by  king  Lucius,  about  a.  d.  180,  when  Christianity 
was  first,  although  partially,  established  in  England.  But  this  establishment 
was  overturned  by  the  Saxons  driving  out  the  Britons.  When  the  former 
were  converted,  pope  Gregory  determined  that  the  same  dignity  should  be 
restored  to  York,  and  Paulinus  was  made  archbishop  of  this  see,  about  a.  d. 
622.  York  and  Durham  were  the  only  two  sees  in  the  north  of  England  for 
a  large  space  of  time,  until  Henry  I.  erected  a  bishopric  at  Carlisle,  and 
Henry  VIII.  another  at  Chester.  York  was  the  metropolitan  see  of  the  Scot- 
tish bishops ;  but  during  the  time  of  archbishop  Nevil,  1464,  they  withdrew 
their  obedience,  and  had  archbishops  of  their  own.  Much  dispute  arose 
between  the  two  English  metropolitans  about  precedency,  as,  by  pope  Gre- 
gory's institutions,  it  was  thought  he  meant,  that  which  ever  of  them  was 


606  THE   world's    progress.  [  ZAN 

first  confirmed,  should  be  superior ;  appeal  was  made  to  the  court  of  Rome 
by  both  parties,  and  it  was  determined  in  favor  of  Canterbury ;  but  York 
was  allowed  to  style  himself  primate  of  England,  while  Canterbury  styles 
himself  primate  of  all  England.  York  has  yielded  to  the  church  of  Rome 
eight  saints,  and  three  cardinals ;  and  to  the  civil  state  of  England,  twelve 
lord  chancellors,  two  lord  treasurers,  and  two  lord  presidents  of  the  north. 
It  is  rated  in  the  king's  books,  39  Henry  VIII.,  1546,  at  1609Z.  19s.  2d.  per 
annum. — Beatson. 

YOE.K  CATHEDRAL,  England.  This  majestic  fabric  was  erected  at  difierent 
periods,  and  on  the  site  of  former  buildings,  which  have  again  and  again 
been  destroyed  by  fire.  The  first  Christian  church  erected  here,  which  ap- 
pears to  have  been  preceded  by  a  Roman  temple,  was  built  by  Edwin,  king 
of  Northumbria,  about  the  year  630.  It  was  burnt  for  the  third  time  in 
1137,  along  with  St.  Mary's  Abby,  and  89  parish  churches  in  York.  Arch- 
bishop Roger  began  to  build  the  choir  in  1171,  but  it  was  by  many  hands, 
and  with  the  contributions  of  many  families,  and  of  multitudes  who  were 
promised  indulgences  for  their  liberality,  that  this  magnificent  fabric  was 
completed,  about  1361.  It  was  set  on  fire  by  Jonathan  Martin,  a  lunatic, 
and  the  roof  of  the  choir  and  its  internal  fittings  destroyed,  Feb.  2,  1829 ; 
the  damage  estimated  at  60,000/.,  was  repaired  in  1832. 

YORK  AND  LANCASTER,  WARS  of  the  HOUSES  op.  The  first  battle  be- 
tween these  houses  was  that  of  St.  Albans,  fought  May  22,  1455.  The  last 
was  that  of  Tewkesbury,  fought  May  4,  1471.  In  these  battles  the  Yorkists, 
or  WliUe  Roses,  were  victorious  against  the  house  of  Lancaster,  or  the  Red 
Roses.  But  in  the  sixteen  years  between  these  two  dates,  more  than  thirty 
great  battles  were  fought  with  difierent  success,  and  half  the  country  was 
depopulated,  and  nearly  the  whole  of  the  nobility  exterminated.  See 
Roses. 

YORKTOWN.  A  village  in  Virginia,  memorable  for  the  surrender  of  the  Bri- 
tish army  under  lord  Cornwallis,  consisting  of  7000  men,  to  the  Americans 
and  their  allies  under  Washington  and  count  Rochambeau,  Oct.  19,  1781. 
This  event  decided  the  contest  for  independence  in  favor  of  the  Americans. 

YUCATAN,  adopted  a  constitution  as  a  republic  (having  declared  its  indepen- 
dence of  Mexico),  May  16,  1841. 


ZAMA,  Battle  of,  between  the  two  greatest  commanders  in  the  world  at  the 
time,  Hannibal  and  Scipio  Africanus.  It  was  won  by  Scipio,  and  was  deci- 
sive of  the  fate  of  Carthage ;  it  led  to  an  ignominious  peace  which  was 
granted  the  year  after,  and  closed  the  second  Punic  war.  The  Romans  lost 
but  2000  killed  and  wounded,  while  the  Carthaginians  lost,  in  killed 
and  prisoners,  more  than  40,000 ;  some  historians  make  the  loss  greater ; 
B.  c.  202. 

ZANTE.  This  island,  with  the  rest  of  the  islands  now  forming  the  Ionian  re- 
public, was  subject  to  Venice  prior  to  the  French  Revolution ;  but  the  whole 
group  were  ceded  to  France  by  the  treaty  of  Campo  Formio  (which  see), 
October  17,  1797.  They  were  taken  by  a  Russian  and  Turkish  fleet,  and 
were  erected  into  an  independent  republic  by  the  name  of  the  Seven  Islands, 
in  1799.  They  fell  into  different  hands  in  the  course  of  the  succeeding 
year,  and  were  surrendered  to  the  French  by  the  Russians,  together  with 
Ragusa,  August  14,  1807.  They  submitted  to  the  British  army,  October  3, 
1809.  In  the  arrangements  at  the  congress  of  Vienna,  in  1815,  they  were 
put  under  the  protection  of  Great  Britain.    The  treaty  was  rati  fled  at 


zin]  dictionary  of  dates.  607 

Paris  for  that  purpose,  between  Great  Britain  and  Russia,  November  5, 
1815.  The  new  constitution  was  ratified  by  the  prince  regent,  February 
22,  1817. 

ZANZALEENS.  This  sect  rose  in  Syria,  under  Zanzalee,  a.  d.  535 ;  he  taught 
that  water  by  baptism  was  of  no  efficacy,  and  that  it  was  necessary  to  be 
baptized  with  fire,  by  the  application  of  a  red-hot  iron.  The  sect  was  at 
one  time  very  numerous. — Ashe. 

ZE,  ZOW,  ZIERES.  For  ye,  you,  and  yours.  The  letter  z  was  retained  in 
Scotland,  and  was  commonly  written,  for  the  letter  y,  so  late  as  the  reign  of 
queen  Mary,  up  to  which  period  many  books  in  the  Scottish  language  were 
printed  in  Edinburgh  with  these  words,  a.  d.  1543. 

ZEALAND,  NEW,  in  the  Pacific.  Discovered  by  Tasman  in  1642.  He  tra- 
versed the  eastern  coast,  and  entered  a  strait  where,  being  attacked  by  the 
natives  soon  after  he  came  to  anchor,  he  did  not  go  ashore.  From  the  time 
of  Tasman,  the  whole  country,  except  that  part  of  the  coast  which  was 
seen  by  him,  remained  altogether  unknown,  and  was  by  many  supposed  to 
make  part  of  a  southern  continent,  till  1770.  when  it  was  circumnavigated 
by  captain  Cook,  who  found  it  to  consist  of  two  large  islands,  separated  by 
the  strait.  The  introduction  of  potatoes  into  New  Zealand  has  saved  many 
lives,  for  the  natives  give  this  root  a  decided  preference  to  human  flesh, 
under  every  circumstance,  except  that  of  wreaking  vengeance  on  a  chief  of 
the  foe  whom  they  have  taken  in  battle.  Captain  Cook,  in  1773,  planted 
several  spots  of  ground  on  this  island  with  European  garden-seeds ;  and  in 
1777,  he  found  a  few  fine  potatoes,  greatly  improved  by  change  of  soil. 

ZELA,  Battle  op,  in  which  Julius  Csesar  defeated  Pharnaces,  king  of  Pontus, 
son  of  Mithridates.  Caesar,  in  announcing  this  victory,  sent  his  famous 
dispatch  to  the  senate  of  Rome,  in  three  words:  ^' Veni,  vidi,  vici" — "I 
came,  I  saw,  I  conquered,"  so  rapidly  and  easily  was  his  triumph  obtained. 
This  battle  concluded  the  war ;  Pharnaces  escaped  into  Bosphorus,  where 
he  was  slain  by  his  lieutenant,  Asander ;  and  Pontus  was  made  a  province 
of  Rome,  and  Bosphorus  given  to  Mithridates  of  Pergamus,  47  b.  c. — 
Sue.  Cms. 

ZELICHOW,  Battle  of,  between  the  Polish  and  Russian  armies,  one  of  the 
most  desperate  and  bloody  battles  fought  by  the  Poles  in  their  late  struggle 
for  the  freedom  of  their  country.  The  Russians,  who  were  commanded  by 
general  Diebitch,  were  defeated,  losing  12,000  men  in  killed,  wounded,  and 
prisoners  ;  and  Diebitch  narrowly  escaped  being  taken  in  the  pursuit  of  his 
flying  army,  April  6,  1881. 

ZENO,  Sect  o  ?,  founded  by  Zeno.  This  sect  also  took  the  name  of  Stoic,  from 
a  public  portico,  so  called,  from  which  the  philosopher  delivered  his  ha- 
rangues. It  was  the  most  famous  portico  in  Athens,  and  was  called  by  way 
of  eminence,  Eroa,  the  porch.  See  Stoics.  In  order  to  form  his  own  school 
of  philosophy,  and  to  collect  materials  for  a  new  system,  Zeno  had  attended 
the  schools  of  various  masters,  and  among  others  he-  offered  himself  as  a 
disciple  of  Polemo.  This  philosopher,  aware  of  Zeno's  object,  said,  "  I  am 
no  stranger,  Zeno,  to  your  Phoenician  arts.  I  perceive  that  your  design  is 
to  creep  slily  into  my  garden,  and  steal  away  my  fruit."  He  taught  about 
312  B.  c. 

ZINC.  The  discovery  of  this  metal,  so  far  as  the  fact  is  known,  is  due  to  the 
moderns.  It  is  said  to  have  been  long  known  in  China,  however,  and  is  no- 
ticed by  European  Avriters  as  early  as  a.  d.  1231;  though  the  method  of 
extracting  it  from  the  ore  was  unknown  for  nearly  five  hundred  years 
after.  A  mine  of  zinc  was  discovered  on  lord  Ribbledale's  estate.  Craven, 
Yorkshire,  in  1809.    Zincography  was  introduced  in  London  shortly  after 


608  THE  world's   progress.  ["  ZUR 

the  invention  of  lithography  became  known  in  England,  in  1817.    See  Li- 
thography. 

ZODIAC.  The  obliquity  of  the  zodiac  was  discovered,  its  twelve  signs  named, 
and  their  situations  assigned  them  in  the  heavens,  by  Anaximander,  about 
560  B.  c.  The  Greeks  and  Arabians  borrowed  the  zodiac  from  the  Hindoos, 
to  whom  it  has  been  known  from  time  immemorial. — Sir  William  Jones. 
The  invention  of  geographical  maps,  and  of  sun-dials,  belongs  also  to  Anax- 
imander.— Pliny. 

ZOE,  Reign  of.  This  extraordinary  woman,  daughter  of  the  emperor  Con- 
stantine  IX.,  married  Romanus,  who,  in  consequence,  succeeded  to  the 
throne  of  the  Eastern  empire,  a.  d.  1028.  Zoe,  after  intriguing  with  a  Pa- 
phlagonian  money-lender,  caused  her  husband  Romanus  to  be  poisoned, 
and  afterwards  married  her  favorite,  who  ascended  the  throne  under  the 
name  of  Michael  IV.,  1034.  Zoe  adopted  for  her  son  Michael  the  Fifth, 
the  trade  of  whose  father  (careening  vessels)  had  procured  him  the  surname 
of  Calaphates,  1041.  Zoe  and  her  sister,  Theodora,  were  made  sole  em- 
presses by  the  populace  ;  but  after  two  months,  Zoe,  although  she  was  sixty 
years  of  age,  took  for  her  third  husband  Constantine  X.,  who  succeeded  to 
the  empire  in  1042.    See  Eastern  Empire. 

ZOOLOGY.  The  animal  kingdom  was  divided  by  Linnseus  into  six  classes, 
viz  : — Mammalia,  which  includes  all  animals  that  suckle  their  young ;  Aves, 
or  birds ;  Amphibia,  or  amphibious  animals ;  Pisces,  or  fishes ;  Insecta,  or 
insects ;  Vermes,  or  worms  ;  a.  d.  1741.  From  this  period  the  science  of 
zoology  has  had  many  distinguished  professors,  the  most  illustrious  of  whom 
was  the  baron  Cuvier,  who  died  in  Paris,  May  13,  1882.  The  Zoological 
Gardens  of  London  were  opened  in  April  1827 ;  the  society  was  chartered 
March  27,  1829. 

ZUINGLIANS.  The  followers  of  Ulricus  Zuinglius.  This  zealous  reformer, 
while  he  officiated  at  Zurich,  declaimed  against  the  church  of  Rome  and 
its  indulgences,  and  effected  the  same  separation  for  Switzerland  from  the 
papal  dominion,  which  Luther  had  for  Saxony.  He  procured  two  assem- 
blies to  be  called ;  by  the  first  he  was  authorized  to  proceed,  and  by  the 
second  the  ceremonies  of  the  Romish  church  were  abolished,  1519.  Zuin- 
glius, who  began  as  a  preacher,  died  in  arms  as  a  soldier :  he  was  slain  in  a 
skirmish  against  the  Popish  opponents  of  his  reformed  doctrines,  in  1531. 
The  reformers  who  adhered  entirely  to  Zuinglius  were  called  after  his  name 
and  also  Sacramentarians. 

ZURICH.  It  was..admitted  to  be  a  member  of  the  Swiss  confederacy,  of  which 
this  canton  was  made  the  head,  a.  d.  1851.  Cession  of  Utznach,  1436.  This 
was  the  first  town  in  Switzerland  that  separated  from  the  church  of  Rome, 
in  consequence  of  the  opposition  given  by  Zuinglius  to  a  Franciscan  monk 
sent  by  Leo  X.,  to  publish  indulgences  here,  1519,  et  sea.  A  grave-digger 
of  Zurich  poisoned  the  sacramental  wine,  by  which  eight  persons  lost  their 
lives,  and  many  others  were  grievously  injured,  Sept.  4,  1776.  The  French 
were  defeated  here,  losing  4000  men,  June  4, 1799.  The  Imperialists  were 
defeated  by  Massena,  the  former  losing  20,000  men  in  killed  and  wounded, 
Sept.  24,  1799.    See  Switzerland. 


LITERARY  CHRONOLOGY. 

[i^roffi  the  Co7npamon  to  the  British  Almanac,  with  additions.] 

The  following  Chronological  List  of  Authors  is  in  extejision  of  the  Catalogue 
fxirnished  in  the  Companion  of  1831,  diflfering  from  it  by  adding  to  the  name 
of  each  author  the  title  of  his  most  important  production,  or  some  word 
expressive  of  the  nature  of  his  works. 

In  order  to  show  the  various  literary  character  of  each  age  the  catalogue  is 
divided  into  three  columns :  the  first  containing  those  authors  who  have  drawn 
chiefly  from  their  own  sources,  as  poets  and  novelists;  the  second  those  who 
treat  on  matters  of  fact,  as  history  and  geography ;  and  the  third,  the  philo- 
sophic and  scientific  writers.  Where  an  author  has  written  in  different  styles, 
his  name  wiU  be  found  in  the  column  to  which  his  most  distinguished  pro- 
ductions appertain.  The  Hebrews  having,  almost  without  exception,  treated 
on  speculative  subjects,  the  triple  division  does  not  extend  to  them. 

The  dates  of  birth  and  death  are  appended  to  each  name,  where  they  could 
be  ascertained.  In  other  cases,  the  situation  of  the  name  will  show  nearly  the 
time  when  each  author  has  flourished. 


HEBREW. 

[The  words  in  italics  between  parentheses  are  the  familiar  appellations  of  the  preceding  persons ; 
they  are  formed  from  the  first  letters  of  each  word  composing  their  names.  For  example,  the 
Jews  call  Maimonides  Rambam,  from  the  four  initial  letters  of  his  full  name,  Rabbi  Moses  ben 
Maimon.  J  %tn  Tof,  in  like  marmer,  is  called  Ritba,  from  the  words  Rabbi  Yom  Tof  bai 
Abraham.] 


1500  Moses,  1572—1452. 

Phinehas,  supposed  author  of  the  book 
Joshua. 
1100  David,  1085—10815. 
1000  Solomon,  1033—975. 
800  Jonah,  d.  761. 

Amos. 

Hosea. 

Joel. 

Obadiah. 

Micah. 

Isaiah,  d.  681. 

Nahum. 
700  Habakkuk. 

Zephaniah. 

Jeremiah. 
600  Baruch. 

Ezekiel. 

Daniel. 

Zechariah. 

Haggai. 
50O  Ezra. 

Nehemiah,  d.  430. 

Malachi. 
300  Jesus,  son  of  Sirach. 

26* 


B.  C. 

100  Nechoniah  ben  HakUanah,  'Seplier  hab- 
bahir,'  the  illustrious  book.  The  most 
ancient  of  Rabbinical  books.  Cabbalistic. 

Jonathan, '  Targum,'  or  Chaldee  paraphrase 
of  the  Bible. 
A.  D. 

0  Onkelos,  'Targum.' 

Josephus,  b.  35. 
100  Akiba,  d.  120.    The  Mishna  has  been  in- 
correctly attributed  to  him. 

ShimeonbenJochai(i2asA60.  The  'Zohfir,' 
a  celebrated  cabbalistic  Commentary 
on  the  Pentateuch  is  usually  attributed 
to  him,  but  was  composed  by  his  dis- 
ciples. 

Jose  ben  Chilpheta,  'A  History  of  the 
World.' 

Nathan  of  Babylon, '  Pirke  aboth,'  the  say- 
ings of  the  fathers.    Ethics. 

Elieser,  'Pirke  Eliezer,'  the  sayings  of 
Eliezer,  a  History  of  the  World. 

Judah  Hakkadosh, '  Mishna,'  the  oral  tradi- 
tions of  the  Jews,  which,  with  the 
Cemai'a  or  Commentary,  constitutes  the 
Babylonian  Talmud. 


610 


THE    world's   progress. 


Raf,  supposed  author  of  the  'Siphm,'  a 
commentary  on  Leviticus,  and  of  the 
'Siphre,'  a  commentary  on  Numbers 
and  Deuteronomy. 
200  Ushaya, '  Bereshith  Rabba,'  a  Commentary 
on  the  Mishna. 
Author  of  the  'MecWlta,'  a  Commentary 

on  Exodus. 
Jochanan,  'Talmud  of  Jerusalem.' 
300  Rabba  bar  Nachmon, '  Rabboth,'  Commen- 
taries on  the  Bible. 
40C  Rabasha,  began  the  '  Gemara,'  a  Commen- 
tary on  the  Mishna. 
Martemar,  continued  the  '  Gemara.' 
500  Abina,  completed  the  '  Gemara.' 
800  Simeon  Hejara,  'Great  decisions,'  jurid. 
Judah  bar  Nachman  (,Riban),  Compendium 
of  the  preceding. 
980  Saadia  Gaon,  '  Philosopher's  Stone,'  '  Book 
of  Faith,'  '  Grammar,'  &c. 
Sherira, '  The  Book  of  Answers,'  history. 
1000  Samuel  Haccohen,  d.  1034. 
Joseph  Ching,  Grammarian. 
Judah  Barzelloni,  'Rights  of  Women,'  ju 

ridic. 
Joseph  ben  Gorion  (Ribag), '  Compendium 

of  Hebrew  History.' 
Moses  Aben  Ezra,  d.  1080.    Grammarian, 
Isaac  of  Cordova,  d.  1094.  '  Chest  of  Spices.' 
1100  Alphes,    (/.   1103.      '  Compendiimi   of  the 
Talmud.' 
Nathan,  d.  1106.    'Talmudic  and  Chaldee 

Lexicon.' 
Solomon  Jarchi  (Rashi),  Grammarian,  d. 

1105.    '  Tongue  of  the  Learned.' 
Joseph  ben  Meir  (Ribam),  d.  1141.    '  Com- 
mentary on  Talmud.' 
Juda  the  Levite,  'Sepher  Cosri,'  philoso- 
phical. 
Abraham  Aben  Ezra,  very  learned  Com- 
mentaries on  the  Bible. 
Tam.  d.  117.    'Sepher  Hajashar,'  the  Book 

of  Righteousness. 
Samuel    ben   Meir    {Rashbani),   d.    1171 

'  Commentary  on  the  Talmud.' 
Benjamin  of  Tudela,  d.  1173.    'Travels.' 
Samuel, '  Book  of  Piety,'  Ethics  and  Theo- 
logy. 
Isaac  bar  Abba,  Grammarian. 
Moses  Kimhi,  Grammarian. 
David  Kimhi  (Rada/e),  Grammarian. 
Abraham  bar  Dior  (_Rabad),  d.  1 199.    Cab- 

balist. 
Abraham  ben  David  {Rabad),  Jurist. 
Moses  ben  Maimon  (^Rambmn),  1131-1205. 
'Yad  Hazaka,'    the  iM-ong  hand,    a  very 
celebrated  Commentary  on  the  Talmud, 
&c.     (This  author  is  better  known  by 
his  Latinized  name,  Maimonides.) 
1200  Abraham  bar  Chasdai,  Ethics. 
Eliakim,  Ceremonies. 
Baruch  Miggarmisa,  Laws,  Cereinonies. 
Eliezer  Miggarmisa,  Ethics,  Commentaries. 
Asher,  Compendia  of  Talmud. 
Perez  Haccohen  {Haraph),  Cabbalist. 
Moses  ben  Nachman  {Rambari),  d.  1260. 
'Law  of  Man,'    a  celebrated  book  on 
Ceremonies,  &c. 


Moses  Mikkotsi, '  Great  Book  of  Piucepts,' 

'  Compendium  of  Talmud.' 
Isaac  ben  Solomon,  d.  1268.   '  Proverbs  and 

Fables.' 
Nissim,  d.  1268.    '  Book  of  Homilies.' 
Isaac  ben  Joseph,  tf.  1270.  'Book  of  Precepts.' 
Moses  Aben  Tybon,  Translator  of  Mathe- 
matical  and  Philosophical  works  from 
the  Greek  and  Arabic. 
Solomon  ben  Adras  iRashba).  Theology. 
Meir,  Meditations,  on  '  Maimonides.' 
Menachem  Rekanat,  d.  1290.    '  Reason  for 

the  enactment  of  the  Laws  of  Moses.' 
Bechai, '  Commentary  on  Pentateuch.' 
1300  Shimson,  d.  1312.    '  Intro,  to  the  Talmud.' 
Isaac  Israeli,  'Foundation  of  the  World,' 

Histoiy. 
Judah,  son  of  Benjamin,  Ritial. 
Mordechai, '  Compendium  of  Talmud.' 
Isaac  Dura,  '  On  Forbidden  and  Permitted 

Food.' 
Aaron  Haccohen, '  The  Way  of  Life.' 
Jerucham, '  Book  of  Rectitude.' 
Jacob  ben  Asher,  'The  Four  Orders,'   a 

Ritual  of  much  authority. 
David  Abudraham,  astronomy. 
Levi  ben  Gerson  QRalbag),  d.  1370.    '  Com- 
mentary on  the  Law.' 
Menachen  Aben  Serach,  d.  1375.    Ritual. 
Isaac  ben  Sheshat  iRibasK),   'Questions 

and  Answers  on  Various  Subjects.' 
Moses  Haccohen,  '  Help  of  Faith.' 
Isaac  Sprot,  'Aben  Bochan,'  a  polemic  work 

against  Christianity. 
Jom  Tof  bar  Abraham  (Ritba),  Commen- 
tary on  Maimonides.' 
Chasdai,  d.  1396.     'Light   of  the   Lord.' 

Ethics  and  Theology. 
Simeon  bar  Zemach, '  Shield  of  the  Fathers.' 
1400  Jacob  Levi,  d.  UZT.    A  Ritual. 

Joseph  Albo,   the   Divine   Philosopher,— 

'  Foundation  of  Faith.' 
Israel  Germanus,  '  Questions  and  Answer* 

on  the  Law.' 
Joshua  Levita, '  Introd.  to  the  Talmud.' 
David  Vital, '  Golden  Verses.' 
Samuel  Sirsa,  Grammar. 
Isaac  ben  Arama, '  Com.  on  the  Law.' 
Elias  Misrachi  (.Ram),  Arithmetic. 
Abarbinel, '  Commentary  on  the  Bible.' 
Isaac  Abuhaf,  Ethics. 
1500  Abraham  Seba, '  Bundle  of  Myrrh,'  a  Com- 
mentary. 
Isaac  tarro, '  Explanations  of  the  Bible. 
Elias  Levi,  Grammar. 
Solomon  ben  Virga,  '  History  of  the  Jews.' 
Benjamin  Zeef, '  Questions  and  Answers.' 
Abraham  Zaccoth,  '  Juchasin,'  Sacred  and 

Jewish  History. 
Moses  Iserle,  Astrology. 
Joseph  Karro, '  Com.  on  Maimonides.' 
Azarias  Edomceus,  History  and  Philology. 
Gadaliah, '  Cabbalistic  Chain,'  History  and 

Chronology. 
Leo,  d.  1592.    '  Lion's  Whelp,'  Grammar. 
David  Gans,  History. 
1600  Moses  of  Trana, '  Book  of  God.' 
1700  Moses  Mendelssohn,  1729-1785,  Philosophy. 


AUTHORS  OF  THE  NEW-TESTAMENT. 
..  D. 

0  St.  Matthew,  St.  Mark,  St.  Luke,  St.  John,  Evangelists. 
St.  Paul,  St.  Peter,  St.  .Tames,  St.  Jude,  Epistlers. 


LITERARY    CHRONOLOGY — GREEK. 


611 


GREEK. 


IMAGINATION. 

FACT. 

SPECULATIVE  AND  SCIENTIFIO, 

B.C. 

900  Homer,  '  Iliad,'   '  Odyssey,' 
&c. 
Hesiod,  '  Works  and  Days,' 
&c. 

B.C. 

900 

B.C. 

900 

700  Tyrtffius,  Elegies  (fragm'ts.) 
Arciiilochus,    Satires,    Ele- 
gies (fragments). 

700 

700 

600  Alcaeus,  Lyrics  (fragments). 

Sappho,  Lyrics  (fragments). 

Solon,  d.  558. 

Epimenides. 

Stesichorus,  633-553  Lyrics 
(fragments). 

Mimnermus,  Elegies  (frag- 
ments.) 

Anacreon,  Lyrics. 

600 

600 

Pythagoras,  Philosophy. 

500  Simonides,  556-467,  Lyrics, 
^scliylus,  525-456,  Trage- 
dies. 
Pindar,  518-439,  Odes. 
Bacchylides,  Lyrics. 

Sophocles,  495-405,  Trage- 
dies. 

Euripides,  480-486,   Trage- 
dies. 

Aristophanes,  d.  338,  Come- 
dies. 

500 

Gorgias,  Orations  (frgts.) 

Hecatseus,  Hist,  (fragmn'ts.) 
Herodotus,  d.  484,  History. 
Thucydides,  471-391,  Histo- 
ry of  Peloponnesian  War. 
Antiphon,  Orations. 
Andorides,  Orations. 
Lysias,  458-378,  Orations. 

500  Zeno  of  Elea,  Philosohy. 
Ocellus   Lucanus,  Philoso- 
phy. 

Anaxagoras,  500-428,  Philo- 
sophy. 

Socrates,   468-399,  Philoso- 
phy. 

400 

Diphilus,  Comedy  (frgts.) 
Menander,  243-291,  Come- 
dies (fragments.) 

400  Ctesias,  History  (fragm'ts.) 
Xenophon,  444-359,  History, 

Philosophy,  &c. 
Isasus,  Orations. 

Isocrates,  536-338,  Orations. 
Dinarchus,  Orations. 
Lycurgus,  Orations. 
Demosthenes,  382-322,  Ora- 
tions, 
.aischines,  389-314,  Orations. 

400 

Hippocrates,  460-357,  Medi- 
cme. 

Democritus,  450-357,  Philo- 
sophy. 

Plato,  429-347,  Philosophy. 

Aristotle,  384-322,  Philoso- 
phy, Criticism. 

Theophrastus,d.  288,  Ethics. 

Epicurus,  341-270,  Philoso- 
phy. 

300  Bion,  Idyls. 

Moschus,  Idyls. 

Lycophron, '  Cassandra.' 

Callimachus,   Hymns    and 
Epigrams. 

Theocritus,  Idyls. 

Aratus,  Poem   on  Astrono- 
my. 

Cleanthes,  Hymns. 

Apollonius  Rhodius,    Argo- 
nautics.' 

300 

Manetho,  History  (fragm'ts.) 

300  Euclid,  Geometry. 

Zento  of  Citium,  d.  263,  Phi- 
losophy. 

Apollonius,  Conic  Sections. 

Archimedes,  d.  212, '  Sphere 

and  Cylinder,'  &c. 
Eratosthenes,  Philosophy. 

612 


THE   world's   progress. 


nuaiNATioK. 

PACT. 

SPECULATIVE  AND  SCIBNTIFIO. 

200  Nicander,  Theriaca. 

200  Polybius,  206-124,  Universal 
History. 
ApoUodorus,  '  Bibliotheca,' 
Mythology. 

200 

100  Meleager,  Epigrams. 

100  Conon,  Mythology. 

Scymnus,  Poetical  Geogr. 

Dionysius      Halicamassus, 
'Roman  Antiquities.' 

Dionysius   Periegetes,    Ge- 
ography? 

Diodorus   Siculus,  General 
History. 

100 

• 

0 

0  Strabo,  Geography. 

Pausanias,   Description   of 

Plutarch,  Biography,  Morals 

&c. 
Dion  Chrysostom,  Orations. 

0 

Dioscorides,  Botany  and  Me- 
dicine. 

Epictetns,      '  Enchiridion,' 
Philosophy. 

A.  S. 

100 

lamblichus, '  Rhodis  and  Si- 
nonides,  a  novel. 

Lucian,  Dialogues. 
Oppian,  Poems  on  Hunting 

and  Fishing. 
Athenaeus,  d.  194,  '  Deipno- 

sophistae,  anecdotes. 

A.  D. 

100  iEIian,  d.  140.    Varieties. 
Appian,  History. 
Ptolemy,  Geog.,  Astron. 

Arrian, '  Expedition  of  Alex- 
ander.' 

A.  D. 

100 

Justin  Martyr,  d.  163,  Theo- 
logy. 
Polycarp,  d.  167,  Theology. 
Galen,  103-193,  Medicine. 

Athenagoras,  d.  172, '  On  the 
Resurrection.' 

Phavorinus,  Lexicon. 

Hermogenes,  d.  161,  Rhe- 
toric. 

Polyaenus,  Strategy. 

M.  Aurelius  Antoninus,  Phi- 
losophy. 

NephEestion, '  On  Metres.' 

Max.  Tyrius,  Philosophy. 

Julius   Pollux,  'Onomasti- 
con,'  Rhetoric. 

200 

200  Diogenes  Laertius,  d.  222, 
'  Lives  of  Philosophers.' 

Philostratus,  d.  244,  Life  of 
Apollonius. 

Dion    Cassias,    History   of 
Rome. 

Herodian,  History  of  Rome. 

Porphyrius,  233-304,  Life  of 
Pythagoras,  Philosophy. 

200 

Ammonius,  Philos'jphy. 
Origan,  d.  254,  Theology 
Hesychius,  Lexicon, 
lamblichus.  Philosophy. 
Longinus,  d.  273,  'On  the 
Sublime.' 

aoo 

Achilles  Tatius,  '  Clitophon 
and  Leucippe,'  novel. 

Xenophon,  'Anthea  and  Ab- 
rocome,'  iMVel. 

300  Eusebius,  d.  340,  Ecclesias- 
tical History. 

Liabanius,     Orations     and 
Epistles. 

300 

Julian,  d.  363,  Philosophy. 

Athanasius,  298-371,  Theo- 
logy. 

Greg.  Nazianzen,  318-389, 
Theology. 

LITERARY   CHRONOLOGY. — GREEli. 


613 


UIAOIMATION. 

PACT. 

SPECULATIVE  AND  SCIENTIFIO. 

300 

300 

Ennapius,  'Lives  of  Philo- 
sophers.' 

Gregory  Nyssseus,  d.  396, 

Theology. 
Cyril,  315-386,  Theology. 
Diophantus,  Mathematics. 

30C  Aristaenetus,  'Erotic   Let- 
ters.' 

Heliodorus,  '  Theagenes  & 
Chariclasa,'  novel. 

Chariton,    '  Chaereus    and 
Calirrhoe,'  novel. 

300 

300 

Chrysostom,  354-407,  The- 
ology. 

400  Longus,      'Daphnis     and 
Cnloe,'  novel. 

Nonnus, '  Conquest  of  India 
by  Bacchus.' 

Stobseus,  '  Literary  Collec- 
tions.' 

Quintus  Smymseus  (com- 
monly   called)    Calabar, 
'Contin.  of  Homer.' 

Musffius,  Poem  of  Hero  and 
Leander? 

Eumathius,  'Ismenseus  & 
Ismenaea,'  novel. 

Coluthus,  Poem  on  '  Rape 

of  Helen.' 
Tryphindorus,   Poem    on 

'  Destruction  of  Troy.' 

400  Synesius,  Orations  &  Epis- 
tles. 

Zosimus, '  Hist,  of  Roman 
Emperors.' 

Socrates,  389-446,  Ecclesi- 
astical History. 

Sozomen,  d.  450,  Ecclesias- 
tical History. 

Theodoret,  d.  450,  Ecclesi- 
astical History. 

400  Nemesius,     '  Nature     of 
Man,'  Philosophy. 

Cyril,  d.  443,  Homilies. 
Proclus,  d.  445,  Theology. 

Proclua,  d.  500,  Platonist. 

600 

500  .Stephanus,  Geography. 

Procopius, '  Hist,  of  Reign 
of  Justinian.' 

Olympiodorus,   'Hist,    of 
Honorius.' 

Cos.  Indicopleustes,  Topo- 
graphy. 

Evagrius,  Ecclesiast.  Hist 

Agathias,  Byzantine  Hist. 

500  Simplicius, '  Comments  on 
Aristotle.' 
Tribonianus,  Jurist. 

600 

600  Menan,  Protector,  Chron. 
Theophanes,  Byzant.Hist. 

Theophylactus  Simocatta, 
Byzantine  History. 

600 

Philoponus,  Grammarian. 

700 

700 

700  Damascenus,  d.  750,  The- 
ology. 

800 

800  Nicephorus,  758-828,  Hist. 
Syncellus,  History. 

John  Malalas,  History. 

800  Theodorus    Studiles,  759- 
826,  Sermons. 
Photius,   d.    891,  'Biblio- 
theca.' 

900 

900 

Leontius,  History. 
Genesius,  History. 

900  Leo  VI.,  d.  911, '  On  Chris, 
tian  Faith.' 

614 


THE  world's   progress. 


IMA6IHATI0N. 


1000 


1100 


C.  Theo.  Prodromus, '  Rho- 
danthe  and  Doaicles,' 
novel. 


laoo 


1300  Manuel  Philes,  1275-1340, 
Poems. 


Maximus  Planudes,  Anth- 

olo]Sfy. 
Leo  Pilatus,  Literature. 


90O  Const.     Porphyrogenneta, 
905-959,  Hist.  Selections. 
Sim.  Metaphrastes,  Lives 
of  Saints. 


1000  George  Cedrenus,  History. 
John  Xiphilinus,  d.  1080, 
Abridg.  of  Dion  Cassius. 

John  Scylitza,  History. 


SPECDLAIVIVB  AND   SCIEMTinCL 


900 


1000 


Theophylactus,  Theology. 
Michael  PseUus,  Mathema- 
tics. 


1100  1100  Euthymius    Zygabenus, 

Nicephorus  Bryennius,  d.  Theology. 

1137,  Byzant.  Affairs. 
Anna  Comnena,  Reign  of 

her  father  Alexius. 


Const.  Manasses,  History. 
Zonaras,   History   of  Ro- 
mans, History  of  Jews. 

Will,  of  Tyre,  1100-1184, 

History. 
John  Tzetzes,  History  in 

Verse. 
Cinnamus,  History. 


1200  Joel,  History. 

Michael  Glycas,  History. 
George  Acropolita,  Hist. 
Nicetas  Acominatus,  Hist. 
George  Pachymer,  Hist. 


Suidas,  Lexicon. 
Eustathias,  Commentariea 
on  Homer. 


Isaac  Tzetzes,Commentary 
on  Lycophron. 


1200 


Nicephorus 
Theology. 


Blemmidas, 


1300  Theod.  Metochita,  d.  1312, 1300 
History. 

Callistus  Xantopulus,  Ec- 
clesiastical History. 

Niceph.  Gregoras,  History. 


John  Cantacuzenus,  Hist. 
George  Codinus,  Hist. 
Michael  Ducas,  History. 


1400 


1400 


Demet.  Pamperes,  Tales. 
MaruUus   Tarchoniota    d. 
1500,  Poems. 


1500 


Theodore  Gaza,  d.  1478. 

Origin  of  Turks. 
Laonicus     Chalcondyles, 

History  of  Turks. 
George  Phranza,  History. 


1500 


1400  Eman.     Chrysolorus,    d. 
1415,  Grammar. 

Geo.  Gemistius,  or  Pletho, 
d.  1450,  Philosophy. 

Eman.  Moscopulus,  Notes 
on  Hesiod. 

Bessarion,  1395-1472,  The- 
ology. 

Geo.  of  Trebizond,  1396- 
1468,  Aristotelian. 


John  Argyrophilus,  Aristo 
telian. 


1500  Demetrius   Chalcondyles, 
1453-1513,  Philology. 


LITERARY    CHRONOLOGY LATIN   ARD    ITALIAN. 


615 


IMAGINATION. 

FACT. 

SPECULATIVE   AND   SCIENTIFIC. 

1600 

1600 

1600  Panagioti,   d.    1763,   The- 
ology. 

1700  Kallinikus,  Poems. 

1700 

1700  Dorotheus,  Aristotelian. 

Nicholas  Caradza,  Trans- 
lation of  Voltaire. 

History  of  the  Jews. 
Meletius,  Geography. 

Marcus    Tharboures,   Me- 
chanics. 

1700 

Riga,  d.  1796,  Lyrics,  Nat- 
ural Philosophy. 

1700 

Ducas,  Translation  of  Thu- 
cydides. 

1700  Bulgaria,  Mathematics. 

1800  N.  Piccolo,  Tragedy. 

Christopulus,    Anacreon- 
tics, Opera. 
Calvos,  Lyrics. 
Ilarion,  Translation  of  So- 
phocles. 

1800  D.    Philippides,    d.    1827, 
Hist,  of  Wallachia,  &c. 

Paliuris,  Hist,  of  Greece. 

Perrevos,  History  of  Suli 
and  Parga. 

Gr.  Demetrius,  Geography. 

1800  Psalidas,  Metaphysics. 
Coray,  Commentaries,  Lex- 
icon. 
Cumas,  Dictionary. 
Neophitus,  Bamba,  Ethics. 

LATIN  AND  ITALIAN. 

[The  Latin  ceased  to  be  a  spoken  language  about  the  sixth  century,  but  was  in  almost  universal 
use  throughout  Europe  as  the  language  of  composition  until  the  thirteenth  century,  when  the 
modern  languages  began  to  appear. 

As  long  as  the  literature  of  the  West  was  almost  exclusively  confined  to  Italy  we  have  arranged 
all  authors  who  wrote  in  Latin  under  the  same  head ;  but  about  the  sixth  century  they  will  be 
foxmd  under  those  countries  where  their  works  were  published,  whatever  the  language  in  which 
they  wrote.] 


IMAGINATION. 

PACT. 

SPECHLATIVB  AND  SCIENTIFIC. 

B.  C. 

B.  C. 

B.  C. 

200  M.  A.  Plautus,  Comedies. 

200 

200 

Q.  Ennius,  Epics  (Fragts). 

P.  Terentius,  Comedies. 

M.  P.  Cato,  De  Re  Rustica. 

100 

100  T.  Pomponius  Atticus,  110- 

100  Varro,  115-28,  De  Re  Rusti- 

33, Letters. 

ca  Lingua  Latina. 
Vitruvius,  Architecture. 
Verrius  Flaccus,  d.  4,  Fasti 

Capitolini. 

T.  Lucretius,  h.  95,  De  Re- 

M.  T.  Ciftero,  107-43,  Orator 

rum  Natura. 

and  Philosopher. 

Catullus,  86-10,  Lyrics. 

Julius  Caesar,  98-i6,  Com- 
mentaries. 

Hirtius  Pansa,  Gallic  War. 

C.  Sallustius,  85-35,  Jugur- 
thine  War. 

Corn.  Nepos,  Biography. 

P.  Virgihus,  70-19,  Eneid. 

Q.  Horatius,  65-8,  Odes,  Sat- 

ires. 

Propertius,  59-16,  Elegies. 

T.  Livius,  59  b.  c— 19  a.  d., 

A.   Tibullus,   43   b.   c— 17 

History  of  Rome. 

A.  D.,  Elegies. 

Ovid,  43  B.  c— 17  a.  d.,  Me- 

tamorph.  Fasti,  &c. 

Hyginus,    Poeticon    Astro- 

nomicon. 

616 


THE   world's   progress. 


IMAGINATION. 

FACT. 

SPECULATIVE  AND  SOIBNTIK*. 

A.  O. 

A.  D. 

A.  D. 

0 

0  Vel  Paterculus,  19  b.  c— 30 
A.  D.,  Hist,  of  Rome. 

Pomp.  Mela,  Geography. 

Valerius   Maximus,   Anec- 
dotes of  Great  Men. 

0 

Phaedrus,  Fables. 

C.  Celsus,  De  Medicina. 

Quintus  Curtius,  History  of 
Alexander. 

Columella,  Agriculture. 

Persius,  34-62,  Satires. 

L.  A,  Seneca,  12-65,  Philos- 

Lucan, 38-65,  '  Pharsalia.' 

opher,  Tragic  Poet. 

Petronius  Arbiter,  d.  67,  Sa- 

Pliny  the  Elder,  23-79,  Nat- 

tyricon. 
Valerius  Flaccus,  Argonau- 

ral  History. 

Quintilian  Criticism. 

tics. 
Silius      Italicus,      '  Punic 

War.' 

Sulpicia,  Satires,  &c. 

Statius,   d.    99,    'Thebais,' 

'Achilleis.' 

Martial,  29-104,  Epigrams. 

Juvenal,  48-128,  Satires. 

Pliny  the  Younger,  61-113, 

Epistles. 

100 

100  Tacitus,  Histoiy. 

100  Valer,  Probus,  Grammar. 

Suetonius,  Biography. 
Florus,  History  of  Rome. 

Frontmus,  Strategy. 

Aulus  Gellius,  Noctes  At- 

Terentianus  Maurus,  De  Ar- 
te Metrica. 

L.  Apuleis,  Golien  Ass. 

ticas. 
C.  Jul.  Solinus,  Polyhistor. 

Justin,  History. 

Pompei.  Festus,  Grammar. 

200 

200 

200  Ulpian,  d.  228,  Law. 

Tertullian,  d.  220,  '  Apology 

for  Christianity.' 
Minutius  Fellxj  Dialogue  in 

favor  of  Chnstianity. 
Julius  Obsequens,  '  De  Pro- 

digiis.' 
Censorinua,   'De  Die   N»- 

tali.' 
Cyprian,  d.  258,  Theology. 

Nemesianus,  Cynegetica. 

Jul.  Calpumius,  Eclogues. 

300 

300  El  Spartianus,  History. - 

300  Arnobius,    '  Adversus  gen- 

Jul.  Capitolinus,  History. 

tes.' 

Ml.  Lampridus,  History. 

Laotantius,  d.  325,  Defence 

Vul.  Galllcanus,  History. 

of  Claristianity.' 

Trebellius,  PoUio,  History. 

Aquilinus  Juvencus,  Gospel 

F.  Vopiscus,  History. 

M\.  Donatus,  Grammar. 

in  Verse. 

Aurelius  Victor,  History. 

F.    Matemus,    Astronomy 
Theology. 

M.  Victorinus,  Hymns. 

F.    Butropius,   History   of 

Ambrosius,  Theology. 

Festus  Avienus,  Geographi- 

Rome. 

cal  Poem. 

Amm.  Marcellinus,  History 

Jerom.  329^420,  Version  of 

D.  M.  Ausonius,  Idyls. 

of  Rome. 

Bible. 

Rufinus,  d.  410,  Ecclesiasti- 
cal History. 

T.  Vegetius  Renatus,  De  Re 
Militari. 

A.    T.   Macrobius,    Satur- 

Augustin, 354—430,  Theol- 

nalia. 

ogy. 

Symmachus,  Epistles. 

LITERARY    CHRONOLOGY LATIN    AND   ITALIAN. 


617 


IMAGINATION. 

FACT. 

SPECULATIVE  AND  SOIENTIFIO 

300  C.  Claudianus,  Poems. 
A.     Prudentius     Clemens, 
Christian  Poems. 

300 

300 

400 

Sedulius,  Poetical  Life  of 

Christ. 
Martianus  Capella,  De  Nup- 

tius  Phil,  et  Merc. 
Paulin.  Pretocorius,  Poem,  on 

Martin  of  Tours. 
Sidonius  Apollinaris,  d.  488, 
Poems. 

Ennodius,  d.  521,  Christian 
Poems. 

400  Vib.  Sequester,  Geography. 
Sulpitius,  Severus,  d.  420, 

Sacred  History. 
Orosius,  Hist,  of  World. 

Victorius,  History  of  Church 

in  Africa. 
Idacius,  Chronicles  to  468. 

400 

500  Boethius,  Poet  and  Philo- 
sopher. 

Arator,  490-556,   Acts    of 
Apostles  in  Verse. 

500  Cassiodorus,  481-562,  His- 
tory. 

Jornandes,  Hist,  of  Goths. 
Evagrius,  Eccl.  History. 

500  Priscianus,  Grammar. 
Fulgentius,  468-533,  The- 
ology. 
Dionysius  Exiguus,  d.  536, 

Christian  Era. 
Non.  Marcellus,  Grammar, 

600 

600  Secundus,  d.  615,  Histoiy 
of  Lombards. 

600 

700 

700 

Paul   Wamefrid,   History 
of  Lombards. 

700  Cresconius,      Collection 
Canons,  Verses, 

800 

800  Erchempert,   History    of 
Lombards. 
Anastasius,  Lives  of  Popes. 

800 

900 

900  Luitprand,  History  of  his 
Times. 

900 

1000 

1000 

1000  Papias,  Grammar. 

Lanfranc,  d.  1089,  Theol. 

1100  Donizo,  Latin  Poe'ry. 

CiuUod'  Alcamo,  Sicilian 
Poetry. 

1100 

Falcandus,  Hist,  of  Sicily. 

1100 

Gratian,  Canonist. 
Campanus,  Mathematics. 

1200 

Guido  of  Colonna,  Poetry, 
History. 

Brunetto  Latina,  d.  1294, 
'  11  Tesora.' 

Guido  Cavalcanti,  d.  1300, 
Poems. 

John  XXU.,  Poem  on  Me- 
dicine, 

1200  Pietro  dalle  Vigne,  d.  1249, 
History. 

Marco  Polo,  Travels, 

G.  de  Voragine,  d.   1298, 
Legends  of  Saints. 

1200  Accursius,  1182-1260,  Law 
Thomas    Aquinas,    1224- 

1274,  Theology. 
Bonaventura,  Scholastic. 

G.  Durand,  Law. 

Pietro  d'Albano,  1250-1»  \ 

Astrology,  Physics. 
Torregiano     Rustechelli, 
Commentaries. 

618 


THE   WORLD'S   PROGRESS. 


IMAGINATION. 

FACT. 

SPECULATIVE  AND  SCIENTIFIO. 

130C  Dante,  1265-1321,  La  Di- 

1300 

1300  Mon.  de  Luzzi,  Anatomy. 

vina  Commedia. 

Am.  Villanovan,    d.   1313, 

Alchemy. 
Cecco   d'Ascoli,    d.    1327, 

F.  Barberino,   1264-1348, 

Astronomy. 

Poems. 

G.  Andreas,  d.  1348,  Ca- 

Petrarca,   1304-1374,  Son- 

nons. 

nets,  Epic,  Literature. 

Bartolus,  Law. 

Boccacio,    1313-1375,    'D- 

Decamerone.' 

Ferreti,  1356-1429,  History 
of  his  Times. 

1400 

1400  Leonardo  Bruni,  History  of 

1400  Leonard  of  Pisa,  Algebra. 

Florence. 

Nicholas  Tedeschi,  Law. 

A.  Beccadelli,  1374-1471, 

'Hermaphroditus.' 

Guarino,  1370-1460,  Trans- 

Poggio, 1380-1459,  Litera- 

lation of  Plutarch. 

ture. 

Mich.  Savonarola,  d.  1462, 

Lorenzo  Valla,  1407-1457, 

Medicine. 

Literature. 

Bar.  Montagnana,  d.  1460 

D.  Burchiello,  Sonnets. 

B.  Accolti,  1415-1466,  His- 

Baraterius, Law. 

tory  of  Holy  War. 

Gianozzo,   Manetti,    1396' 

Flav.   Blondus,   13SS-1463, 

1479,  Orier.talist. 

Historv  of  Venice,  cfec. 

Paul  Toscanello,  d.   1482, 

^n.  Sylvius,  140-1464,  His- 

Astronomy. 

tory,  Poetry,  &c. 

John  Gobelin,  History. 

Beccat.   Panormita,    1393- 

Pulci,    1432-1487,    'Mor- 

1471,  Biography. 

gante  Maggiore.' 

Bart.    Platina,    1421-1481, 

Franc.    Pliilelphus,    1398- 

Lives  of  Popes. 

1481,  Poetry  and  Ethics. 

F.  Buonaccorsi,  1437-1496, 

Loren.   de'Medici,  d.  1492, 

Biography. 

Poetry,  Literature. 

Pomp.   Lstus,    1425-1495, 

Angelo    Poliziano,     1454- 

Lives  of  Ca3sars,  &c. 

1494,  Poetry,  Drama. 

Franc.   Berlinghieri,   Geo- 

Marsilius   Ficinus,     1433- 

graphy. 

Pico  ie  Mirandola,  1463- 

1499,  Translat.  Plato. 

G.  Pontano,1426-1563,Wars 

1494,  Metaphysics.   ■ 

of  Ferdinand  I. 

Luca  di  Burgo,  Mathem. 

Bonfinius,  d.  1502,  History 

of  Hungary. 

1500 

1500  R.  Accolti,  1455-1532,  His- 

1500 Ant.  della  Torre,  d.  1512, 

tory. 

Anatomy. 
L.    da    Vinci,     1452-1520, 

'Treatise  on  Painting.' 
G.  Abrosi,  Astronomy. 

6.  Ruccellai,  1475-1526, '  Le 

A.    Acchillini,    1472-1512, 

Apt.' 

Medicine. 

Alexander   ab  Alexandro, 

B.   Castigiione,  1478-1529, 

1461-1523,     Dies     Geni- 

'  The  Courtier.' 

tales. 

M-  Boiardo, '  Orlando  inna- 

morato.' 

Sanazar,    1458-1530,    Ar- 

cadia. 

Machiavelli,  1482-1528,  His- 

Berni,  d.  1530,  Satires. 

tory  of  Florence,  &c. 

Ariosto,    1474-1533,    '  Or- 

lando Furioso.' 

F.  M.  Molza,  d.  1544,  Po- 

Guicciardini,      1482-1540, 

ems. 

History  of  Italy. 
Bembo,  1470-1547,  History 

Trissino,  1478-1550,  'Italy 

of  Venice. 

G.  Fracastoro,    148a-!533, 

Delivered,'  Epic  Trage- 

L. Alberti,  d.  1552,  History 

Medicine. 

dy. 

of  Bologna. 

And.    Alciato,    1492-1550, 

Law. 

. 

Nic.  Tartaglia,  Mathem. 

LITERARY    CHRONOLOGY LATIN    AND    ITALIAN. 


619 


IMAGINATION. 

FACT. 

SPECULATIVE  AND  SCIENTIFIC. 

1500  Hier.  Vida,  d.  1566,  Latin 

1500 

1500  F.  Commandido,  1509-1575, 

Poetry. 

B.  Cellini,  1500-1570,  Auto- 

Mathematics. 

Mic.  Angelo  Buonaroti,  d. 

biography. 

Angelo  Caninio,    d.    1557, 

1564,  Poems. 

B.  Varclii,  1503-1566,  His- 
toid of  nis  Times. 

Orientalist. 

Giovanni  della  Casa,  1503- 

1556,  11  Galateo,  &c. 

G.  Anguillara,  b.  1517,  Tra- 
gedy. 
L.  Dolce,  1508-1568,  Trage- 

dy, Epic,  History. 
Bernardo  Tasso,  1493-1575, 

V.  Borgkni,  1515-1580,  His- 

And.   Vesalio,     1514-1564, 

'Amadis.' 

tory. 

Anatomy. 

Greg.    Giraldi,    1504-1573, 

G.  Vasari,  1514-1578,  Lives 

Falopius,  1523-1563,  Medi- 

Tragedy. 

of  Painters,  &c. 

cine. 

Sperone  Speroni,  1500-1588, 

Eustachi,  d.  1576,  Do. 

Orations. 

P.  Manut  Aldus,  1512-1574, 

S.    Ammirato,    1531-1600, 

Commentaries. 

History  of  Florence. 

Cardano,  1501-1576,  Mathe- 

G. Adriani,  1511-1579,  His- 

matics. 

A.  F.  Grazzini,    d.    1583, 

tory  of  Iiis  Times. 

P.  Launcelloti,  1511-1591, 

Comedies. 

B.    Davanzati,    1529-1606, 

Law. 

Torq.     Tasso,     1544-1595, 

Hist.  Eng.  Reformation. 

'Gerusalemme  Liberata.' 

C.  Baronius,  1538-1607,  Ec- 

G. Bagnioli,  d.  1600,  Tra- 

clesiastical Annals. 

gedy. 

P.  Paruta,  1540-159S,  Histo- 

Guarini,153S-1613,'11  Pas- 

ry of  Venice. 

Andrea   Cassalpino,    1519- 

tor  Fide' 

Possevini,   1533-1611,    De- 

1603, Botany. 

scription  of  Muscovy,&c. 

U.   Aldrovandi,  1528-1605, 

P.  R.  Sarpi,  1552-1623,  His- 

Natural History. 

tory  of  Coun.  of  Trent. 

Orazio    Torsellino,    1545- 
1609,  Grammar. 

Ottavio  Rinuccini,  Opera. 

F.  Braccilolini,  1566-1605, 

'La  Croce  Racquistata.' 

Oraz.Vecchi,  Comic  Opera 

E.   C.  Davila,    1576-1631, 

G.Marini,1569-1625,  Poems. 

Hist.  Civil  Wars  France. 

C.  Achillini,  1577-1640,  Po- 

ems. 
A.Tassoni,1561-1635,  'Sech- 

chia  Rapita.' 

1600  G.    Chiabrera,    1552-1637, 

1600  G.  Bentivoglio,  1579-1644, 

1600  J.  Fabricius,  d.  1619,  Com- 

Poems. 

History  Civil  Wars  Flan- 

parative Anatomy. 

ders. 

Bellarmino,  1542-1621,  Po- 
lemics. 

Galileo,  1564-1642,  Astron. 

T.  A.  Campanella,  1568- 
1693,  Philosophy. 

L.  Vanini,  1585-1619,  Theo- 
logy. 

B.  Castelli,  d.  1644,  Mathe- 

matics. 

B.  Cavalieri,  d.  1647,  Do. 

Fabio  Colonna,  1567-1647, 

Botany,  &c. 

P.   della  Valle,  1586-1652, 

Travels. 

F.  Strada,  1571-1649,  Hist. 

Laur.Lippi,  1506-1664,  Co- 

of  Wars  of  Flanders. 

mic  Poems. 

G.  B.  Nani,  1616-1678,  His- 

G. Marini,  Romances. 

tory  of  Venice. 
Oderic  Rainaldi,  Ecclesias- 

Salvator Rosa,  1615-1673, 

tical  Annals. 

Satires. 

F.Redi,  1626-1697,  Natural 

0.    M.    Maggi,    1630-1699, 

Villani,  Hist,  of  Florence. 

History. 

Poems. 

M.     Malpighi,     1628-1694, 
Anatomy. 

620 


THE   WORLD  S   PROGRESS. 


IMAGINATION. 

FACT. 

SPECtJLATIVE  AND  SCIENTIFIC. 

1600  Ben.   Manzina,  1646-1704, 

1600 

V.  Viviani,  1621-1703,  Ma- 

Art of  Poetry,  Satires. 
V.  Filicaja,  l&t2-1707,  Po- 

thematics. 

A.  Magliabecchi,  1633-1714^ 

ems. 

Literature. 

G.  D.  Cassini,  1625-1712, 
Mathematics,  Astron. 

D.  Guglielmini,  1655-1710, 
Mathematics. 

1700  Aless.Guldi,  1650-1712,  Ly- 

1700 

1700  G.  Baglivi,  1668-1706,  Me- 

rics. 

dicine. 

A.  Marchetti,  1633-1714,  Po- 

G. V.  Gravina,  1564-1718, 

ems,  Philosophy. 

Law. 

N.  Forteguerra,  1674-1735, 

Ricciardetto. 

G.  M.  Crescembini,  1663- 

1728,  Poetry. 

L.     Muratori,     1672-1750, 

Apostolo  Zeno,  1669-1750, 

Annals  of  Itality. 

Operas. 

B.    Giannone,     1680-1748, 

S.  Maffei,  1675-1755,  Tra- 
gedy. 

History  of  Naples. 

G.     Cassini,    1677-1756, 

Astronomy. 

F.  X.  Quadrio,  1695-1756, 

G.    Morgagni,    1681-1771, 

Histoiy  of  the  Valteline. 

Anatomy. 

M.   Metastasio,   1698-1782, 

Dramas,  Operas. 

A.     Genovesi,     1732-1769, 
Metaphysics. 

B.  Buonamici,   1710-1761, 

F.     Algarotti,,     1712-1764, 

History. 

'Newtonianism.' 
G.R.  Boscowich,17ll-1787, 

Mathematics,  Philology. 
F.  M.  Zanotti,    1692-1777, 

C.  Goldoni,  1707-1772,  Co- 

Philosophy. 

medies. 

C.     Beccaria,     1720-1795, 

C.  1.  Frugoni,   1692-1768, 

'Crimes  &  Punishments.' 

Poems. 

A.  Fabroni,  1732-1802,  Bio- 

G. Gozzi,   1713-1786,    Sa- 

graphy. 

tires,  Odes. 

G.   Tiraboschi,    1731-1794, 

L.  Spallanzani,  1729-1799, 

Hist,  of  Italian  Literature. 

Natural  History. 
L.  Galvani,  1737-1798,  Gal- 

V. Alfieri,  1749-1803,  Tra- 

vanism. 

gedies. 

Volta,  1745-1827,  Do. 
G.    Filangieri,    1751-1798, 
Legislation. 

1800  Pindemonte,  Poems. 

1800 

1800 

Monti.  Poems. 

Ugo  Foscolo,  Drama,  Po- 

ems. 

Botta,  History  of  Italy,  &c. 

Denina,  History  of  Italian 

Scarpa,  Anatomy. 

Revolutions. 

I.  da  Ponte,  Poems,  Operas. 

Silvio  Pellico,  Memoirs. 

Manzoni,  Novels. 

M.  Gioja,  1767-1839,  Polh. 
Economy. 

LITERARY   CHRONOLOGY — ^BRITISH. 


621 


BRITISH,  &c. 


IMAGINATION. 

FACT. 

SPECITLATIVE  AND  SCIENTIFIC. 

A.  D. 

A.  D. 

A.  D. 

500 

500  Gildas,  Conquest  of  Britain 

500 

600  Cffldmon,  Saxon  Poems. 

60O  Nennius,  Origin  of  Britons 

600 

Aldhelme,  d.  709,  Latin  Po 

ems. 

700 

700  Bede,  673—735,  Eccl.  Histo 

700 

ry  of  England, 

Alcum,    d.    804,  Theology, 
History,  Poetry. 

800  Alfred,  849—901,  Saxon  Po 

soo 

800  J.  Scot  Erigena,  d.  883,  '  Of 
the  Nature  of  Things.' 

ems.  Translations,  &c. 

Asser,  d.  909,  Life  of  Alfred, 

Histoiy  of  England. 

900 

900  Ethelwerd,  History  of  Great 
Britain. 

900 

1000 

1000  Ingulphus,  1030— 1109,  His- 
tory of  Croyland. 
Eadmer,  Chronicle. 

1000 

1100 

1100  Order.  Vitalis,  1075-1132, 

History  of  England. 

Florence  of  Worcester,  d. 

1118,  Chron.  of  England. 

Geoffry  of  Monmouth,  His- 

noo 

tory  of  Britain. 

Robert   Pulleyn,    d.   1150, 

William  of  Malmsbury,  d. 

Theology. 

1143,  Hist,  of  Britain. 

Henry    of  Huntingdon, 

Chronicles  of  England. 

Simeon  of  Durham,  Chron- 

icles of  England. 

Richard  of  St.  Victor,  d. 

John  of  Salisbury,  d.  1181, 

1173,  Theology. 

'  Life  of  Becket,'  &c, 

Layamon,  Saxon  Poetry. 

Ralph  Glanville,  Collection 
of  Laws. 

•  Nigellus,  Speculum  Stulto- 

G.   Cambrensis,  Conq.  of 

rum. 

Ireland,  Itin.  of  Wales. 

Walter    Mapes,     Satires, 

Wm.  of  Newbury,  b.  1136, 

So.ig3. 

Chron.  of  England. 

Jos.  of  Exeter,  Troj.  War, 

War  of  Antioch,  Epics. 

1200 

1200  Roger  Hoveden,  Chron.  of 
England. 

1200 

Gervase    of  Canterbury, 

Alex.   Neckham,  d.   1227, 

History  of  England. 

Theology. 

Roger  of  Wendover,  Hist. 

of  England. 

Robert  Grosteste,  Natural 

Philosophy. 
Alexander  Hales,  d.  1345, 

Aristotelian. 
John  Peckham,  Theology. 
John    Holiwood,   d.   1268, 

Matthew  Paris,   d.   1259, 

Astron.,  Mathematics. 

History  of  England. 

62S 


THE    world's   progress. 


IMAGINATION. 

FACT. 

SPECULATIVE   AND  SOIENTIPIO. 

Robert  of  Glocester,  Chron- 

William  Rishanger,  His- 
tory of  England. 

Roger  Bacon,   1214—1292 

icle  in  verse. 

Chemistry,  Optics,  &c. 

T.  Lermont,  the  Rhymer, 

Rich.  Middleton,  Theology, 

Sir  Tristem,  Romance. 

1300 

1300 

1300  Albricus,  Theology. 

Duns  Sootus,  d.  1308,  Phil- 
osophy. 

Walter  Burleigh,  Philoso- 
phy. 

Gilb.  Anglicus,  Medicine. 

Adam    Davie,   Metr.    Ro- 

Nicholas Triveth,  d.  1328, 

R.  Aungervile,  1281—1345, 

mance,  Life  of  Alex. 

Hist.  Physic,  Theology. 
Richard  of  Chichester, 

Philobiblion. 

Lawrence  Minot,  d.  1352, 

Chron.  of  England. 

J.  Wicliffe,  1324-1384, 

Historical  Poems. 

Ralph  Higden,  d.  1360, 

Theology,  Translation  of 

Chron.  of  England. 

Bible. 

Henry  Knighton,  d.  1370, 

Chron.  of  England. 

Matthew  of  Westminster, 

John   Barbour,    1325-1396, 

'Flowers  of  Historv.' 

'  The  Bruce.' 

John  Maundeville,  d.  1372, 

H.  de  Bracton,  Law. 

R.    Langlande,    '  Pierce 

Travels. 

Plowman,'  a  Satire. 

John   Fordun,    Chron.   of 

Geof.  Chaucer,  1328-1400, 

Scotland. 

'  Canterbury  Tales,'  &c. 

John  Gower,  d.  1402,  Ele- 

gies, Romances,  &c. 

'400 

1400  Andrew  of  Wyntoun, 
Chron.  of  Scotland. 

1400 

John   Lydgate,    1380-1440, 

Poems. 

T.   Walsingham,  d.   1440, 
History  of  Normandy. 

Jameo  I.  of  Scotland,  1395- 

John  Fortescue,  Laws  ol 

1437,    'King's    auhair,' 

England. 

&c. 

Harry  the    Minstrel,    'Sir 

W.  Wallace.' 

John  Hardyng,  Chron.  of 

Thomas  Littleton,  d.  1487, 

England. 

Law. 

Lord  Berners,  Trans,  of 

Froissart. 

Stephen    Hawes,    '  Passe- 

W.  Caxton,  Translations. 

tyme  of  Pleasure.'   . 

John  Skelton,  d.  1529, 

Douglas  of  Glastonbury, 

Satires,  Odes. 

Chron.  of  England. 

1500  Wm.   Dunbar,   1465-1530, 

1500  R.  Fabyan,  d.  1512,  Chron. 

1500  Thos.  Linacre,  1460-1524, 

'Thistle  and  Rose.' 

of  England  and  France. 

Philology,  Medicine. 

Gawin  Douglas,  1475-1522, 

Trans.  Virgil. 

Thomas  More,    1480-1535, 

Anth.    Fitzherbert,   Hus- 

' Utopia.' 

bandry. 

Thomas    Wyatt,    d.    1541, 

Sonnets. 

T.  Halls,  d.  1547,  Hist,  of 

John    Heywood,   d.   1565, 

Houses  of  York  and  Lan- 

Thomas Elyot,  Philology. 

Drama. 

caster. 

H.  Latimer,  1475—1555, 

Earl  of  Surrey,  d.  1546-7, 

John  Leland,  d.  1552,  Eng- 

Sermons. 

Poems. 

lish  Antiquities. 

Geo.    Gascoigne,    d.   1577, 

W.  Cavendish,  1505—1557, 

Drama. 

'Life  of  Wolsey.' 
J.  Ball,  1495-1563,  'Lives 

Roger  Ascham,  1515 — 1568, 

of  British  Writers.' 

'  The  Schoolmaster.' 

Ralph  Hollingshed,d.  1581, 

Thomas  Wilson,  d.  1581 

Chronicles. 

Logic  and  Rhetoric. 

Geo.  Buchanan,  1506-1582, 

Thomas  Tusser,  d.  1580, 

History  of  Scotland. 

Husbandry. 

LITERARY    CHRONOLOGY BRITISH. 


623 


IMAGINATION. 


Philip  Sidney,  1554—1586, 

'Arcadia.' 
Christ.  Marlowe,  d.  1593, 

Drama. 
Edm.  Spenser,  1553—1598, 

'  Faery  Queen." 
W.    Shakspeare,    1564 — 

1616,  Drama. 
Jolm  Lylie,  1550—1600, 

'Euphues.' 


John  Fletcher,  1576—1625, 

Drama. 
F.   Beaumont,  1586—1615. 

Drama. 


1600  John  Owen,  d.  1612,  Latin 
Epigrams. 
Sir  H.  VVotton,  1568—1639 
Poet. 


J.  Fox,  1517—1587,   Book 
of  Martyrs. 


N.  Fitzherbert,  1550—1612, 

Biography. 
John  Stowe,  1527—1605, 

Chronicles,  Topography. 
Sir  T.  North,  Translations 

of  Plutarch. 


J.  Ford,  b.  1586,  Drama. 
Ben  Jonson,   1574—1637, 

Drama. 
P.  Massenger,  1585—1639, 

Drama. 
J.  Harrington,  1561—1612, 

Trans.  Ariosto. 
E.  Fairfax,  d.  1632,  Trans. 

M.  Drayton,  1563-1631, 

Poems. 
G.  Sandys,  1577—1643, 

Translations,  Poems. 
J.  Daniel,  1562—1619, 

Poems. 
W.  Drummond,  1585-1649, 

Poems. 
John  Donne,  1573—1662, 

Satires,  Essays. 
Geo.  Wither,  1588-1667, 

James  Shirley,  1594—1666, 

Drama. 
Sir  J.  Suckling,  1609—1841, 

Poems. 
John  Denham,  1615—1668, 

Tragedies,  Cooper's  Hill! 
Samuel  Butler,  1612—1688, 

Hudibras. 
John  Milton,  1608—1674, 

'  Paradise  Lost.' 
Edm.  Waller,  1605—1687, 

Poems. 
A..   Cowley,  1618—1667, 

Poems. 
A.Maxwell  1620—1678, 

Poems. 


SPECULATIVE   AND  SCIENTIFIC. 


J.  Jewel,  1522—1570,   Di- 
vinity. 

R.  Hooker,  1553—1600,  Ec- 
clesiastical Polity. 

W.   Gilbert,  1540—1603, 
'  On  the  Loadstone.' 

L.  Andrews,  1565 — 1626, 
Sermons. 


J.  Pitts,  1560—1616,  Biog. 

of  Kings,  Bishops,  &c. 
Richard  Knolles,  d.  1610, 

History  of  the  Turks. 
Wm.  Camden,  1551-1623, 

Antiquities. 
R.    Hackluyt,    1553—1616, 

Naval  Histories. 
W.   Raleigh,  1552—1617, 

History  of  the  World. 
Samuel  Daniel,  1567—1619, 

History  of  England. 
John  Hayward,  d.  1627, 

English  History. 
J.  Speed,  1555—1629,  Hist, 

ot  Great  Britain. 
Henry  Spelman,  1562-1641, 

Antiquities. 
R.  B.    Cotton,   1570—1631, 

Antiquities. 
S.  Purchas,  1577-1628, 

Collection  of  Voyages. 


Thomas  Roe,  1580—1641, 
Travels  in  the  East. 

E.  (Lord)  Herbert,  1581— 
1648,  History  of  Henry 

vm. 

R.  Baker,  d.  1645,  Chron. 
of  England. 


Thomas  Fuller,  1608—1661, 
History,  Biography. 

Clarendon,  1608-1673,  His- 
tory of  Rebellion. 

Thomas  May,  d.  1650,  His- 
tory of  Parliament. 

Izaak  Walton,  1593—1683, 
Biography. 

B.  Whitlocke,  1605—1676, 
History. 

Mrs.  Hutchinson,  Biogra- 
phy. 

W.  Prynne,  1660—1667, 
History,  Politics. 


1600  Edward  Coke,  .550—1634, 
Law. 
John    Napier,   1550—1617, 
Logarithms. 


Robert  Buncr.,  1576- 1639, 
'Anat.  of  Melancholy.' 

Francis  Bacon,  1560 — 1626, 
Philosophy,  History. 

Wm.  Harvey,  1578—1657, 
Circulation  of  Blood. 


John  Selden,   1584—1654, 

Antiquities,  Law,  Hist. 
J.  Harrington,  1611-1677, 

'  Oceana.' 
James  Usher,   1580 — 1656, 

Divinity,  Sermons,  Hist. 
Thos.  Hobbes,  1588—1679, 

Metaphysics 
W.   Dugdale,   1605—1686, 

Antiquities,  History. 
W.   Chillingworth,   1602— 

1644,  Theology. 
Isaac  Barrow,  lOSO— 1677, 

Divinity,  Mathematics. 
J.  Pearson,  1612—1686, 

Divinity. 
Brian  Walton,  1600—1661, 

Polyglot  Bible 
Jeremy  Taylor,  d.  1667, 

Divinity. 
Alger.  Sydney,  1617—1683, 

'  Discourse    on    Govern- 
ment.' 
Thos.  Browne,  1605—1682, 

'  On  Vulgar  Errors.' 
Edmund  Castell,  d.   1685, 

Lexicon  Heptaglotton. 
R.  Cudworth,  1617—1688, 
Metaphysics.' 


624 


THE   WORLD'S   PROGRESS. 


IMASINATIOM. 

FACT. 

SPECULATIVE  AND  SCIENTIFIO. 

1600 

1600 

1600  J.  Evelyn,  1620—1706, 
'  Sylva.' 

H.  More,  1614—1687,  The- 
ology. 

T.  Sydenham,  1624—1689, 

Rochester,  1648—1680, 

Wm.  Temple,  1629-1710, 

Satires. 

History. 

Medicine. 

Roscommon,  1633—1684, 

W.  Sherlock,  d.  1689,  Di- 

Poems. 

vinity. 

N.  Lee,  1656—1691,  Drama. 

J.  Tillotson,  1630—1694, 

John  Bunyan,  1628—1688, 

Sermons. 

'Pilgrim's  Progress.' 

Archbishop  Leighton, 

John  Dryden,   1631-1701, 

1613—1684,  Divinity. 

Tragedy,  Satire, '  Virgil.' 

R.  Baxter,  1615—1691, 

Thos.  Otway,  1651—1685, 

'Saint's  Everlasting 

Tragedy. 

R.  Brady,  d.  1700,  History 

Rest.' 

of  England. 

R.Boyle,  1627— 1691, 
Theology,  Chemistry. 

1700  John  Pomfret,  1667—1703, 

1700  Thomas  Rymer,  d.  1713, 

1700 

'  The  Choice.' 

Foedeca. 

John  Ray,  162&-1705,  Bot- 
any.  Natural  History. 

John  Locke,  1632—1704, 
Metaphysics. 

R.  South,  1633—1716,  Di- 
vinity. 

John  Philips,  1676— 1"08, 

'  Splendid  Slulling.' 
Thos.  Pamell,  1679-1718, 

S.  Ockley,  1678-1720, 

'The  Hermit.' 

Oriental  History. 

Isaac  Newton,  1642—1719, 

Geo.  Farquhar,  1678—1707, 

Thos.  Heame,  1678—1735, 

'  Principia.' 

Comedies. 

History  and  Antiquities. 

J.  Flamsteed,  1642—1719, 

John  Strype,  1613—1737, 

Astronomy. 
R.  Hooke,  1635—1702,  Phil- 

Eccl. History,  Biog. 

Gilbert  Burnet,  1643—1715, 

osophy. 

'History  of  his  Times.' 

B.  de  Mandeville,  1670— 

Matthew  Prior,  1664—1721, 

L.  Echard,  1671—1730, 

1733,  '  Fab.  of  the  Bees.' 

Poems. 

History  of  England. 

Edm.  Halley,  1656—1742, 

R.  Steele,  d.  1729,  Drama, 

Thos.  Carte,  1686—1754, 

Astronomy. 

Essays. 

History  of  England. 

Hans  Sloane,  1660—1753, 

Daniel  Defoe,   1660-1731, 

John  Potter,  1674—1747, 

Natural  History. 

'Robinson  Crusoe.' 

Antiquities. 

Jos.  Addison,  1672—1719, 

SirW.  Petty,  162-3-1682, 

'Spectator,'  'Cato.' 

Statistics. 

Nich.   Rowe,  1673—1718, 

Tragedy. 

J.  Vanbrugh,  d.  1726,  Com- 

edy. 

A.  Clark,  1696—1742,  Dl 

W.  "Congreve,  1672—1728, 

vinity.  Philosophy. 

Comedy. 

D.  Waterland,  1683—1740, 

John  Gay,  1688—1733, 

Divinity. 

'  Beggar's  Opera,'  Fab. 

Nathanael  Hooke,  d.  1763, 

R.  Bentley,  1661—1740, 

M.  W.  Montague,  1690— 

History  of  Rome. 

Divinity,  Philology. 

1762,  Letters. 

C.  Middleton,  1683—1750, 

A.  Baxter,  1687—1750,  Met- 

Robert Blair,  1699—1746, 

Life  of  Cicero,  &c. 

aphysics. 

'  The  Grave.' 

Lord  Bolingbroke,  1672— 

S.  Richardson,  1689—1761, 

1751,  Politics,  Literature. 

'  Clarissa,'  '  Pamela,'  &c. 

• 

G.  Berkeley,  1684—1753.  ' 

Metaphvsics,  Ethics. 
P.  DoddrSge,  1701-1751. 

Divinity. 
Jas.  Bradley,  1692—1762, 

Astronomy. 
F.  Hutcheson,  1694—1747, 

Moral  Philosophy. 

D.  Garrick,  1716-1779, 

T.  Sherlock,  1678—1761, 

Drama. 

Divinity. 

S.  Foote,  1720—1771, 

C.  Maclaurin,  1696—1746, 

Drama. 

Mathematics. 

LITERARY    CHRONOLOGY BRITISH. 


625 


IMAGINATION. 

FACT. 

SPECULATIVE  AND  SCIENTIFIO. 

1700  R.  Rodsley,  1703-1764, 

1700  John  Swinton,  1703—1767, 

1700  Earl  of  Chesterfield,  1694- 

Drama. 

History,  Antiquity. 

1773,  Letters. 

Jona.  Swift,  1667—1745, 

Eph.  Chambers,  d.  1740, 

Satires,  Tales,  &c. 

Cyclopaedia. 

L  Watts,  1674-1748, 

B.  Hoadley,  1676—1761, 

Hymns. 

Polemics. 

Edw.  Young,  1681—1765, 

Bishop  Butler,  1692—1752, 

'  Night  Thoughts.' 

Divinity. 

Alex.  Pope,  1688—1744, 

Poetry. 

W.  Somerville,  1692—1743, 

'  The  Chase.' 

AUan  Ramsay,  1696  -1758, 

'  The  Gentle  Shepherd.' 

Rich'd  Savage,  1698—1743, 

Poems. 

Jas.  Thomson,  1700-1748, 

J.Wesley,  1703-1791,  Di- 

'Seasons.' 

Lord  Lyttleton,  1709—1778, 

vinity. 

John  Dyer,  1700-1758, 

History,  Poems,  Divin- 

D. Hartley,  1704—1757, 

Poems. 

ity. 

'  Observations  on  Man.' 

H.  Fielding,  1707—1754, 

James  Granger,  d.  1776, 

Soame  Jenyns,  1704—1787, 

'  Tom  Jones,'  &c. 

Biog.  Hist,  of  England. 

Theology. 

James  Hammond,  1710 — 

W.  Warburton,  1709-1779, 

1742,  Elegies. 

Theology,  Criticism. 

Lawr.  Sterne,  1713—1768, 

J.  Jortin,   1698—1770,   Di- 

'Tristram Shandy.' 

vinity,  Criticism. 

W.  Shenstone,  1714-1763, 

Sam.  Johnson,  1709—1784, 

Lord  Kaimes,  1696—1782, 

Pastorals,  &c. 

Lives  of  Poets,  Diet.,  &c. 

Elements  of  Criticism, 

W.  Collins,  1720-1756, 

Jonas  Hanway,  1712-1786, 

R.  Lowth.  1710—1787,  Di- 

Odes. 

Travels  in  the  East. 

vinity,  Philology. 

H.  Brooke,  1706—1783, 

John  Blair,  d.  1782,  Chro- 

W. Blackstone,  1723—1780, 

'  Fool  of  Quality.' 

nology. 

Laws  of  England. 

M.    Akenside,    1721—1770, 

David  Hume,  1711—1776, 

"Junius." 

'Pleasures   of  Imagina- 

History     of     England, 

tion.' 

Essays,  &c. 

Thos.     Gray,     1716-1771, 

Odes,  Elegies. 

W.  Robertson,  1721-1793, 

Adam  Smith,   1723-1790, 

T.     SmoUet,     1720-1771, 

Hist,  of  Charles  V.,  <fec. 

'  Wealth  of  Nations.' 

Novels. 

Thomas    Warton,    1728— 

J.  Harris,  1709-1780,  Phi- 

R. Glover,  1712-1789, 'Le- 

1790,  History  of  England, 

lology. 

onidas.' 

Poetry,  Poems. 

John  Hunter,    1728—1793, 

O.  Goldsmith,  1731—1774, 

Medicine. 

'  Traveller,'     '  Vicar    of 

F.  Balguy,  1716—1795,  Di- 

Wakefield.' 

vinity. 

W.  Mason,  1725—1797,  Po- 

ems, Biography. 

H.  Walpole.  d.  1797,  '  His- 

T. Chatterton,  1752—1770, 

toric     Doubts,'     '  Royal 

Poems. 

and  Noble  Authors.' 

Ar.    Murphy,    1727—1805, 

J.       Moore,       1730—1802, 

T.  Reid,  1710—1796,  Meta- 

Drama. 

'Views  of  Society   and 

physics. 

Wm.  Cowper,  1731—1800, 

Manners.' 

Sir  J.  Reynolds,  1723—1792, 

Poems. 

James  Bruce,  1730-1794, 

Art. 

R.Cumberland,  1732—1811, 

Travels. 

S.  Horsley,  d.  1806,  Theo- 

Drama. 

W.  Gilpin,  1724-1804,  Bio- 

logy. 

Eras.  Darwin,  1732—1802, 

graphy,  Divinity. 

Jos.  Priestley,  1733-1804, 

'Botanic  Garden.' 

E.     Gibbon,     1737—1794, 

Metaphysics,  Chemistry. 

James  Beattie,  1735—1803, 

Decline  and  Fall  of  Ro- 

Hugh   Blair,     1719—1800, 

Poems. 

man  Empire. 

Sermons. 

R.    Ferguson,    1750—1774, 

J.    Whitaker,    1735—1808, 

J.Home  Tooke,  1736—1812 

Poems. 

Hist,  of  Manchester,  &c. 

Philology. 

Geo.   Colman,  1733—1794, 

Edmd.  Burke,  1730—1797, 

Wm.    Jones,     1747—179-1, 

Comedies. 

Oratory. 

Orientalist. 

J.  Wolcot  (Peter  Pindar), 

J.  Boswell,  1740—1795,  Bio- 

R. Price,  1723—1791,  Meta- 

1738—1819,    Com.     Po- 

graphy. 

physics,  Divinity. 

ems. 

J.       Milner,       1744—1797, 

Wm.     Paley,    1743—1805, 

Jas.    Macpherson,    1738— 

Church  History. 

Theology. 

1796,  '  Ossian's  Poems.' 

Joseph  Strutt,  1748-1802, 

Ricd.   Porson,   1759—1808; 

Robert  Burns,  1759—1796, 

Chronology,  Antiquities. 

Philology. 

Poems. 

Ths.  Beddoes,  1760-1808, 

J.  Home,  d.  1808,  Drama. 

Medicine. 

626 


THK  world's   progress. 


IMAGINATION. 


1700 


Ricd.  B.  Sheridan,  1751— 
iar.6,  Drama. 

Arm  Radcliffe,  1764—1823, 
Novels. 


1700 


1^0  Rob.  Bloomfield,  d.  1823, 
'  Farmer's  Boy.' 
Mrs.     Barbauld,     Poems, 
Tales. 


Lord    Byron,    1788—1824, 

Poems. 
John  Keats,  Poems. 
P.    B.    Shelley,    d.    1822, 

Poems. 
R.    C.    Maturin,    d.    1824, 

Drama. 
Miss  Austin,  Novels. 
Wm.  Godwin,  1755—1836, 

Novels,  Metaphysics. 
Walter  Scott,    1771—1832, 

Novels,  Poems. 


Robt.   Pollok,    1798— 1S27. 

'  Course  of  Time.' 
Geo.  Crabbe,  d.  1832, '  The 

Borough,'  &c. 
Fanny  Bumey,         — 1840, 

Novels. 
Wm.  Beckford,  1760—1844, 

Novels. 
Thos.  Haines  Baily,  1797— 

1839,  Lyrics. 
Thos.     Hamilton,     1789— 

1842,  Novels,  Travels. 
Felicia     Hemans,     1794— 

1835,  Poems. 
Barbara  Hofland,  Novels. 
Jas.  Hogg,         —1835,  Po- 
ems and  Tales. 
Th^.  E.  Hook,  1788—1841, 

Novels. 
Thos.   Hood,  Poems,  No- 
Hannah  More,  1744—1833, 

Poems,  Tales. 
Jane    Porter,  —1849, 

Novels. 
S.  T.  Coleridge,        -1834, 

Poems. 
Wm.  Wordsworth,         — 

1850,  Poems. 
Robt.  Southey,         —1843, 

Poems. 
Marg.  Blessington,  — 

1849,  Novels. 
Chas.    Lamb,    1775—1834, 

Poems,  Essays. 
Tlioa.  H.  Lister,  1801—1842, 

Novels. 


Charles  Bumey,    d.  1841, 
'  History  of  Music. 


J.  Macdiarmid,  1779—1808, 
Biography. 


E.    D.    Clarke,    d.    1822, 

Travels. 
C.  J.  Fox,  d.  1796,  History. 


W.    Mitford,     History     ol 
Greece. 


R.  Heber,  Travels,  &c. 
Major  Rennel,  Geography. 
Wm.    Rosco,    1751—1831, 

Life  of  Leo  X.,  «fcc. 
Walter  Scott,         —1832, 

History,  Biography. 


Sir  Jas.  Mackintosh,  1766 
1832,  Hist,  of  England. 

Geo.  Chalmers,  1742—1825, 
Political  Annals. 

Marsden,  1755—1836,  Ori- 
ental Hist,  and  Travels. 

Jas.  Mill,         —1836,  Hist. 
British  India. 

Robt.  Morrison,        —1834, 
Travels,  Philology. 

Jas.  Grahame,  History  of 
United  States. 

John   Gillies,    1747-1836, 
History  of  Greece, 

Basil     Hall,     1788—1844, 
Travels  and  Voyages. 


Wm.    Hone,  —1842, 

Every  Day  Book. 


R.    &    J.    Lander,    1834, 
Travels  in  Africa. 


SPECULATIVE  AND   SClENTWia 


N.    Maskelyne    d.     1811, 

Astronomy. 
G.   L.  Staunton,   d.   1801, 

Chinese  Code. 
W.  Hersrfiell,  1738—1822, 

Astronomy. 


Arthur  Young,  1741—1820, 
Agriculture. 

A.  Rees,  1743—1825,  Cyclo- 
paedia. 

Joseph  Banks,  1743—1820, 
Natural  Historv. 

Dr.  Parr,  d.  18^5,  Philo- 
logy. 

D.  Ricardo,  d.  1823,  Politi- 
cal Econo.'^y. 

C.  Hutton,  d.  1823,  Mathe- 
matics. 

John  Playfeir,  d.  1819. 
P.  Elmsley,  Philology. 
T.  Wollaston,  Chemistry. 
Thomas  Young,  Hierogly- 
phics, &c. 
T.  Scott,  d.  1821,  Divinity. 

D.  Stewart,  d.  1821,  Meta- 
physics. 

Vicessimus  Knox,   1752 — 

1821,  Essays. 
Malthus,  Polit.  Economy. 
Wm.    Hazlit,   Critic    and 

Essayist. 
Francis  Jeffrey,  1773—1849, 

Essays,  Criticism. 
Archbish.  Magee,  d.  1831, 

Divinity. 
Sir  Humph.  Davy,  d.  1829, 

Chemistry. 
Jer.    Bentham,    d.    1832, 

'  Principles   of   Legisla- 
tion.' 
Adam  Clarke,  1763—1832, 

Divinity,  Criticism. 
Arch.   Alison,    1757—1839, 

Essays  on  Taste. 
Francis  Baily,  1774—1844, 

Astronomy,  &c. 
Bp.    Burgess,    1756-1837, 

Theology. 
Herbert  Marsh,  1758—1839, 

Theology. 
Thos.  Mi'chell,  1783—1845,  • 

Classic.  Critic. 
Robert  Mudie,  1777—1842, 

Scient.  Miscellanies. 
Sir  E.  Brydges,  1762—1837, 

Miscellanies. 
Wm.  Cobbett,         —1835,- 

Politics,  &c. 
J.  Dalton,         —1844,  Che- 
mist. 
J.  P.  Daniell,         —1845, 

Chemist. 
Sydney  Smith,         —1845, 

Theology,  Essays. 
Chas.  Bonnycastle,  — 

1840,  Mathematics. 
Thos.  Chalmers,  Theology, 

and  Political  Economy." 


LITERARY    CHRONOLOGY GERMAN. 


627 


IMAGINATION. 

FACT. 

SPECULATIVE  AND  SCIENTIFIC. 

1800  S.  T.  Coleridge,  177'3-1834, 

1800 

1800  John    Leslie,           —1832, 

Ethics. 

Mathematician. 

L.    E.    Landon    Maclean, 

Southey,  1774—1843,  Bio- 

J. C.  Loudon,  1783—1843, 

1804—1838,    Novels  and 

graphy. 

Botany,  Agricul.,  Archit. 

Poems. 

Wm.  Beckford,  1769—1844, 

John      Bell,      1763—1825, 

Wm.  Maginn,  1793-1842, 

Travels. 

Anatomy  &  Physiology. 

Poems, 

Arch.   Alison,   History  of 

Olinthus  Gregory,    1774— 

Marryatt,        —1847,  Nov- 

Europe. 

1841,   Mathematics    and 

els. 

Thos.  Arnold,  1795-1842, 

Religion. 

John     Gait,      1779-1839, 

History  of  Rome. 

Robert   Hall,    1764—1831, 

Novels. 

Thos.  D.  Fosbrooke,  1770— 

Sermons. 

Wm.  H.  Ireland,   Shaks. 

1842,  Archaeology. 

Sir  Chas.  Bell,  1781—1824, 

Forgeries. 

Thos.  McCrie,  1772—1835, 

Anatomy    and    Physio- 

Lady  Morgan,         — 184-, 

Life  of  Knox. 

i(gy- 

Novels. 

Sir  John  Malcolm,  History 

Jas.    Morier,    1780—       , 

Persia  and  India. 

Novels. 

I.  D'Israeli,  1766—1848,  Cu- 

Thos.   Campbell,     1777— 

riosities  of  Literature. 

1844,  Poems. 

Basil  Hall,  1788—1844,  Voy- 

Thos.  Bariim,  1800—1842, 

ages  and  Travels. 

Novels. 

Henry  F.  Gary,  1772—1844, 

Trans.  Dante,  &c. 

GERMAN. 


IMAGINATION. 

PACT. 

SPECULATIVE  AND  SCIENTIFIC. 

800 

800  Eginhard,  d.  839,  Life  of 
Charlemagne,  Annals. 

800 

Walafrid  Strabo,   d.   810, 

Rabanus  Maurus,  776—856, 

Poems,  Theology. 

Nithard,  d.  853,  History  ol 
Wars  of  France. 

Theology. 

Gottschalk,   d.   869.    'Or, 
Predestination.' 

Otfried,  Harmony  of  Gos- 

pels in  rhyme. 

900 

900  Regino,  d.  915,  Chronicles. 

900 

Hroswitha,  Let.  Comedies. 

Batherius,  d.  974,  Theolo- 

Notger,  Trans,  of  Psalms. 

Witikind,  Hist,  of  Saxons. 

gy,  Grammar. 

1000 

1000  Dithmar,  d.  1018,  Chron. 

1000 

Witpo,  'Praise  of  HairT 

of  Saxon  Emperors. 

III.,'  Biography. 

Hermannus      Contractus, 

Willeram,  Francic  Poems. 

Universal  History. 

Blar.    Scotus,    1028—1086, 
Chronicles. 

Adam  of  Bremen,  Ecclesi- 
astical History. 

Lambert,  General  History. 

Sigebert,  d.  1113,  Chron. 

Kosmas,  1045—1126,  Histo- 
ry of  Bohemia. 

1100 

1100  Berthold      Constantiensis, 
Universal  History. 
Otto,  d.  1158,  Chronicle. 

1100  Mangold,  Theology. 

Henry  of  Veldeck,  Minne- 

Helmold, d.  1170,   Chron. 

singer. 

of  Slavi. 

628 


THE   world's   progress. 


IMAGINATION. 

FACT. 

SPECULATIVE  AND  SCIENTIFIC 

1200  Giinther,  Poems. 

1200 

Arnold  of  Lubeck,  Chro- 
nicle of  Slavi. 

1200 

Frederic    H.,    1196-1254, 

Epko  of  Repgow,  '  Saxon 

'D'e  Arte  Venandi.' 

Mirror,'  (Law). 
John  Semeca,  Law. 
Alb.   Magnus,    1193—1280, 

Natural  Philosophy. 

Freydank,  Poems. 

1300  RiidgerofManesse,  Collec- 

1300 

1300 

tion  of  Ballads. 

Henry  Frauenlob,  Songs. 

Boner,  Fables. 

Henrich      von      Rebdorf, 

Chronicle. 
Heinrich  von   Hervorden, 

Chronicle. 
Jacob    von    Konigshofen, 

Chronicle. 

John  Tauler,  Sermons. 

John  Schildberger,  History 

John     Huss,     1386—1415, 

of  Timour. 

Theology. 

1400 

1400  Gobelin  Persona,  General 

1400 

Felix  Hammerlein,  Satires. 

Histoiy. 

Windeck,    Life    of    Sigis- 

John  von  Gmiinden,  Astro- 

mund. 

nomy. 

John  Stadweg,  Chronicle. 

Hans    von     Rosenplut, 

Peter  von  Andlo,  de  Im- 

Geo.  von.  Peurbach,  1423 

Poems. 

perio  Romano. 

1461,  Theory  of  Planc.3. 
Regiomontanus,  1436—1476 

Astron,,  Mathemat. 
Nic.  von  Cuss,  Mathemat. 
Thomas  k  Kempis,  1380— 

Heinrich    von   Alkraaar. 

1471,  Theology. 

'  Reinke  de  Voss.' 

Mar.Behhaim.  Geography. 

Gabriel  Brie,  d.  1495,  The- 

Breydenbach,  Topogy. 
Conrad  Botho,  Chronicle. 

ology. 

John    Geyler,    1445-1510, 

Conrad  Celtes,  1459—1508. 

Theology. 

Latin  Poems,  History  of 

John    Trithemius,    1462— 

Nuremburg. 

1516,  Nat.  Philosophy. 
Reuchlin,  1454—1522,  Phil- 

Thos. Murner,  1475—1536, 

'Rogues'  Guild.' 

ology. 

1500 

1500  Maximilian,  d.  1508,  Auto- 

1500 J.    Wimpfelingen,    1452- 

biography. 

1528,  Theol.,  Poems. 

Griinbeck,  Lives    of  Em- 

perors. 

Melc.  Pfinzing,  1481—1535, 

Albert  Kranz,  d.  1517,  His- 

Holoander, d.  1531.  Law. 

'  Theuerdank.' 

tory  of  Saxons,  &c. 

Corn.  Agrippa,  1486—1535, 

B.  Pirkheimer,  1480—1530, 

Physics,  Theology. 

History,  Poetrv. 

M.     Luther,    1483-1546, 

John  Aventin,  1466—1534, 

Theology. 

Anals  of  Bavaria. 

Zwingle,  1484-1531,  The- 

ology. 
Melancthon,    1497—1560, 

Glareanus  (H.  L.)  1488— 

Con.  Peutinger,  1465—1547, 

1563,  Classics. 

History  and  Geography. 

Theology. 

John    Carinn,    1499—1538, 

Paracelsus,     1493—1541, 

Comp.  of  History. 

Chemistry. 
Joac.   Camerarius,    1500— 
1574,  Philology. 

John   Sleidan,  1506—1556, 

Conrad  Gesner,  1516 — 1565, 

Universal  History. 

Natural  History. 

Hans  Saciis,    1494-1574, 

G.  Tschudi,  d.  1572,  Hel- 

Basil   Faber,    1520—1576, 

Poems. 

vetic  Chronicle. 

Thes.  Erud.  Schol. 

John  Fischart,  1511—1581, 

Gerard    Mercator,  1512— 

Mar.  Chemnitz,  1522-1586, 

Satires. 

1594,  Geography. 

Theology. 

LITERARY    CHRONOLOGY GERMAN. 


629 


IMAGINATION. 


1500  G.  Fabricius,    1516—1571, 
Lat.  Pms.  Topography. 


Rollenhagen,    1542—1609, 

Froschmausler. 
Fr.  Taubman,    1565—1613, 

Latin  Poems. 


1600 


Martin  Opitz,  1597—1639, 

Poems. 
James    Balde,  1603—1668, 

Poems. 
A.    Gryphius,  1616—1664, 

Tragedies. 

Paul  Fleming,  1609—1640, 
Poems. 


Lohenstein,    1638—1683, 
Poems. 


1500  Simon  Scharil,  1535—1573, 
CoUec.  German  Hist. 


John  Pistorius,  1544—1607, 
CoUec.  German  Hist. 

Marq.  Freher,  1565—1614, 
Hist.  Germy.  &  France. 


1600 


P.    Cluvier,   1580-1623, 

Geography. 
M.    Goldast,    1576—1635, 

History. 


G.     Calixtus,    1586—1656, 

Ecclesiastical  History, 
Olearius,      1604—1685, 


Travels. 


S.  von  Puffendorf,  1631— 
1694,  History,  Law. 

D.  G.  Morhoff,  1639—1691, 
Biography,  History. 


SPECULATIVE  ANB   SCIENTIFIC. 


1500  Wm.Xylander,  1532—1576, 

Philology. 
Wesenbeck,     1531—1586, 

Law. 
Fred.  Sylberg,  1531—1596 

Philology. 
Theod.   Beza,    1519—1609, 

Theology,  Philology. 

S 
C.  Ritterhuis,  1560—1613, 
Law. 


1700  C.  Gryphius,     1649—1706, 
Poems,  Hist.,  Philology. 


Von   Canitz,    1654—1699, 
Poems. 


Gunther,  1695-1724,  Poems. 


Liscov,  Satires. 

J.  C.  Gottsched,  1700-1766, 

Poems,  Trag.,  Criticism. 
Hagedorn,     1708—1754, 

Fables. 
Haller,    1708—1777,  'The 

Alps.' 
J.  E.   Schlegel,  d.    1759, 

Drama. 
E.   C.    Kleist,    1715—1759. 

Idylls. 
Gellert,  1715—1769,  Fables. 
Rabener,  1714—1770,  Satir. 


1700  H.  Meibomius,  1638—1700, 
History. 

C.  Cellarius,  1638—1707, 
Geography,  Antiq. 

C.  Frankenstein,  1661— 
1717,  History,  Biog. 

J.  Arnold,  1665—1714,  Ec- 
clesiastical History. 

J.  G.  von  Eccard,  1670— 
1730,  General  History. 

J.  A.  Fabricius,  1668—1736, 
Bibliography. 


H.  Freyer,  Gen.  History. 
B.  G.   Struve,  1671—1738. 

History  of  Germany. 
J.  L.  Mosheim,  1695—1755, 

Ecclesiastical  History, 


1600  C.  Schwenkfeld,  d.    1616, 

Natural  History. 
J.      Buxtorf,     1555—1621, 

Philology. 
John    Kepler,   1571—1631, 

Astronomy. 

B.  von  Helmont,  1577— 
1644,  Chemistry. 

C.  Scioppius,  1576—1649, 
Ars  Crilica. 

John  Bayer,  Uranometria. 

G.  Barth,  1587-1658,  Phil- 
ology. 

Sol.     Glass,    1593—1656, 
Philol.  Sacra. 

Otto  Guerike,  1602—1686, 
Air-Pump,  &c. 

Her.  Conring,  1606—1681, 
Antiquities. 

Ez.  Spanheim,  1629—1702, 
Numismatology. 

John  Schilter,  d.  1705,  An- 
tiquities. 

1700  Ludolph,  1619—1711,  Phil- 
ology. 

Leibnitz,  1646—1716,  Ma- 
thematics, Metaphysics. 

C.  Thomasius,  1655—1728, 
Law. 

F.  Budaeus,  1667—1729, 
Divinity. 

G.  E.  Stahl,  1660—1734, 
Chemistry. 

P.    Hoffman,    1660—1742, 
Medicine. 
J.  Bemouilli,  1667—1747, 

Mathematics. 
B.  Hederick,  1675—1748, 
Philology. 


A.  F.  BQsching,  1724—1793 
Geography.  | 


J.  M.  Gessner,  1691—1761, 

Philology. 
A.  G.  Baumgarten,  1714 — 

1751,  Ethics,  Metaph. 
J.  J.  Gessner,  1707—1787, 

Numismatology. 
G.   F.   Meyer,  1711—1777, 

Philosophy. 
F.  W.  von  Gleicken,  1714- 

1783,  Nat.  History. 
J.  Winkelmann,  1718—1768 

Antiquity. 
Leon.    Euler,    1707—1783, 
Mathematics. 


630 


THE    world's   progress. 


IMAGINATION. 

FACT. 

SPECULATIVE  AND  SCIENTIPIO, 

1700  Gleim,  d.  1803,  Songs. 

1700  Frank,  d.  1784,  Chronol. 

1700  G.    J.    Zollikofer,    1730- 

Walch,  d.  1784,  Ecclesias- 

1780, Sermons. 

tical  History. 

J.  A.  E.  Gotze,  1731—1786, 

Klopstock,      1724—1803, 

Entomology. 
Im.  Kant,  1724—1804, 

'  The  Messiah.' 

Zachariae,      1727—1777, 

Metaphysics. 

Comic  Poems. 

C.  F.  Weisse,  Drama. 

J.  G.  Zimmerman,  1728— 

1795,  '  On  Solitude.' 

Gotz,  1721-1781,  Pastorals. 

Ramler,  1725-1798.   Odes. 

Dusch,  1727—1788,  Poems. 

G.  E.  Lessing,  1729—1781, 

Drama,  Fables. 

S.   Gessner,    1730—1788, 

'Death  of  Abel.' 

Wieland,  1733—1813,  Ro- 

C. Gatterer,  d.  1799,  Hist. 

mances,  Poems. 

Pfeffel,  1736—1809,  Fables. 

Semler,  d.  1791,  Thtology. 

G.  A.  Biirger,  1748—1794, 

-      J.   W.  von   Archenholz, 

Poems. 

1745-1812, 'Seven  Years' 

I.   H.   Voss,  1751-1826, 

War.' 

Putter,  Law  of  Nations. 

Novels. 

F.  Schiller,  1750-1805, 

Drama. 

Scurokh,  d.    1808,   Eccle- 

Adelung, d.  1807,    Phil- 

Kotzebue,     1761—1819, 

siastical  History. 

ology. 

Drama. 

Forster,  d.  1798,    Geogra- 

Lavater 1741—1801,   Phy. 

Goethe,  1749-1832,  Drama, 

phy. 

siognomy. 

Tales,  Poems. 

A.  L.  von  Scholzer,  d.  1809, 
History. 

Werner,  Geology. 

1800  F.     Schlegel,     177^-1829, 

1800  J.  von  Muller,  d.  1809,  Uni- 

1800 Herder,  1741—1803,  Philc 

Novels,  Poetry,  Hist.,&c. 

versal  History. 

sophy  of  History. 

Ernst  Schultze,  1787—1817, 

J.  G.  Eichhom,   d.  1827, 

Fichte,  d.  1819,  Metaphy- 

Elegies. 

Histoiy. 

sics. 

E.  T.  W.  Hoffman,  d.  1822, 

F.  H.  Jacobi,  d.  1819,  Me- 

Tales. 

taphysics. 

A.  G.  H.  Lafontaine,  1760— 

Blumenbach,  Physiology. 

1831,  Tales. 

Schelljng,  Metaphysics. 

Konaer,  Poems. 

Thaer,  —1828,  Agri- 
culture. 

RosenmuUer,  —1855, 
Theology,  Criticism. 

Von  Hammer,  Orien.  Hist. 

Gail,       -1829,  Philology. 

B.  G.  Niebuhr,  History. 

Griesbach,        —18L%  Phi- 
lology. 
Grotefend,        —1836,  Phi- 

L. von  Amim,         — 1831, 

lology. 

Poems,  Novels. 

Scholl,        —1833,  History. 

H.  J.  Klaproth,  1784-1835, 
Philology. 

F.Passow,  —1833,  Phi- 
lology. 

C.  O.  Muller,         —1840, 

Hegel,          —1831,    Meta- 

History, Archaeology. 

physics. 

F.  Accum,        —1838,  Che- 
mistry. 

Mohs,         —1839,  Minera- 

Schopenhauer,       — 1838, 

logy. 

Novels. 

F.Rotteck,        —1849,  His- 

G.A.Fant,       —1841,  Phi. 

tory. 

lology. 

H.  Hase,         -1812,  His- 

E. Bekker,  Philology. 

tory,  Antiquities. 

Buttmann,  —1841,  Phi- 
lology. 

C.  T.  FoUen,  —1840, 
Theology,  Essays. 

LITERARY    CHRONOLOGY FRENCH. 


631 


IMAGINATION. 


SPBCtJLATIVE  AND  SCIENTIFIC. 


1800 


Tieck,  Poems,  Novels. 


1800  Augt.  Neander,  1850, 

Ecclesiastical  History. 

J.  L.  C.  Heeren,  —1842, 
History. 

H.  Berghaus,  Geography. 

A.  von  Humboldt,  Travels, 
History. 


1800  Gibers,         —1840,  As'.ro- 
nomy. 

Hahnemann,  — 1843, 

HomcBopathy. 
A.  W.  Schlegel,        —1845, 

Criticism,  Essays. 


Humboldt,  Science. 
Liebig,  Chemistry. 


FRENCH. 


IMAGINATION. 

FACT. 

SPECULATIVE  AND  SCIENTIFIC. 

500  Venan.  Jortunatus,  Latin 
Poetry. 

500 

Gregory  of  Tours,  554—595, 

History. 

500 

600 

600  Marculfe,     '  Charts     Re- 
gales,' &c. 

600 

700 

700  Fredegaire,  Chronicle. 

700 

800  Theodulph,  d.  821 ,  Hymns, 
Theology. 

Servatus  Lupus,    d.   8G2, 
Epistles. 

Hincmar,  d.  882,  Epistles. 
Abbon, '  Siege  of  Paris.' 

800 

Ado,  d.  875,  Chronicle. 

800 

Agobard,  d.  840,  Theology 

Paschasius  Radbert,  'Traa- 
substantiation.' 

900 

Adalberon,  d.  1030,  Poetry. 

900  Flodoard,  896—966,  Chron. 
Dudon,  History  of  Norman 
Conquest  in  France. 

900 

1000 

Fulbert,  d.  1029,  Epistles. 

1000  Almoin,  d.  1008,  History  of 
France. 

1000  Gerbert,  d.  1003,  Geometry, 
Mathematics,  &c. 
Abon,  d.  1004,  Arithmetic, 
and  Astronomy. 

Berengarius,  d.  1088,  Theo- 
logy. 

1100 

Wm,  of  Poictiers,  1071— 
1126,  First  Troubadour. 

Hlldebert,  1067—1133,  Po- 
etry. 

Bechada,  Norman  Poetiy, 
'  Gestes  de  Godefroi.' 

1100  Guibert,  1058—1124,  Histo- 
ry of  First  Crusade. 
Pierre  Theutbode,  History 

of  Crusades. 
Marbodaeus,  d.  1123,  Bio- 
graphy. 

Suger,  1082—1152,  Life  of 
Louis  le  Gros. 

1000  Anselm,  1033—1109,  Scho- 
lastic. 

Pierre  Abelard,  1079-1142, 
Theology. 

Bernard     of     Clairvaux, 
1091-1153,  Mystic. 

632 


THE   WORLD'S   PROGRESS. 


IMAGINATION. 

FACT. 

SPECULATIVE  AND  SCIENTIFIC. 

1100 

1100  Hugh  de  St. Victoire,  1097— 
1140,  Geography,  Histo- 

1100 

ry,  and  Theology. 

Peter  Lombardus,  d.  1164, 

Geoffroi   Galmar,    Anglo- 

Theology. 

Norm.  Chron.  in  verse. 

Rob.  Wace,    'Roman   da 

Rou.' 

Alain   de   I'Isle,   d.   1202^ 
Theology,  Ethics. 

Fouque,  a  Troubadour. 
Alexander  of  Bemai,  Poet- 

ry, Fables. 

1200 

1200  Pierre  de  Poictiers,  Sacred 
History. 
Geoffrey  de  Villehardouin, 

1200 

John  .ffigidius,   Poem   on 

Medicine. 

Conq.  of  Constantmople. 

William  le  Breton,  '  Deeds 

of  Philip,'  in  verse. 

P.  Gautier,  'Alexandrieda.' 

Phil.  Mouskes,  d.  1283,  His- 

Vincentius   of    Bt*auvais, 

tory  of  France  in  verse. 

Encyclopaedia. 

William  de  Lorris,  'Roman 

W.  Rubruquis,  Traveller. 

Rob.  of  Sorbonne,  d.  1271, 

de  la  Rose.' 

Theology. 

Jean  de  Meim,  Contin.  of 

Jean  de  Joinville,   1260— 

'  Roman  de  la  Rose.' 

1318,  Hist,  of  Louis  IX. 

Esteve    de    Bezier,    Last 

Troubadour. 

1300  Peter  Langtoft,  Anglo-Nor- 

1300 

1300  Bernard  Gordon,  Medicine. 

man  Chronicles. 

John  of  Paris,  d.  1306,  The- 

olosy. 
W.  Durand,  d.  1333,  Law. 
W.  Occam,  d.  1347,  Law. 

Philippe  of  Vitri,  Transla- 

tion of  Ovid. 

John  Froissart,  1337—1402, 
Chronicles. 

1400 

1400 

1400  Peter  d'Ailly,  1350—1425, 

Astronomy. 
John  Gerson,   1363—1429, 

Scholastic. 
Raymund  de  Sebunda,  d. 

1432,  Theology. 
Henry  of  Bahna,  d   1439, 

Alain   Chartier,    d.    1458, 

Mystic. 

Poetry. 

Corbeil,  Satire. 

D'Auvergne,  d.  1458,  Po- 

James Lefevre,  1436— 1537, 

ems. 

Theology. 
Wm.  Budffius,  1467—1540, 

Clement  Marot,  1463—1525, 

Philip  de  Comines,  1445— 

Jurist. 

Poems. 

1509,  Hist,  of  his  Times. 

1500 

1500 

1500  J.  C.  Scaliger,  1484-1558, 
Philology. 
Du  Bois,  1478—1555,  Anat. 

F.    Rabelais,    1483—1553, 

Guill.  du  Bellay,  d.  1543, 

Satires. 

History  of  his  Times. 

Rob.  Stephens,  1503—1559, 

J.  du  Bellay,   1492—1560, 

Philology. 

Poems. 

P.Ramus,1515— 1572,Logic 
Seb.  Castellio,  1515-1563, 

Steph.  Jodelle,  1532-1573, 

Philology. 

Odes,  Tragedies,  &c. 

Jas.  Cujacius,  1520—1590, 

Jaques  Amyot,  1514—1593, 

Law. 

Translations. 

Lambinus,         1516—1572, 
Commentaries. 

LITERARY    CHRONOLOGY FRENCH. 


633 


IMACINATION. 


1500  M.  A.  Muret,  1526—1585; 
Poems,  Criticisms. 
Mich,  de  Montaigne,  1533— 
1592,  Essays. 


Fran.  Malherbe,1556— 1628 
Odes. 


1600  M.   Reignier,    1573—1613, 
Satires. 


J.  Chapelain,   1695—1674, 
La  Pucelle.' 


P.    ComeiUe,    1606—1684, 
Drama. 


St.  Evremond,  1613—1703, 
Literature. 


Rochefoucault,  1603—1680, 

Reflections. 
Moliere,  1620-1673,  Drama. 
La    Fontaine,    1621—1695, 

Fables,  Tales. 
Segrais,  1624—1701,  Idyls. 
T.    Corneille,    1625—1709, 

Drama. 
M.  de  Sevigne,  1626—1694, 

Letters. 
J.  Racine,  1639—1699, 

Drama. 


Boileau,  1636-1711,  Satires. 


1700  Regnard,     1647—1709,' 
Comedies. 
Galland,  1646—1715,  Tran. 
of  Arabian  Nights. 


Fenelon,  1661—1715,  'Tele- 

machus,'  &c. 
Deshoulieres,     1638—1694, 

Elegies. 


1500 


J.  J.  Scaliger,  1540—1609, 
History,  Criticism,  &c. 


J.  A.  ae  Thou,  1553—1617, 
History  of  France. 


1600  P.    Matthieu,    1544—1621, 
History  of  France. 
An.  Du.  Chesne,  1584-1640. 
Collections  of  Histories.' 


Bochart,  1599—1667, '  Geo- 

graphia  Sacra.' 
Henry  Spondanus,  1568- 

1643,  History. 
S.   Guicheron,  1607—1664, 

Hist,  of  House  of  Savoy. 
Henri  Valesius,  1603—1696, 

Ecclesiastical  History. 


Adr.  Valesius,  1607—1692, 
'  Deeds  of  the  Franks.' 


L.  Moreri,  1643—1680, 
Historical  Dictionary. 

Tilltimont,  1637—1698,  Ec- 
clesiastical History. 


SPECtTLATIVE  AND  SOIEKTIPIC. 


1500  Hen.  Stephens,  152S— 1590, 
Philology. 

F.  Vieta,  1540—1603,  Al- 
gebra. 

Pierre  Charon,  1543—1603, 
Theology. 

Isaac  Casaubon,  1659 — 
1604,  Philology, 


1600 


1700 


J.  MarsoUier,    1647—1724, 
History,  various. 

Fleuiry,  1653-1723,  Eccle- 
siastical History. 

G.  Daniel,  1649— 1728,  His- 
tory of  France. 

Vatincourt,  1653—1730, 
Biography. 
27* 


C.  Salmasius,  1596—1652, 

History  and  Criticism. 
Dennis  Petau,  1583-1652, 

Chronology. 
P.  Gassendi,  1592—1655, 

Philosophy. 
Des  Cartesj  1596-  1650, 

Metaphysics.  Ma;hem. 


B.  Pascal,  1623—1662, 

Divinity. 
D'Herbelot,  1626—1695, 

Orientalist. 
Cassini,  1625-1712,  Astron. 


Huet,  1630-1721,  Philos'phy 
Bourdaloue,   1632-1704, 

Sermons. 
La  Bruyere,  1636-1696, 

'  Characters.' 
Malbranche,    1633-1715, 

'  Search  after  Truth.' 


1700  P.    Bayle,    1647-1706, 

Dictionary. 
Hardouin,    1646-1729, 

Criticism. 
And.  Dacier,  1651-1722, 

Philology. 
Anne  Dacier,  1651-1720, 

Philology. 


Toumefort,  1656-1708, 

Botany. 
Fontenelle,    1657-1756,  , 

'  Plurality  of  Worlds.' 
Montfaucon,  1655-1741, 

Antiquities. 
Massillon,    1663-1742, 

Sermons. 


634 


THE    WORLD'S    PROGRESS. 


IMAGINATION. 


1700 


J.  B.  Rousseau,  1671—1741, 

Odes. 
Crebillon,     1674—1762, 

Tragedies. 
Ren.  Le  Sage,  1677—1747, 

'Gil  Bias.' 
P.  N.  Destouches,  1680— 

1754,  Comedies. 
J.  B.  Grecourt,  1683—1743, 

Odes,  Tales,  &c. 
Marivaux,    1688—1763, 

Novels. 
Voltaire,  1695—1778,  Tra- 
gedy, Poetry,  Hist.,  &c. 


J.  J.  Rousseau,  1712—1778, 

'  Emile,'  '  Heloise,'  <fec. 
Diderot,    1713-1784,  'En- 

cyclopedie,'  Novels. 
Bernis,  1715—1794,  Poems. 
Favart,  d.  1762,  Comic 

Operas. 
Louis   Racine,  d.    1763, 

Poems. 
J.  J.  Bartlielemy,  1716-1795, 

'  Anacliarsis.' 
Marmontel,    1719—1799, 

Tales. 
Gresset,  d.  1777,  Elegies. 
Dorat,  d.  1780,  Novels. 


Florian,  1755  -1794,  Tales. 
Beaumarchais,  d.   1799, 
Comedies. 


1800  B.  St.  Pierre,  'Paul  and 
Virginia.' 
Madme.  de  Genlis,  Novels, 

Mdme.  Cottin,   1772-1807, 

Delille,  d.  1813,  'L'Homme 

des  Champs.' 
Madame  de  Stael,    1768- 

1817,  '  Corinne,'  &c. 
H.  de  Balzac,  1799-1850, 

Novels. 
J.  J.  Boissaid,  1743-1831, 
Fables. 


1700  Vertot,  1655— 1735,  History. 

Paul  Rapin,  1661—1725, 
History  of  England. 

Bossuet,   1662—1704,  His- 
tory, Sermons. 

C.  RoIIin,  1661—1741, 
Ancient  History. 


0. 1.  F.  Henault,  1685-1770, 
Chronicles,  History. 


C.  Villaret,    1715—1766, 
History  of  France. 

L.  P.  Anquetil,  1723—1808, 
History. 

Mart.   Bouquet,  d.  1754, 
Recueil  d'Histoireks. 

A.  Goguet  d.  1758,  '  Origin 
of  Laws,  Arts,  &c.' 

Larcher,  1726-1812,  Trans, 
of  Herodotus. 

Crevier,  d.   1765,  Ancient 
History. 

Guyot,  d.  1771,  Ecclesias- 
tical History, 


J.  De  Guignes,  1721—1800, 
History  of  the  Huns. 

D'Anville,  1702—1782, 
Geography. 

G.  Raynal,  1711-1796,  Hist, 
of  East  and  West  Indies. 

C.  F.  X.  Millot,  1726—1785, 
History. 


1800 


Denon,  d.  1825,  Travels  in 

Egypt. 
.1.  P.  F.  Ancillon,  1767- 

1837,  History. 
Louis  E.  Bignon,      — 1841; 

Histoiy. 
J.   J.    Jacotot,    1770-1840, 

Education. 


SPECULATIVE  AND  SCIENTIFIC 


1700 


Folard,   1669-1752,  Stra- 
tegy. 

Saurin,   1677-1730,   Ser- 
mons. 


Montesquieu,     1698—1755, 

'  Esprit  des  Loix.' 
Reaumur,  1683—1757, 

Natural  History. 
Houbigant,  1686—1783, 

Criticism,  Philology. 
Girard,  d.  1748,  'Synony- 

mes.' 


Buffon,  1707-1788,  Natural 

History. 
De  Brosses,  1709—1777,      . 

Philology,  History. 


Helvetius,    1715—1771, 
'  De  I'Esprit.' 

D'Aubenton,  1716—1799, 
Natural  History. 

N.  Vattel,  d.  1770,  'Law 
of  Nations.' 

D'Alembert,  d.  1783, '  En- 
cyclopedic.' 

La  Grange,  Mathematics. 


Bailly,    1736—1793,   Hist., 

Astronomy. 
Lavoisier,   1743—1794, 

Chemistry. 
Montucla,    1725-1799, 

Mathematics. 
Turgot,  Polit.  Economy. 
Mirabeau,  Politics. 
Fourcroi,  d.  1809,  Chem. 
J.  Lalande,  d.  1807,  Astron, 


1800  Volney,  1755-1820,  Travels, 

Philology,  &c. 
Hauy,  d.  1822,  Crystallo 

graphy. 
La  Place,  d.  1S27,  Mathf 

m'atics. 
Guyton  Morveau,  Chem. 
Cuvier,  d.  1832,  Nat.  Hisi 
Dumont,  Legislation. 
P.  L.  Courier,  Politics. 
J.  F.   Audoin,  1797—184 

Zoology. 
J.  E.  D.  Esquirol,  1772- 

1840,  on  Insanity. 
Chas.  Fourier,  1772—183 

Socialism. 


LITERARY   CHRONOLOGY — SPANISH   AND   PORTUGUESE. 


635 


IMAGINATION. 


imt 


SPECULATIVE  AND  SCIENTIFIC, 


1800  Mad.   Junot,    1784-1839, 
Biography. 

A.  L.  G.  Laborde,     —1842, 
Travels. 

Las  Cases,      — 1S12,  Biog- 
raphy. 

J.  Michaud,      —1839,  His- 
tory. 

Bourrienne,     — 1834 '  Life 
of  Napoleon.' 

A.  Coille,    —1838,  Voyage 
el  Tembuctou,  &c. 

ChampoUion  le  Jeune, 
1832,  Antiq.  Egypt. 

J.  P.  A.  Remusat,    —1832, 
History, 


1800  T.  S.  Jouffroy,  1796—1842, 
Metaphysics. 

A.  L.  de  Jussieu,  1748-1836, 
Botany. 

S.  F.  Lacroix,  1765—1843, 
Mathematics. 

Lamarck,  —1829,  Natural 
History. 

Legendre,  1753—1833,  Ma- 
thematics. 

Louis,    —1837,  Surgery, 

Broussais,  — 1838,  Medi- 
cine, Physiol. 

Chaptal,  —1832,  Chem- 
istry. 


SPANISH  AND  PORTUGUESE. 
P.  is  prefixed  for  Portuguese. 


IMAOINATION. 

PACT. 

SPECULATIVE  AND  SCIENTIPIC. 

500 

500 

500  Anian,  Law. 

Fulgentius    Ferrandus, 

Canon  Law. 
Martin,  d.  580,  Ethics. 

60O 

600  John  of  Biclair,  d.  620 
Chronicle. 
Isidore,  d.  636,  Chron.  de 
Goth. 

600 

Ildefonso,  d.  667,  Polemics. 

800 

800  Eulogius,  d.  859,  Martyr- 
ology. 
Alvarez,  Biog.  of  Eulogius. 

800 

p.    1100  Egaz  Monez,  Songs. 

P.            Gonzalo  Hermiguez, 

Songs. 

1100 

1100 

1200 

Gonzalo  Berceo,  Rhymes. 

1200  Rodrigo  Ximenez,  d.  1215, 
History  of  Spain. 

1200 

R.  de  Penafort,  1175—1275, 
Decretals. 

Alphonso  X.,  d.  1281, 
Astronomy,  Alchemy. 

Raimund  Lullo,  1236— 
1315,   Theology,   Chem- 
istry, &c. 

1300  Juan  Manuel,  d.  1362,  Ro- 
mances.    • 

1300 

1300 

1400  Villena,  d.  1434,  Trans. 

Virgil  and  Dante. 
E.  de  Villena,  1434,  Moral 

Drama. 
Juan  de  Mena,  1412—1456 

Poems. 
L.  de  Mendoza,  1393—1458, 

Poems. 

1400  Diez  de  Games,  Biography. 

1400 

J.  de  Torquemada,  d.  1468, 
Sermons,  Criticism. 

636 


THE  WORLD'S  PROGRESS. 


IMAGWATION. 


1400  Perez  de  Guzman,  Lyrics. 


Juan  de  la  Enzina,  Pastoral 
Drama. 


1500  Lope  de  Rueda,  Comedies. 
Torres  Naharro,  Comedy. 
Juan  Boscan,  d.  1544,  Son 
nets. 
P.     Ber.  Ribeyro,  Eclogues. 
Garcilaso  de  la  Vega, 
1503—1536,  Poems. 
P.     San  de  Miranda,  1495— 1558, 
Lyrics. 
Juan  de  la  Cueva,  Art  of 
Poetry. 
P.     Gil  Vicente,  d.  1557, 
Comedy. 
J.  de  Montemayor,  1520— 

1561,  Romance. 
Ant.  Ferrelra,  1528—1569, 
Elegies. 


Diego  de  Mendoza,  d.  1575, 

Poems,  History. 
P.     Camoens,l-524— 1579, 'The 

Lusiad.' 
Luis  de  Leon,  1527 — 1591, 

Lyric  Poems. 
Fern,  de  Herrera,  d.  1578, 

Classical  Poems. 
P.     Rodriguez   Lobo,  Ro- 
mances, Pastorals,  &c. 
P.     P.  de  A.  Caminha,  d.  1595, 

Epigrams,  Pastorals. 
C.  cfe  Castillejo,  d.  1596, 

Romantic  Poems. 
A.  de  Ercilla,  1533—1600, 

'  Araucana.' 
Geron.  Bermudez,  d.  1589, 

Tragedy. 
L.  de  Argensola,  1565— 

1613,  Tragedy,  History. 
P.     Jeron.  Cortereal,  Poems. 
Cervantes,  1549 — 1616, 

'  Don  Quixote.' 


1600 


Bart,  de  Argensola,  1566— 

1631,  Tragedy,  History. 
F.  Quevedo,  1570—1645, 

Tales,  Satires. 
L.  Congora,  1585—1638, 

Poems. 
Lope  de  Vega,  1562—1635, 

Drama. 
J.  P.  de  Montalvan.  d.  1639, 
Tragedy. 
M.  de  Madrigal,  Romances. 
P.     Man.  de  Faria  e  Sousa,  d. 

1649,  Pastoral  Poems. 


1400  R.  de  Zamora,  1407—1470, 
History  of  Spain. 
Fern,  del  Pulgas,  Biog.  of 
Ferdinand  and  Isabella. 


1500 


P.     Damian  Goez,  History, 
Travels. 


P.     Joao  de  Barros,  d.  1570, 

'  Hist.  Portugu.  in  India.' 
A.    Zarate,    'Discov.    of 

Peru.' 
A.  de  Morales,  1513—1590, 
History  of  Spain. 


J.  Acosta,  1547—1600,  Hist. 

of  the  West  Indies. 
Gonsalvo  Illescas,  d.  1580, 

Lives  of  the  Popes. 
Luis  Marmol,  Description 

of  Africa  • 
Jeron.  Zurita,  1513—1580, 

History  of  Arragon. 
Estevan  Garibay,  History 

of  Spain.' 


Juan  Mariana,  1537 — 1624, 

Hist.,  Chronology,  &c. 
Blanca,  History  of  Spain. 


J.  G.  de  Mendoza,  Hist,  of 
China. 


1600  Her.  y  Tordesillas,  1565— 

1625,  History  of  Spain. 
P.     A.  de  Meneses,  d.  1617, 

History  of  Augustines. 
P.     F.  Andrada,  Chronicle  of 

John  m. 
P.     B.  de  Brito,  1570—1617, 

History  of  Portugal. 


A.  de  Andrada,  d.  1633, 
Travels  in  Thibet  and 
Cathay. 

Pru.  de  Sandoval,  History. 

Jayme  Bleda,  History  of 
Moors  in  Spain. 


SPECULATIVE  AND  SCIENTIFIC. 


1400 


Fras.  Ximenez,  1437—1517, 
Polyglot  Bible. 


1500  Perez  de  Oliva,  d.  1533, 
Ethics. 
J.  Luis  Vives,  1492—1540, 
Philosophy,  Theology. 


Ant.  de  Guevara,  d.  1544, 
Ethics,  Epistles. 
P.     A.  Govea,  1505—1565,  Law. 


Ant.  Agostino,  1516—1586, 
Theology,  Law. 

S.  des  Brosses,  1523—1600, 

Grammar. 
P.     D.  de  Andrada,  1528—1535, 

Theology. 
Luis  Molina,  1535—1600, 

Metaphysics. 


J.  Guevara,  1541— 1623i 
Publicist. 


J.  Valverda,  Anatomy. 


LITERARY   CHRONOLOGY SPANISH   AND   PORTUGUESE. 


637 


IMAGINATI05J. 

FACT. 

SPECULATIVE  AND  SCIENTIFM. 

1600  L.  V.  de  Guevara,  d.  1646, 

1600 

1600 

'  El  Diablo  Coxuelo.' 

Vic.  Espinel,  1545—1634, 

Elegies. 

P. 

C.  Acuna,  1597— 1641,' De- 
scrip,  of  River  Amazon. 

E.  de  Almeyda,  d.  1646, 
History  of  Ethiopia. 

Calderon,  1601-1667, 

P. 

J.  F.   de  Andrada,  1597— 

Drama. 

1657,   Life   of  .John   de 

L.  Ulloa,  d.  1660,  Poems. 

Castro,  Comic  Poetry. 

P 

A.  B.  Bacellar,  d.  1663, 

Sonnets. 

P. 

Matheo  Ribeiro,  Romance. 

M.  de  ViUegas,  1595—1669, 
Anacreontics. 

P. 

Nic.  Antonio,  1617—1672, 
Bibliotheca  Hispanica. 

Alb.  Coelho,  d.  1658, 
'  Wars  oLBrazil.' 

P. 

F.  de  Vasconcellos,  Poems. 

P. 

R.  de  Macedo,  d.  1682, 
Poems. 

P. 

Viol,  do  Ceo,  1601-1693, 
Poems. 

Ant.  de  Solis,  1611-1686, 
Hist,  of  Conq.  Mexico. 

P. 

F.  da  Castanheira,  Novel. 

P. 

A.  Nunhes  da  Sylva,  Son- 
nets. 

1700  Fran.  Candamo,  rf.  1709, 

1700  J.  Ferreras,  1652-1735, 

1700 

Drama. 

History  of  Spain. 

Ant.  de  Zamora,  Comedy. 

P. 

Xav.  de  Meneses,  1673— 
1743,  '  Henriqueide,' 
Epic  Poem. 

Ignacio  de  Luzan,  d.  1754, 

Feyjoo,  1765,  Ethics,  Criti- 
cism. 
A.  Ulloa,  1716-1795,  Math- 

Art  of  Poetry. 

P. 
P. 

Barbosa  Maehado,  Diction- 
ary of  Learned  Men. 

Velasquez,  d.   1772,   Hist, 
of  Castilian  Poetry. 

Figoeireda,  Eccl.  History. 

ematician. 

Tomas  de  Yriarte,  d.  1771, 

Fables,  &c. 

P. 

A.  de  Barros  Pereira, 
Poems. 

P 

Manoel  da  Coste,  Poems. 
V.  Garcia  de  la  Huerta, 

Tragedy. 
P.  Correo  Garcao  Lyric 

Munoz,  Hist,  of  America. 

P. 

Ruiz,  Botany. 

Poems. 

Pavon,  Flora  Peruviana. 

Leon  de  Arroyal,  Odes. 

Cavanilles,  Annals. 

P.     J.  H.  Magalhaens,  d.  1790, 

P. 

Paulino  de  Vasconcellos, 
Sonnets. 

Natural  Philosophy. 
Felix  de  Azara,  Zoology. 
J.  N.de  Azara,  1731— laOl, 

Mel.  Valdez,  Odes,  Lyrics. 

P^ 

Cathar.  de  Sousa,  Tragedy. 
0  G.  Jovellanos,  1744-1811, 

Antiquity. 

180 

1800  J.  A.  Llorente,  History  of 

1800 

'  Agrarian  Law.' 
Tol.  da  Almeida,  Satires. 

Inquisition. 

P. 

Fem.  de  Moratin,  d.  1828, 

Jose  Antonio  Conde,  His- 

Comedies. 

tory  of  Moors  in  Spain. 

M.  Garcia  de  Villanueva, 

'  On  the  Theatre.' 

J.  H.  Davila,  General  Lit- 

erature. 

638 


THE   world's   progress. 


DUTCH. 


IMAGINATION. 

FACT. 

SPECULATIVE  AND  SCIEKTIFIO 

1200  J.  Van  Maerlant,  1235— 
1300,  Poems,  '  Rymby- 
bel.' 
Melis  Stoke,  Poetic  Chron. 

1200 

1200 

1300  Jan  van  Helen,  Poems, 
Chronicles. 
Heij.  van  Holland,  Poems. 
Claes  Willems,  Poems. 

1300 

1300 

Gerard  Groot,  Theology. 

1400  J.  Wilt,  Trans.  Boethius. 

Dirk  van  Munster,  '  Chris- 
tian Mirror.' 

Lambert,  Goetman,  '  Mir- 
ror of  Youth.' 

1400  Edmund  Dinter,  d.  1448, 
Chronicles  of  Brabant. 
p.  vander  Heyden,  1393— 
1473,  Chronicles. 

1400 

J.  W.  Gransfc«t,  Theo. 

Rud.  Agricola,  1442—1485, 
Philosophy,  Hist.,  &c. 

1500 

A.  Byns,  Religious  Poems. 

Jan.  Fruiiiers,  Poems  and 
Prose. 

J.  Secundus,  1511—1536, 
Amatory  Poems. 

Dirk  Koornhert,  1522— 
1590,  Transl.  Homer. 

P.  van  Mamix,  Odes, 
Songs. 

R.  Visscher,  Epigrams. 

Hendrick  Spieghel,  Didac- 
tic Poems. 

1500 

S.  Pighius,  1520—1604, 
'Roman  Annals.' 

.V 

A.  Schott,  1552—1629,  His- 
tory of  Spain. 

1500  Erasmus,  1467—1536,  The- 
ology, Literature,  &c 

J.  Heurnius,  1543—1601, 
Medicine. 

C.  Kiliaan,  d.  1607,  Dic- 
tionary. 

Justus  Lipsius,  1547—1606, 
Philology. 

Sim.  Stevinus,  d.  1633, 
Hydrostaucs,  Mathem. 

H.  Erpenius,  1584—1624, 
Orientalist. 

1600  G.   Brederode,  1585—1637, 

Comedies,  &c. 
D.  R.  Kamphuizen,  1586— 

1626,  Religious  Poems. 
Daniel  Heins,  1580—1655, 

Poems,  Philology. 
J.  Cats,  1577—1660,  Drama. 
P.  C.  Hooft,  1587—1647, 

Tragedy,  Odes,  Hist,  of 

the  Netherlands. 
G.  van  Baerle  (Barlseus), 

1584—1648,  Latin  Poems. 
Just  van  Vondel,  1587— 

1679,  Tragedies. 
M.  Visscher,  Trans.  Tasso. 
Jan  van  Heemskerk,  'Ar- 
cadia.' 
J.  Westerbaen,  1599—1669, 

Epigrams. 

1600 

H.  de  Groot  (Grotius), 
1583—1645,  Hist.,  Theol- 
ogy, Poetry,  &c. 

1^ 

1600 

J.  Golius,  1596—1667,  On. 

entalist. 
Voetius,  1589—1676. 

Polemics. 
Beverwyk,  1594—1647, 

Medicine. 
Diemerbroek,  1609—1674, 

Anatomy. 

LITERARY    CHRONOLOGY DUTCH. 


639 


IMAOINATION. 

FACT. 

SPECULATIVE  AND  SCIENTIFIC. 

Cons,  Huygens,  1595-1687, 

J.  F.   Gronovius,  1611— 

Epigrams. 

1671,  Philology. 

Jer.  Decker,  1610—1966, 

J.  Leusden,  1614—1699, 

Elegies. 

Philology. 

D.  Joncktijs,  d.  1654,  Ama- 

tory Poems. 

Nicholas  Heins,  1620-1681, 

.  F.  Burman,  1628-1679, 

Poems,  Philology. 

Theology. 

Jan  de  Brune,  '  Whetstone 

Chr.  Huygens,  1629—1695, 

of  Wit.' 

Mathem.,  Mechanics. 

Jan  Vos,  Drama,  Epi- 

B. Spinoza,  1632—1677, 

grams. 

Theology. 

Reinier  Anslo,  1622—1660, 

'Plague  of  Naples.' 

Ger.  Brandt,  1626-1685, 
Hist,  of  Reformation. 

Cau,  Collect,  of  Batavian 
History. 

J,  G.  Greevius,  1632—1703, 

Swammerdam,  1637—1680, 

Roman  Antiquities. 

Natural  History. 

J.  Perizonius,  1631—1715, 

A.  Leuwenhoek,  1632 — 

History. 

1723,  Natural  History. 

1700  P.  Francius,  1645-1704, 

1700 

1700  F.  Ruysch,  1639-1731, 

Latin  Poetry. 

Anat. 

J.  A.  Vander  Goes,  1647— 

1648,  Drama. 

J.  Gronovius,  1645—1716, 

Greek  Antiquities. 

G.  Bidloo,  1649-1713, 

P.  Bondam,  Collection  of 

Anat. 

Batavian  History. 

C.  Vitringa,  1659—1722, 

Simon  Styl,  History  of 

Theology. 

Netherlands. 

Binkerschoek,  1663—1743, 

Law. 
H.  Boerhaave,  1668—1738, 

Medicine. 
Hemsterhuis,  1685—1766, 

Philology. 
A.  Schultens,  1686-1750, 

Philology. 
Gtavesande,  1688—1742, . 

Mathematics. 

Chr.  Hecht,  1696—1748, 

Philology. 

„ 

B.  S.  Albinus,  1683-1771, 

Anatomy. 

Oudendorp,  1696—1761, 

Philology. 

W.  Otto  Reiz,  1702—1768, 

Law. 

D.  Gaubius,  1705-1780, 

Medicine. 

- 

Hoogeveen,  1712—1794, 

Philology. 

Eliz.  Wolff,  Novels. 

G.  van  Sv^ieten,  1700— 

Loosjes,  Novels. 

1772,  Medicine. 
P.  Camper,  1722—1789, 

Bellamy,  1757—1786,  Odes. 

Anatomy. 

Klem,  Lyrics. 

D.  Ruhnken,  1723—1793, 

Van  Alphen,  Odes. 

Philology. 
Valckenaer,  Philology. 

1800 

1800 

1800  D.  Wyttenbach,  d.  1808, 

Hincopen,  Odes. 

Philology. 

Helmers,  d.  1831,  Poems 

Nieuwland,  Poems. 
Borger,  Odes. 

Te  Water,  History. 

Engelberts,  Ancient  Hist. 

Bilderdyk.  Dramas,  Odes, 

of  Netherlands. 

Van  Kampen,  Statistics. 

&c. 

640 


THE   WORLD'S   PROGRESS. 


IMAGINATION. 

FACT. 

SPECTILATIVE  AND  SCIENTIFIC. 

ToUens,  Poems. 

Da  Costa,  Sacred  Poems. 

Wilderbosch,  Odes. 

Kluits,  Hist,  of  Holland. 
Westendorp,  History. 
Ypey,  Ecclesiastical  Hist. 

De  Jonge,  Antiquities. 
Hamaker,  Orientalist. 
Vander  Palm,  Literature. 

SWEDEN,  DENMARK  AND  ICELAND. 

S.,  Sweden;  D.,  Denmark ;  Ic,  Iceland.- 


IMAGINATION. 

FACT. 

SPECULATIVE  AND  SCIENTIFIC. 

Ic.    900  Hjalti,  Poems. 

900 

900 

Ic.  1100  Thorwald,  Ballads. 

Ic.           Saemund,  6.  1156,  The 
Elder  Edda. 

1100 

Ic.     Aro,  d.  1148,  Annals  of  Ice- 
land. 

D.     Saxo,  Grammaticus,  d. 

1204,  Hist,  of  Northern 
Nations. 

D.     Sueno,  Hist,  of  Denmark. 

1100 

D.     Sunesen,  Jurist. 
D.     Axel,  Theology. 

Ic.  1200  Snor.Sturleson,d.  1241, 
Younger  Edda,  Hiat. 
of  Norway. 

Ic.          Suerron,  Tales. 

1200 

D.     Sturla  Thoridsen,  History 
of  Norway. 

1200 

1400 

1400 

S.      Eric  Olai,  History  of  Goths 
and  Swedes. 

1400 

S.      Bryn.  Karlsson,  d.  1430, 

Instruction  to  Kings  and 
Princes. 

1600 

1500 

S.      John  Magnus,  d.  1544, 

Hist,  of  Sweden. 
S.      Olaus  Magnus,  Customs  of 

Northern  Nations. 
S.      P.  Lagerloof,  1538—1599, 

History  North  of  Europe. 
Ic.     Arn.  Jonas,  1545—1640, 

Hist,  of  Iceland,  &c. 

1500 

D.     Tycho  Brahe,  1546— leoi,' 

Astronomy. 
D.     tJrsus,  a.  1600,  Astronomy. 

1600 

D.     Anders  Arrebo,  6.  1587, 
Religious  Poetry. 

D.     Anders  Bording,  b.  1619, 

Poems. 
S.      Stiemhjelm,    Epic  Poem, 

'Hercules.' 

1600 

D.     J.  J.  Pontanus,  1591—1640, 
Danish  Hist. 

1600 

S.      P.  Kirsten,  1577—1640, 
Orientalist. 

D.      G.  Bartholine,  1585—1629, 
Anatomy,  Theology. 

D.     Ole  Worm,  1588— 1654,  An- 
tiquities, Philo. 

LITERARY    CHRONOLOGY SWEDEN,  DENMARK,  AND   ICELAND.       641 


IMAGINATION. 


SPECULATIVE  AND   SCIENTIFIC. 


Torfeus,  1639—1720,  Hist, 
of  Norway. 


S.      OI.  Rudbeck,  1630—1702, 
Botany,  Anat.,  &c. 


D.  1700  Thos.  Kingo,  b.  1634. 
Hymns. 


1700 


D. 


L.  Holberg,  1684—1754, 
Drama,  Satire,  Hist. 

Ch.  Falster,  1690— 
1752,  Satirist. 


OlofDalin,  1708—1763, 
Poetry,  History. 


Sneedorf,  1724—1764, 
Poems. 


TuUin,  Lyrics. 
John  Ewald,  1743- 

1781,  Tragedy,  Lyrics. 
J.  H.  Wessel,  Humor- 
ous Poems. 
Bellerman,  1741—1796, 

Lyrics. 
H.  Tode,  1736—1806, 

Dramas,  Fables. 
Samsoe,  1759— 1796, 

Tragedies. 
P.  A.  Heiberg,  b.  1758; 

Drama. 
S.  Elgstrom,  d.   1810, 

Poems. 


John  Permgskiold,  1654 — 
1720,  History. 

Arne  Magnussen,  b.  1663, 
CoUec.  Hist. 

Albert  Thura,  Hist. 

Hans  Gram,  d.  1748,  His- 
tory. 


1700 

D.     J.  C.  Sturmius,  1635—1703, 
Phys.,  Mathera.  - 


D. 


Langebek,  d.  1775,  Collec. 
Danish  History. 

Pontoppidan,  d.  1764,  Ori- 
gines  Havnienses. 

Lagerbring,  d.  1781,  His- 
tory. 


P.  T.  Suhm,  1720—1798, 
Hist,  of  Denmark. 


Ic.  1800  Thorlacksen,  d.  1819, 

Transl.  Milton 
D.  C.  L.  Sander,  Dramas. 


1800 

D.     Malte  Brun,  d.  1826,  Geog- 
raphy. 


Linnaeus,  1707—1778, 
Botany. 


S.      Wallerius,  d.  1785, 

Mineralogy. 
D.     Oeder,  Flora  Danica. 
S.     Hire,  Dictionary. 


1800 


D. 

Jens.  Baggesen,  d. 

1826,  Lyrics. 
Oehlenscnlager. 

S. 

Thorild  Travels. 

D. 

S. 

Berzelius,  Chemistry. 

Poems. 

1). 

Rask,  Orientalist. 

D. 

B.  S.  Ingermann, 

s. 

Wodderstadt,  'On  Yellow 

Lyrics. 

S. 

Afzelius,  Iceland  Records. 

Fever.' 

S. 

Atterbone,  Poems. 

S. 

Hallenberg,  History. 

s. 

Liliegren,  Northern  An- 

S. 

Tegner,  Romances,  &c. 

S. 

Granberg,  Statistics. 

tiquities. 

s. 

F.  Bremer  Novels. 

s 

Blexell,  Topography. 

s. 

Norberg,  Orientalist. 

J.  F.  Blumenbach, 

1840,  Naturalist. 

642 


THE  world's  progress, 


POLISH. 


IMAGINATION. 

FACT. 

SPECULATIVE  AND  SCIENTIPIO 

1200 

1200  Vine.  Kadlubek,  d.  1226, 

History  of  Poland. 
Boguphalus,  d.  1253, 

Chronicle  of  Poland. 
Martin  Polonus,  d.  1278, 

Chronicle  of  Popes  and 

Emperors. 

1200 

Vitellio,  Optics. 

1400 

1400  Dluglossus,  1415—1480, 
History  of  Poland. 

1400 

1500 

Kochanowski,  1530—1584, 

1500 

Cawalezewskij  Chronicles. 
Bielski,  Chronicles. 

Stryjkowski,  Chron.  of  Po- 
land and  Russia. 

1500 

N.  Copernicus,  1472-1543, 

Astronomy. 
Lucas  Gornicki,  Ethics. 
Rey  of  Naelowic,  1515— 

1568,  Ethics. 

1600 

Sarbiewski,       1595—1640, 
Latin  Poetry. 

1600  Ab.    Bzovius,    1567—1637, 
Ecclesiastical  Annals. 

Lubienetski,      1623-1675, 
History  of  Reformation. 

1600 

John  Maccov,  d.  1644,  The- 
ology. 

Przipcov,  1590—1670,  The- 
ology. 

1700 

Naruszewicz,  d.  1796,  Po- 
etry and  History. 

1700  Dogiel,  Coll.  Hist.  Poland. 
Mizler,             Do. 

1700 

ISOO  Krasicki,  Poems,  Roman- 
ces. 
Boguslawski,  Drama. 
Bronikowski,  Novels. 
Bernatowicz,  Novels. 
Bulgarin,  Novels. 
Mickiewicz,  Poems. 
Odyniec,  Drama. 

1800 

Lach  Szmyma,  Travels. 
Potocki,  Travels. 

1800 

Linde,  Lexicon. 

RUSSIAN. 

[The  Russian  has  been  in  use  as  the  language  of  literature  scarcely  more  than  a  century.  Almost 
f>U  books  used  in  Russia  were  written  in  the  ancient  Sclavonic  tongue,  which  does  not  greatly 
differ  from  Russian,  but  more  closely  resembles  the  languages  spoken  in  Servia,  and  in  the 
other  provinces  near  the  Save  and  Danube.  The  first  printing-office  in  Russia  was  established 
in  1553.] 


IMAGINATION. 

FACT. 

SPECtTLATIVB  AND  SCIENTIFIC. 

lOOO 

1000 

Nestorof  Kiew,  1056—1115, 
Chronicles  of  Russia. 

1000  YaroBlaf,  Code  of  Laws. 

LITERARY    CHRONOLOGY RUSSIAN. 


643 


IMAGINATION. 

FACT. 

SPECULATIVE  AND  SCIENTIFIC. 

1100 

The  Expedition  of  Ighor,  a 
celebrated  Poem,  autlior 
Unknown. 

1100  Theodosius,(?.1120,  Annals. 
Sylvester,  d.  "1123,    Chro- 
nicles of  Russia. 

Simeon  of  Susdal,  d.  1206, 
Chronicles  of  Russia. 

1100 

1200 

1200  John  of  Novgorod,  History 
of  Russia. 

1200 

[The  blank  of  nearly  four  centuries  arises  from  the  oppression  of  the  Mongols,  who  held  Russia 
from  1223  to  1477.  They  destroyed  almost  all  ancient  books,  and  repressed  the  rising  spirit  of 
knowledge  which  a  close  connection  with  the  Greeks  was  then  introducing  into  Russia.] 


1600 


Simeon  of  Polotsk,  Poems, 
Spiritual  Dramas. 


1700 


Cantemir,  1708—1744,  Sati- 
rical Poems, 

Lomonosoff,       1711—1765, 
Poetry,  History,  Science. 

Tredianoffski,  Poems. 

Popofski,  Transl.  Pope. 

Suraarokoff,       1718—1777, 
Drama. 

Kheraskofr,        1733—1807, 
'The  Russiad.' 

Kostroff,  d.   1796,  Transl. 
the  Iliad. 

Petrotr,  1736—1799,  Transl. 
the  Eneid. 

Kniajnin,    1742—1794, 
Drama. 

J.  Khemnitzer,  1744—1784, 
Fables. 

Klushin,  Comedies. 

EphimiefF,  Comedies. 

Ablesimoff,  Operas. 

G.  R.  Derjavin,  1743—1816, 
Lyric  Poetry. 

H.   Bogdanovitch,     1743— 
1803,'  Dushenka,'  Poems. 

Vizin,   1745—1792,    Come- 
dies, Tales. 

Nicoleff,  Tragedies. 


1800  Maikoff,  Comic  Poems. 
Dmitrieff,  Lyrics.  Fables. 
OzerofF,  d.  1816,  Tragedies. 
P.     Sumarokoff,     Poems, 

V.   A.  jukofski,    b.    1783, 

Poems. 
Milonoff,  d.  1821,  Satires. 
Batiushkoff,  Transl.  Tibul- 

lus. 
Gneditch,    Transl.     Iliad, 

Odes. 
Kryloff,  Fables. 


1500 


1700  Khilkoff,  History  of  Russia. 
V.     Tatischeff,     d.     1750, 
Chronicles  of  Russia. 


Cherbatoff,  History. 
Golikotr,  History. 


Muravieff,  1757—1816,  His- 
tory, Didactics. 
Eugenius,  History. 


Karamsin,  b.  1765,  History 

of  Russia. 
Kachenofski,  History. 
G.  Glinka,  History. 


Kotzebue,  Voyage  of  Dis- 

coveiy. 
Gretch,  History  of  Russian 

Literature. 
Timkowski,    Journey 

China. 


1500  Sudebuek,  Code  of  Laws. 


1600  Demetrius  of  Rostoff,  Tlie- 
ology.  Spiritual  Dramas. 


1700  Theophanes,  Seimons. 


Plato,  1737—1812,  Sefmona. 

P.   S.    Pallas,    1741—1811, 
Natural  History. 


1800  Shishkoff,  Criticism. 


Augustin,  Sermons. 


644 


THE    WORLD'S   PROGRESS. 


ARABIAN,  PERSIAN,  AND  TURKISH. 
P.  Persian.      T.  Turkish.     Those  unmarked  are  Arabian. 


IMAGINATION. 


60C  Mahomet,  Koran. 

Lebid,  622—757,  Poems. 
Zohair,  Poems. 

Kais'  El  Ameri,  or  Amrul- 
kais,  Poems. 


600 


700 


700 


Abun  Massabj  Poems. 
Abunowas,?62— 810,  Poems. 
Rehashi,  Poems. 
Acu  Obeid,  d.  838,  Fables. 


800 


SPECULATIVE  AND  SCIENTir.  O. 


600 


Muham.  ben  Omar,  History. 


A.Temain,  804—84.5,  Poems 


Bochteri,  821—882,  Anthol. 

Abu  Mohammed  Abdallah, 
Literature. 


900  Ibn  Doraid,  d.  931,  Poems. 


Almotanabbi,  d.  965, 
Poems 


Wahab,  Travels. 
Abuzeid,  Travels. 
I.  Kotaibah,  d.  889,  History. 
Abu  Jafar,  838—922,  Hist. 
Honain  ben  Isaac,    d.  874, 
Translations  from  Greek. 


Ahaxun,  Medicine. 


700  Jafar,  Chemistry. 

Abu  Hanifah,  699—767,  The- 
ology. 


800  Asmai,  740—830,  Theology. 

Kendi,  Philosophy. 

J.  ben  Serapion,  Medicine. 

Almamon,  Astronomical 
Tables. 

Bahali,  d.  835,  Etymology. 

Alfragan,  Astronomy. 

Nasir  Khosru,  Metaphys. 

Albumazar,  805—885,  Ma- 
thematics, Astronomy. 

Bochari,  810—870,  '  Tha 
Sahih,'  Traditions. 


Geber,  Chemistry. 


900 


P.  1000  Ferdusi,  932—1020, 

'Shah  Nameh,'  Epic 
Poem. 


Abul  Ola,  973—1057, 
Poems. 


Said  ben  Batrik,  876—937, 

General  History. 
Eutychius,  History. 
Massudi,  d,  957,  History 

and  Geography. 


Ibn  Haukal,  Geography. 


1000  Almuyadad,  History  of 
Saracens  in  Sicily. 


900  Albategni,  Astronomy. 
Bases,  d.  9^,  Medicme. 
Ben  Musa,  Mathematics. 
Azophi,  Astronomy. 


Alfarabi,  d.  954,  Aristo- 
telian Philosophy. 

Geuhari,  d.  998,  Aristo- 
telian Philosophy. 


1000  Achmet,  Treatise  on 
Dreams. 
Ibn  Mesua,  Medicine. 
Avicenna,  930-1038, 
Philosophy,  Medicine. 


Abulcasis,  Medicine. 
Jelaleddin,  Correction  of 

Calendar. 
Arzachel,  Astronomy. 


LITERARY    CHRONOLOGY ARABIAN,  PERSIAN,  AND   TURKISH.       645 


IMAGINATION. 

PACT. 

SPBCtTLATIVE  AND  SCIENTIPIO. 

1100  Tograi,  d.  1119,  Poems. 

1100 

1100  Gazali,  1058-1112,  Aristo- 

/, 

telian  Philosophy. 

Alhazin,  Optics. 

Tabrizl,  d.  1136,  Commen- 

Hairi, 1054-1121,  Moral 

taries. 

Poems. 

Algazel,  Antiquities,  &c. 

Alchabit,  Optics,  Astron. 

P. 

Felekl,  d.  1181,  Poems. 

Ben  Idris,  b.  1099,  Geog. 

A  Zohar,  d.  1168,  Medic. 

P. 

Khakani,  d.  1185,  Poems. 

P. 

Anwari,  d.  1200,  Poems. 
Jaafar  ebn  Tofail,  d.  1198, 

'Hai  ben  Yokdan,'  a 

Novel. 
I.  Elfaredh,d.  1234,  Poems. 

Averroes,  d.  1206,  Aristo- 
telian Pliilosophy. 

1200 

1200  Bohadin,  Life  of  Saladin. 

1200  A.  Baca,  d.  1219,  Arithm. 

AbdoUatif,  Topography  of 

Egypt. 

Abuldem,  d.  1244,  History. 

El  Harawi,  Travels. 

P. 

Saadi,  1193-1291,  '  Gulis- 
tan,'  'Bostan.' 

Elfaragi,  Poems. 

P. 

Abulfarage,  1226—1286, 
Universal  History. 

Elmacin,  d.  1302,  History 
of  Saracens. 

Fadlallah,  History  of  Mo- 
guls. 

Caswin,  d.  1274,  Natural 

History. 
Beithar,  d.  1246,  Botany, 

Medicine. 

P.      Nasireddin,  1201—1273, 
Astronomy. 

1300 

1300  Abulfeda,  1273-1333, 

1300  E.  Hajan,  d.  1344,  Gran. 

Geography,  History. 
Novairi,  d.  1331,  Universal 

History. 
Mohammed  Ibn  Batuta, 

Travels. 

Ibn  al  Wardi,  d.  1358, 

Geography. 

Abu  Sharaeh,  b.  1299,  Hist. 

P. 

Turan  Shah,  d.  1377,  Hist. 

P. 

Hafix,  d  1395,  Odes. 

Jafei,  d.  1368,  Biography. 

Firuzabadi,    1329—1414, 
'  The  Camoos.' 

1400 

P. 
P. 

1400  Ali  Yezdi  Sherifeddin, 
Life  of  Tamerlane. 
Makrizi,  1367-1438,  Hist. 

Arabshah.  d.  1450,  Life  of 
Timur. ' 

Baccai,  d.  1480,  Biography. 
Khondemir,  or  Mirkhond, 

1400  Zeineddin     Abulhassan, 
Dictionary. 

Ulug    Beg,    1393—1444, 
Astronomy,  Chronology 

Babacushi,    d.    1481, 
Politics. 

P. 

Jami,  d.  1486,  Poems,     s 

T. 

Gen.  Hist,  to  a.  d.  1474. 
Baber,  d.   1530,   Autobio- 
graphy. 

1500  Alhassan,    Description  of 

1500 

Africa. 

Babacushi,  d.  1566,  Morals. 

Al  Jannabi,  d.  1590,  Uni- 



versal  History. 

645 


THE   WORLD'S   PROGRESS. 


IMAGINATION. 

PACT. 

SPECULATIVE  AND  BCIENTIFIO. 

1600 

1600  Ferishta,  Hist,  of  India. 
Abulgazi,  1605—1663,  Hist. 

of  Tartars. 
T.      Haji  Khalifeh,  d.  1675, 

History. 

P.  1600  Nured.  Shirazi,  Metaph. 
Moham.  Hossain, '  Borhani 
Kata,'  Dictionary. 

1700 

P.  1700  Gholam   Hussein,  An- 
nals of  Hindostan. 

1700  Gholam  Ali,  Grammar. 

UNITED   STATES   OF   NORTH  AMERICA. 


IMAGINATION. 

FACT. 

SPECULATIVE  AND  SCIENTIFIC. 

1600 

1600 

1600  Thomas  Hooker,  d.  1627, 
Sermons,  &c. 

Wm.  Hubbard,  1704,  Hist. 

John  Cotton,  d.  1652,  Theol. 

of  Massachusetts. 

Cotton  Mather,  1662-1728, 
Sermons, '  Magnalia,'&c. 

1700  John   Adams,   1705—1740, 

1700  Inc.  Mather,  1723, '  History 

1700  Benj.   Colman,  d.   1747, 

Poems. 

of  War  with  Indians.' 

Theology. 

Benj.  Church,  1739-1776, 

Thos.  Prince,  d.  1757,  Hist. 

Jona.  Edwards,  d.  1757, 

Poems. 

of  New  England. 

Theology. 

Wm.    Livingston,    1723— 

Samuel  Davies,  d.  1761, 

1790,  Poems. 

Sermons. 

John  Trumbull,  1750-1831, 

John    Clayton,  d.   1773, 

'McFingal,'  &c. 

Botany. 

.loel    Barlow,    1755—1812, 

Cadwallader  Golden,  1688- 

'  The  Columbiad.' 

1776,  History  of  the  Five 
Nations  of  Indians. 

John  Blair  Linn,  1777— 

John  Bartram,  d.  1777, 

1804,  Poems. 

Botany,  Travels. 

Thos.  Hutchinson,  d.  1780, 

Jos.    Bellamy,    d.  1790, 

Hist,  of  Massachusetts. 

Theology. 
Benjamin  Franklin,  1706— 

1790,Natural  Philosophy, 

Politics,  &c. 
Jas.  Otis,  d.  1783,  Politics. 
John    Hancock,    1793, 

Politics. 
Jolin  Witherspoon,  d.  1794, 

Theolosy,  Politics. 
Patrick  Henry,  d.  1796, 

David  Rittenhouse,  d.  1796, 

Politics. 

Astronomy. 

Samuel  Adams,  1803, 

Jeremy  Belknap,  1798,  His- 

Politics. 

tory  of  N.   riampshire, 

Samuel  Hopkins,  1721— 

Amer.  Biog.  &c. 

1803,  Theology. 

Geo.  R.  Minot,  1802, '  Hist. 

Fisher  Ames,  d.  1808, 

of  Massachusetts  Bay.' 

Politics. 

Isaac  Backus,  1806,  Church 

History  of  N.  England. 

1800  Chas.  B.  Brown,  d.  1810, 

1800  Jas.  Sullivan,  d.  1809,  Hist. 

1800  Thos.    Paine,    1737—1809, 

Novels. 

of  Maine.    . 

Politics,  'Age  of  Reason,' 

Robt.  Treat  Paine,  1773— 

'  Rights  of  Man,'  &c. 

1811,  'Invention  of  Let- 

David   Ramsay,    d.  1812, 

Jos.    S.    Buckminster,    a. 

ters,'  'The  Ruling  Pas- 

'  Life    of    Washington,' 

1812,  Theology. 

Bion,'  and  other  Poems. 

'American    Revolution,' 

Alex.   Hamilton,   1757— 

'  Universal  History.' 

18W,  Pontics. 

LITERARY    CHRONOLOGY U.  S.  OF   NORTH   AMERICA. 


647 


IMAGINATION. 


1800  Paul  Allen,  1775—1826, 
'  Noah,'  (a  poem,)  [Hist, 
of  Am.  Re  vol.] 


1800  Alexander  Wilson,  d.  1813, 
'American  Ornithology.' 

Hugh  Williamson,  d.  1818, 
Hist,  of  N.  Carolina. 

Benj.  S.  Barton,  d.  1815, 
Botany. 


J.  G.  C.  Brainard,  d.  1826, 
Poems, 


Wm.  Wirt,  1772— ia34, 
'British  Spy.' 


Robt.   C.   Sands,   d.   1832, 

Poems. 
J.  Q.   Adams,  1707—1847, 

Poems. 
Washington  AUston,  1779- 

1843,  Painter,  Poet,  and 

Novelist. 
Timothy  Flint,  17S0— 1840 

Novels. 
Jas.   A;  Hillhouse,  1789— 

1841,  Poems. 
Wm.  Leggett,  1802—1840, 

Poems,  Miscellan.,  Polit. 
R.  H.  Wilde,  1789—1840, 

Poems,    Researches    on 

Tas90,  <fcc. 


E.  A.  Poe,  1811-1849,Poems, 
Tales. 


SPECULATIVK  AND   SCIENTIFIC. 


1800 


Wm.   Bartram,  d.  1823, 

Botany,  Travels. 
Jedediah  Morse,  d.  1826, 

Geog.,  Statistics,  &c. 


Nathl.  H.  Carter,  1788— 
1830,  '  Letters  from  Eu- 
rope.' 

Edmund  D.  Griffin,  1804— 
1830,  Travels  in  Europe, 
Lectures  on  Literature, 
&c. 

John  D.  Godman,  d.  1830, 
Anatomy,  Natural  Hist., 
&c. 

John  Marshall,  1755—1835, 
Life  of  Washington,  &c. 

Jno.  Armstrong,  1758-1843, 
'War  of  1812.' 

Abiel  Holmes,  1763—1837, 
Annals  of  America. 

Timothy  Flint,  1780—1840, 
Hist,  of  Mississ.  Valley. 

A.  S.  Mackenzie,  —1849. 
Travels  in  Spain,  &c. 


Gouvenieur  Morris,  1752— 

1816,  Politics. 
Timothy    Dwight,    1752— 

1817, '  Theology  Explain- 
ed and  Defended.' 
Levi    Frisbie,    1784—1822,- 

Moral  Philosophy. 
Wm.  Pinckney,  1764-1822, 

Law,  Politics. 
Jno.  Marshall,  1755—1835, 

Law. 
W.  E.    Channing,    1780—. 

1842,  Sermons,  Criticism. 


Thomas   Jefferson,  1743— 

1826,  Politics,  Philos. 
John    Adams,    1735—1826, 

Politics. 
John   M.    Rlason,     D.  D., 

1770—1829,     Divinity, 

Sermons,  &c. 
John  H.   Hobart,  D.  D., 
1776-1830,  Sermons,  &c. 
Jos.    Story,   1779—1^45, 

Law. 
Henry  Wheaton,  1782— 

1848,  Law. 
Edw.    Livingston,    1764— 

1836,  Criminal  Code,  <fec. 
David  Hosack,  1769—1835, 

Medicine. 
Jas.  Madison,    1751—1836, 
Politics. 


Alex.  H.    Everett,  1790— 

1847,  Essays. 
R.    Harlan,    1796—1843, 

Natural  History. 
James    Kent,    1763—1847, 

Comment,  on  Am.  Law. 
Hugh    S.    Legare,    1797- 

1843,  Miscellanies. 
Jas.  Marsh,  1794-1842,  Me- 
taphysics. 
Albert  Gallatin,  1761-1849, 

Ethnology,  Philology. 
J.  C.  Calhoun,  1782-1850, 

Politics,  Speeches. 


HEATHEN  DEITIES,  AND  OTHER  FABULOUS  PERSONS, 


WITH   THE 


HEROES  AND  HEROINES  OF  ANTIUUITY. 


Ab'aris,  a  Scythian,  priest  of  Apollo. 

Abeo'na,  a  goddess  of  voyages,  &c. 

Abreta'nus,  a  surname  of  Jupiter. 

A'bron,  a  very  voluptuous  Grecian. 

Aby'la,  a  famous  mountain  in  Africa. 

Acan'tha,  a  nymph  beloved  by  Apollo. 

Acas'tus,  the  name  of  a  famous  hunter. 

Ace'tus,  one  of  the  priests  of  Bacchus. 

Achcb'menes,  the  first  king  of  Persia. 

Acha'tes,  a  trusty  friend  of  .lEneas. 

Ach'eron,  a  son  of  Titan  and  Terra,  changed  into 
a  river  of  hell  for  assisting  the  Titans  in  their 
war  against  Jupiter. 

Achil'les,  son  of  Peleus,  king  of  Thrace,  and 
Thetis,  a  goddess  of  the  sea,  who,  being  dip- 
ped by  his  mother  in  the  river  Styx,  was  in 
vulnerable  in  every  part  except  his  right 
heel, by  which  she  held  him;  after  signaliz- 
ing himself  at  the  siege  of  Troy,  for  his  valor, 
as  well  as  cruelty,  he  was  at  length  killed  by 
Paris  with  an  arrow. 

Acid'cdia  and  Arma'ta,  names  of  Venus. 

AcidaHus,  a  famous  fountain  of  Bceotia. 

A'cis,  a  Sicilian  shepherd,  killed  by  Polyphemus, 
because  he  rivalled  him  in  the  affections  of 
Galetea. 

Ac'mon,  a  famous  king  of  the  Titans. 

Ac'ratus,  the  genius  of  drunkards  at  Athens. 

A  -Hcbon,  a  celebrated  hunter,  who,  accidentally 
discovering  Diana  bathing,  was  by  her  turned 
into  a  stag,  and  devoured  by  his  own  hounds. 

Adme'tus,  a  king  of  Thessaly. 

Ado'nis,  the  incestuous  offspring  of  Cinyras  and 
INIyrrha,  remarkably  beautiful,  beloved  by 
Venus  and  Proserpine. 

AdrasHea,  the  goddess  Nemesis. 

JE'acus,  one  of  the  infernal  judges. 

^'ga,  Jupiter's  nurse,  daughter  of  Olenus. 

JDgeius,  a  king  of  Attica,  giving  name  to  the 
iEgean  sea  by  drowning  himself  in  it. 

JDgi'na,  a  particular  favorite  of  Jupiter. 

yE'gis,  a  Gorgon,  whom  Pallas  slew. 

JE'gle.  one  of  the  three  Hesperides. 

Ji^'gon,  a  wrestler  famous  for  strength. 

JDgyp'lus,  son  of  Neptune  and  Lybia. 

A^l'lo,  one  of  the  three  Harpies. 

^ne'as,  son  of  Anchises  and  Venus. 

/Eo'lus,  the  god  of  the  winds. 


^o'us,  one  of  the  four  horses  of  ths  sun. 

^scula'niis,  a  lloman  god  of  riches. 

JEscula'pius,  the  god  of  physic. 

^thal'ides,  a  son  of  mercury. 

^'thon,  one  of  the  four  horses  of  the  sun. 

^t'naus,  a  title  of  Vulcan. 

jEto'los,  a  son  of  Endymion  aud  Diana. 

Agamem'non,  a  brother  of  Menelaus,  chosen 

captain-general  of  the  Greeks  at  the  siege 

of  Troy. 
Aganipipe,  daughter  of  the  river  Permessus, 

which  flows  Irom  mount  Helicon. 
Age'nor,  the  first  king  of  Argos. 
Agenoi ria,  the  goddess  of  industry. 
Agclas'tuu  a.nd'Agesi'laus,  names  of  Pluto. 
Agla'ia,  one  of  the  three  Graces. 
AJJax,  one  of  the  most  distinguished  princes  and 

heroes  at  the  siege  of  Troy. 
Albu'nea,  a  famous  sybil  of  Tripoli. 
Atci'des,  a  title  of  Hercules. 
Alci'nous,  a  king  of  Corcyra. 
Alci'oneus,  a  giant  slain  by  Hercules. 
Alci'ope,  a  favorite  mistress  of  Neptune. 
Alcyne'na,  the  wife  of  Amphitryon. 
Alec'tn,  one  of  the  three  Furies. 
Alec'lryon,  or  Gal'lus,  a  favorite  of  Mars. 
Al'mus,  and  Alum'nus,  titles  of  Jupiter. 
Alo'a,  a  festival  of  Bacchus  and  Ceres. 
Alcb'us,  a  giant  who  warred  with  Jupiter. 
AmaUlut'a,  the  goat  that  suckled  Jupiter. 
Ambarva'le,  a  spring  sacrifice  to  Ceres. 
Ambro'sia,  the  food  of  the  gods. 
Ani'mon,  a  title  of  Jupiter. 
Amphiara'us,  son  of  Apollo  and  Hypermnestra, 

a  very  famous  augur. 
Amphime'don,  one  of  the  suitors  of  Penelope. 
Amphi'on,  a  famous  musician. 
AmphitriHe,  the  wife  of  Neptune. 
Amyntor,  a  king  of  Epirus. 
Ana'tis,  the  goddess  of  prostitution. 
Anca'us,  a  king  of  Arcadia. 
Andro'geus,  the  son  of  Minos. 
Androm'ache,  the  wife  of  Hector. 
Androm'eda,  the  daughter  of  Cepheus  and  Cas- 

siope,who,  contending  for  the  prize  of  beauty 

with  the  Nereides,  %vas  by  them  bound  tu  a 

rock  and  exposed  to  be  devoured  by  a  sea 

monster ;  but  Perseus  slew  the  monster,  and 

married  her. 
Angc'rona,  the  goddess  of  silence. 


HEATHEN    DEITIES,    ETC. 


64S 


An'na,  the  sister  of  Pygmalion  and  Dido. 
AntcB'as,  a  giant  son  of  Neptune  and  Terra ;  he 
was  squeezed  to  death  by  Hercules. 

Ah'teros,  one  of  the  names  of  Cupid. 

Antever'ta,  a  goddess  of  women  in  labor. 

An'thia,  and  Arg-i'va,  titles  of  Juno. 

An'ubis,  an  Egyptian  god  with  a  dog's  head. 

Aon'ides,  a  name  of  the  Muses. 

Apatu'ria,  and  Aphrodi'tis,  titles  of  Venus. 

JVpis,  son  of  Jupiter  and  Niobe,  called  also, 
Serapis,  and  Osiris :  he  iirst  taught  the 
Egyptians  to  sow  corn  and  plant  vines; 
after  his  death  they  worshipped  him  in  the 
form  of  an  o.\:,  a  symbol  of  husbandry. 

Arach'ne,  a  Lydian  princess,  turned  by  Minerva 
into  a  spider,  lor  presuming  to  vie  with  her 
at  spuming. 

Arethu'sa,  the  daughter  of  Nereus. 

Argenti'nus,  and  ^scida'nus,  gods  of  wealth. 

At-igo,  the  ship  that  conveyed  Jason  and  his  com- 
panions to  Colchis,  and  reported  to  have  been 
the  iirst  man-of  war. 

Ar'gojiauts,  the  companions  of  Jason. 

Ar'gus,  son  of  Aristor,  said  to  have  had  a  hun- 
dred eyes  ;  also  an  architect,  who  built  the 
ship  Argo. 

Ariad'ne,  daughter  of  Minos,  who,  from  love, 
gave  Theseus  a  clue  of  thread  to  guide  him 
out  of  the  Cretan  labyrinth :  being  after- 
wards deserted  by  him,  she  was  married  to 
Bacchus,  and  made  his  priestess. 

Arimas'pi,  a  warlike  people  of  Scythia. 

Ari'on,  a  lyric  poet  of^Methymna. 

Aristoi'us,  son  of  Apollo  and  Cyrene. 

Aristome'nes,  a  cruel  Titan. 

Aristoph'anes,  a  comic  poet,  born  at  Lindus,  a 
town  of  Rhodes. 

Arie'mis,  the  Delphic  sybil ;  also  Diana. 

Asde'pia,  festivals  of  jEsculapius. 

Asco'tia,  feasts  of  Bacchus,  celebrated  in  Attica. 

Aste'ria,  daughter  of  Ceus. 

Astrapcb'us,  and  Ataby'rics,  Jupiter. 

Astrcb'a,  the  goddess  of  justice. 

Astrol'ogus,  a  title  of  Hercules. 

Asty'anax,  the  only  son  of  Hector. 

Astypala'a,  daughter  of  Phtenix. 

A'te,  the  goddess  of  revenge. 

AtlanUes,  a  savage  people  of  Ethiopia. 

At'las,  a  king  of  Mauritania. 

At'ropos,  one  of  the  three  Fates. 

Aver'nus,  a  lake  on  the  borders  of  hell. 

Averrunc'us.  a  god  of  the  Romans. 

Auge'as,  a  king  of  Elis,  whose  stable  of  3000 
oxen  was  not  cleansed  for  30  years,  yet  Her- 
cules cleansed  it  in  one  day. 

A'vistuper,  a  title  of  Priapus. 

Au'rea,  a  name  of  Fortuna. 

Auro'ra,  the  goddess  of  morning. 

Auto'leon,  a  general  of  the  Crotonians. 

Autum'tius,  the  god  of  fruits. 


Bac'clms,  the  god  of  wine. 

Bap'ta,  the  goddess  of  shame. 

Barba'la,  a  title  of  Venus  and  Fortuna. 

Bas'sarexis,  a  title  of  Bacchus. 

Bat'lus.  a  herdsman,  turned  by  Mercury  mto  a 
loadstone. 

Bau'cis,  an  old  woman,  who,  with  her  husband 
Philemon,  entertained  Jupiter  and  Mercury, 
travelling  over  Phrygia,  when  all  others  re- 
fused, 

28 


Bellero'phon,  son  of  Glaucus,  king  of  Ephyra, 
who  underwent  numberless  hardships  for 
refusing  an  intimacy  with  Sthenobcea,  the 
wife  of  Proetus,  king  of  Argos. 

Bello'na,  the  goddess  of  war. 

BerecyiiHhia  Ma'tei;  a  title  of  Cybele. 

Bereni'ce,  a  Grecian  lady,  who  was  the  only 
person  of  her  sex  permitted  to  see  the  CMym- 
pic  games. 

Ber'gion,  a  giant,  slain  by  Jupiter. 

Bib'lia,  the  wife  of  Duillius,  who  first  instituted 
a  triumph  for  naval  victory. 

Bi'ceps,  and  Bi'Jrons,  names  of  Janus. 

Bisul'tor,  a  name  of  Mars. 

Bi'thon,  a  remarkably  strong  Grecian. 

Boli'na,  a  nymph  rendered  immortal  for  lier 
modesty  and  resistance  of  Apollo. 

Bo<na  De'a,  a  title  of  Cybele,  and  Fortuna. 

Bo'nus  Dafmon,  a  title  of  Priapus. 

Bo'reas,  son  of  JEstrseus  and  Heribeia,  generally 
put  for  the  north  wind. 

Bre'vis,  a  title  of  Fortuna. 

Eri'areus,  a  monstrous  giant,  son  of  Titan  and 
Terra :  the  poets  feign  him  to  have  liad  a 
hundred  arms  and  fifty  heads. 

Bi-ii-mo,  and  Bu'bastis,  names  of  Hecate. 

Brise'is,  daughter  of  Brises,  priest  of  Jupiter, 
given  to  Achilles  upon  the  taking  of  Lyr- 
nessus,  a  ciiy  of  Troas,  by  the  Greeks. 

B?-on'tes,  a  maker  of  Jupiter's  thunder. 

Bro'theus,  a  son  of  Vulcan,  who  threw  himself 
into  mount  .^tna,  on  account  of  his  de- 
formity. 

Bruma'lia,  feasts  of  Bacchus. 

Bubohia,  the  goddess  of  oxen. 

Busi'ris,  a  son  of  Neptune,  and  a  most  cruel 
tyrant ;  he  was  slain  by  Hercules. 

Byb'Us,  the  daughter  of  Miletus. 


Cabar'ni,  priests  of  Ceres. 

Cabi'ri,  priests  of  Cybele. 

Ca'brus,  a  god  of  the  Phaselitas. 

Ca'ciis,  a  son  of  Vulcan. 

Cud'/mis,  son  of  Agenor  and  Telephessa,  who, 
seHiching  in  vain  for  his  sister,  built  the  city 
of  Thebes,  and  invented  16  letters  of  the 
Gi-eek  alphabet. 

Cadu'cetm,  Mercury's  golden  rod  or  wand. 

Coi'ca,  and  ConservaHrix.,  titles  of  Fortuna. 

CcBc'ulus,  a  robber,  son  of  Vulcan. 

Ccb'neas,  a  title  of  Jupiter. 

CaVchas,  a  famous  Greek  soothsayer. 

Calis'to,  the  daughter  of  Lycaon. 

Calii'ope,  the  muse  of  lieroic  poetry. 

Calyp'so,  daughter  of  Oceanus  and  Thetis,  who 
reigned  in  the  island  of  Ogygia,  where  she 
entertained  and  became  enamored  of  Ulys- 
ses, on  his  return  from  Troy. 

Cam'bles,  a  gluttonous  king  of  Lydia. 

Camby'ses,  the  son  of  Cyrus,  and  king  of  (he 
Medes  and  Persians. 

CamcB'na,  and  Carna,  goddess  of  infants. 

Ca'nes,  a  title  of  the  Furies. 

Cano'pus,  an  Egyptian  god. 

Car'dua,  a  household  goddess. 

Carmen' ta,  a  name  of  Themis. 

Car'na,  a  Roman  goddess. 

Carya'lis,  a  title  of  Diana. 

Casipii,  a  people  of  Hyrcania,  who  were  said  to 
starve  ilieir  parents  to  death  when  70  years 
old,  and  to  train  up  dogs  for  war. 


650 


THE    WORLD'S   PROGRESS. 


Cassan'dra,  a  daughter  of  Priam  and  Hecuba, 
endowed  with  the  gift  of  prophecy  by  Apollo. 

CastaVides,  the  Muses,  from  the  fountain  Cas- 
talius,  at  the  foot  of  Parnassus. 

Cas'tor,  son  of  .Jupiter  and  Leda,  between  whom 
and  his  brotlier  Pollux  immortality  was  al- 
ternately shared. 

Ca'lius,  a  tutelar  god  to  grown  persons. 

Ce'crops,  the  first Tcing  of  Athens. 

Celoi'no,  one  of  the  three  Harpies. 

i'tn'laurs,  children  ol'  Ixion,  half  men,  half 
horses,  inhabiting  Thessaly. 

Crpha'lus,  the  son  ol  Mercury  and  Hersa. 

Ct'pheus,  a  prince  of  Arcadia  and  Ethiopia. 

i.'tiau'nius,  a  title  of  Jupiter. 

■Je:'berus,  a  dog  with  three  heads  and  necks, 
who  guarded  the  gates  of  hell. 

Ckri-aHia,  festivals  in  honor  of  Ceres. 

Ci'res,  the  goddess  of  agriculture. 

Ce'rus;  or  Seh'us,  the  god  of  opportunity. 

Chul'cea,  festivals  in  honor  of  Vulcan. 

C/iar'ites,  a  name  of  the  Graces. 

Clia'ron,  the  ferryman  of  hell. 

Cliiiinera,  a  strange  monster  of  Lycia,  which 
was  killed  by  Bellerophon. 

Chi'ion,  the  preceptor  of  Achilles. 

C/iro'/iiJs,  a  cruel  son  of  Hercules 

C/iii/iiao'rms,  a  surname  of  Jupiter. 

C/ii'i/'sis,  a  priestess  of  Juno  and  Argos. 

C'ir'ce,  a  famous  enchantress. 

Cir'rha,  a  cavern  of  Phocis,  near  Delphi,  whence 
the  winds  issued  which  caused  a  divine  rage, 
and  produced  oracular  responses. 

Cillub'rides,  a  title  of  the  Muses. 

Clau'sina,  a  name  of  Venus. 

Clau'siiis,  or  Clu'sius,  a  name  of  Janus. 

Vteu'inedes,  a  famous  wrestler. 

Cli'u,  the  Muse  presiding  over  history,  and  pa- 
troness of  heroic  poets. 

Clo'tho,  one  of  the  three  Fates. 

Cli/temnes'tra,  daughter  of  Jupiter  and  Leda, 
killed  by  her  son,  Orestes,  on  account  of  her 
adultery  with  JSgisthus. 

Cocy'tus,  a  river  of  hell,  flowing  from  Styx. 

CoUi'na,  the  goddess  of  hills. 

Compila'tia,  games  of  the  household  gods. 

Co'nius,  the  god  of  festivals  and  merriment. 

Concor'dia,  the  goddess  of  peace. 

Vonserva'lor,  and  Cus'tos,  titles  of  Jupiter. 

Con'sus,  a  title  of  Neptune. 

Corli'na,  the  covering  of  Apollo's  tripos. 

Curyban'les,  and  Citre'ies,  ■'riests  o''  pvbele. 

Cre'on,  a  king  of  Thebes. 

Crihiis,  a  priest  of  Apollo. 

On ms'sMs,  a  Trojan  prince,  who  could  change 
himself  into  any  shape. 

Ctcb'sus,  a  rich  king  of  Lydia. 

Crohiia,  festivals  in  honor  of  Saturn. 

Ctes'ibus,  a  famous  Athenian  parasite. 

Cu'nia,  the  goddess  of  new-born  infants. 

Cu'pidj  son  of  Mars  and  Venus,  the  god  of  love, 
smiles,  &c. 

Cy'clops,  Vulcan's  workinen,  with  only  one  eye 
in  the  middle  of  their  forehead. 

Ci/b'e!e,  the  wife  of  Saturn. 

Ci/c'nus,  a  king  of  Liguria ;  also  a  son  of  Nep- 
tune, who  was  invulnerable. 

OijUe'nius,  and  CamWlus,  names  of  Mercury. 

Cyjtoceph'ah,  a  people  of  Lidia,  said  to  have 
Ireads  resembling  those  of  dogs. 

Cyn'thia,  and  Cyn'thius,  Diana,  and  Apollo, 

Cyparisscb'a,  a  title  of  Minerva. 

Cyp'ria,  Cythere  a,  titles  of  Venus. 


D 

Dmda'lion,  the  son  of  Lucifer. 

Dced'alus,  an  artificer  of  Athens,  who  formed  the 
Cretan  labyrinth,  and  invented  the  auger, 
axe,  glue,  plumb-line,  saw,  and  masts  and 
sails  Jbr  ships. 

Da'mon,  the  sincere  friend  of  Pythias. 

Da'mun,  Bu'nus^  Dithyram'bus,  and  Dionys'- 
ius,  titles  of  Bacchus. 

Da'nae,  the  daughter  of  Acrisius,  king  of  Argos, 
seduced  by  Jupiter  in  the  form  of  a  golden 
shower. 

Dana'ides,  or  Be'-'ides,  the  fifty  daughters  )f 
Danaus,  khig  of  Argos,  all  of  whom,  except 
Hypermnestra,  killed  their  husbands,  the  sons 
ot  their  uncle  .aSgyptus,  on  the  marriage 
night :  they  were  therefore  condemned  to 
draw  water  out  of  a  deep  well  with  sieves, 
so  that  their  labor  was  without  end  or  suc- 
cess. 

Daph'ne,  a  nymph  beloved  by  Apollo. 

Darda'nus,  the  founder  of  Troy. 

Da'res,  a  very  ancient  historian  who  wrote  an 
account  of  the  Trojan  war. 

De'a  Syr'ia,  a  title  of  Venus. 

Dec'hna,  a  title  of  Lachesis. 

Deian'ira,  the  wife  of  Hercules. 

Deidaimia,  a  daughter  of  Lycomedes,  king  of 
Scyros,  by  whom  Achilles  had  Pyrrhus, 
while  he  lay  concealed  in  woman's  apparel 
in  the  court  of  Lycomedes,  to  avoid  going  to 
the  Trojan  war. 

Deiape'a,  a  beautiful  attendant  on  Juno. 

Deiph'obe,  the  Cumean  sybil. 

Deiph'obus,  a  son  of  Priam  and  Hecuba. 

De'lia,  Del'ius,  Diana  and  Apollo. 

De'las,  the  island  where  Apollo  was  bom. 

DeVphi,  a  city  of  Phocis,  famous  for  a  temple 
and  an  oracle  of  Apollo. 

DeVphicus,  Didymoi'us,  titles  of  Apollo. 

Dem'ades,  an  Athenian  orator. 

Der'bices,  a  people  near  the  Caspian  Sea,  who 
punished  all  crimes  with  death. 

Deuca'lion,  son  of  Prometheus,  and  king  of  Thes- 
saly, who,  with  his  wife  Pyi-rha,  was  pre- 
served from  the  general  deluge,  and  re-peo- 
pled the  world. 

Dever'ra,  the  goddess  of  breeding  women. 

JDiag'oras,  a  Rhodian,  who  died  for  joy,  because 
his  three  sons  had  on  the  same  day  gained 
prizes  at  the  Olympic  games. 

Diahia,  the  goddess  of  hunting,  &c. 

Di'do,  daughter  of  Belus,  the  founder  and  queen 
of  Carthage,  whom  Virgil  fables  to  have 
burnt  herself  through  despair,  because  iEne- 
as  left  her. 

Di'es,  and  Dies'piter,  titles  of  Jupiter. 

Din'dyme,  Oinayme'ne,  titles  of  Cybele. 

Diom'edes,  a  king  of  jEtolia,  who  gained  great 
reputation  at  Troy,  and,  accompanied  by 
Ulysses,  carried  off  the  Palladium ;  also,  a 
tyrant  of  Thrace. 

Di'one,  one  of  Jupiter's  mistresses. 

Dionys'ia,  feasts  in  honor  of  Bacchus. 

Dioscu'ri,  a  title  of  Castor  and  Pollux. 

Zfz'rtB,  a  title  of  the  Furies. 

Z)zs,  a  title  of  Pluto. 

JDiscor'dia,  the  goddess  of  contention. 

Domidu'ca,  a  title  of  Juno. 

Doinidu'cus,  and  Domi'iius,  nuptial  gods. 

DomHna,  a  title  of  Proserpine. 

Dry'ades,  nymphs  of  the  woods  and  forests. 


HEATHEN    DEITIES,    ETC. 


651 


Echi'on,  a  companion  of  Cadmus. 
Ec'ho,  daughter  of  Aer  and  Tellus,  vrho  pined 
away  for  love  of  Narcissus. 

EdorJides,  priestesses  of  Bacchus. 

Edu'ca,  a  goddess  of  new  born  infants. 

Ege'ria,  a  title  af  Juno ;  also  a  goddess. 

Elec'tra,  the  daughter  of  Agamemnon  and  Cly- 
temnestra.  who  instigated  Orestes  to  revenge 
their  father's  death  on  their  mother  and  her 
adulterer  jEgisthus. 

E'leus,  and  Eieutke'rise,  titles  of  Bacchus. 

E.'eusin'ia,  feasts  in  honor  of  Ceres  and  Proser- 
pine. 

Eh' ides,  nymphs  of  Bacchus. 

Eiitpii'sai,  a  name  of  the  Gorgons. 

Eudym'ion,  a  shepherd  of  Caria,  who,  for  inso- 
lently soliciting  Juno,  was  condemned  to  a 
sleep  of  30  years ;  Luna  visited  him  by  night 
in  a  cave  of  mount  Latmus. 

EniaUius,  a  title  of  Mars. 

Ewyo,  the  same  as  Bellona. 

Epe'iis,  the  artist  of  the  Trojan  horse. 

Epig'ones,  the  sons  of  the  seven  worthies  who 
besieged  Thebes,  a  second  time. 

Epiloiinea,  sacrifices  to  Bacchus. 

Epistro'phia,  and  Ery'cina,  titles  of  Venus. 

Epizeph'rii,  a  people  of  Locris,  who  pamished 
those  with  death  that  drank  more  wine  than 
physicians  prescribed. 

Era' to,  the  muse  of  love-poetry. 

Er'ebus,  an  infernal  deity,  son  of  Chaos  and  Nox; 
a  river  of  hell. 

Er'eane,  a  river  whose  waters  inebriated 

Eriot/iohims,  a  king  of  Athens,  who,  being  lame 
and  very  deformed  in  his  feet,  invented 
coaches  to  conceal  his  lameness. 

Erhi'nys,  a  common  name  of  the  furies. 

E'ros,  one  of  the  names  of  Cupid. 

Eros'tratus,  the  person  who,  to  perpetuate  his 
name,  set  fire  to  the  celebrated  temple  of 
Diana  at  Ephesus. 

Ele'ocles,  and  Poly'nices,  sons  of  CEdipus,  who 
violently  hated,  and  at  last  killed  each  other. 

Evad'ne,  daughter  of  Mars  and  Thebe,  who 
threw  herself  on  the  ftraeral  pile  of  her  htis- 
.    band  Cataneus,  from  affection. 

Euc'rates,  a  person  remarkable  fa  shuffling,  du- 
plicity, and  dissimulation. 

Eumen'ides,  a  nan.e  oi"the  Furies. 

Euphros'yne,  one  of  the  three  Graces. 

Euro'pa,  the  daughter  of  Agenor,  who,  it  is  said, 
was  carried  by  Jupiter,  in  the  form  of  a  white 
bull,  into  Crete. 

Eiiry'ale,  one  of  the  three  Gorgons. 

Euryd'ice,  the  wife  of  Orpheu.s. 

Eiirym'one,  an  infernal  deity. 

Eul'er'pe,  the  muse  presiding  over  music. 

E/clkyi/nus,  a  very  famous  wrestler. 


F 


E/iJi'ula,  the  goddess  of  lies. 

Eii/mli'iius,  a  god  of  infants. 

Fa' ma.  the'god'dess  of  report,  &c. 

Fus'cinmn,  a  title  of  Priapus. 

Fates,  the  three  daughters  of  Nox  and  Erebus. 

Cloihos,  Lachesls,    and    Atropos,  intrusted 

with  the  lives  of  mortals,  &c. 
Fau'na,  anil  Falhia,  names  of  Cybelo. 
Fau'mi.s,  the  son  of  Mercury  and  Nox.  find  fa- 

\\wv  of  the  Fauns,  rural  god.-*. 


Feb'rua,  Flor'ida.  Fluo'nia,  titles  of  Juno, 

Feb'rua,  a  goddess  of  purification. 

Feb'ruus,  a  title  of  Pluto. 

Feii'cilas,  the  goddess  of  happiness. 

Fer' cuius,  a  household  god. 

Fere'trius,  and  Fulmina'tor,  titles  of  Jupiter. 

Ferohiia,  a  goddess  of  woods. 

Fesso'nio,  a  goddess  of  wearied  persons. 

FidHus,  the  god  of  treaties. 

Flam'ines,  priests  of  Jupiter,  Mars,  &c. 

Flo'ra,  the  goddess  of  flowers. 

Fluvia'les,  or  Patamides,  nymphs  of  rivers. 

Forinax,  the  goddess  of  corn  and  bakers. 

Fortu'na,  or  ForHune,  the  goddess  of  happiness, 
&c.,  said  to  be  blind. 

Fu'ries,  or  Eumen'ides,  the  three  daughters  o( 
Nox  and  Acheron,  named  Alecto,  Megsera, 
and  Tisiphone,  with  hair  composed  of  snakes, 
and  armed  with  whips,  chains,  &c. 


G, 

Galate'a,  daughter  of  Nereus  and  Doris,  passion- 
ately beloved  by  Polyphemus. 

Gal'ii,  castrated  priests  ol  Cybele. 

Gal'lus,  or  Alec'trion,  a  favorite  of  Mars,  and 
changed  by  him  into  a  cock. 

Game'lia,  a  title  of  Juno. 

Gan'ges,  a  famous  river  of  India. 

Gany'mede,  the  cup-bearer  of  Jupiter. 

Gelasi'nus,  the  god  of  mirth  and  smiles. 

Gelo'iii,  a  people  of  Scythia,  who  used  to  paint 
themselves  in  order  to  appear  more  terrible 
to  their  enemies. 

Ge'iiii,  guardian  angels. 

Ge'nius,  a  name  of  Priapus. 

Ger'yon,  a  king  of  Spain,  who  fed  his  oxen  with 
human  flesh,  and  was  therefore  killed  by 
Hercules. 

Glauco'pis,  a  name  of  Minerva. 

Glau'cus,  a  fisherman  made  a  sea  god  by  eating 
a  certain  herb  :  also  the  son  of  Hippolochus, 
who  exchanged  his  arms  of  gold  for  the  bra- 
zen ones  of  Diomede. 

Giios'sis,  a  name  of  Ariadne. 

Gor'dius,  a  husbandman,  but  afterwards  king  of 
Phrygia,  remarkable  for  tying  a  knot  of  cords 
on  which  the  empire  of  Asia  depended,  in  so 
very  intricate  a  manner,  that  Alexander  the 
Great,  unable  to  unravel  it,  cut  it  to  pieces. 

Gor'ffons,  the  three  daughters  of  Phorcys  and 
Ceta,  Medusa,  Euryale,  and  Stheno,  who 
could  change  into  stone  those  whom  they 
looked  on ;  Perseus  slew  Medusa,  the  prin- 
cipal of  them. 

Gorgopli'orus,  a  title  of  Pallas. 

Gra'ces,  Aglaia,  Thalia,  and  Euphrosyne,  the 
daughters  of  Jupiter  and  Eurynomb;  atten- 
dants on  Venus  and  the  Muses. 

Gradi'vus,  a  title  of  Mars. 

Gy'ges,  a  Lydian,  to  whom  Candaules,  king  of 
Lydia,  showetl  his  queen  naked,  which  so 
incensed  her  that  she  slew  Candaules,  and 
married  Gyges;  also  a  shepherd,  who  by 
means  of  a  ring  could  render  himself  invi- 
sible. 

Ha'des,  a  title  of  PUito. 

Ha.maxo'hii,  a  people  of  Scythia,  who  lived  in 

carts,  and   removed  from  place  to  place  aa 

necessity  requii-ed. 


652 


THE    world's    progress. 


Harmo'nis,  a  famous  artist  of  Troy. 

HarpaVyca,  a  very  beautiful  maid  of  Argos. 

Harpies,  three  monsters,  Aello,  Celceno,  and 
Ocypete,  with  the  faces  of  virgins,  bodies  of 
vultures,  and  hands  armed  with  monstrous 
claws. 

Harpodrates,  the  Egyptian  god  of  silence. 

He'be,  the  goddess  of  youth. 

He'hrus,  a  river  in  Thrace. 

He'calius,  a  title  given  to  Jupiter  by  Theseus. 

Hec'ate,  Diana's  name  in  hell. 

Hec'tor,  a  son  of  Priam  and  Hecuba,  and  the 
most  valiant  of  all  the  Trojans. 

Hec'uba,  the  wife  of  Priam. 

Hege'sius,  a  philosopher  of  Cyrene,  who  de- 
scribed the  miseries  of  life  with  such  a 
gloomy  eloquence,  that  many  of  his  auditors 
killed  themselves  through  despair. 

JSeVena,  the  wife  of  Menelaus,  the  most  beauti- 
ful woman  in  tlie  world,  who,  running  away 
with  Paris,  occasioned  the  Trojan  war. 

Hel'enus,  a  son  of  Priam  and  Heculia. 

Hel'icon,  a  famous  mountain  of  Bisotia,  dedi- 
cated to  Apollo  and  the  Muses. 

Hera'ia,  sacrifices  to  Juno. 

Her'cules,  the  son  of  Jupiter  and  Alcmena,  re- 
markable ibr  his  numerous  exploits  and 
dangerous  enterprises. 

Heribe'ia,  the  wife  of  Astreus. 

I'ler'moi,  statutes  of  Mercury. 

Her'mes,  a  name  of  aiercury. 

Hermi'one,_  a  daughter  of  Mars  and  Venus,  mar- 
ried to  Cadmus;  also  a  daughter  of  Mene- 
laus and  Helena,  married  to  Pyrrhus. 

He'ro:  a  beautiful  woman  of  Sestos,  in  Thrace, 
priestess  of  Venus;  Leander,  of  Abydos, 
loved  her  so  tenderly  that  he  swam  over  the 
Hellespont  every  night  to  see  her;  but  being 
at  length  unfortunately  drowned,  she  threw 
herseff  into  the  sea,  through  despair. 

Hcrod'olus,  a  very  famous  historian  of  Halicar- 
nassus. 

Heroph'iia,  the  Erythraean  sybil. 

Hersili'a,  the  wife  of  Romulus. 

Hes'perus,  or  Vesper,  the  evening  star. 

Hes'jjerirfes,  the  daughters  of  Hesperus;  iEgle, 
Arethusa,  and  Hesperethusa,  who  had  a  gar- 
den bearing  golden  apples,  watched  by  a 
dragon,  which  Hercules  slew,  and  bore  away 
the  fruit. 

He'sus,  a  name  of  Mars  among  the  GauLs. 

Hip'pias,  a  philosopher  of  Elis. 

Hippocam'pi,  Neptune's  horses. 

Hiypocrene,  a  fountain  at  the  bottoir  if  mount 
Helicon,  dedicated  to  Apollo. 

TlippoVylus,  the  son  of  Theseus  and  Aniiope  or 
Hyppolite,  who  refused  intimacies  with  his 
stepmother  Pheedro.  At  the  request  of 
Diana,  iEsculapius  restored  him  to  life, 
after  he  had  been  thrown  from  his  chariot, 
and  dragged  through  the  woods  till  he  was 
torn  in  pieces. 

Hippohia,  the  goddess  of  horses  and  stables. 

IJisto'ria,  the  goddess  of  history. 

Horten'sis,  a  name  of  Venus. 

Ho'rus,  a  title  of  the  sun. 

irost.ili'na,  a  goddess  of  corn. 

Hy'ades,  the  seven  daughters  of  Atlas  and 
jEthra :  Ambrosia,  Eudora,  Coronis,  Pasi- 
thoe,  Plexaris,  Pytho,  and  Tyche.  They 
were  changed  by  Jupiter  into  seven  stars. 

lli/bla,  a  mountain  in  Sicily,  universally  famous 
for  its  thyme -and  bees. 


Hy'dra,  a  serpent,  which  had  seven  heads,  or  as 
some  say  nine,  others  fifty,  killed  by  Hercu- 
les in  the  lake  Lerna. 

Hyge'ia,  the  goddess  of  health. 

HyL'lus,  the  son  of  Hercules  and  Dejanire. 

Ily'meii,  the  god  of  marriage. 

liype'rion,  a  son  of  Ccelus  and  Terra. 

Ilypsipiyle,  a  queen  of  Lemnos,  who  was  ban- 
ished for  preserving  her  father  when  all  the 
othea.-  men  of  the  island  were  murdered  hv 
their  kindred. 


lac'chus,  a  name  of  Bacchus. 

lanHhe,  the  beautiful  wife  of  Iphis. 

lape'lus,  a  son  of  Coelem  and  Tefra. 

lar'bas,  a  cruel  king  of  Mauritania. 

Ica'rius,  the  son  of  Oebalus,  who,  '.aving  re- 
ceived from  Jiacchus  a  bottle  of  wine,  went 
into  Attica,  to  show  men  the  use  of  it:  but, 
making  some  shepherds  drunk,  they  thought 
he  had  given  them  poison,  and  therefore 
threw  him  into  a  well. 

Ica'rus,  the  son  of  Djedalus,  who,  flying  with  his 
father  out  of  Crete  into  Sicily,  and  soaring 
too  high,  melted  the  wax  of  his  wings,  and 
fell  into  the  sea,  thence  called  the  Icarian 
sea. 

I'da,  a  mountain  near  Troy. 

Ida-Ja  Mater,  a  nanie  of  Cybele. 

Idcb'i  Dact'yli,  a  priest  of  Cybele. 

IdciHia,  a  name  ol  Venus. 

Id'mon,  a  famous  soothsayer. 

Ido'thea,  Jupiter's  nurse. 

lli'one,  the  eldest  daughter  of  Priam. 

llis'sus,  a  river  in  Atiica. 

lUus,  the  son  of  Tros  and  Callirrhoe,  from  whom 
Troy  was  called  Ilium. 

Impera'tor,  a  name  of  Jupiter. 

IrJachis  and  I'ses,  names  ol'  lo. 

I'no,  daughter  of  Cadmus  and  Hermiones,  and 
wife  of  Athamas. 

Intercido'na,  a  goddess  of  breeding  women. 

Interdu'ca,  and  Ju'ga,  names  of  ,)uno. 

In'uus,  and  Jnc'ubus,  names  of  Pan. 

/'o,  daughter  of  Inachus,  transformed  by  Jupi- 
ter into  a  white  heifer ;  but  afterwards  re- 
suming her  former  shape,  was  worshipped 
as  a  goddess  by  the  Egyptians,  under  the 
name  of  Isis. 

Iph'idus,  the  twin  brother  of  Hercules. 

fyhige'nia,  daughter  of  Agamemnon  and  Cly- 
temnestra,  who,  standing  as  a  victim  ready 
to  be  sacrificed  to  appease  the  rage  of  Diana, 
was,  by  that  goddess,  transformed  into  a 
white  hart,  carried  to  "Tauris,  and  made  her 
priestess. 

I'phis,  a  prince  of  Cyprus,  who  hanged  himself 
for  love ;  also  a  daughter  of  Lygxlas. 

Iph'itus,  son  of  Praxonides,  who  instituted 
Olympic  games  to  Hercules. 

Pris,  the  daughter  of  Thaumas ;  she  was  Juno's 
favorite  companion,  and  her  messenger  on 
affairs  of  discord,  &c. 

I'tys,  the  son  of  Tereus  and  Progne,  murdered 
and  served  up  by  his  mother  at  a  banquet 
before  Tereus,  in  revenge  lor  hi<!  having  vio- 
lated her  sister  Philomela. 

Ixt'on,  the  son  of  Phlegyas,  who  was  fastened  in 
hell  to  a  wheel  perpetually  turning  round, 
ibr  boasting  that  he  had  lain  with  Juno. 


HEATHEN    DEITIES,    ETC. 


653 


Jan'itor,  and  Jtino'nhcs,  titles  of  Janus. 

Ja'niis,  the  first  king  of  Italy,  son  of  Apollo  and 
Creusa. 

Ja'son,  a  Thessalian  prince,  son  of  JEson,  who 
by  Medea's  help  brought  away  the  golden 
fleece  from  Colchis. 

To' casta,  the  daughter  of  Creon,  who  unwittingly 
married  her  own  son,  OEdipus. 

Ju'no,  the  sister  and  wife  of  .Jupiter. 

Ju'no,  I/ifeihia,  a  name  of  Proserpine. 

Jiincihiess,  guardian  angels  of  women. 

Jii.'piter,  a  son  of  Saturn  and  Ops — the  supreme 
di»ity  of  the  heathen. 

Jii'piter  Secun'dus,  a  name  of  Neptune. 

Ju'piter  Ter'tius,  Infer'nus,  or  Sly'gias,  seve- 
ral appellations  given  to  Plulo. 

Juvcn'la,  a  goddess  of  youth. 


La'clinsis,  one  of  the  three  Fates. 
Lacin'ia,  and  Lucil'ia,  titles  of  Juno. 
Lactu'ra,  or  Lactuci'na,  a  goddess  of  corn. 
Lccstrlg'ones,  caimibals  of  Italy,  who  roasted 

and  ate  the  companions  of  Ulysses. 
La'ius,  a  king  of  Thebes,  killed  unwittingly  by 

his  own  son,  ffidipus. 
La'mia,,  a  name  of  the  Gorgons. 
Lcioc'oon,  a  son  of  Priam  and  high-priest  of 

Apollo :  he  and  his  two  sons  were  killed  by 

serpents  for  opposing  the  reception  of  the 

wooden  horse  into  Troy. 
La.'pis,  or  Lapid'eus,  titles  of  Jupiter. 
Laires,  sons  of  Mercury  and  I^ara,  worshipped 

as  household  gods. 
Laicra'niis,  a  household  god. 
Laver'na,  a  goddess  of  thieves. 
Lean'der,  see  Hero. 
Le'da,  daughter  of  Thestias,  and  wife  of  Tyn- 

darus,  seduced  by  Jupiter  in  the  shape  of  a 

swan. 
Lemoni'ades,  nymphs  of  meadows,  &e. 
Le'na,  priestesses  of  Bacchus. 
Ler'na,  a  marsh  of  Argos,  famous  for  a  Hydra, 

killed  there  by  Hercules. 
Le'lhe,  a  river  of  hell,  whose  waters  caused  a 

total  forgetfulness  of  things  past. 
Leva'na,  a  goddess  of  new  born  infants. 
Lihiti'na,  the  goddess  of  funerals. 
Li'nus,  son  of  Apollo  and  Terpsichore. 
Luben'tia,  the  goddess  of  pleasure. 
Lu'cifer,  son  of  Jupiter  and  Aurora,  made  the 

morning  star. 
Lii'na,  Diana's  name  in  heaven. 
Luper'calia,  feasts  in  honor  of  Pan. 
Lijper'ci,  priests  of  Pan. 
Lyca'on,  a  king  of  Arcadia,  turned  by  Jupiter 

into  a  wolf. 


M 


Ma'ia,  loved  by  Jupiter,  and  by  him  turned  into 

a  star  to  avoid  Juno's  rage. 
Managenc'la,  a  goddess  of  women  in  labor. 
Mantu'ra,  a  goddess  of  com. 
ManturhM,  and  Me'na,  nuptial  goddesses. 
■Mariina,  Mel'anis,  Mer'etrix^  Migoni'tis,  and 

Mur'cia,  titles  of  Vetjus. 
Mars,  the  god  of  war. 


Mauso'lus,  a  king  of  Caria,  who  had  a  most 
magnificent  tomb  erected  to  him  by  his  wife 
Artemisia. 

Mede'a,  daughter  of  JEtes,  king  of  Colchis,  a 
famous  sorceress,  who  assisted  Jason  to  ob- 
tain the  golden  fleece. 

Mediiri'na,  a  goddess  of  grown  pe^ions. 

Medu'sa,  the  chief  of  the  three  Gorgons. 

Megoi'ra,  one  of  the  three  Furies. 

Megalen'sia,  festivals  in  honor  of  Cybele. 

Mega'ra,  the  wife  of  Hercules. 

Melani'ra,  a  name  of  Venus. 

Me'liai,  nymphs  of  the  fields. 

Me'lius,  a  name  of  Hercules. 

Melo'na,  the  godde.ss  of  honey. 

Melpom'ene,  the  muse  of  tragedy. 

Mem'non,  a  king  of  Abydos. 

Menala'tis,  a  famous  Centaiu". 

Menelaius,  the  husband  of  Helena. 

Men'tha,  a  mistre.ss  of  Pluto. 

MenHor,  the  governor  of  Telemachus. 

Mer'cury,  the  messenger  of  the  gods,  inventor  of 
letters,  and  god  of  eloquence,  merchandise, 
and  robbers. 

Mero'pe,  one  of  the  seven  Pleiades. 

Mi'das,  a  king  of  Phrygia,  who  entertained  Bac- 
chus, or,  as  some  say,  Silenus,  had  the  power 
given  him  of  turning  whatever  he  touched 
into  gold. 

Mi'lo,  a  wrestler  of  remarkable  strength. 

MimaVlones,  attendants  on  Bacchus. 

Mineriva,  the  goddess  of  wisdom. 

Mi'nos,  a  king  of  Crete,  made,  for  his  extraordi- 
nary justice,  a  judge  of  hell. 

Min'otaur,  a  monster,  half  man,  half  beast. 

Min'ya:,  a  name  of  the  Argonauts. 

Mnemos'i/ne,  the  goddess  of  memory. 

Moi-mus,  "the  god  of  raillery,  wit,  &c. 

Mone'ta,  a  title  of  Juno. 

Mor'pheus,  the  god  of  sleep,  dreains,  &c. 

Mors,  the  goddess  of  death. 

MuVciber,  a  title  of  Vulcan. 

Mu'ses,  nine  daughters  of  Jupiter  and  Mnemo- 
syne, born  on  mount  Pieri  us,  mistresses  of 
all  the  sciences,  presidents  of  musicians  and 
poets,  and  governesses  of  the  feasts  of  the 
gods;  Calliope,  Clio,  Erato,  Euterpe,  Mel- 
pomene, Polyhymnia,  Terpsichore,  Thalia, 
and  Urania. 

Mu'ta,  the  goddess  of  silence. 


Nmnia,  the  goddess  of  funeral  songs. 

Na'iades,  nymphs  of  the  rivers,  &c. 

Narcis'sus,  a  very  beautiful  youth,  who,  falling 
in  love  with  his  own  shadow  in  the  water, 
pined  away  into  a  daflTodil. 

Na'tio,  and  Nundihia,  goddess  of  infants. 

Namibia,  a  country  of  Elis,  famed  for  a  terrible 
lion  killed  there  by  Hercules. 

Nem'esis,  the  goddess  of  revenge. 

Nep'tune,  the  god  of  the  sea. 

Ne'reides,  sea  hymphs. 

Ne'rio,  the  wife  of  Mars. 

Niceph'orus,  a  title  of  Jupiter. 

Ni'nus,  the  first  king  of  the  Assyrian.?. 

Ni'obe,  daughter  of  Tantalus,  and  wife  of  Am- 
phion,  who,  preferring  herself  to  Latona, 
had  her  14  children  killeti-by  Diana  and 
Apollo,  and  wept  herself  into  a  statue. 

No'niius,  a  name  of  Apollo. 


654 


THE  WORLD  S   PROGRESS. 


Nox,  the  most  ancient  ot  the  deities ;  she  was 
67611  reckoned  older  than  Chaos. 


O 

Ob'sequens,  a  title  of  Fortuna. 

Occa'tor,  the  god  of  harrowing. 

Oce'anub;  an  ancient  sea  god. 

Ocyp'ete,  one  of  the  three  Harpies. 

CEd'ipiiSi  son  of  Laius  and  Jocasta,  and  king  of 
Thebes,  who  solved  the  riddle  of  the  Sphinx, 
unwittingly  killed  his  father,  married  his 
mother,  and  at  last  ran  mad,  and  tore  out 
his  eyes. 

Om'phale,  a  queen  of  Lydia,  with  whom  Her- 
cules was  so  enamored,  that  she  made  him 
submit  to  spinning  and  other  unbecoming 
offices. 

Ojt  tr'lus,  a  name  of  Pluto. 

Opi'gena,  a  name  of  .luno. 

Ops,  a  name  of  Cybele. 

Orbo'na,  a  goddess  of  grown  persons. 

Orns'/es,  the  son  of  Agamemnon. 

Ori'on,  a  great  and  mighty  hunter. 

Or'pheus,  son  of  Jupiter  and  Calliope,  who  had 
great  skill  in  music,  and  was  torn  in  pieces 
by  the  Msenades,  for  disliking  the  company 
of  women  after  the  death  of  his  wife  Eury- 
dice. 

Orythi'a,  a  queen  of  the  Amazons. 

Osi'ris,  see  Apis. 


Pac'lolus,  a  river  of  Lydia,  with  golden  sands 
and  medical  waters. 

Pcc'an,  and  Phce'bus,  names  of  Apollo. 

Pa'les,  the  goddess  of  shepherds. 

PaliUia,  feasts  in  honor  of  Pales. 

Pallu'dium,  a  statue  of  Minerva,  which  the 
Trojans  imagined  fell  from  heaven,  and  that 
their  city  could  not  be  taken  whilst  that  re- 
mained in  it. 

Pal'las,  and  Py'lotis,  names  of  Minerva. 

Pan,  the  god  of  shepherds. 

Pando'ra',  the  first  woman  made  by  Vulcan,  and 
endowed  with  gifts  by  all  the  deities  ;  Jupi- 
ter gave  her  a  box  containing  all  manner  of 
evils,  war,  famine,  &c.,  with  hope  at  the 
bottom. 

Pan'ope,  one  of  the  Nereids. 

Pa'phia,  a  title  of  Venus. 

Par'cxb,  a  name  of  the  Fates. 

Par'is,  or  Alexander,  son  of  Priam  and  He- 
culja,  a  most  beautiful  youth,  who  ran  away 
with  Helena,  and  occasioned  the  Trojan 
war. 

Parnas'siis,  a  mountain  of  Phocis,  famous  for 
a  temple  of  Apollo,  and  being  the  favorite 
residence  of  the  Muses. 

Par'lunda,  a  nuptial  goddess. 

Pastoph'ori,  priests  of  Isis. 

Patiareus,  a  title  of  Apollo. 

Pateli'na,  a  goddess  of  corn. 

patula'cius,  a  name  of  Janus. 

PatuleHus,  a  name  of  Jupiter. 

PavenUia,  and  PoWna,  goddesses  of  infants. 

Peg'asus,  a  winged  horse  belonging  to  Apollo 
and  the  Muses. 

Pello'nia,  a  goddess  of  grown  persons. 

Pena'les,  small  statues  or  household  gods, 


Penel'ope,  daughter  of  Icarus,  celebrated  for  her 
chastity  and  fidelity  during  the  long  absence 
of  Ulysses. 

Per'seus,  son  of  Jupiter  and  I>anae,  who  per- 
fortred  many  extraordinary  exploits  by 
means  of  Medusa's  head. 

Phcbcasia'ni,  ancient  gods  of  Greece. 

Pha'elon,  son  of  Sol  (Apollo)  and  Climene,  who 
asked  the  guidance  of  his  father's  chariot 
for  one  day,  as  a  proof  of  his  divine  descent ; 
but  unable  to  manage  the  horses,  set  the 
world  on  fire,  and  was  therefore  struck  by 
Jupiter  with  a  thunderbolt  into  the  river  P6. 

PhalHica,  feasts  of  Bacchus. 

Philainhnon,  a  skilful  musician. 

Pailome'la,  daughter  of  Pandion,  king  of  Athens, 
who  was  ravished  by  her  brother-in-law, 
Tereus,  and  was  changed  into  a  nightin- 
gale. 

Phin'eas,  son  of  Agenor,  and  king  of  Paphla- 
gonia,  who  had  his  eyes  torn  out  by  Boreas, 
but  was  recompensed  with  the  knowledge 
of  futurity ;  also  a  king  of  Thrace,  turned 
into  a  stone  by  Perseus,  by  the  help  of  Me- 
dusa's head. 

Plile^'ethon,  a  boiling  river  of  hell. 

Phlegon,  one  of  the  four  horses  of  Sol. 

Phlegiyoi,  a  people  of  Bosotia,  destroyed  by 
Neptune,  on  account  of  their  piracies  and 
other  crimes. 

Plia'bas,  the  priestess  of  Apollo. 

PlKB'biis,  a  title  of  Apollo. 

Pha'nix,  son  of  Amyntor,  who  being  falsely  ac- 
cused of  having  attempted  the  honor  of  one 
of  his  father's  concubines,  was  condemned 
to  have  his  eyes  torn  out ;  but  was  cured  by 
Chiron,  and  went  with  Achilles  to  the  siege 
of  Troy. 

Picum'nus,  a  rural  god. 

Pilum'nus,  a  god  of  breeding  womei^. 

Pin'dus,  a  mountain  in  Thessaly. 

Pi'tho,  a  goddess  of  eloquence. 

Ple'iades,  the  seven  daughters  of  Atlas  and 
Pleione ;  Mala,  Electra,  Taygete,  Asterope, 
Merope,  Halcyone,  and  Celceno ;  they  were 
changed  into  stars. 

Plu'lo,  the  god  of  hell. 

Plu'ius,  the  god  of  riches. 

Pol'lux.    See  Castor. 

Polyd'amas,  a  famous  wrestler. 

Polyd'ius,  a  famous  prophet  and  physician. 

Polyhym'nia,  the  muse  of  rhetoric. 

Polyphe'mus,  a  monstrous  giant,  son  of  Nep- 
tune, with  but  one  eye  in  the  middle  of  his 
forehead. 

Pomo'na,  the  goddess  of  fruits  and  autumn. 

Pose'idon,  a  name  of  Neptune. 

Pramesti'na,  a  name  of  Fortuna. 

Prces'les,  a  title  of  Jupiter  and  Minerva. 

Praxit'eles,  a  famous  statuary. 

Pri'am,  son  of  Laomedon,  and  father  of  Paris, 
Hector,  &c. ;  he  was  the  last  king  of  Troy. 

Prog'ne,  wife  of  Tereus,  king  of  Thrace,  an  I 
sister  of  Philomela ;  she  was  turned  into  a 
swallow. 

Prome'theus,  son  of  lapetus,  who  animated  a 
man  that  he  had  formed  of  clay,  with  fire, 
which,  by  the  assistance  of  Minerva,  he  stole 
from  heaven,  and  was  therefore  chained  by 
Jupiter  to  mount  Caucasus,  with  a  vulture 
continually  preyins  upon  his  liver. 

Propu'lcBa,  a  name  of  Hecate. 

Pros'erpine,  the  wife  of  Pluto. 


HEATHEN   DEITIES,    ETC. 


655 


ProHeus,  a  sea  god,  who  could  transform  himself 
into  any  shape. 

Psy'che.,  a  goddess  of  pleasure. 

Pi/t'adas,  the  constant  friend  of  Orestes. 

Pyr'amus,  and  This'be,  two  lovers  of  Babylon, 
who  killed  themselves  vifith  the  same  sword, 
and  occasioned  the  turning  the  berries  of  the 
mulberry-tree,  under  which  they  died,  from 
white  to  red. 

Prycb'tis,  one  of  the  four  horses  of  the  sun. 

Pyr'rhus,  son  of  Achilles,  remarkable  for  his 
cruelty  at  the  siege  of  Troy. 

Py'thon,  a  huge  serpent,  produced  from  the  mud 
of  the  deluge,  which  Apollo  killed,  and  in 
memory  thereof,  instituted  the  Py  ihiau  games. 

Puthonis'sa,  the  priestess  of  Apollo. 


Quad'rifrons,  a  title  of  Janus. 
Qui'es,  a  goddess  of  grown  persons, 
Quieta'lis,  and  Quie'tzis,  names  of  Pluto. 
Quinqua'tria.  feasts  of  Pallas. 


S, 


Jiecl'us,  a  title  of  Bacchus. 

Rc'dux,  and  Re'gia,  titles  of  Fortune. 

liegi'na,  a.  title  of  .luno. 

Rhadaman'thus,    one    of    the    three    infernal 

judges. 
Rhe'a,  a  title  of  Cybele. 
Rhe'a-syl'via,  the  mother  of  Romulus. 
Robi'gus,  a  god  of  corn. 
Rom'idus,  the  first  king  of  Rome. 
Ruini'na,  a  goddess  of  new-born  infants. 
Runci'na,  the  goddess  of  weeding. 
Rusi'na,  a  rural  deity. 


S 

iSaba'zia,  feasts  of  Proserpine. 

Sa'lii,  the  12  frantic  priests  of  Mara. 

Salmone'us,  a  king  of  Eiis,  struck  by  a  thunder- 
bolt to  hell  for  imitating  Jupiter's  thunder. 

Sa'lus,  the  goddess  of  health 

Sanc'us,  a  god  of  the  Sabines 

Sator,  and  Sorri'tor,  rural  gods. 

Saturna'lia,  feasts  of  Saturn. 

Satur'nus,  or  Sai'urn,  the  son  of  Coelus  and 
Terra. 

Sat'yrs,  the  attendants  of  Bacchus,  horned  mon- 
sters, half  men,  half  goats. 

Scy'ron,  a  famous  robber  of  Attica. 

Se'ia,  and  Sege'iia,  goddesses  of  corn. 

Sel'li,  priests  of  Jupiter. 

Sen'ta,  a  goddess  of  married  women. 

(Sera'pis.    See  Apis. 

Sile'nus,  the  foster-father  and  companion  of  Bac- 
chus, who  lived  in  Arcadia,  rode  on  an  ass, 
and  was  drunk  every  day. 

Si'mis,  a  famous  robber,  killed  by  Hercules. 

Sis'ypkus,  the  son  of  ^olus,  killed  by  Theseus, 
and  doomed  incessantly  to  roll  a  huge  stone 
up  a  mountain  in  hell  for  his  perfidy  and 
numerous  robberies. 

fiol,  a  name  of  Apollo. 

Som'nus,  the  god  of  sleep. 

Sphinx;  a  monster,  born  of  Syphon,  and  Ecliidna, 
who  destroyed  herself  because  CEdipus 
solved  the  enigma  she  proposed. 


Sta'ta,  a  goddess  of  grown  persons. 

Sten'tor,  a  Grecian,  whost  voice  is  reported  to 

have  been  as  strong  and  as  loud  as  tne  voices 

of  50  men  together. 
Sthe'no,  one  of  the  three  Gorgons. 
Styx,  a  river  of  hell. 
Sua'da,  a  nuptial  goddess. 
Summa'nus,  a  name  of  Pluto. 
Sylva'nus,  a  god  of  woods  and  forests. 
Sy'rens,  sea  monsters 


T 


Ta'cita,  a  goddess  of  silence. 

TantaHus,  a  king  of  Paphlagonia,  who,  serv- 
ing up  to  table  the  limbs  of  his  son,  Pelops, 
to  try  the  divinity  of  the  gods,  was  plunged 
to  the  chin  in  a  lake  of  hell,  and  doomed  to 
everlasting  thirst  and  hunger,  as  a  punish- 
ment for  his  barbarity  and  impiety. 

TarUi'rus,  the  place  of  tire  wicked  in  hell. 

Tau'rus,  the  bull,  under  whose  form  Jupiter 
carried  away  Europa. 

Telchi'nes,  priests  of  Cybele. 

Telema'chus,  the  onl)^  son  of  Ulysses. 

7'e-m'pe,  a  most  beautiful  valley  in  Thessaly,  the 
resort  of  the  gods. 

Ter'minus,  the  god  of  boundaries. 

Terpsicko're,  the  muse  of  music,  &c. 

Ter'ror,  the  god  of  dread  and  fear. 

Tha'lia,  the  muse  of  comedy. 

The'mis,  the  daughter  of  Coelum  and  Terra,  the 
goddess  of  laws,  oracles,  &c. 

Thes'pis,  the  first  tragic  poet. 

The' lis,  daughter  of  Nereus  and  Doris,  and  god- 
dess of  the  sea. 

Thyr'sus,  the  rod  of  Bacchus. 

Ti'phys,  the  pilot  of  the  ship  Argo. 

Tisiph'o7ie,  one  of  the  three  Furies. 

Ti'tan,  son  of  CcElum  and  Terra,  and  the  elder 
brother  of  Saturnus,  or  Saturn. 

Tnia'rius,  a  title  of  Jupiter. 

TriHon,  Neptune's  trumpeter. 

Tri' Ionia,  a  name  of  Minerva. 

Tro'ilus,  a  son  of  Priam  and  Hecuba. 

Troy,  a  city  of  Phrygia,  famous  for  holding  out 
a  siege  often  years  against  the  Greeks,  but 
they  at  last  captured  and  destroyed  it. 

Tuteli'na,  a  goddess  of  corn. 

Ty'ro,  one  of  the  Nereids. 


U 


Ulys'ses,  son  of  Laertes  and  Anticlea,  and  king 
of  Ithaca,  who,  by  his  subtlety  and  eloquence, 
was  eminently  serviceable  to  the  Greeks  in 
the  Trojan  war. 

Unx'ia,  a  title  of  Juno. 

Ura'nia,  the  muse  of  astronomy. 


V 

Vacu'na,  the  goddess  of  idle  persons. 
Vagita'nus,  a  god  of  little  infants. 
Vallonia,  a  goddess  of  valleys. 
Veni'lia,  a  wife  of  Neptune. 
Ve'nus,  the  goddess  of  love,  and  beauty. 
Vergil'icE,  a  name  of  the  Pleiades. 
Verticor'dia,  a  name  of  Venus. 
Vertuni'nus,  the  god  of  spring. 


656 


THE    WORLDS    PROGRESS. 


Ves'la,  the  goddess  of  fire. 

Via'les,  deities  of  the  highways. 

VibU'ia,  the  goddess  of  wanderers. 

Virgmen'sis,  a  nuptial  goddess. 

Vir'go,  a  name  of  Astrea  and  Fortune. 

Virilis,  and  ViscaHa,  titles  of  Fortune. 

Viri'placa,  an  inferior  nuptial  goddess,  who  re- 
conciled husbands  to  their  wives;  a  temple, 
at  Rome,  was  dedicated  to  her,  whither  the 
married  couple  repaired  after  a  quarrel,  and 
returned  together  friendly. 

Vitu'la,  the  goddess  of  mirth. 

Volu'sia,  a  goddess  of  corn. 

Vul'can,  the  god  of  subterraneous  fire. 


Xan'lhus,  one  of  the  horses  of  Achilles,  born  of 


the  harpy  Celosno,  a  river  near  Troy,  called 
also  Scamander. 


Z 

Za'greus,  a  title  of  Bacchus. 

Zeph'yrus,  son  of  ^olus  and  Aurora,  w!ici  pas- 
sionately loved  the  goddess  Flora,  and  is  put 
for  the  west  wind. 

Zb'lcs,  and  Ca'lais,  sons  of  Boreas  and  Orythia, 
who  accompanied  the  Argonauts,  and  drove 
the  Harpies  from  Thrace. 

Ze'tus,  a  son  of  Jupiter  and  Antiope,  very  expert 
m  music. 

Ze'us,  a  title  of  Jupiter. 


BIOGRAPHICAL    INDEX. 


N' .  B.  This  list  of  remarkable  persons,  from  the  earliest  period  to  the  present  time,  is  not  oi 
r.oursc  intended  to  include  every  name  mentioned  in  history,  but  merely  the  most  important  in 
iheir  several  departments.  The  names  of  Sovereig7is  are  referred  to  occasionally  only,  as  full  lista 
are  given  in  their  proper  place. 

This  list  may  be  useful  in  two  ways,  viz  : 

First,  as  an  Index  to  the  names  mentioned  in  the  Chronological  Tables  in  this  volume ;  and 

Secondly,  to  indicate,  by  reference  to  those  tables,  the  cliief  political  events  and  contemporary 
public  characters  during  the  life  of  each  person  in  the  list. 

Thus  :  Socrates,  the  Greek  philosopher,  was  born  470,  and  died  400  B.  J.  Tlie  tables  on 
page  20  to  24,  show  who  lived,  and  what  happened,  during  the  seventy  years  of  Socrates'  life. 

Milton  was  born  a.  d.  1608,  one  year  after  the  first  settlement  at  Jamestown,  Virginia ;  six 
years  after  the  East  India  Company  was  founded ;  five  years  after  James  I.  ascended  the  throne  ; 
the  same  year  that  the  Pi'otestant  Union  was  formed  in  Germany;  one  year  before  Gustavus 
Adolphus  became  king  of  Sweden  ;  two  years  before  Louis  XIII.  became  king  of  France.  He 
was  12  years  old  when  the  Puritans  first  landed  at  Plymouth;  he  was  17  when  Charles  I.  suc- 
ceeded James,  and  he  was  41  years  old  when  Charles  was  beheaded.  Among  his  contemporaries 
were  Lord  Bacon,  Inigo  Jones,  Jeremy  Taylor,  Algernon  Sydney,  Sir  C.  Wren,  Butler,  Waller, 
Tiryden,  Henry  More,  Baxter,  and  Boyle,  in  England  :  Peter  Stuyvesant,  Winthrop,  Cotton,  and 
Eliot,  in  America:  Richelieu,  Mazarine,  Colbert,  Ilubens,  Kepler,  Des  Cartes,  Molicre,  Corneille, 
Racine,  Pascal,  on  the  Continent.  He  died  a.  d.  1674,  nine  years  after  the  great  plague  in  London, 
14  years  after  Charles  II.  was  restored,  and  7  years  after  New- York  was  ceded  to  the  English. 

And  thus  of  any  person  mentioned  in  the  Index — a  great  variety  of  particulars  may  be  found 
at  a  glance,  on  referring  to  the  tables. 

*,*  No  living  persons  are  mentioned,  except  some  of  the  most  noted  in  Europe. 

Abbreviations. — See  List  in  the  Introduction.  Bar.  {Barbarian),  includes  several  different 
nations,  some  not  entirely  civilized,  f.  is  used  for  flourished.  The  dates  before  Christ 
are  indicated  by  b.  o. — all  others  are  a.  d. — In  some  cases  the  dates  are  necessarily  left  blank. 

NATION.  NAME   AND   PROFESSION. 

Ban.  Aagesend,  Svind,  historian 

Jew.  Aaron,  the  fi"st  high-prie.st 

Gr.  Aaron,  of  Alexandria,  physician 

Eng.  Abbot,  George,  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  and  author 

Arab.  Abd  'el  Kader,  distinguished  warrior 

Fr.  Abelard,  Peter,  a  celebrated  scholastic  divine    . 

Nor.  Abel,  Nicholas  H.,  mathematician 

Sp.  Abenezva,  an  astron.,  pbilos.,  poet,  philologist,  &c. 

Eng.  Aberdeen,  Earl  of,  statesman  and  antiquary 

Eng.  Abercromby,  Sir  Ralph,  military  commander 

Eng.  Abernethy,  John,  eminent  physician  and  medical  writer 

Fr.~  Ablancourt,  N.  P.  D.,  translator  of  the  classics 

Jew.  Abraham,  the  great  progenitor  of  the  Jewish  nation 

Dan.  Absalom  (real  name  Axel),  archbishop  of  Den.,  Sw.,  and  Nor. 

Ara.  Abubeker,  father-in-law  and  successor  of  Mahomet 

Syr.  Abulfeda.  the  geographer        .... 

Rom.  Accius,  or  Attius,  a  tragic  poet  (works  not  extant.) 

Ital.  Accursius,  or  Accorso,  an  eminent  critic 

Ger.  Accum.,  Fred  ,  operative  chemist  (in  Eng.) 

Pruss.  Ackerman,  Rudolph,  introduced  gas-lighting  and  lithog.  in  London 

Gr.  Achilles,  one  of  the  leaders  in  the  Trojan  war 

Gr.  Achilles  Tatius  (of  Alexandria),  Christian  bp.  and  author 

Gr.  Acropolita,  of  Constantinople,  statesman  and  historian 

Eng.  Adam,  Alexander,  schoolmaster  and  author 

28* 


BORN. 

DIED. 

.  f.  1188 

.   B.  c.  1570 

1453 

.  f.  622 

1562 

1623 

1805 

1079 

1142 

1802 

1119 

1174 

.   '   1738 

1801 

1764 

1831 

1606 

1664 

B.  c.  1995  B. 

c,  1821 

1128 

1203 

561 

624 

1273 

1345 

B.  c.  171 

1229 

1769 

1833 

n      1764 

1834 

f.  1184 

3d  cent 

1220 

1282 

1711 

1809 

658 


THE    world's    PK.OGRESS. 


KATION.  NAME   AND   PROFESSION. 

Eng.  Adam,  Robert,  an  arcliitectural  author 

Amcr.  Adams,  John  Quincy,  diplomatist,  poet,  Pres.  U.  S. 

Amer.  ,  Samuel,  one  of  the  patriotic  founders  of  the  republic 

Ainer.  ,  John,  patriot  and  statesman — 2d  Pres.  TJ.  S. 

Eng.  Addison,  Joseph,  one  of  the  ornaments  of  English  literature 

Rom.  Adrian,  the  15th  Emp.  (born  in  Spain) 

Ire.  Adrain,  Robert^  mathematician  (at  New-York,  &c.) 

Gr.  jElian,  the  historian  and  rhetorician  .  . 

Gr.  jEneas,  son  of  Priam,  king  of  Troy_  .  . 

Gr.  JEschines,  of  Athens,  philos. — disciple  of  Socrates 

Gr. •  orator 

Gr.  ^schylus,  of  Athens,  the  great  tragic  writer 

Gr.  iEsop,  of  Phrygia,  the  prince  of  fabulists 

Rom.  ^Etius,  mil.  com.  (defeated  Atilla) 

Rom.  Africanus.  Julius,  historian 

Gr.  Agamemnon,  "the  king  of  kings" 

Gr.  Agathius,  historian  and  poet 

Swiss.  Agassiz,  Louis,  naturalist 

Gr.  Agesilaus  II.,  king  of  Sparta  ;  (defeats  the  Per.,  Egypt.,  and  Greeks) 

Gr.  Agis  IV.,  the  greatest  of  the  Spartan  kings 

Eng.  Aglionby,  one  of  the  translators  of  the  Bible 

Rom.  Agricola,  Cneius  Julius,  military  commander 

Ger.  Agricola,  John,  a  divine  ; — founder  of  the  Antinomians 

Rom.  Agrippa,  military  commander,  governor  of  Judea 

Fr.  ,  Cornelius,  philosopher,  &c. 

Eng.  Aikin,  John,  M.  D.,  an  elegant  writer ;  editor  of  poets,  &c. 

Eng.  Ainswonh,  grammarian  and  lexicographer 

Tartar.  Akbar.  Mohammed,  a  great  Mogul  sovereign, 

Eng.  Akenside,  Mark,  a  popular  poet 

Swe.  Akerblad,  philologist 

Bar.  Alaric  I.,  king  of  the  Visigoths 

Span.  Alberoni,  Julius  (cardinal),  statesman 

Ital.  Alberti,  an  eminent  writer,  paint.,  sculp.,  &.C. 

Ger.  Albertus  Magnus,  philosophic  writer;  tutor  of  Aquinas 

Bar.  Alboin,  the  J^oiubard  conqueror  .  .  . 

Port.  Albuquerque  (the  great),  military  commpiider 

Gr.  AlCcBUs,  of  Lesbos,  a  lyric  poet 

Ital.  Alciati,  of  Milan,  an  eminent  civilian  aud  author 

Gr.  Alcibiades,  a  famous  Athenian  general  and  statesman     . 

Eng.  Alcuinus  (founder  of  schools  at  Paris,  &c.) 

Eng.  Aldhelm,  St.,  an  eminent  scholar  and  poet 

Fr.  Alembert,  John  le  Rond  d',  math.,  hist.,  and  philosopher 

Bar.  Alexander,  the  Great,  founder  of  /.he  Macedonian  empire 

Rom.. ,  Severus,  emperor 

Rus ,  Nevskoi,  a  saint  and  hero  ;— del",  of  the  Tartars,  &c. 

Rus. ,  I.,  emperor  (coalition  against  Napoleon) 

Gr.  Alexius  C'ommcnus,  emperor  of  the  East 

Ito.l.  Alfieri,  Victor,  an  eminent  tragic  poet 

Eng.  Alfred,  justly  called  the  Great,  king 

Ital.  Algarotti,  a  general  scholar  and  critic 

Bar  Ali  Bey,  gov.  of  Egypt,  —revolted  against  the  Turks 

Bar.  — Tepelini,  pacha  of  jannina 

Scot.  Alison,  Archibald  Rev.,  'Essays  on  Taste' 

Scot.  Alison,  Archibald,  'History  of  Europe,'  'Essays' 

Amer.  Allen,  Ethan,  an  intrepid  officer  in  the  Revolution 

Amer.  Allston,  Washington,  painter  and  poet 

Sar.  Alraamon,  Caliph,  patron  of  learning 

Sar.  Almansor,  Caliph,  patron  of  learning 

Span.  Alphonso  X.,  king  of  Castile,  Leon — and  author 

Port.  . •  I.,  Henriquez,  founder  of  the  Portuguese  monarchy 

Span.  Alva,  duke  of,  celebrated  and  barbarous  mil.  com. 

Jew.  Amaziah,  king  of  Judah 

Ital.  Ambrose,  St.,  bishop  of  Milan— author 

Ital.  Americus  Vespucius  (of  Florence) — explored  the  S.  Amer.  coast 

Amer.  Ames,  Fisher,  a  statesman  and  orator 

Eng.  Amherst,  Jeffrey,  lord,  mil.  com.  in  America,  &c. 

Roin.  Ammianus,  Marcellinus,  historian 

Gr.  Ammonius,  a  peripatetic  philosopher 

Fr.  Ampere,  Jean  Marie,  mathematician  and  nat.  philos. 

Fr.  Amyot,  James,  bp.  of  Auxerre— translator  of  Plutarch 

Bar.  Anacharsis,  a  Scythian  philosopher,  and  disciple  of  Solon 

Gr.  Anacreon,  a  celebrated  poet 


BORN. 

1723 
1767 
1726 
1735 
1672 
76 
1775 
160 
3.C.1183 

c.  393  B. 
c.  468  B. 
.  c.  600 


DIBD. 

1794 

1S48 
1808 
1826 
1719 
138 
1843 


f.  565 

1807 


40 
490 
40 
.486 
1747 
1660 
1555 
1721 


1664 
1398 
1205 

1452 

606 
1492 

450  b. 

732 


c.  3-Zt 
c.  400 

'454 

232 

c.  904 


361 

251 
1610 
93 
1566 
94 
1530 
1822 
1743 
1605 
1770 
1819 

411 
17.52 
1490 
1280 

574 


1717 
.  356  B. 
209 
1218 
1777 

1749 
849 
1712 
1728 
1744 
1757 


1203 
1094 
1508 

340' 
1451 
1750 
1717 


1775 

1513 

c.  592 


1550 
c.  404 

804 

709 
1783 
c.  323 

235 
1262 
1825 
1118 
1803 

900 
1764 
1773 
18-^ 
1839 

1789 
1843 
833 
775 

1284 
1185 
1532 

c.  809 
3.S7 
1512 
ISOS 
1707 
300 

c.      24 

ia36 

1593 
B.  (!.   474 


BIOGRAPHICAL    INDEX. 


659 


NATION, 

Gr. 
Gr. 
Gr. 
Gr. 

Gr. 

Fr. 

Pruss. 

Dan. 

Eng. 

Scotch. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Gr. 

Ital. 

Gr. 
Eng. 
Car. 
Fr. 

Eng. 
Egypt. 
Ital. 
Mace. 

Mace. 

Gr. 

Rom. 

Rom. 

Rom. 

Pers. 

Egypt. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Ital. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Gr. 

Scotch. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Pruss. 

Span. 

Span. 

Ital. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Span. 

Ens. 

Fr." 

Ge.-. 

Dutch. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Ital. 

Fr. 


423 


121 
86 


1646 
1148 
1778 
B.  c.  183 
1805 
1109 
1762 
356 
1231 
301 
164 
319 


B.  C- 
B.  C 


NAME   AND   PEOPESSION.  BORN.  DIED. 

Anastasius  I.,  emperor  of  the  East        ....  518 

Anaxagoras,  a  philosopher  .  .  .  .  b.  o.    500  b.  C.    428 

Anaxarchus,  a  philosopher,  companion  of  Alexander  the  Great       f.  b.  o.    340 
Anaximander  of  Miletus,  an  lomc  philosopher  .  .  .         611  b.  o.    547 

Anaximenes  "  "  "  .  .  .  b.  o.    504 

Ancelot,  J.  A.  P.  F.,  poet  and  novelist  .  .  .        1794 

Ancillon,  .7.  P.  F.,  historian  and  statesman  .  .  .  1767  1837 

Andersen,  Hans  Chris.,  poet  and  novelist 
Anderson,  Sir  Edmund,  a  judge  and  author       .  .  .  1605 

,  Adam,  commercial  writer  ....        1692  1765 

Andrews,  Lancelot,  bishop  of  Winchester         .  .  ,  1555  1626 

Andral,  G.  A.,  writer  on  anatomy  and  medicine        .  .  .        1797 

Andronicus  of  Rhodes,  a  peripatetic  philosopher,  flourished  .      b.  c.     63 

Anielo,  Thomas  (commonly  called  Masiniello),  a  fisherman  of  Naples 

who  rose  to  great  power  .....        1623 

Anna  Commena,  daughter  of  the  Emperor  Alexis  I.,  historian       .  1>.B3 

Annet,  Peter,  a  deistical  writer     .....        1703 
Annibal,  or  Hannibal,  a  celebrated  Carthaginian  general  .     b.  c.    247 

Anquetil  du  Perron,  a  classic  scholar,  and  author     .  .  .        1731 

Anselm,  archbishop  of  Canterbury— a  learned  divine       .  .  1033 

Anson,  George,  lord,  celebrated  naval  commander  .  .        1697 

Anthony,  St.,  the  founder  of  monastic  institutions  .  .  251 

,  of  Padua,  a  divine  .....        1195 

Antigonus,  one  of  the  generals  of  Alexander  the  Great 
Antiochus  V.  ..... 

Antipater,  one  of  the  generals  of  Alexander  the  Great     . 
Antislhenes,  a  philos.— Ibunder  of  the  sect  of  Cynics,  before  Christ 
Antoninus,  Pius,  emperor      ..... 

• ■ ,  IMarcus  Aurelius,  emperor — surnamed  the  philosopher 

Antony,  Mark,  mil.  commander  and  statesman 

Anveri,  a  celebrated  jDoet  ..... 

Apion,  a  grammarian,  and  bitter  enemy  of  the  Jews,  flourished    .  80 

Apollonius,  surnamed  Rodius,  a  poet         .  .  .  b.  c.    194 

,  Pergamensis,  a  geometrician,  fluurished  .  .     e.  c.    242 

,  Tyaiieus,  a  Pythagorean  philosopher 

Appian,  an  historian,  flourished  ....  143 

Aquinas,  St.  Thomas,  a  celebrated  theologian  .  .  .        1224 

Arago,  astron.,  nat.  philos.,  and  statesman 

Aram,  Eugene,  a  learned  schoolmaster,  executed  for  murder  .        1705 

Aratus,  ofSicyon,  mil.  com.  and  statesman       .  .  .      b.  c.    273  b. 

Arbuthnot,  John,  Dr.,  a  poet         ..... 
Archelaus,  Ionic  philosopher,  flourished  .  .  .     b.  c.    450 

Archius,  a  poet,  nourished  .  .  .  .  b.  c.    719 

Archilochus,  a  poet,  flourished  .  .  .  .     b.  c.    685 

Archidemes,  a  celebrated  mathematician  .  .  b.  c.    287  b. 

Archytas,  a  mathematician    .  .  .  .  .     b.  c.    408  b. 

Aretino,Guido,  inventor  of  the  gamut  of  music       .  .  .  995 

,  Leonard,  an  historian  ....  1369 

,  Peter,  satirist    ......        1492 

Argelander,  F.  W.  A.,  astronomer  .  .  .  1799 

Argensola,  Lupercio,  historian  and  poet      ....        1565 

,  Bartholomew,  historian       ....  1566 

Ariosto,  Lewis,  a  celebrated  poet  ....        1474 

Aristarchus,  of  Samos,  mathematician  and  philosopher  .     I.  b.  o.    280 

,  grammarian  and  critic  .  .  .  b.  c.    160 

Aristides,  an  Athenian  statesman  .  .  .  .  b. 

,  jElius,  an  orator  and  sophist        .  .  .  .129 

one  of  the  fathers  of  the  church,  flourished       .  .  127 

'         ■  "  B.  c.    392 

B.  c.    662 


Aristippus,  of  Cyrene,  philosopher — founder  of  the  Cyreniacs 

Aristomenes,  a  warrior  and  patriot,  flourished 

Aristophanes,  an  Athenian  comic  poet 

Aristotle,  philosopher — founder  of  the  Peripatetics 

Alius,  of  Alexandria,  the  founder  of  the  Ariaa  sect 

-,  Montanus,  Benedict.— orientalist 

Arkwnght,  Sir  Richard,  inventor  of  spinning  jennies 
Arlincourt,  Victor,  vicompto  de,  novelist 
Arminius,  the  deliverer  of  Germany 

,  James,  a  celebrated  divine — founder  of  a  sect 

Armstrong,  John,  M.  D.,  poet        .... 

,  Jolm,  general,  statesman,  militai-y  com.,  and  historian 

Amaud,  Daniel,  troubadour  .... 
,  Francis  Baculard  d",  dramatist  and  poet 


161 

180 

30 

1201 


97 

1274 

1759 
216 
1735 


212 
360 

1414 
1556 

1613 
1631 
1533 


467 
185 


D.  c.    384  B, 

1527 
1732 

1789 

1560 
1709 
1758 

1718 


C.    389 

0.    381 

336 

1598 
1792 

20 
1610 
1779 
1843 
1220 
1805 


660 


THE   world's   progress. 


NATION. 

Eng. 

Gr. 

Prus. 

Ital. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Gr. 

Eng. 

Bar. 

Bar. 

Bar. 

Brit. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Bar. 

Amer, 

Eng. 

Ger. 

Ger. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Bar. 

Gr. 

Eng. 

Rom. 

Bar. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Fr. 


Rom. 

Rom. 

Rom. 

Fr. 

Ara. 

Ara. 

Eng. 


NAME   AND   PROFESSION. 

Arne,  Thomas  Augustus,  musical  composer 

Arnobius,  a  defender  of  Christianity 

Arnim,  L.  A.  von,  poet  and  novelist 

Arnold,  of  Brescia,  a  learned  monk — disciple  of  Abelard 

,  Tlios.,  D.  D.,  theologian,  historian  and  philologist 

,  Benedict,  major  general — the  traitor  to  his  country 

Arrian,  historian — disciple  of  Epictetus 
Arrowsmith,  Aaron,  constructor  of  maps  and  charts 
Arsaces  I.,  the  founder  of  the  Parthian  monarchy    . 
Artaxerxes  I.,  king  of  Persia 

,  founder  of  the  new  Persian  kingdom 


f.  B 


Arthur,  a  prince  celebrated  in  fable 

Arundel,  Thomas  H.,  earl  of,  importer  of  the  Arundelian  marbles 

Ascham,  Roger,  a  learned  writer 

Asdrubal,  a  Carthaginian  general 

Ashmun,  John  H.,  jurist— professor  of  lav/ 

Asser,  John,  historian 

Ast,  Geo.  A.  F.,  philologist,  'Lexicon  Platonicum' 

Astor,  John  Jacob,  wealthy  merchant  at  New  York 

Athanasius,  St.,  one  of  the  fathers  of  the  church 

Athenagoras,  philosopher  .... 

Athenais,  Emp.  of  the  West,  and  authoress  (called  also  Eudoxia) 

Athenteus,  a  celebrated  grammarian — the  Greek  Varro 

Attalus,  founder  of  the  monarchy  of  Pergamus — inv.  of  parchment 

,  Rhodius,  mathematician  .  .  .  f.  b 

Atterbury,  Francis,  bp.  of  Rochester,  exiled  for  conspiracy 

Atticus,  a  knight,  and  author  (works  lost)  .  .  .  B, 

Attila,  king  of  the  Huns,  "  the  Scourge  of  God" 

Auber,  D.  F.  E.,  famous  musical  composer 

Auckland,  William,  lord,  statesman 

Audoin,  J.  F.,  zoologist  ..... 

Augercau,  duke  of  Castiglione,  mil.  com. 

Augustine,  St.,  a  celebrated  father  of  the  church 

,  the  Apostle  of  the  English — 1st  archbishop  of  Canterbury 

Augustulus,  Romulus,  the  last  emperor  of  the  West 

Augustus,  Cains  Julius  Cffisar  Octavius — 1st  emperor  .  i 

Ausonius,  Decimus  Magnus,  poet  .... 

Auvergne,  Thenphilus — republican— military  commander    . 

Averroes,  philosopher,  physician,  and  author    . 

Avicenna,  philosopher,  physician,  and  author 

Ayscough,  Samuel,  Compiler  of  Index  to  Shakspeare,  &c. 


BORN. 

1710 

f.    303 

1781 

1795 

f.    140 

C.    250 

472 

1515 

1800  ' 

1778 

1763 

296 

f.    177 

f.    190 


c.    173 
1662 
c.    109  B. 

1784 

1797 
1757 
354 


G3 
1743 


DIBD. 

1778 

1831 
1155 

1842 
1801 

1823 

c.  425 
242 
542 
1646 
1568 
,  c.  220 
1833 
909 
1841 
1848 
371 

460 

B.  c.    193 


1731 
c.     32 

453 

1814 
1841 
1816 
430 
604 
476 
14 
394 
1800 
1197 
1037 
1804 


B 


Eng 

Gr. 

Port 

Ame- 

Eng. 

Eng 

Eng. 

Dan. 

Ger. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Scot. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Scot. 

Turk. 

Ital. 

Fr.- 

Fr. 

Swe. 

Irish. 

Eng. 

Pruss. 

Eng. 

Turk. 

Fr. 


Babbage,  Charles,  mathematician  and  machinist      .  .  .        1790 

Bacchylides,  lyric  poet  .  .  .  .  f.  b.  C.   450 

Baccellar,  a  civilian,  historian,  and  lyric  poet  .  .  .        1610 

Backus,  Isaac,  a  divine  and  historian  .  .  .  1724 

Back,  Geo.,  Capt.  R.  N.,  Polar  navigator  and  author 
Bacon,  Roger,  a  monk,  celebrated  for  his  scientific  knowledge 

,  Francis,  lord  Verulam,  the  celebrated  philosopher  and  statesman 

Baden,  James,  one  of  the  founders  of  Danish  literature 

Bilhr,  Jno.  C.  F.,  classical  philologist  .... 

Bailey,  Nathan,  a  grammarian  and  lexicographer 

Baillet,  a  learned  theologian,  historian,  and  miscellaneous  writer 

Baillie,  Matthew,  physician  and  anatomist 

Baily,  Francis,  astronomer  and  mathematician 

Bailly,  John  Silvain,  a  learned  author,  and  a  leader  in  the  revolution 


Bainbridge,  Wm.,  naval  commander 

Baird,  Sir  David,  military  commander 

Bajazet,  sultan— conquered  by  Tamerlane 

Baibi,  Adrian,  geographer  and  ethnographer 

Baldwin,  who  became  emperor  of  the  East 

Balzac,  Honore  de,  novelist 

Banier,  or  Banner,  a  celebrated  military  commander 

Banim,  John,  novelist 

Banks,  Sir  Joseph,  navigator — President  Royal  Society 

Baralier,  a  Hebrew  lexicographer  before  ten  years  of  age 

Barbauld,  Anna  Letitia,  a  popular  miscellaneous  writer 

Barbarossa,  the  celebrated  corsair — usurper  of  Algiers 

Barbeyrac,  John,  miscellaneous  writer 


Princeton 


1214 
1561 
1735 
1798 

1649 
1761 
1774 
1736 
1774 
1757 


Venice   1782 

Tours  1799 
1596 
1800 
1743 
1721 
1743 

.   '   1674 


1663 
1806 

1292 
1626 
1804 

1742 
1706 
1823 
1844 
1793 
1833 
1820 
1413 

1206 
1850 
1641 
1842 
182U 
1740 
1825 
1518 
1729 


BIOGRAPHICAL    INDEX. 


661 


NATION.  NAME  AND  PROFESSION. 

Amer.  Barbour,  James,  statesman  and  diplomatist  .  .  Va. 

Amer.  Barbour,  P.  P.,  statesman,  and  .ludge  of  Sup.  Court        .  Va. 

Eng.  Barclay,  Robert,  the  celebrated  viniiicator  of  the  Quakers 

Ital.  Baretti,  Joseph,  lexicographer — author  of  Travels,  &c. 

Eng.  Baring,  Alex,  (lord  Ashburton),  statesman 

Amer.  Barlow,  Joel,  a  statesman,  and  poet      .  .  . 

Eng.  Barnes,  Joshua,  an  eminent  Greek  scholar 

Amer, ,  Daniel  H.,  a  distinguished  conchologist  . 

Dutcli,  Barnereldt,  John,  statesman  (beheaded) 

Amer.  Barney,  Joshua,  a  distinguished  naval  comti  ander 

\'r.  Barras,  Paul,  count  de,  mem.  of  the  direct,  in  the  revolution 

Eng.  Barrow,  Isaac,  a  divine,  and  mathematician 

Amer.  Barry,  W.  T.,  statesman  and  diplomatist  .  .        Va 

Fr.  Barthelemy,  John  James,  author  of 'Anacharsis,' &c.,    . 

Amer  Barton,  Benj.  Smith,  M.  D.,  a  learned  physician  and  botanist 

Amer.  Bartram,  John,  an  eminent  botanist      .... 

Or.  Basil,  St.,  a  celebrated  father  of  the  Greek  church 

Fr.  Basnage  De  Beaval,  James,  historian 

Fr.  Bassaiio,  H.  B.  M.,  duke  of,  political  writer  and  statesman    . 

Eng.  Bath,  William  Pulteney,  earl  of,  statesman 

Eng.  Bathurst,  earl  of,  statesman — friend  of  Pope,  &c. 

Fr.  Batteux,  Charles,  rhetorician,  and  miscellaneous  writer 

Eng.  Baxter,  Richard,  an  eminent  divine,  and  author 

Fr.  Bayard,  Peter,  military  commander     .... 

Amer.  ■ ,  James  A.,  a  distinguished  statesman,  and  lawyer 

Ger.  Bayer,  Jolm,  astronomer  .... 

Ger.  ,  Theophilus,  chronologist,  and  historian 

Fr.  Bayle,  Peter,  an  eminent  philosopher,  and  critic  [Bayle's  Dictionary] 

Eng.  Bayly,  Tlios.  Haines,  poet  .... 

Eng.  Beattie,  James,  LL.D.,  poet  .... 

Fr.  Beauharnois,  Eugene  Hortense,  ex-queen  of  Holland 

Fr.  Beauharnois,  Eugene,  son  of  the  empress  Josephine,  mil.  com. — vice- 
roy of  Italy,  &c.  ..... 

Fr.  Beaumarchais,  P.  A.  C.  de,  an  eminent  dramatist 

Fr.  Beaumont,  Elie  de,  mineralogist  and  geologist 

Eng.  Beaumont,  Francis,  dramatic  writer     .  .  .  < 

Fr."  Beauzee,  Nicholas,  an  eminent  grammarian 

Ital.  Beccaria,  John  Baptist,  an  ecclesiastic  and  philosopher 

Ital. ,  Marquis,  professor  of  political  economy,  and  author 

Eng.  Becket,  Thomas  k,  celebrated  prelate  and  statesman 

Eng.  Beckford,  Wm.,  traveller  and  novelist 

Brit.  Bede,  styled  the  Venerable,  a  learned  Saxon  monk,  and  historian  , 

Eng.  Bedford,  Jolm,  duke  of,  military  commander 

Pruss.  Beer,  Michael,  dramatic  poet  (bro.  of 'Meyerbeer') 

Ger.  Beethoven,  Ludwig  von,  celebrated  musical  composer 

Ger.  Bekker,  Emmanuel,  philologist  ... 

Rom.  Belisarius,  a  celebrated  general  and  conqueror 

Scot.  Bell,  Johji,  surgeon,  anatomist,  and  physiologist 

Scot.  Bell,  Sir  Charles,  anatomist  and  physiologist 

Amer.  Bellamy,  Joseph,  D.  D.,  a  learned  divine  and  author 

Ital.  Bellarmin,  cardinal,  the  champion  of  the  Roman  Catholic  church 

Fr.  Bellau,  Remi,  poet  ..... 

Fr.  Belleisle,  Count  de,  military  commander 

Ital.  Bellini,  Vincenzo,  musical  composer 

Eng.  Beloe,  Wm.,  a  divine  and  critic — translator  of  Herodotus,  &c. 

Fr.  Belon,  William,  naturalist  and  traveller 

Eng.  Belsham,  William,  historical,  political,  and  miscellaneous  writer 

Ital.  Belzoni,  the  celebrated  traveller  in  Egypt 

Ital.  Bembo,  cardinal,  one  of  the  restorers  of  literature 

Eng.  Benbow,  John,  a  gallant  admiral 

(tal.  Benedict,  St.,  one  of  the  originators  of  monasteries 

Ital.  Xlil.,  pope — theological  writer  .  , 

lial.  ■ XIV.,  pope— theological  writer 

Fr.  Benezet,  Anthony,  philanthropist  and  historian  (died  in  America) 

Bar.  Bcnhadad,  king  of  Syria         .... 

Fr.  Benserade,  Isaac,  a  wit  and  poet 

Eng.  Beniham,  Jeremy,  political  and  philosophical  writer 

Eng.  Bentley,  Richard,  an  eminent  critic  and  scholar 

Fr.  Beranger,  Pierre  Jean  de,  lyrical  poet  . 

Fr.  Berenger,  A.  T.I.  M.  T.,  statesman  and  jurist 

Ger.  Berghaus,  Henry,  mathematician  and  geographer 

Swe.  Bergman,  nrofessor  of  chemistry  at  Upsal 


BORN. 

1775 
1783 
1648 
1716 

1756 
1654 

1547 
1759 
1755 
1630 
1785 
1716 
1766 
1701 
320 
1653 
1758 
1682 
1684 
1713 
1615 
1476 
1767 

1694 
1647 
1797 
1735 
1753 

1780 
1732 
1798 
1555 
1714 
1716 
17.35 
1119 
1760 
672 

1800 
1770 


1763 

1781 
1719 
1542 
1528 
1684 
1808 

1518 
1752 

1470 
1650 
480 
1649 
1675 
1713 

1612' 

1C62 

1785 
1797 
1735 


DIED. 

1842 
1841 
1690 
1789 

1812 
1712 
1818 
1619 
1S18 
1829 
1677 
1835 
1795 
1815 
1777 
379 
1723 
1839 
1764 
1775 
1780 
1691 
1524 
1815 
1627 
1738 
1706 
1839 
1803 
1837 

1824 
1799 

1616 
1789 
1781 
1793 
1170 
1844 
735 
1435 
1833 
1827 

565 
1825 
1842 
1790 
1626 
1577 
1761 
1835 

1664 
1827 
1823 
1542 
1702 
547 
1728 
1753 
1784 
B.  895 
1691 
1832 
1742 


662 


THE    WORLD  S    PROGRESS. 


NATION.  NAME   AND   PROFESSION. 

Dan.  Behiing,  a  navigator,  from  whom  the  strait  dividing  Asia  and  America 
was  named  ..... 

Bel.  Beriot,  Chas.  A.  de,  violinist  and  composer 

Irish.  Berkely,  George,  bp.,  an  eminent  prelate  and  philosopher      , 

Amer.  ,  William,  govenior  of  Virginia 

Fr.  Berlioz,  Hector,  musical  composer 

Fr.  Bernadotte,  .1.  B.  .J.,  elected  king  of  Sweden,  as  Cliarles  XIV. 

Fr.  Bernard,  Simon,  engineer  and  mil.  commander 

Fr.  , St.,  preacher  of  crusades,  and  author 

Eng. ,  Edward,  a  divine,  astronomer,  and  author 

Dutch.  ,  John  Frederick,  a  bookseller,  editor  and  author 

Amer.  ,  Francis,  governor  of  ftlassachusetts 

Fr.  Bernardin,  De  Sainte  Pierre,  author  of  '  Studies  of  Nature,'  &c. 

Ital.  Bemi,  poet  (poisoned)     ..... 

Swiss.  Bernoulli,  James,  mathematician 

Bar.  Berosus,  the  Chaldean  historian  .  .  .  f.  i 

Fr.  Berruyer,  a  Jesuit,  author  of  a  '  History  of  the  People  of  God,'  in  11 
vols.  4to.  .      .  .... 

Fr.  Berryer,  Pierre  A.,  statesman 

Fr.  Berthier,  Alexander,  a  distinguished  military  commander 

Fr.  BerthoUet,  Claude  Louis,  an  eminent  chemist 

fr.  Bertrand,  Henri  G.,  gen.  in  Napoleon's  army 

Eng.  Berwick,  duke  of,  military  commander  (k.  at  Phillipsburg) 

Swe.  Berzelius,  John  James,  chemist 

Fr.  Bessieres,  duke  of  Istria,  military  commander  (k.  at  Lutzen) 

Ger.  Bessel,  Fred.  Wm.,  astronomer 

Ital.  Bettinelli,  Xavier,  an  elegant  miscellaneous  writer 

Fr.  Beudant,  Francois  S.,  mineralogist  and  naturalist 

Eng.  Beveridge,  William,  an  eminent  theologian,  and  orientalist 
Beza,  Theodore,  an  eminent  reformer 

Fr.  Bezout,  mathematician  .  .  .■  . 

Ital.  Bianchini,  Francis,  mathematician  and  author 

Gr.  Bias,  one  of  (lie  seven  sages         .... 

Fr.  Biehat,  an  eminent  anatomist  and  physiologist 

Eng.  Biddle,  .John,  an  eminent  Socinian  writer 

Amer.  ,  Nicholas,  financier  and  lileratcur  .  .    . 

Amer.  ,  Nicholas,  a  captain  in  the  IJ.  S.  navy 

Amer. ,  .Tames,  commodore,  in  U.  S.  navy 

Fr.  Bignoii,  Louis  E.,  historian 

Gr.  Bion,  pastoral  poet  ..... 

Gr.  of  Borysthenes,  philosopher  (Cyreniac)    . 

Fr.  Biot,  Jean  B.,  mathematician        .... 

Eng.  Birbeck,  Geo.,  M.  D.,  founder  of  mechanics'  institutions 

Fr.  Biron,  duke  of,  military  commander  (beheaded  for  conspiracy) 

Scotch.  Bisset,  Robert,  historian  and  biographer 

Span.  Bivar,  Don  Rodrigo,  known  in  Instory  and  romance  under  the  name  ol' 
the  Cid  ..... 

Eng.  Blackstone,  Sir  William,  an  eminent  lawyer  and  author 

Scotch.  Blair,  Robert,  a  divine  and  poet 

Scotch.  ,  John,  a  chronologi.st 

Scotch.  ,  Dr.  Hugh  a  divine  and  rhetorician 

Scotch.  ,  James,  founder  of  William  and  Maiy's  college  in  Virginia 

Eng.  Blake,  Robert,  a  celebrated  admiral  .  . 

Irish.  Blessington,  Marguerite,  Countess,  novelist,  and  literaleur 

Eng.  Bloomiield,  Roben,  a  poet  .... 

Pruss.  Blucher,  a  celebrated  military  commander 

Swe.  Blumenbach,  John  Fred.,  naturalist 

Brit.  Boadicea,  the  warlike  queen  of  the  Iceni    . 

Ital.  Boccacio,  John,  one  of  the  great  classic  writers  of  modern  Italty 

Ital.  Boccalina,  a  satirist         ..... 

Fr.  Bochart,  Samuel,  an  eminent  divine,  and  orientalist 

Fr.  Bodin,  John,  a  lawyer  and  author 

Ger.  Baehmen,  .Jacob,  a  fanatic  and  author 

Dutch.  Boerhaave,  one  of  the  most  eminent  of  modern  physicians    . 

Rom.  Boethius,  a  statesman  and  philosopher 

Fr.  Bohemond,  a  Norman  adventurer      _         . 

Ger.  Boekb,  Augustus,  classical  philologist 

Fr.  Boileau,  Nicholas,  an  eminent  poet 

Fr.  Boissard,  Jean  J.,  fabulist       .... 

Fr.  Boissy,  Louis  de,  author  of  comedies 

Fr. ,  D'Angles,  F.  A.,  count  of,  statesman  and  revolutionist 

Eng.       Bolmbroke,  Henry  St.  John,  lord,  political  and  deistical  writer 


f.  1730 

1802 

1684 

1753 

1667 

1803 

1764 

1844 

1779 

18.39 

1091 

1153 

1638 

1697 

175) 

1779 

1737 

1814 

1536 

1654 

1705 

c.  268 

1681 

751 

1790 

1753 

1815 

1748 

1822 

1778 

1844 

1670 

1734 

1779 

1769 

1784 

1718 

18:)1 

1787 

1638 

1708 

1519 

1605 

1730 

1783 

1662 

1729 

c.  606 

1771 

1802 

1615 

1662 

1786 

1844 

1750 

1778 

1783 

1848 

1771 

1841 

B. 

c.  300 

B. 

c.  240 

1776 

1841 

1561 

1602 

1759 

1805 

IWO 

1099 

1723 

•1780 

1699 

1777 

1782 

1718 

1800 

1660 

1743 

1599 

1657 

1849 

1766 

1823 

1742 

1819 

1752 

1840 

61 

1313 

1373 

1556 

1613 

1509 

1567 

1530 

1595 

1575 

1624 

1668 

1738 

455 

526 

nil 

1636 

1711 

1743 

lasi 

1694 

1758 

1756 

1826 

1678 

1751 

BIOGRAPHICAL    INDEX. 


66c 


KATION  NAME   AND    PROFESSION. 

Colom.  Bolivar,  Simon,  the  iieroic  deliverer  of  his  country 

Fr.  Bonaparte,  Napoleon,  emp.  of  France 

Fr. ■,  Maria  Letitia,  mother  of  Napoleon 

Fr.  ,  Joseph,  ex-king  of  Naples  and  Spain 

Fr.  ,  Lucien,  prince  of  Canino 

Fr.  • ,  Louis,  ex-king  of  Holland 

Fr,  ,  Jerome,  ex-king  of  Westphalia 

Fr.  ,  Louis  Napoleon,  1st  pres.  Republic  of  France 

Eng.  Bonner,  bishop,  the  persecutor  of  Protestants    . 

Swiss.  Boimet,  Charles,  a  celebrated  naturalist 

Eng.  Bonnycastle,  John,  mathematician 

Eng.  ,  Charles,  mathematician 

Amer.  Boone,  Daniel,  the  first  settler  of  Kentucky 

Ger.  Bopp,  Francis,  Sanscrit  scholar 

Fr.  Bonpland.  Anne,  traveller  and  botanist    . 

Iial.  Boresli,  pliilosopher  an;!  mathematician     . 

Ital.  Borghesi,  Bartoiomeo,  count,  antiquarian 

Ital.  Borgia,  Cassar,  the  infamous  pope,  Alexander  VL 

Ital.  Borromeo,  cardinal,  theological  writer 

Fr.  Bosc,  Louis  A.  W.,  naturalist 

Eng.  Boscawen,  Edward,  a  brave  and  skilful  admiral 

Ital.  Boscovitch,  mathematical  and  philosophical  writer 

Fr.       -  Bossuet,  James  B.,  a  divine  and  historian 

Fr.  Bossul,  Charles,  mathematician 

Scotcli.  Boston,  Thomas,  a  divine  and  author 

Eng.  Boswell,  James,  the  biograplier  of  Dr.  Jolmson 

Bottiger,  ai'chaeologist  and  antiquarian 

Gr.  Botzarris,  Marco,  a  gallant  leader  in  the  modem  revolution 

Anier.  Boudinot,  Elias,  a  statesman  and  philanthropist 

Fr.  Boufflers,  duke  of,  military  commander 

Fr.  Bourgainville,  Louis  A.,  military  commander,  and  author 

Fr.  Bourguer,  Peter,  mathematician  and  hydrographer 

Fr.  Bourlainvilliers,  Henry,  count  de,  historian 

Eng.  Boulton,  Matthew,  an  eminent  engineer 

Fr.  Bourcet,  Peter  J.  cle,  an  officer  and  topographer 

Fr.  Bourdalouo,  Louis,  a  noted  preacher 

Fr.  Bourignon,  Antoinette,  a  fanatical  author 

Fr.  Bourmont,  L.  A.  V.,  count  of,  marshal  of  France 

Eng.  Bourne,  Vincent,  an  elegant  Latin  poet 

Fr.  Bom'rienne,  biographer  of  Napoleon 

Fr.  Bousmard,  M.  de,  a  military  engineer 

Amer.  Bovi'ditch,  Natli.,  astronomer,  mathematician,  &c, 

Eng.  Bowdler,  Thomas,  editor  Shakspeare,  &c. 

Amer.  Bowdoin,  James,  LL.  D.,  philosoplier  and  statesman 

Amer.  ,  James  (son  of  the  last),  ambassador  to  Spain 

Eng.  Bowring,  John,  statesman,  poet,  and  linguist 

Fr.  Boyer,  jean  Pierre,  president  of  Hayti  (died  at  Paris) 

Amer.  Boylston,  Zabdiel,  an  eminent  pliysician 

Scolch.  Boyd,  Mark  Alexander,  a  poet 

Irish.  Boyle,  Robert,  an  eminent  philosopher 

Eng.  Bradley,  Dr.  James,  astronomer  and  mathematician 

Eng.  Bradwardine,  Thomas,  mathematician  and  theologian 

Eng.  Brady,  Robert,  physician  and  historian 

Amer.  Bradford,  William,  second  governor  of  Plymouth  colony 

Amer.  ,  William,  attorney  general  of  the  United  States 

Dan.  Brahe,  Tycho,  a  celebrated  astronomer 

Ger.  Brandes,  Henry  Wm.,  mathematician  and  astronomer 

Ger.  ,  John  Christian,  actor  and  dramatist 

Amer.  Brainard,  David,  missionary  to  the  Indians 

Amer. ,  J.  G.  C.,  a  poet 

Ger.  Breitkopf,  John  G.  E.,  an  eminent  printer  and  typo-founder 

Swe.  Bremer,  Fredrika,  novelist 

Bar.  Brennus,  the  leader  of  the  Gauls, 

Scotch.  Brewster,  Sir  David,  natural  philosopher 

Ens.  Bridgewater,  duke  of,  introducer  of  canals  in  England 

Eng.  Briggs,  Henry,  mathematician 

Fr.  Brisson,  Mathurin  James,  naturalist 

Fr.  Bissot,  John,  a  revolutionist  and  author 

Fr.  Broglio,  due  de,  statesman 

Irifih.  Brooke,  Henry,  miscellaneous  writer 

Amer  Brooks,  John,  LL.  D.,  governor  of  Massachusetts 

Fi'.  Brotier,  G.,  a  Jesuit— editor  of  Tacitus 


BORN. 

1785 
1769 
1750 
1768 
1775 
1778 
1784 
1808 

1720 


1730 
1791 


1781 
1608 
1538 
1759 
1711 
1711 
1627 
1730 
1676 
1710 

17S0 
1740 
1644 
1729 
1698 
1658 
1728 
1700 
1632 
1616 
1773 


1773 
1754 
1727 
1752 
1792 
1776 
1680 
1562 
1626 
1692 


1588 
1755 
1546 
1777 
1735 
1718 
1797 
1719 
1802 
.  390 
1785 
1736 
1536 
1723 
1757 
1785 
1706 
1752 
1723 


664 


THE    world's    PKOGRESS. 


NATION.  NAME   AND   PROFESSION. 

Fr.  Brougniait,  Alex.,  mineralogist  and  geologist 

Fr.         ,  Adolphe  T.,  botanist 

Eng.       Brougham,  Henry,  lord,  statesman  and  jurist 

Fr.  Broussais,  F.  J.  V.,  medical  and  pliysiological  writer 

Amer.    Brown,  Arthur,  a  distinguished  scholar  and  barrister 

Amer.    •,  Charles  Brockden,  a  novelist 

Eng.       ,  John,  D  D.,  a  miscellaneous  writer 

Scotcli.  ,  John,  a  divine  and  author 

Scotch.  ,  Dr.  Thomas,  metaphysician  and  poet 

Amer.    ,  Maj.  Gen.  Jacob,  general  in  war  of  1812 

Amer.    ,  James,  senator,  minister  to  France 

Eng.       •,  Robert,  eminent  botanist 

Eng.       Browne,  Sir  Thomas,  a  physician  and  philos.  writer 

Irish.      ,  George,  count  de,  an  officer  in  the  Russian  serv 

Eng.       ,  William  George,  a  traveller  in  Africa,  &c. 

Scotch.  Bruc£,  Robert,  the  deliverer  of  his  country 

Scotch.  ,  James,  a  celebrated  traveller 

Fr.  Brueys,  Francis  Paul,  admiral 

Fr.  Brumoy,  Peter,  a  Jesuit  and  author 

Fr.  Brune,  William  Mary  Ann,  marshal  and  revolutionist 

Fr.  Brunei,  Sir  M.  J.,  engineer  of  Thames  Tunnel,  &c. 

Fr.  Brunei,  Jacques  Charles,  '  Bibliographer's  Manual' 

Fr.  Bruno,  St.,  founder  of  the  Carthusian  order 

Gei\        Brunsv/ick,  Ferdinand,  duke  of,  military  commander 

Ger. ■   Lunenburg,  Charles  Wm.  Fer.,  duke  of,  mil.  commander 

Rom.      Brutus,  Lucius  Junius,  founder  of  the  republican  government 

Rom.      — ,  Marcus  Junius,  conspirator  against  Ctesar 

Fr.  Bruyere,  John  de  la,  a  celebrated  writer 

Dutch.   Bruyn,  Cornelius  le,  traveller 

Eng.       Bryant,  Jacob,  a  philologist  and  antiquary 

Eug.       Brydges,  Sir  Egerton,  eccentric  lileraleur 

Fr.  Buat,  Nancay,  Louis  G.,  count  de,  a  learned  writer 

Fr.  Bucer,  Martin,  one  of  the  fathers  of  the  reformation 

Scotch.  Buohan,  William,  a  physician  and  author 

Scotch.  Buclianan,  George,  an  eminent  writer 

Scotch. ,  Claudius,  a  divine 

Eng.       Buckingham,  George  Villiers,  duke  of,  statesinan 
— ,  George  Villiers,  son  of  the  former 


Eng. 

Amer. 

Polish, 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Ger. 

Nor. 

Swiss. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Pruss. 

Eng. 

Swiss. 

Ger. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Irish. 

Eng. 

Dutch. 

Scotch 


Buel,  Jesse,  agricultural  writer 

Buffiei-,  Claude,  a  Jesuit,  and  miscellaneous  writer 

Buflbn,  George  L.  le  Clerc,  count  of,  celebrated  naturalist 

Bugeaud,  T.  R,,  marshal  of  France 

Buhle,  J.  G.,  hist,  of  philosophy,  &c. 

Bull,  Ole,  famous  violinist 

Bullinger,  Henry,  reforiner  and  author 

Bulwer,  (now  Sir  Edward  Lytton,)  novelist  and  dramatist 

,  Sir  Henry  L.,  diplomatist  and  pol.  writer 

Bunsen,  C.  C.  J.,  chevalier  de,  diploinatist  and  historian 
Bunyan,  John,  author  of  '  Pilgrim's  Progress' 
Burckhardt,  John  Louis,  oriental  traveller 
— ,  John  Charles,  mathematician 


Burdett,  Sir  Francis,  politician 

Burgess,  Thomas,  bp.  of  Salisbury,  classical  and  theological  writer 

Burgoyne.  John,  military  commander  and  author 

Burke.  Edmund,  a  great  statesman  and  writer 

Burleigh,  William  Cecil,  lord,  eminent  statesman 

Burman.  Peter,  critic  and  editor    .... 

Burnes,  Sir  Alex.,  travels  in  Bokkara— '  Cabool,'  &c. 

Scotch.  Burnet,  Gilbert,  a  divine  and  historian 

Eng.       Burney,  James,  admiral  and  author 

Eng.       ,  Charles,  a  doctor  of  music 

Scotch.  Burns,  Robert,  a  popular  and  national  poet 

Amer.     Burr,  Col.  Aaron,  vice-pres.  U.  S.  .  .  . 

Eng.       Burton,  Robert,  author  of  the  '  Anatomy  of  Rlelancholy ' 

Ger.        Busching,  Anthony  Frederick,  philosopher  and  geological  writer 

Eng.       Bute,  John  Stuart,  earl  of,  statesman 

Eng.       Butler,  Samuel,  a  humorous  poet 

Eng.       ,  Joseph,  bishop,  an  eminent  prelate  and  author 

Eng.       ,  Samuel,  bp.  of  Litchiield,  editor  of  '  iEschyles,'  &c. 

Amer. ,  Richanl,  colonel,  an  officer  in  the  revolution 

Ger.        Buttman,  Philip  C,  philologist     .... 

Ger.       Buxtorf,  John,  a  Hebrew  and  Chaldaic  lexicographer 


BOBM. 

DIBU. 

1770 

ISOl 

1779 

1772 

1839 

1805 

1771 

1810 

1715 

1766 

1722 

1787 

1777 

1820 

1828 

1766 

1835 

1781 

1605 

168^ 

1698 

1792 

1814 

1329 

1730 

1794 

17.50 

1798 

1688 

1742 

1763 

1815 

1769 

mi. 

1377 

1444 

1721 

1792 

1735 

1806 

B. 

c.  505 

B. 

0.  42 

1644 

1697 

1652 

1715 

1804 

17b'2 

1837 

1491 

1551 

1729 

1791 

15U6 

1582 

1766 

1805 

1592 

1628 

1627 

1688 

1778 

1839 

1661 

1737 

1707 

1788 

1784 

1763 

1810 

1504 

1575 

1803 

1791 

1628 

1683 

1784 

1815 

1773 

1815 

1770 

1844 

1756 

1837 

1792 

1730 

1797 

1520 

1598 

1668 

1741 

1805 

1841 

1643 

1715 

1739 

1820 

1726 

1814 

1759 

1796 

1756 

1836 

1576 

1639 

1721 

1793 

.1738 

1792 

1612 

1680 

1692 

1752 

1774 

1840 

1791 

1764 

1829 

1564 

1629 

JBIOGRAPHICAL    INDEX. 


665 


NATION.  NAME   AND   PROFESSION. 

Ger.  Biixtorf,  John,  (son  of  the  preceding)  lexicographer 

Eng.  Byng,  honorable  John,  admiral 

Eng.  Byron,  honorable  John,  admiral 

Eng.  ,  George  Gordon,  lord,  a  popular  poet 


BORN. 

DIED, 

1599 

3644 

1704 

1757 

1723 

1786 

1788 

1824 

c 

Ital.  Cabot,  Sebastian  (son  of  John)  navigator    . 

Port.  Cabral,  Pedro  Alvarez,  navigator 

Span.  Cabrera,  don  Ramon,  military  commander  for  Don  Carlos 

Fr.  Cadet  De  Grassicourt,  Charles  L.,  chemist  and  philosopher 

Ital.  Cadamosta,  Louis  da,  navigator 

Fr.  Caille,  Rene,  '  Voyage  k  Tembouctou,'  &c. 

Rom.  Caesar,  Caius  Julius,  warrior,  statesman,  and  author 

Ital.  Cajelan,  Cardinal,  diplomatist  and  author 

Gr.  Calaber,  Quintus,  poet 

Span.  Calderon  de  la  Barca,  don  Pedro,  dramatist 

Ital.  Calepino,  Ambrose,  author  of  a  Lexicon  in  11  languages 

Amer.  Calhoun,  John  C,  senator  of  the  U.  S. 

Gr.  Calippus,  astronomer  and  mathematician 

Gr.  Callimachus,  a  poet  .... 

Gr.  Callisthenes,  philosopher  and  historian 

Fr.  Calmet,  Augustine,  an  erudile  divine  and  author  .   - 

Ital.  Calogera,  Angelo,  a  learned  monk  and  author 

Fr.  Calonne,  Charles  Alex,  de,  minister  of  state 

Fr.  Calvin,  John,  one  of  the  apostles  of  the  Reformation 

Amer.  Calvert,  Leonard,  first  governor  of  Maryland  [See  Baltimore 

Fr.  Cambaceres,  John  J.  R.,  distinguished  revolutionist 

Eng.  Cambridge,  duke  of,  sixth  son  of  George  III. 

Eng.  Camden,  William,  an  eminent  antiquaiy  and  historian 

Rom.  Camillus,  Marcus  Furius,  a  distinguished  dictator 

Port.  CJamoens,  I,oui3,  the  most  eminent  poet  of  his  country 

Scotch.  Campbell,  George,  a  divine  and  author 

Scotch. -,  John,  a  multifarious  writer 

Scotch.  ,  Thos.,  poet— 'Life  of  Petrarch,'  &c. 

Scotch.  • ,  Lord,  jurist — '  Lives  of  Chancellors' 

Ger.  Camper,  Peter,  an  eminent  naturalist 

Fr.  Campiston,  John  G.  de,  dramatist 

Fr.  Cange,  Charles  Dufresne,  Sieur  du,  historian 

Eng.  Canning,  George,  statesman,  orator,  and  poet 

Fr.  Capefigue,  B.  H.  R.,  historian 

St>an.  Capmany,  Don  Antonio,  historian 

Rom.  Caracalla,  Marcus  Aurelius  Antoninus,  emperor 

Brit.  Caractacus,  prince  of  the  Silures,  a  brave  warrior 

Ital.  Cardan,  Jerom,  philosopher,  mathematician,  and  physician 

Fr.  Cardonne,  Dennis  D.,  an  eminent  orientalist 

Eng.  Carey,  Henry,  Earl  of  Monmouth,  translator 

Amer.  ,  Matthew,  philanthropist,  publisher,  and  politician 

Eng.  ,  William,  mi-ssionary  to  India    .  . 

Ital.  Carissimi,  James,  musical  composer 

Irish.  Carleton,  Sir  Guy,  military  commander,  and  governor  of  Canada 

Ital.  Carli,  John  Rinaldo,  count  de,  author 

Eng.  Carlisle,  Sir  Anth.,  physician  and  medical  writer 

Span.  Carlos,  don,  son  of  Philip  II.  (hero  of  Schiller's  tragedy) 

Port.  ,  don  M.  J. 

Scotcl .  Carlyle,  Thomas,  historian  and  metaphysician 

Gr.  Carneades,  philosopher,  founder  of  the  3d  Academy 

Fr.  Carnot,  Lazarus  Nicholas,  revolutionist 

Fr.  Carrel,  Armand,  historian  and  metaphysician 

Eng.  Carter,  Elizabeth,  a  learned  translatress,  &c. 

Amer.  — — — ,  Nathaniel  H.,  a  scholar  and  traveller 

Eng.  Cartwright,  Major  John,  parliament  reformer 

Ger.  Carus,  C.  G.,  writer  on  anatomy  and  physiology  . 

Amer.  Carver,  Jonathan,  traveller  ajid  author 

Amer.  — ,  John,  first  governor  of  Plymouth  colony 

Eng.  Cary,  Henry  F.,  poet — translator  of  '  Dante ' 

Span.  Casas,  Bartholomew  de  las,  philanthropist  and  historian 

Fr.  Cassini,  John  Dominic,  astronomer 

I]al.  Cassiodorus,  Marcus  Aur.,  statesman  and  historian 

Rom.  Cassius,  Longinus  Caius,  conspirator  against  Caesar 

Eng.  Castell,  Edmund,  divine  and  lexicographer 


1477 

f.  1500 

1810 

1769 

1821 

.  f.  1456 

1838 

B.  0.  100  B 

c.  44 

1510 

1593 

.  f.  250 

1600 

1687 

1435 

1.511 

1782 

1850 

f.  B.  c.  330 

.  f.  B.  B.  150 

B. 

c.  328 

1672 

1757 

1699 

1768 

1734 

1802 

1509 

1564 

1676 

1753 

1824 

1774 

1850 

1551 

1623 

B. 

c.  365 

1517 

1579 

1709 

1796 

1775 

.   '   1777 

1844 

1778 

1722 

1789 

1656 

1723 

1610 

1688 

1770 

1827 

1799 

1754 

1810 

188 

217 

(ab.)  100 

1501 

1576 

1720 

1783 

1596 

1661 

1760 

1839 

1761 

1822 

1600 

lada  .      1724 

1808 

1720 

1795 

1768 

1840 

1545 

1568 

.   ■   1795 

B.  c.  218  B 

c.  128 

1753 

1823 

ISOO 

ia36 

1717 

1306 

183C 

.   *   1740 

1824 

1789 

1732 

1780 

1621 

1772 

1844 

1474 

1564 

1625 

1712 

470 

516 

B. 

C.  42 

-  1606 

1^>3.5 

666 


THE    world's    progress. 


NATION.  NAME   AND   PROFESSION. 

Ital.  Castiglione,  Bulthasar,  statesman  and  author 

Ilal.  Catalmi,  Madame,  eminent  vocalist 

Eng.  Catesby,  Mark,  naturalist  .  ... 

Russ.  Catherine  II.,  a  powerful  and  profligate  empress 

Rom.  Catiline,  Lucius  Sergius,  patrician  conspirator 

Fr.  Catinat,  Nicholas,  military  commander 

Rom.  Cato,  Marcus  Fortius,  ihe'Censor,  statesman  and  author 

Rom.  ,  Marco  Porcius,  'of  Utica,' statesman 

Rom.  Catullus,  Caius  Valerius,  poet     .... 

Fr.  Cauchy,  Aug.  L.,  mathematician 

Fr.  Caussin,  Nicholas,  a  Jesuit,  author  of  '  The  Holy  Court ' 

Fr.  Cavaignac,  Gen.,  military  commander  and  statesman 

Eng.  Cavendish,  Sir  William,  courtier  and  writer 

Eng.  ■ — ,  Thomas,  navigator 

Etig.  Caxton,  William,  the  introducer  of  printing  into  England 

Pr.  Cazales,  James  A.  M.  de.  an  eloquent  orator 

Ft.  Caylus,  A.  C.  P.,  count  de,  miscellaneous  writer 

R  ;m.  Ceisits,  Aurelius  Cornelius,  a  celebrated  physician 

Gr.  ,  an  Epicurean  philosopher 

Rom.  Censorius,  a  critic  and  grammarian 

Irish.  Centlivre,  Susanna,  a  dramatic  writer 

Span.  Cervantes,  Saavedra  Michael,  author  of  '  Don  Quixotte ' 

Ital.  Cesarotti,  Melchior,  a  voluminous  author 

Scotch.  Chalmers,  George,  miscellaneous  writer 

Eng. ,  Alex.,  '  General  Biographical  Dictionary,' &c. 

Scotch.  ,  Thomas,  D.  T>.,  theologian  and  political  economist 

Eng.  Chambers,  Sir  William,  an  architect 

Fr.  Champollion,  the  younger,  '  Monuments  d  I'Egypte,'  <fec. 

Fr.  ChampoUion-Figeac,  historian  and  antiquary 

Anier.  Channing,  William  Ellery,  U.  D.,  theologicin  and  philanthropist 

Eng.  Chantry,  Sir  Francis  sculptor  "   . 

Eng.  Chapman,  George,  poetical  translator 

Eng.  Chapone,  Hester,  miscellaneous  writer 

Fr.  Chaptal,  J.  A.  C,  chemist 

Fr.  Charles  Blartel,  statesman  and  warrior 

Fr.  Charles,  J.  A.  C.,  natural  philosopher 

Fr.  ,  V.  E.  P.,  historian  and  literatew 

Fr.  Charlemagne,  emperor  of  the  West,  and  king  of  France 

Swe.  Charles  XII.,  king,  a  celebrated  warrior 

Fr.  Charlevoix,  Peter  F.  X.  de,  a  Jesuit  historian 

Dutch.  Chasse,  David  H.,  baron,  military  commander  . 

Fr.  Chateaubriand,  poet,  statesinan,  and  traveller 

Fr,  Chatel,  Abbe  Fer.  F.,  theological  reformer 

Eng.  Chatham,  Wm.  Pitt,  earl  of,  statesman 

Eng.  Chat terton,  Thomas,  famed  for  precocious  talent 

Eng.  Chaucer,  Geoffrey,  the  father  of  English  poetry 

Amer  Chauncey,  Charles,  D.  D.,  president  of  Harvard  College 

Anier ,  Commodore  Isaac,  naval  commander 

Eng.  Cheselden,  William,  an  eminent  anatomist 

Eng.  Chesterfield,  Philip  D.  Stanhope,  earl  of,  statesman  and  writer 

Ital.  Cherubini,  musical  composer 

Fr.  Chevalier,  Michael,  engineer,  traveller,  and  statesman 

Fr.  Chevreul,  M.  E.,  chemist 

Gr.  Chilo,  Euphorus  of  Sparta — one  of  the  seven  wise  men 

Amer.  Chipman,  Nathaniel,  jurist  and  statesman 

Eng.  Chitty,  Joseph,  author  of  numerous  works  on  law    . 

Pol.  Chlopicki.  J.,  military  commander — dictator  of  Poland   . 

Fr.  Choiseul-Stainville,  C.  A.  G.,  duke  of,  statesman  and  author 

Swe.  Christina,  queen  (daughter  of  G.  Adolphus) 

Afric.  ("hristophe,  a  slave — afterwards  king  of  Hayti 

Gr.  Chrysiphus,  a  stoic  philosopher 

Gr.  Chrysostom,  John,  Christian  father  and  orator 

Eng.  Churchill,  Charles,  a  satirical  poet 

Amei  Church,  Benjamin,  military  cornmander    . 

Eni.  Gibber,  Colley,  tragic  and  comic  actor  and  poet 

Rom.  Cicero,  Marcus  Tullius,  one  of  the  greatest  of  orators 

ital.  Ciraarosa,  Dominic,  dramatic  and  music  composer 

Gr.  Cimon,  an  Athenian  general 

Roiti.      Cincimiatus,  Lucius  Quinctius,  the  pialriot,  flourished     . 

Rom,      Cinna,  Lucius  Cornelius,  partisan  of  Marius,  flourished 

Ital.        Cirillo,  Dominic,  a  botanist  and  physician 


BORN. 

DIED 

1468 

1529 

1782 

184 

1680 

1749 

1729 

1796 

B. 

c.   62 

1637 

1712 

B.  c.  232  B. 

c.  147 

B.  C.   9.5  B. 

c.  46 

B.  c.  86 

1780 

1583 

16.^; 

1505 

1557 

1591 

1410 

1492 

1752 

1805 

1720 

1765 

f.  30 

.  f.  50 

f.  240 

1C67 

1723 

1547 

1616 

1730 

1808 

1744 

1825 

1759 

1.S.34 

1770 

1846 

1796 

1790 

1832 

1779 

1780 

1842 

1781 

1841 

1557 

1634 

1727 

1801 

1756 

1832 

741 

1746 

1825 

742 

814 

1682 

1718 

1682 

1761 

1765 

1769 

1848 

1795 

1708 

1778 

1752 

1770 

1328 

1400 

1671 

1840 

1688 

1752 

1694 

1773 

1842 

1806 

1786 

B.  c.  598 

1752 

1843 

1776 

1841 

1772 

1762 

1626 

1689 

1767 

1820 

B.  c.  280  B 

c.  207 

344 

407 

173J 

1764 

1639 

1718 

1671 

1557 

B.  C.  105  B 

c.  43 

1754 

ISOI 

B 

c.  449 

B.  c.    456 

B.  c.     87 

1734 


BIOGRAPHICAL    INDEX. 


667 


KATION.  NAME   AND   PROFESSION. 

Amer.  Claiv,  Arthur  St.,  a  distinguisheii  officer  in  the  revolution 

Fr.  Clairaut,  Alexis  Claude,  geometrician 

Amcr.  Clap,  Thomas,  president  of  Yale  College 

Scotch.  Clapperton,  Hugh,  traveller  in  Africa 

Eng.  Clarendon,  Edward  Hyde,  earl  of,  statesman  and  historian 

Eng.  Clarke,  Samuel,  Dr.,  theologian  and  philosopher 

Eng.  -,  Dr.  Edward  Daniel,  traveller  and  mmeralogist 

Eng.  ,  Dr.  Adam,  a  celebrated  theologian  and  commentator 

Eng.  ,  Sir  James,  medical  author 

Amer.  Clark,  Willis  Gaylord,  poet  and  essayist 

Eng.  Clarkson,  Thomas,  philanthropist 

Amer.  Clayton,  John,  an  eminent  physician  and  botanist 

Gr.  Cleanthes,  a  Stoic  philosopher,  flourished 

Ital.  Clementi,  Mazio,  musical  composer 

Gr.  Cleobolus,  one  of  the  seven  wise  men,  flourished 

Egypt.  Cleopatra,  a  voluptuous  queen 

Amer.  Clinton,  George,  governor  of  New- York,  and  vice-president  of  U. 

Amet  ,  Dewilt,  governor  and  benefactor  of  New-York    . 

Eng.  Clive,  Robert,  lord,  military  commander    . 

Fr.  Cloquet,  Hypolite  (brother  of  Jules),  anatomist 

Fr.  Clot,  or  Clot  Bey,  surgeon  and  medical  writer  (in  Egypt) 

Eng.  Cobbett,  William,  political  writer 

Eng.  Cogan,  Thomas,  physician,  and  miscellaneous  writer 

Eng.  Coke,  Sir  Edward,  a  learned  judge 

Fr.  Colbert,  John  Baptist,  an  eminent  statesman 

Amer.  Colburn,  Zerah,  precocious  arithmetician 

Amer.  Golden,  Cadwallader,  an  eminent  botanist,  astronomer,  &c. 

Amer. — ■  Cadwallader  D.,  statesman,  biographer  of  Fulton,  &c, 

Eng.  Coleridge,  Henry  N.,  literateur 

Eng. ,  Samuel  T.,  poet  and  metaphysician 

Eng.  CoUingvvood,  Cuthbert,  lord,  admiral 

Eng.  Collins,  William,  a  popular  poet 

Eng.  Coleman,  George,  dramatic  writer 

Amer.  ■ ,  Benjamin,  a  learned  divine  (in  Boston) 

Eng.  Colman,  George,  the  younger,  dramatist     . 

Fr.  Colombat  de  I'Isere,  medical  writer 

Ital.  Columbus,  Christopher,  the  discoverer  of  America 

Eng.  Colton,  C.  C,  author  of 'Lacon' 

Scotch.  Combe,  George,  phrenologist  and  philosopher 

Scotch. ,   Andrew,  medical  and  physiological  writer 

Fr.  Conde,  Louis  II,  of  Bourbon,  Protestant  military  commander 

Fr.  Condillac,  Stephen  Bonnot  de,  metaphysical  writer 

Chinese  Confucius,_a  celebrated  philosopher 

Eng, 

Gr. 

Fr. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Eng 

Ens. 

Eng. 


Congreve,  William,  a  comic  dramatist 

Conon,  an  Athenian  general 

Constant,  Benjamin,  statesman  and  metaphysician 

Consiantine  (the  Great),  the  first  Christian  emperor 

VII.  (Porphyrogenitus),  emperor  and  author 

■  (Paleologus),  the  last  of  the  Greek  emperors 


Cook,  James,  a  celebrated  circumnavigator 

Cooke,  Thomas,  editor  and  translator 

^        ,  George  F.,  an  eminent  actor 

Amer.    Cooper,  Samuel,  D.  D.,  a  divine  and  political  writer 

Eng.       ,  Sir  Astley  Paxi  on,  physician  and  medical  writer 

Eng.      . ,  Thomas,  chemist,  jurist,  and  politician  (in  Amer.) 

IrisJi.      ,  Coote,  Sir  Eyre,  military  commander  in  India 

Prus3.    Copernicus,  Nicholas,  a  celebrated  astronomer — the  reviver  of  the  Py^ 
thagorean  system  of  the  universe 

Corinna,  a  poetess,  flourished  in  the  fifteenth  century,  before  Christ. 

Coriolanus,  Caius  Marcius,  a  vyarrior 

Cormenin,  L.  M.  de  la  Haye,  vie.  de,  political  writer 

Cornaro,  Lewis,  a  noble — auihor  of  a  book  on  temperance 

Corneille,  Peter,  an  eminent  dramatic  writer 

Thomas  (brother  of  Peter),  poet  and  dramatist 


Gr. 

Rom. 

Fr. 

Ital. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Ger. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Port. 

Ital 


Cornelius,  Peter,  painter  (in  fresco,  &c.) 
Cornell!,  Mark  Vincent,  a  Venetian  geographer  and  historian 
Cornwallis,  Charles,  marquis,  military  commander 
Cortes,  Ferdinand,  the  brutal  conqueror  of  Mexico 
Cosia,  Paola,  lileraieur 

Dutch.   Coster,  John  Lawrence,  one  of  the  supposed  inventors  of  printing 

Ger.        Cotia,  Baron  F.,  publisher  and  statesman  . 

Fr.         Cottin,  Sophia,  madame,  a  novelist      .  .  ,  . 


BORN. 

DIED. 

1818 

•   '   171.3 

1765 

1703 

1767 

1788 

1827 

1608 

1674 

1675 

1729 

1767 

1821 

1760 

1832 

.   '   1810 

1841 

1761 

1705 

1773 

B,  C.  260 

1832 

B.  c.  559 

B 

c.  30 

S.  .   1739 

1812 

1769 

1828 

1725 

1774 

1787 

1795 

1835 

1736 

IS  18 

1549 

16.34 

1619 

1683 

1804 

1840 

1683 

1776 

1769 

18-34 

(ab.)  1800 

1843 

1834 

1748 

1810 

1720 

1756 

1733 

17.84 

1673 

1747 

1762 

1836 

(ab.)  1800 

1441 

1506 

1773 

1832 

1788 

1797 

I62I 

i6S6 

1715 

1780 

n.  0.  550 

1670 

1728 

B. 

c.  390 

1767 

1830 

274 

337 

905 

959 

1403 

1453 

1728 

1776 

1702 

1756 

1756 

1812 

1725 

1783 

1768, 

1841 

1759 

1840 

1726 

1783 

1473 


1543 


1788 

1467 

1.565 

1606 

1684 

1625 

1709 

1718 

1738 

1805 

1485 

1554 

1771 

1836 

1370 

183J 

1773 

18C7 

668 


THE    WORLD  S    PROGRESS. 


NATIOM.  NAME   AND   PROFESSION. 

Amer.  Cotton,  John  (of  Boston),  a  learned  divine  . 

Fr.  Coulomb,  Charles,  Augustine  de,  philosopher    . 

Fr.  Courier,  Paul  Louis,  poet  and  satirist 

Fr.  ,  Paul  Louis,  political  writer  .  . 

Fr.  Court  de  Gebelin,  Anthony,  an  antiquarian  and  author  . 

Fr.  Cousin,  Louis,  historian  .... 

Fr.  ,  Victor,  statesman  and  metaphysician  • 

Eng.  Cowley,  Abraham,  poet  .  .  . 

Eng.  Cowper,  William,  poet  .  . 

Eng.  Coxe,  William,  traveller  and  historian 

Eng.  Crabbe,  Rev.  George,  poet  .... 

Ger.  Cramer,  John  Andrew,  miscellaneous  writer 

Eng.  Cranmer,  Thomas,  a  celebrated  reformer  .  . 

Rom.  Crassus,  Marcus  Lucinius  (the  Rich),  military  commander 

Amer.  Crawford,  William  H.,  statesman  and  jurist  .  . 

Fr.  Crebillon,  Prosper  Jolyott  de,  tragic  poet 

Fr.  Crevier,  John  Baptist  Lewis,  historian        .  .  . 

Amer.  Crockett,  David,  eccentric  statesman 

Eng.  Croly,  Rev.  George,  poet  and  novelist 

Eng.  Cromwell,  Thomas,  earl  of  Essex,  successor  of  Wolsey  . 

Eng.  ,  Oliver,  military  commander  and  statesman  . 

Scotch.  Cruden,  Alexander,  author  of  a  Concordance  to  the  Bible 

Eng.  Cruiivshank,  George,  artist,  chiefly  caricature 

Eng.  Cudworth,  Ralph,  philosopher 

Scotch.  Cullen,  William,  an  eminent  physician 

Eng.  Cumberland,  William  Augustus,  duke  of,  military  commander 

Eng. ,  Richard,  a  multifarious  writer 

Scotch.  Cunningham,  Allan,  poel,  biographer,  &c. 

Irish.  Curran,  John  Phi  I  pot,  a  celebrated  barrister  and  orator 

Rom.  Curtius,  Rufus  Uuintus,  history  .  .  , 

Fr.  Cuvier,  baron,  one  of  the  greatest  of  naturalists    . 

Fr.  ,  Fred,  (brother  ol  the  baron),  naturalist . 

Cyprian,  bishop  of  Carthage,  an  eminent  father  of  the  church 

Cyril,  St.,  the  apostle  of  the  Sclavi 


BORN. 

DISD. 

1585 

1652 

1736 

1806 

1772 

1825 

1774 

1825 

1725 

17S4 

1627 

1707 

1618 

1667 

1731 

1800 

1747 

1828 

1754 

1832 

1723 

1788 

1489 

1556 

, 

B. 

0,  53 

1772 

1834 

1674 

1762 

1693 

1765 
1830 

1490 

1540 

1599 

1658 

1701 

.  1780 

1617 

1688 

1712 

1790 

1721 

1765 

1732 

1811 

1768 

1842 

1750 

1817 

1769 

1832 

1773 

1838 
258 

D 

Fr.  Dacier,  Anne,  a  celebrated  classical  scholar 

Svve.  Dalin,  Glaus  Von,  the  father  of  Swedish  poetry 

Amer.  Dallas,  James  Alexander,  secretary  treasury  U.  S. 

Amer.  ,  Commodore  A.  J.,  naval  commander 

Eng.  Dalton,  John,  chemist  and  mathematician  . 

Ger.  Damm,  Christian  Tobias,  Greek  lexicographer 

Eng.  Dampier,  William,  an  eminent  navigator 

Eng.  Daniell,  Jolin  F.,  chemist 

Eng.  ,  W.,  R.  A.,  Author  of  pictorial  works  on  India 

Ger.  Dannecker,  sculptor  ('  Ariadne,'  &c.) 

Ital.  Dante  Alighieri,  '  the  sublimest  of  the  Italian  poets ' 

Eng.  D'Arblay,  Madame  (Fanny  Burney),  novelist 

Eng.  Darwin,  Erasmus,  a  poet,  physician,  and  botanist     . 

Aust.  Daun,  Leopold  Joseph  Mary,  count  de,  military  commander 

Fr.  Daunou,  P.  C.  F.,  statesman  and  ZiYeraieijr 

Amer.  Davidson,  Lucretia  M.,  a  youthful  poetess  of  uncommon  genius 

Amer.  Davies,  Samuel,  president  of  Princeton  College — theol.  writer 

Ital.  Davila,  Henry  Catharine,  an  historian 

Eng.  Davis,  John,  a  navigator — discoverer  of  '  Davis'  Straits ' 

Eng.  Davy,  Sir  Humphrey,  eminent  chemist 

Amer.  Deane,  Silas,  minister  of  the  U.  S.  to  France 

Amer.  Dearborn,  Henry,  a  distinguished  officer  of  the  two  American  war 

Fr.'  Debrue,  William  Francis,  a  bookseller  and  bibliographer 

Swiss.  Decandolle,  A.  P.,  botanist, 

Amer.  Decatur,  Stephen,  a  gallant  commodore  in  the  U.  S.  navy 

Eng.  Defoe,  Daniel,  miscellaneous  writer 

Fr."  Delarabre,  John  Baptist  Joseph,  astronomer 

Fi.  Delavigne,  Casimir,  dramatist 

Fr.  DeliUe,  James,  a  celebrated  poet 

Fr.  Delisle,  Joseph  Nicholas,  an  eminent  astronomer 

Gr.  Democritus,  a  celebrated  philosopher 

Gr.  Demosthenes,  one  of  the  greatest  of  orators 

Eng.  Denham,  lieut.  colonel  Dixon,  an  enterprising  traveller 

Ital.  Denina,  Charles  John  Maria,  an  historian 


1651 

1720 

1708 

1753 

.   1759 

1817 

1791 

1844 

1766 

1844 

1699 

1778 

1652 

1711 

1790 

1845 

1837 

.   "   1758 

1841 

1265 

1321 

1752 

1840 

1721 

1802 

1705 

1766 

1761 

1840 

1808 

1825 

.   1724 

1761 

1576 

1631 

1605 

.   "   1778 

1829 

1758 

1789 

•s     1751 

1829 

1731 

1782 

1778 

1841 

1779 

1820 

1661 

1731 

1749 

1822 

1794 

1843 

1738 

1813 

1683 

1768 

B.  c.  46.0 

.   B.  c.  381  B 

c.  322 

1786 

1828 

1731 

1813 

BIOGRAPHICAL    INDEX. 


669 


KATION.  NAME   AND   PROFESSION. 

Russ.  Derzhaviiie,  Gabriel  R.,  a  poet  and  statesman 

Fr.  Desaix,  Louis  Cliaiies  Anthony,  military  commander 

Fr.  Descartes,  Rene,  an  eminent  philosopher    . 

Fr.  Dessaix,  J.  M.,  count,  marshal  of  France 

Afr.  Dessalines,  John  .Tames,  emperor  of  Hayti 

Fr.  Destouches,  Philip  INericault,  dramatic  writer 

Dutch.  DeurhofF,  William,  founder  of  a  sect,  and  an  author 

Amer.  Dewees,  W.  P.,  medical  writer 

Dutch.  De  Witt,  John,  an  eminent  statesman 

Port.  Diaz,  Bartholomew,  discoverer  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope 

Eng.  Dibdm,  Charles,  a  dramatic  and  musical  composer 

Eng.  ,  Thomas,  dramatist  and  song  writer  (son  of  Charles) 

Eng. ,  Rev.  Thomas  F.,  bibliographer 

Eng.  Dick,  Thomas,  author  of  '  Christian  Philosopher ' 

Eng.  Dickens,  Charles,  novelist 

Fr.  Diderot,  Denis,  first  editor  of  '  Encyclopsedie  Methodique ' 

Fr.  Didot,  Francis  A.,  a  celebrated  printer  and  type-founder 

Fr. ,  Firmin,  publisher,  and  member  of  Deputies 

Fr.  ,  Amb.  Firmin,  publisher  and  traveller 

Egypt.  Didymus,  who  wrote  from  3000  to  6000  works 

Pruss.  Diebitsch-Sabalkanski,  count,  miliiary  commander 

Pruss.  Dieffenbach,  J.  F.,  surgeon     .... 

Ger.  Dindorf, -William,  phirologist 

Span.  Diez,  John  Martin,  a  patriotic  military  commander 

iVIace.  Dinocrates,  an  architect — (built  Alexandria,  &c.) 

Gr.  Dion  Cassius,  author  of  Roman  history 

Gr.  Dio  Chrysoslom,  a  rhetorician  and  philosopher 

Gr.  Diodorus  Siculus,  a  historian 

Gr.  Diogenes,  the  Cynic,  a  philosopher 

Gr.  Diogenes  Laeriius,  biographer 

Gr.  Dionysius,  of  Halicarnassus,  critic  and  historian 

Gr.  ,  a  geographer 

Eng.  Dodd,  Dr.  WHliam,  miscellaneous  writer    . 

Eng.  Doddridge,  Philip,  a  gifted  aird  pious  divine  and  writer 

Ger.  Doebereiner,  J.  W.,  ctieinist 

Tial.  Donizetti,  Gaetano,  musical  composer 

Ital.  Doria,  Andrew,  the  deliverer  of  his  country  (Genoa) 

Scotch.  Douglas,  Gawin,  a  poet  and  translator  .  . 

Gr.  Draco,  an  Athenian  legislator 

Eng.  Drake,  Sir  Francis,  a  celebrated  circumnavigator 

Dutch.  Drebbel,  Cornelius  Van,  inventor  of  the  thermometer 

Fr.  Droz,  Joseph,  historical  and  political  writer 

Eng.  Dryden,  John,  an  eminent  poet 

Fr.  Duchatel,  C.  M.  T.,  count,  statesman  and  author 

Fr.  Duchesne,  Andrew,  an  historian 

Fr.  Duclos,  Charles  Pineau,  an  historian 

Fr.  Duguescland,  Berlrand,  military  commander 

Fr.  Dumas,  Alex.,  novelist,  traveller,  &c. 

Fr. ,  J.  B.,  chemist 

Fr.  Dumont,  John,  traveller  and  political  writer 

Fr. d'Urville,  J.  S.  C,  circumnavigator 

Fr.  Dumourier,  Charles  Francis  Duperier,  military  commander 

Scotch.  Dunbar,  William,  a  poet 

Scotch.  Duncan,  William,  logician  and  translator 

Scotch.  ,  Adam,  viscount,  a  successful  admiral     .     . 

Amer.  Dunlap,  William,  painter  and  historian 

Fr.  Dupin,  Louis  EUies,  an  ecclesiastical  historian 

Fr.  ,  A.  M.  J.  J.,  jurist  and  statesman 

Fr.  ,  Charles,  baron,  jurist  and  statesman 

Fr.  Duponceau,  P.  S.,  philologist,  jurist,  &c.  (at  Philadelphia) 

Fr.  Dupuytren,  surgeon  and  anatomist 

Fr.  Duquesne,  Abraham,  a  gallant  admiral 

Eng.  Durham,  .1.  G.  Lambton,  earl  of,  governor  general  of  Canada 

Fr.  Duroc,  Michael,  duke  of  Friull,  military  commander 

Amer.  Dwight,  Dr.  Timothy,  an  eminent  divine  and  writer 


BORN. 

DIED. 

1743 

1816 

1768 

1800 

1596 

16S0 

1768 

180G 

1680 

1754 

1650 

1717 

1768 

1841 

1625 

1672 
1500 

1748 

1814 
1841 
1849 

1713 

1784 

1730 

1804 

1764 

183G 

1790 

f.  r 

.c.  30 

1785 

1831 

1795 

1802 

1775 

1825 

f.  I 

.  c.  350 
f.  30 

155 

f. 

B.  c.  10 

E 

.  c.  413  B. 

f.  140 

c.  323 
52 

1729 

1777 

1702 

1756 

1780 

1468 

1560 

1474 

1521 

f.  623 

1545 

1596 

1572 

1634 

1631 

1700 

1803 

1584 

1640 

1704 

1772 

1314 

1380 

1803 

1800 

1726 

1790 

1842 

1739 

1823 

1465 

1535 

1717 

1760 

1731 

1804 

1766 

1839 

1637 

1719 

1783 

1784 

1760 

IS'M 

1778 

1S35 

1610 

1688 

1792 

1840 

1772 

1813 

1752 

1817 

Ger.       Eckhard,  John  George,  an  antiquary  and  historian 

Irish.      Edgeworth,  Maria,  novelist 

En;.       Edward,  the  Black  Prince,  a  warrior    . 


1674 

(aboiit)    1770 

1330 


1376 


670 


THE    WORLD  S    PROGRESS. 


NATION.  NAME   AND  PROFESSION. 

Amer.    Edwards,  Jonathan,  an  able  divine  and  metaphysician 


Gr. 

Gei-. 
Gei-. 

Ens. 


-,  Bryan,  an  liistorian 

-,  W.  F.,  anatomist  and  physiologist  (bom  at  Jamaica) 

-,  Milne  (son  of  the  last),  naturalist 


Eginhard,  an  historian 

Ehrenberg,  C.  J.,  naturalist 

Eichborn,  F.  C,  theologian  and  jurist 

Eldon,  Lord,  lonl  chancellor  of  England 
Scotch.  Elgin,  T.  Biince,  earl  of,  diplomatist — remover  of  '  Elgin  Tiarbles 
Eng.       Elizabeth,  queen       ..... 
Araer.    Elliot,  John,  '  the  apostle  to  the  Indians' 
Amer.    Elliott,  J.  D.,  commodore  in  American  navy 
Amer.     EUsv?orth,  Oliver,  a  distinguished  chief  justice  of  the  U.  S.    . 
i5i!!i'.       Emerson,  Williain,  an  eminent  mathematician 

Emmet,  Thomas  Addis,  an  eminent  lawyer  and  orator 

Empedocles,  a  Pythagorean  philosopher 

Enfield,  William,  miscellaneous  writer       .         _     . 

Eon  De  Beaumont,  Chevaher,  an  eccentric  writer 

Epaminondas,  an  illustrious  Theban  general 

Epictetus,  a  Stoic  philosopher 

Epicurus,  founder  of  the  Epicurean  sect  of  philosophers 

Erasmus,  Desiderius,  a  celebrated  scholar  and  author 

Ercilla,  Don  Alonzo,  a  poet  .... 

Ericeira,  Ferdinand,  a  statesman  and  historian 

Erigena,  John  Scotus,  a  learned  writer  of  the  ninth  century   . 

Erman,  A.  G.,  'Travels  in  Siberia,'  &c. 

Ernesii,  John,  Augustus,  an  eminent  crhic 

Scotch.  Erskine,  Thomas,  lord,  a  celebrated  forensic  orator 

Span.     Escobar,  Y.  Mendoza  Anthony,  a  celebrated  casuist 

Esquirol,  J.  E.  D.,  writer  on  insanity 

Ess,  L.  Van,  theological  writer      .... 

Essex.  Robert  Devereux,  earl  of,  a  warrior 

Esterhazy,  Prince  Paul,  wealthy  statesman 

Euclid,  an  eminent  geometrician 

Eugene,  Francis,  prince,  a  great  warrior  (in  the  German  service) 

Euler,  Leonard,  an  eminent  mathematician 

Euripides,  a  celebrated  tragic  poet 

Eusebius,  bishop  of  Cjesarea,  a  learned  father  of  the  church,  and 
ecclesiastical  historian 

Eutropius,  an  historian 

Eutycnes,  an  ecclesiastic,  founder  of  a  sect 

Evelyn,  John,  miscellaneous  writer 

Everett,  Alex.  H.,  essayist  and  diploinatist 


lush. 

Oer. 

Kiig. 

Im-. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Dutch, 

Span. 

Span. 

tng. 

Pruss. 

Ger. 


Fr 
Ger. 

Etig. 

Aust. 

Afric. 

Fr. 

Swiss, 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Rom. 
(lom. 
Eng. 
Amer, 


f.  B 


BOKN. 

DIED. 

1703 

1757 

1743 

1800 

1777 

339 


1750 

1838 

1771 

184] 

1533 

1603 

1604 

1690 

1785 

1845 

1745 

1807 

1701 

1782 

1764 

1827 

1741 

1797 

1728 

1810 

B. 

c.  363 

40 

342  B 

c.  371 

1467 

1536 

1525 

1595 

1614 

1699 

1806 

1707 

1781 

1750 

1823 

1589 

1669 

1772 

1840 

1770 

1567 

loot 

300 

1663 

1736 

1707 

1783 

1620 
1790 


1651 
1847 


Eng. 

Rom. 

Ger. 

Hal. 

Ital. 

Pruss. 

Eng 

Et«. 

Ital 

Irish. 

Port. 

Irish. 

Ger. 

S'^ng. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Swe. 

F.ng. 

Eng. 

Span. 

Fr. 

Ger. 

Span 

Ital 


F 

Faber,  George  Stanley,  theological  writer 
Fabius,  Quintus  M.  V.,  a  skilful  warrior 
Fabricius,  John  Albert,  a  critic  and  bibliographer 

,  John  Christian,  a  celebrated  entomologist 

Fabroni,  Angelo,  a  learned  biographer 

Fahrenheit,  Gabriel  Daniel,  an  experimental  philosopher 

Fairfax,  Thomas,  lord,  a  general  in  the  civil  war 

Falconer,  William,  a  poet       .... 

Faliero,  Marino,  doge  of  Venice  (beheaded) 

Faraday,  Michael,  chemist      .... 

Faria  Y.  Souza,  Manuel,  an  historian  and  poet  .   . 

Farquhar,  George,  a  dramatist 

Faust,  John,  one  of  the  inventors  of  printing 

Fawkes,  Francis,  a  poet  and  translator 

Fayette,  Mary  M.,  countess  of,  miscellaneous  writer 

Feiielon,  Francis  de  Salignac  de  la  Motte,  an  able  writer,  and  one  of 

the  most  virtuous  of  men 
Fei'ber,  John  James,  an  eminent  mineralogist 
Ferguson,  James,  a  self-educated  astronomer,  philosopher,  &c 

. ,  Adam,  an  historian  and  moral  philosopher 

Ferreras,  John  de,  a  celebrated  historian 
Fesch,  Joseph,  senior,  priest — cardinal,  archbishop  of  Lyons 
Feurbach,  Paul  John  A.  von.  statesman  and  jurist 
Feyjoo  Y.  Montenegro,  an  able  mi.sccllaneous  writer 
Ficino.  Marsilius,  a  Platonic  |  hilosopher 


B 

c.  204 

16C8 

1736 

1742 

1807 

1732 

1803 

1686 

1736 

1611 

1671 

1730 

1769 

1355 

1790 

1588 

1647 

1678 

1707 

1466 

1721 

1777 

1632 

1693 

>I 

1651 

1715 

1743 

1790 

1710 

1776 

1724 

1816 

1652 

1735 

1763 

183S 

1775 

1833 

1701 

1764 

1433 

1409 

BIOGRAPHICAL    INDEX. 


671 


NATION  NAME   AND   PROFESSION. 

Eng.  Fieldin?,  Henry,  a  humorous  novelist  and  dramatist 

Ital.  Fiesco,"John  Louis,  tiie  conspirator  against  Doria 

Eng.  Flavel,  Jolm,  an  eminent  nonconformist  divine 

Fr.  Flecliier,  Esprit,  a  celebrated  prelate 

Ger.  Fleisclier.  H.  L.,  orientalist 

Eng.  Fletcher,  .John,  a  dramatist     . 

Fr.  Fleury,  Claude,  a  divine  and  historian 

Fr.  — ,  Andrew  Hercules  de,  a  cardinal  and  statesman 

Amer.  Flint,  Rev.  Timothy,  novelist  and  historian 

Fr.  Florian,  .John  Peter  Claris  de,  miscellaneous  writer 

Ger  Flligel,  G.  L.,  philologist  and  historian 

Ger.  FoUen,  C.  T.  C,  theologian  and  philologist  (in  U.  S.; 

Fr.  Fontenelle,  Bernard  le  Bovier  de,  miscellaneous  writer 

Eng.  P'oote,  Samuel,  a  comic  writer  and  actor  .  , 

Ital.  Forcellini,  Giles,  a  Latin  lexicographer 

Eng.  Ford,  John,  an  early  dramatic  writer 

Amer.  Forsyth,  John,  diplomatist  and  statesman 

Eng.  Fosbrooke,  Rev.  T.  D.,  archjeologist  (Ency.  Antiq.) 

Eng.  Foster,  John,  essayist  .... 

Fr.  Fouche,  Joseph,  duke  of  Otranto,  a  brutal  revolutionist  . 

Fr.  Fourier,  Charles,  Ibunder  of  the  '  social '  system 

Eng.  Fox,  John,  a  divine,  author  of  the  '  Book  of  Martyrs ' 

Eng.  ,  George,  the  founder  of  the  Society  of  Friends,  or  Quakers 

Eng,  ,  Charles  James,  one  of  the  greatest  of  statesmen  and  orators 

Irish.  Francis,  Sir  Philip,  political  writer 

Amer.  Franklin,  Benjamin,  a  celebrated  philosopher  and  statesman 

Pruss.  Frederick  II.,  the  Great,  king — an  able  general  and  author 

Ger.  Freytag,  G.  W.  F.,  Arabic  Dictionary,  &c. 

Eng.  Frobisher,  Sir  Martin,  a  celebraled  navigator 

Fr."  Froissart,  John,  a  chronicler  and  poet 

Eng.  Fry,  Elizabeth,  philanthropist 

Eng.  Fuller,  Thomas,  a  divine  and  historian 

Eng.  Fuller,  Andrew,  an  eminent  Baptist  minister 

Amer.  Fulton,  Robert,  the  introducer  of  steamboats  in  America 

Fr.  Furitiere,  Antony,  a  philologist 


BORN. 

1707 

1627 
1632 
1801 
1576 
1640 
1653 
1780 
1755 
1802 
1796 
1657 
1721 
1688 
1586 
1780 
1770 

1763 
1772 
1517 
1624 
1748 
1740 
1706 
1712 
1778 

1333 

1780 
1608 
1754 
1767 
1620 


a 

Fr.  Gagnier,  John,  an  orientalist  and  author 

Fr.  Gail,  J.  B.,  philologist      ..... 

Fr.  Gaillard,  Gabriel  Henry,  miscellaneous  writer  and  historian 

Amer.  Gaines,  Maj.  Gen.  E.  P.,  military  commander 

Gr.  Galen,  Claudius,  a  celebrated  physician 

Ital.  Galileo,  an  illustrious  philosopher  and  astronomer 

Ger.  Gall,  John  Joseph,  a  celebrated  physiologist,  and  founder  of  the  science 

of  phrenology  ..... 

Swiss-Amer.  Gallatin,""AIbert,  statesman,  diplomatist,  philologist,  and  ethnol 

Scotch.  Gait,  John,  novelist  ..... 

Ital.  Galvani,  Louis,  a  physician  and  experimental  philosopher — discoverer 

of  galvanic  electricity  ..... 

Port.  Gama,  Vasco  de,  navigator,  first  who  doubled  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope 

Ger.*  Gans,  Edward,  jurist        ..... 

Span.  Garcia,  Manuel,  musical  composer       .... 

S|3an.  Garcias  Lasso,  de  la  Vega,  '  the  Prince  of  Spanish  poetry '    . 

Fr.  Gamier,  Cotmt  Germain,  jurist  .... 

Eng.  Garrick,  David,  a  celebrated  actor  and  dramatist 

Eng.  Gascoigne,  Sir  William,  the  judge  who  imprisoned  Henry  Prince  of 

Wales  for  a  misdemeanor  .... 

Fr.  Gassendi,  Peter,  a  celebrated  philosopher 

Amer.  Gates,  Horatio,  a  distinguished  ofBcer  in  the  revolution 

Eng.  Gay,  John,  a  popular  poet      ..... 

Fr.  Gay-Lussac,  N.  F.,  chemist  .... 

Ger.  Gellert,  Christian  Furchtegott,  a  poet  and  miscellaneous  writer 

Bar.  Genghis  Khan,  a  celebrated  conqueror 

Fr.  Genlis,  Stephania  Felicite,  countess  de,  miscellaneous  writer 

Eng.  Geofl'rey  ol  Monmouth,  an  historian  of  the  12th  century 

Fr.  Gerando,  Baron  de,  writer  on  education,  &c. 

Rom.  Germanicus,  Tiberius  Drusus  Csesar,  military  commander    . 

Fr.  Gerson,  John  Charlier  de,  an  ecclesiastic  and  author 

S.viss  Ge-siner,  Conrad,  an  eminent  naturalist 

Ger.  ■ — .John  Matthias,  a  philolnijist      .... 

A>ner  GeiTy,  Elbridge,  a  di.=ii::i;nislio:l  p:iiri.M.  \-ire-|")rr:.«ldeiit  U.  S. 


1670 
1755 
1728 
1777 
131 
1564 

1758 
1761 
1779 

1737 

1798 
1779 
1503 
1754 
1716 

1350 
1592 
1728 
1688 
1778 
1715 
1164 
1746 

1770 

1363 
11516 
1691 


672 


THE    world's    progress. 


NATION.  NAME   AND    PROFESSION. 

Xtal.  Giannone,  Peter,  an  historian  .... 

Eng.  Gibbon,  Edward,  one  of  the  greatest  of  English  historians 

Amer.  Gibson,  Col.  Jolm  and  Col.  George,  both  officers  in  the  Revolution 

Eng.  Giffbrd,  William,  a  critic  and  poet 

Eng.  ,  John,  an  historical  and  political  writer 

Eng.  Gilbert,  Sir  Humphrey,  one  of  the  earliest  adventurers  in  America 

Eng.  Gill,  .lohn,  a  divine,  oriental  scholar,  and  author 

Scotch.  Gillies,  John,  '  History  of  Greece,'  &c. 

Ital.  Gioja,  Melchioi-,  writer  on  economical  sciences 

Swe.  Gmelin,  John  Frederick,  a  chemist 

Fr.  Godfrey  of  Bouillon,  or  Boulogne,  a  celebrated  leader  in  the  crusades 

Amer.  Godman,  John,  M.  D.,  a  distinguished  naturalist,  &c. 

Eng.  Godwin,  William,  novelist  and  metapliysiciau 

Ger.  Goetlie,  a  celebrated  dramatist 

Ita).  Goldoni,  Charles,  '  the  Italian  Moliere ' 

IrisI)  Goldsmith,  Oliver,  a  celebrated  poet  and  miscellaneous  writer 

Dutch.  Golius,  James,  an  orientalist  and  lexicographer 

Span.  Gonsalvo  of  Cordova,  a  celebrated  warrior 

Gr.  Gorgias,  an  orator  and  sophist,  f.  B.  C.  5th  century 

Fr.  Gourgaud,  Gen.,  military  commander  under  Napoleon 

Eng.  Gower,  John,  one  of  the  earliest  English  poets    . 

Rom.  Gracchus,  Tiberius  Sempronius,  a  celebrated  democrat 

Rom.  Caius  Sempronius 

Ger.  GrKfe,  or  Grasvius,  an  erudite  classic  writer 

Scotch.  Grahame,  James,  author  of  'History  of  the  United  States' 

Scotch.  Grahame,  James,  a  poet  .... 

Scotch.  Grant,  Anne  (of  Laggan),  novelist,  essayist,  &c. 

Eng.  Granville,  John  Carteret,  earl,  a  statesman 

Ital.  Gi-aiian,  a  monk,  compiler  of  the  canon  law,  f.  12th  century 

Irish.  Grattan,  Henry,  a  distinguished  orator  and  statesman 

Dutch.  Gravesande,  Wm.  Jacob,  a  geometrician  and  philosopher 

Eng.  Gray,  Thomas,  a  poet      ..... 

Gregory  Nazianzen,  St.,  Christian  writer 

Gregory  of  Nyssa,  St.,  do.  . 

Fr.  Gregory  (of  Tours),  St.,  an  historian 

Fr.  Gregory  I.,  the  Great,  pope,  an  author 

Ital.  Gregory  VII.,  the  Great,  pope  (Hiklebrand),  a  celebrated  despot 

Scotch.  Gregory,  James,  a  philosopher  and  mathematician   . 

Scotch-  Gregory,  David,  do.  do. 

Irish.  Gregory,  George,  D.  D.,  a  miscellaneous  writer 

Eng.  Gregory,  Olinihus,  mathematician  and  religious  writer    . 

Amer.  Greene,  Nathaniel,  maj.  gen.,  distinguished  in  the  Revolution 

Eng.  Grey,  lady  Jane,  the  accomplished  victim  of  another's  ambition 

Eng.  Grey,  Earl,  statesman— whig  premier  for  William  IV. 

Ger  Griesbach,  John  James,  an  eminent  theologian  and  philologist 

Amei'.  Grimke,  Thomas  S.,  jurist 

Ger.  Grimm.  J.  L.  C,  miscellaneous  writer 

Dutch.  Gronovius,  James,  -in  erudite  critic 

Ger.  Grotefend,  G.  F.,  p.  Tologist 

Dutch.  Grotius,  or  De  Groot,  Hugh,  an  eminent  scholar 

Fr.  Grouchy,  Emanuel,  count,  marshal  of-France 

Amer.  Grundyi  Felix,  senator  of  the  U.  S.  tTenn.) 

Ger.  Gryph,  Andrew,  a  dramatist 

Ital.  Guarini,  John  Baptist,  a  poet 

Ger.  Guericke,  Otto,  exp.  philos. — inventor  of  the  air-pump 

Ital.  Guicciardini,  Francis,  an  historian 

Nor.  Guiscard,  Robert,  a  Norman  warrior 

Fr.  Guise,  Francis  of  Lorraine,  duke  of,  a  celebrated  warrior 

Fr.  Guise,  Charles  of.  Cardinal,  a  bigoted  and  ambitious  statesman 

Fi".  Guise,  Henry,  of  Lorraine,  duke  of,  an  ambitious  warrior 

Fr.  Guizot,  Francis,  statesman,  historian,  and  metaphysician 

Eng.  Gunter,  Edmund,  a  mathematician — inventor  of  the  '  Gunter's  scale,'  &c, 

Swe.  Gustavus  Adolphus,  king  of  Sweden,  an  able  warrior 

Scotch.  Guthrie,  William,  author  of  a  history  of  England,  Scotland,  &c, 

Ger.  Guttemberg,  John,  one  of  the  inventors  of  printing    . 

I'russ.  Gutzlaff,  Charles,  traveller  and  historian  of  China 


BORN. 

SIBD. 

1676 

1758 

1737 

1794 

1757 

1826 

1758 

1818 

1583 

1697 

1771 

1747 

1836 

1767 

1829 

1748 

1805 

1100 

1830 

1755 

1836 

1749 

1831 

1707 

1793 

1731 

1774 

1596 

1667 

1443 

1515 

1402 

B 

c.  133 

B. 

c.  121 

1632 

1703 

1765 

1811 

1755 

1838 

1690 

1763 

1750 

1820 

1683 

1742 

1716 

1771 

328 

389 

331 

396 

544 

593 

544 

604 

1085 

1648 

1685 

1661 

1710 

1754 

1808 

1774 

1841 

1741 

1786 

1537 

1554 

1764 

1845 

1745 

1812 

1786 

1834 

1785 

1645 

1716 

1775 

1836 

1583 

1645 

1766 

1777 

.  1840 

1616 

1664 

1537 

1612 

1602 

16S6 

1482 

1540 

1015 

10S5 

1519 

1563 

1525 

1574 

1550 

1588 

1787 

1581 

1619 

1594 

1633 

1708 

1770 

1400 

146S 

Pers 
Ger. 


Hafiz,  Mohammed,  a  poet — the  Anacreon  of  Persia 
Halm.  Simon  Frederick,  an  historian 


1389 
1729 


BIOGRAPHICAL    INDEX. 


67£ 


WATION.  NAME   AND    PROFESSION. 

Ger.  Halineinann,  founder  of  '  Homoeopathy '  in  medicine 

Ger.  Hahn-IIahn,  Ida,  countess  of,  traveller  and  novelist 

Eng.  Hakluyt,  Richard,  author  of  voyages,  &c.  of  the  English 

Eng.  Hale,  Sir  Matthew,  an  eminent  and  incorruptible  judge 

Eng.  Halford,  Sir  Henry,  physician  and  medical  writer 

Scotch.  Hall,  Capt.  Basil,  author  of  Travels,  &c. 

Eng.  Hall,  Rev.  Robert,  theologian  and  pulpit  orator 

Eng.  Hallam,  Henry,  historian 

Swiss.  Haller,  Albert  Von,  miscellaneous  writer 

Eng.  Halley,  Edmund,  an  eminent  astronomer  and  mathematician 

Amer.  Hamilton,  Alexander,  a  statesman — first  secretary  of  treasury,  U.  S. 

Irish.  Hamilton,  Elizabeth,  a  talented  miscellaneous  writer 

Eng.  Hamilton,  Thomas,  Captain,  novelist,  ']\Ien  and  Manners  in  America 

Gei".  Hanmier,  Von,  baron,  historian  and  orientalist 

Eng.  Hampden,  .John,  a  celebrated  patriot 

Amer.  Hancock.  John,  a  distinguished  patriot — president  of  Congress 

Ger.  Handel,  Geo.  Frederick,  one  of  the  greatest  musical  composers 

Nor.  Hansteen,  C,  mathematician  and  astronomer     . 

Eng.  Harley,  Robert,  earl  of  O.'cford,  a  celebrated  statesman 

Sar.  Haroun  Al  Raschid,  caliph,  a  patron  of  learning 

Amer.  Harlan,  Richard,  M.  D.,  naturalist  .       ~       . 

Eng.  Harris,  James,  compiler  of  the  first  Cyclopedia,  &c. 

Amer.  Harrison,  Gen.  W.  H.,  military  commander,  and  pres.  U.  S. 

Amer.  Harvard,  John,  founder  of  Harvard  College 

Eng.  Harvey,  William,  discoverer  of  the  circulation  of  the  blood 

Ger.  l.ase,  Henry,  classical  antiquarian 

Eng.  Haslam,  John,  writer  on  insanity 

Eng.  Hastings,  Warren,  governor-general  of  British  India 

Eng.  Hastings,  rnarquis  of,  military  commander 

Ger.  Hauser,  Casper,  a  mysterious  '  wild-boy  ' 

Fr.  Haussez.  Baron,  minister  of  Charles  X. — traveller 

Fr.  Hauy,  Renatus  Justus,  mineralogist 

Eng.  Hawke,  Edward,  lord,  a  brave  and  successful  admiral 

Eng.  Hawkesworih,  Dr.  John,  miscellaneous  writer    . 

Eng.  Hawkins,  Sir  John,  a  navigator — originator  of  the  slave  trade 

Ger.  Haydn,  -loseph,  a  celebrated  musical  composer 

Eng.  Hayley,  William,  a  poet  and  miscellaneous  writer    . 

Amer.  Hayne,  Robert  V.,  governor  of  South  Carolina,  and  senator  of  U.  S; 

Eng.  Hazlitt,  William,  essaj^ist  and  critic      .... 

Eng.  Heber,  Reginald,  a  divine,  and  poet 

Ger.  Hederich,  Benjamin,  a  lexicographer    .... 

Ger.  Hedwig,  John,  a  physician  and  botanist 

Ger.  Heeren,  A.  H.  L.,  historian     ..... 

Ger.  Hegel,  G.  W.  F.,  metaphysician    .... 

Ger.  Heine,  Henry,  poet  and  literateur         .... 

Gr.  Heliodorus  (of  Emessa),  the  first  romnnce  writer,  flourished  in  the  4th 

Ger.  Helvicus,  Christopher,  a  chronologist    .... 

Eng.  Hemans,  Felicia  D.,  poetess  .... 

Ger.  Hengstenberg,  E.  W.,  metaphysician,  antirjuarian,  and  theologian 

Fr.  Henry  IV.,  an  able  and  popular  monarch    . 

Ens.  Henry,"  Robert,  an  historian    ..... 

Amer  Henry.  Patrick,  an  orator  and  patriot 

Gr.  Heniclitus,  a  philosopher,  flourished  before  Christ 

Ger.  Herder,  John  Godfrey,  a  philosophical  writer 

Ger.  Hermann,  J.  G.  J.,  philologist  .... 

Ger.  Hermann,  Ch.  F.,  philologist,  'History  of  Philosophy,'  &c. 

Gr.  Hermogenes,  a  rhetorician,  flourished  .... 

Gr.  Herodian,  an  historian  .... 

Gr.  Herodotus,  the  earliest  of  the  Greek  historians  whose  works  are  extant, 

Fr.  Herold,  L.  G.  F.,  musical  composer 

Span  Herrera,  Anthony,  an  historian  .... 

Eng.  Herrick,  Robert,  a  poet    ..... 

Eng.  Herschel,  Sir  William,  one  of  the  greatest  of  astronomers 

Jew.  Herschell,  Dr.  Solomon,  Chief  Rabbi  of  the  Jews  in  England 

Kng.  Herschell,  Sir  J.  F.  W.,  astronomer  and  natural  philosopher 

Eng.  Hervey,  James,  a  pious  and  ainiable  divine  and  w^riter 

Gr.  Hesiod,  a  poet,  conteinporary  of  Homer,  flourished 

Ger.  Heyne,  C.  G.,  a  learned  critic  and  writer    . 

Eng.  Hickes.  Georss.  a  theologian  and  philolosist 

Fr.  Hilaire,  Geof  St..  naturalist  .  ^   . 

Eng  Hill,  viscount,  military  commander  (Peninsula  and  Wnlerloo) 

Ens  Hill,  sir  John. n  holanisi  and  niiiliirarious  wriier 

20 


BORN. 

DIED. 

1755 

1843 

1805 

1553 

1616 

1609 

1676 

1766 

1844 

nsH 

1844 

1764 

1831 

1708 

1777 

16.56 

1741 

1757 

1804 

1758 

1816 

'    1789 

1842 

1774 

1594 

1643 

1737 

1793 

1684 

1758 

17S4 

1661 

1724 

808 

1796 

1843 

1670 

1719 

1773 

1841 

1688 

1569 

1658 

1789 

1&12 

L764 

1844 

-1733 

18U 

1754 

1825 

1833 

1778 

1742 

1822 

1713 

1781 

1715 

1773 

1520 

1595 

1732 

1809 

1745 

1820 

1791 

1835 

1QQ0 

1783 

1826 

1675 

1748 

1730 

1799 

1760 

1842 

1770 

1831 

1799 

century. 

1581 

1617 

1794 

1835 

IS02 

1553 

1610 

1718 

1790 

1736 

1799 

504 

1744 

1803 

1772 

1804 

180 

.   f.  230 

,  B.  0.  484 

1792 

1833 

1559 

1625 

1591 

1738 

18C2 

.   ■  1760 

f^2 

1713 

17."P 

B.C.  907 

1729 

1S12 

1642 

171.^ 

1772 

1772 

184^' 

1716 

177.- 

674 


THE    world's    progress. 


VATION.  NAME   AND   PROFESSION. 

.tew.       Hlllel,  the  eUler,  one  of  the  compilers  of  the  Talmud 

Amer.     Hillhouse,  James  A.,  poet 

Gr.  Hippocrates,  1  he  father  of  medicine 

Eng.       Hoadley,  William,  a  celebrated  prelate  and  author 

Amer.     Hobart,  .Tohn  Henry,  bishop  of  New  Yoi-k 

Mng.       Hobbes,  Thomas,  a  philosopher  and  translator 

l'\-.  Hoche,  Lazarus,  a  military  commander 

Swiss     Hofei',  Andrew,  a  Tyrolian  patriot 

i'A'iS.       Hofland,  Barbara,  novelist 

(.'er.       Hoffmann,  E.  T.  A.,  novelist  . 

SmicIi.  Hogg,  James,  'The  Ettrick  Shepherd' 

I)  n.       Holberg,  Louis,  baron  de,  an  historian 

; ;  I'.'.       Holcroft,  Thomas,  a  dramatist  and  miscellaneous  writer 

Hwi.       Holingshed,  a  chronicler 

(Ills'       Holland,  Lord,  statesman  and  literateur 

lOuu'.       Holland,  Philemon,  a  translator 

Amer.    Holmes,  Abiel,  D.  D.,  '  Annals  of  America ' 

Scotch.  Home,  John,  a  divine,  dramatist,  and  historian 

(ir.  Homer,  the  "  greatest  of  poets,"  [supposed  to  have]  flourished 

Ens.       Hone,  William,  author  of  '  Every  Day  Book'  and  political  v/orks 

Eng.       Hood,  Samuel,  viscount,  a  naval  officer 

Eiig.       Hood,  Thomas,  poet  and  humorist        .... 

Diifch.   Hoogvliet,  Ai'nold,  a  poet 

F.ns.       -     ■    ~   - 

Eng. 

En?. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Kng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Horn. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Pruss, 


Hook,  Robert,  a  mathematician  .... 

Hook,  Theo.  E.,  novelist  and  humorist 

Hooke,  Nathaniel,  author  of  a  Roman  History    . 

Hooker,  Sir  W.  J.,  botanist 

Hooker,  Richard,  an  eminent  divine 

Hoole,  John,  a  poet  and  translator         .... 

Hooper,  John,  one  of  the  first  Protestant  martyrs 

Hope,  Thomas,  a  miscellaneous  writer  .  . 

Hopkins,  Samuel,  an  eminent  divine  and  author 

Hopkinson,  Joseph,  jurist  and  statesman     . 

Horace,  Quintus  Flaccus,  an  eminent  poet 

Home,  George,  a  learned  prelate 

Horsley,  Samuel,  a  prelate  and  mathematician  . 

Hossack,  David,  M.  D.,  medical  and  scientific  writer 

Howard,  John,  a  celebrated  philanthropist 

Hudson,  Henry,  discoverer  of  "  Hudson  river" 

Huet,  Peter  Daniel,  an  erudite  prelate  and  author     . 

Hugo,  Victor  M.,  novelist,  poet,  and  statesman 

Hull,  Commodore  Isaac,  naval  commander  (Const,  and  Guer.,  &c.) 

Humboldt,  F.  H  A.,  baron,  traveller— geog.  and  nat.  philosopher 
Scotch.  Hume,  David,  an  historian  and  philosopher 

Hunniades,  John,  a  celebrated  warrior 
Eng.       Hunt,  Leigh,  poet  and  essayist 
Eng.       Husklsson,  Rt.  hon.  William,  an  able  statesman 
Gef.        Huss,  John,  the  great  Bohemian  reformer    . 
Iri.sh.      Hutcheson,  Francis,  a  philosophical  writer 
Amer.    Hutchinson,  Thos.,  a  distinguished  gov.  of  Massachusetts,  and  historian 
Scotch.  Hutton,  James,   a  geologist  and  philosopher 
Eng.       Hutton,  Charles,  an  eminent  mathematician 
Dutch.  Huygens,  Christian,  a  scientific  author 
Ind.        Hyder  Ali,  a  celebrated  warrior    . 


BORK. 
B.C.    112 

17S9 
3.  c.  460 
1676 
1776 
]r,33 
1768 
1765 

1776 
1772 
1685 
1744 

1773 
1551 
1763 

1724 
;.  907 

1734 
1778 
1687 
1635 
1788 


1.553 
1717 
1495 

1721 
1770 
B.  c.  65 
1730 
1731 
1769 
1726 
f.  1600 
1630 
1802 
1775 
1769 
1711 


1769 
1376 
1694 
1711 
1726 
17.37 
1629 


1841 

1761 
1830 
1679 
1797 
ISIO 
18-14 
1822 
1S35 
1754 
1809 
1582 
1840 
1636 
1S.!7 
1808 

1842 
1816 
1845 
1763 
1702 
1S41 
1763 

1600 
1803 
1555 
1831 
1803 
1842 

B.C.        S 

1792 
1805 
1835 
1790 

1721 


1776 
1456 

1S.'1 1 
1416 
1717 
1  It^O 
1797 
1823 
1705 
1782 


Gr.  Ibycus,  a  lyric  poet         .... 

Span.  Ignatius  De  Loyola,  the  founder  of  the  .Jesuits    . 

Ell?.  Inchbald,  Elizabeth,  a  dramatist  and  novelist 

Ainer.  Inman,  Henry,  portrait  and  landscape  paihter    . 

Eii'i  Ireland,  W.  H.,  author  of  the  'Shakspeare  Forgeries' 

Rii2.  Irving,  Rev.  Edward,  theological  writer 

(U\  Is£eus,  an  orator  .... 

(7r.  Isocrates,  an  orator  .... 

Span.  Iturbide,  emperor  of  Mexico 


f.  B.  c.  550 

1491 
1756 
1801 

1792 
B.  c.  418 
B.C.  436 

1784 


1821 
1S40 


Amer.    Jackson,  Gen.  Andrew,  military  commander,  Pres.  U.  S. 
Ger.       Jacobi,  Fred.  H,,  philosopher,  novelist,  &c. 
Ger,       Jacobs,  Fred.,  classical  philologist 


1767  1845 

1743  1819 

1764 


BIOGRAPHICAL    INDEX. 


675 


KATION  NAME   AND   PROFESSION. 

Fr.  Jdcotot,  Jean  J.,  educational  writer 

Dutch.  Jacquin,  Niciiolas  Josepii,  a  botanist 

Ger.  Jahn,  John,  an  eminent  oriental  scholar 

Eng.  James,  G.  P.  R.,  novelist  and  historian 

Fr.  Janin,  Jules,  literateur  .... 

Dutch.  Jansen,  Cornelius,  founder  of  a  sect 

Fr.  Jasmin,  Jacques,  a  barber— poet 

Ainer.  Jay,  John,  a  distinguished  patriot  and  statesman 

Amer.  Jefferson,  Thomas,  a  patriotic  statesman,  3d  president  of  the 

Scotch.  Jeffrey,  Francis,  lord,  essayist  and  critic 

Eng.  Jenner,  Edward,  introducer  of  the  vaccine  inoculation 

Eng.  Jenyns,  Soame,  a  poet  and  miscellaneous  writer 

Jerome,  St.,  one  of  the  fathers  of  the  church 

(ifi-.  Jerome,  of  Prague,  a  x-eformer,  companion  of  Huss 

lOiiif.  Jewel,  .lohn,  a  learned  prelate  and  author    . 

Kr.  Joan  of  Arc,  "  the  greatest  of  heroines" 

Eng.  Johnson,  Samuel,  a  divine  and  writer  in  the  cause  of  liberty 

Eng.  Johnson,  Samuel,  "  the  colossus  of  English  literature" 

lial.  Jomelli,  Nicholas,  a  dramatic  and  musical  composer 

Swiss.  Jomini.  Henry,  baron,  military  writer 

Eng.  Jones,  Inigo,  an  eminent  architect 

Eng.  Jones,  William,-  a  divine  and  author 

Eng.  Jones,  Sir  William,  an  eminent  poet,  scholar,  and  lawyer 

Scotch  Jones,  John  Paul,  a  captain  in  the  navy  of  the  United  Slates 

Eng.  Jonson,  Benjamin,  a  celebrated  poet  and  dramatist    . 

Eng.  Jortin,  Dr.  John,  a  learned  theologian  and  author 

Josephine,  empress  of  the  French  (born  in  Martinico) 

Jew.  Josephus,  a  celebrated  historian  and  warrior 

Fr.  Joutfroy,  Theo.  S.,  metaphysician  and  statesman 

Fr.  Jourdan,  J.  B.,  marshal  of  France 

Ger.  Juan,  or  John,  of  Austria,  don,  a  warrior    . 

Jew.  Jndah,  Hakkadosh,  a  famous  rabbi,  and  Talmudist 

Dan.  Juel,  Nicholas,  a  celebrated  admiral 

Julian,  Flavins  Claudius,  a  Roman  emperor  and  author 

Fr.  Julien,  A.  J.,  orientalist 

Ger.  Junge,  Joachim,  philosopher    .... 

Dutch.  .lunius,  Adrian,  a  voluminous  writer 

Fr.  Junot,  Andoche,  duke  d'Abrantes,  military  officer 

Fr.  Junot,  Madame,  duchess  d'Abrantes,  biography,  &c. 

Fr.  Jussieu,  A.  L.  de,  botanist       .... 

Gr.  Justin  Martyr,  one  of  the  fathers  of  the  church 

Rom.  Justin.  Latin  historian  .... 

Rom.  Juvenal,  Decius  Junius,  the  \r  ^=;t  vehement  of  satirists 


United  States 


f  B.C. 


BORN. 

DIED. 

1770 

.  1840 

1727 

1817 

1750 

1817 

1801 

1585 

1633 

1798 

1745 

1829 

1743 

1826 

1773 

18.50 

1749 

1823 

1704 

1787 

420 

1416 

1.522 

1571 

1410 

1431 

1G49 

1703 

1709 

1784 

1714 

1774 

1775 

1572 

1652 

172(5 

1800 

1746 

1794 

•.736 

1792 

.574 

1637 

1698 

1770 

1761 

1814 

37 

95 

1796 

1842 

1762 

1833 

1546 

1578 

129 

194 

1629 

1697 

331 

363 

1799 

1587 

1C57 

1512 

1575 

1771 

1813 

1784 

18-39 

1748 

1836 

91 

165 

200 

123 


K 


Ger. 
Ger. 
Fr. 

Scotch. 

Ger. 

Russ. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Scotch. 

Irish. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Ens. 

Krig. 

Amer. 

(;er. 

Snitch. 

i;i-h.' 

Vavz. 

Prnss. 

Fr. 

Ger. 

Scot<^.■.. 

Eng. 


Kaempfer,  a  naturalist,  traveller,  and  historian    . 

Kaestner,  Abraham  Goihelf,  a  mathematician  and  astronomer 

Kalb,  baron  de,  who  generously  aided  the  American  cause 

Kames,  Henry  Home,  lord,  a  judge  and  author 

Kant,  Emanuel,  metaphysician 

Karamsin,  Nicholas  M.,  historiographer  of  the  empire 

Kean,  Edmund,  tragedian        .... 

Keats,  John,  a  poet  ..... 

Keith,  James,  an  officer  in  the  Russian  and  Prussian  service 

Kelly,  Michael,  a  composer  and  singer 

Kemble,  John  Philip,  a  celebrated  tragedian 

Kempis,  Thomas  i,  supposed  author  of  the  "  Imitation  of  Christ' 

Kennet,  White,  a  learned  prelate  and  author 

Kennicott,  Benjamin,  a  divine  and  biblical  critic 

Kent,  James,  jurist — chancellor  of  N.  Y. 

Kepler.  John,  an  eminent  astronomer 

Kerr,  Robert,  a  miscellaneous  writer    . 

King,  Rufus.  statesman  and  diplomatist 

Kingsborough,  Lord,  patron  of  great  work  on  Mexican  Antiquities 

Kitchinei',  William,  writer  on  cookery 

Klaproth,  Henry  J.,  philologist  and  ethnologist  . 

Kleber,  John  Baptist,  military  officer 

Klopstock,  "  the  Milton  of  Germany"  . 

Knox,  John,  the  great  champion  of  the  reformation 

Knox.  Dr.  A'icesimns  a  divine  ;ind  miscellaneous  writer 


1651 

1716 

1719 

1799 

1717 

1780 

1696 

1782 

1724 

1804 

1765 

1826 

1787 

1833 

1796 

1820 

1696 

1758 

1762 

1.526 

1757 

1823 

1380 

1471 

1660 

n-29. 

1718 

n& 

1763 

1847 

1571 

1630 

1814 

1755 

1827 

1795 

1S.37 

1827 

1784 

1835 

1754 

1800 

1721 

1803 

1505 

1.572 

3752 

1821 

676 


THE   world's    progress. 


NATION.  NAME  AND   PROFESSION. 

Amer.    Knox,  Henry,  militaiy  officer  and  statesman 
Ger.       Koch,  Christopher  William,  an  historian 
Fr.  Kock,  Charles  Paul  de,  novelist  and  dramatist 

Polish.  Kosciusko,  Thaddeus,  a  warrior  and  patriot 

(Served  in  the  American  army  during  the  revolution.) 
Ger.       Kotzebue,  Augustus  Frederick,  Fer.  Von,  an  historian,  &c. 
Ger.       Kunth,  Charles  S.,  botanist 
Russ.     Kutosoff,  Michael  L.  G.,  field  marshal 


onK. 

DIED. 

1750 

1806 

1737 

1813 

1794 

1746 

1817 

1761 

1819 

1788 

1745 

1813 

Fr.  Laborde,  Alex.  L.  G.,  comte  de,  traveller,  &c.    .  .  . 

Fr.  Lacepede,  Bernard  G.  S.  de  la  Ville,  count  de,  naturalist 

Fr.  Lacretelle,  Charles,  traveller  and  literaieur 

Lactantius,  L.  C.,  a  father  of  the  church ;  styled  the  Christian  Cicero 

Fr  Lacroix,  Silvestre  F.,  mathematician 

Fr.  Laennec,  R.  T.  H.,  an  eminent  physician 

Fr  La  Fayette,  G.  M.,  marquis,  &c.,  military  commander  and  statesman 

Fr.  La  Fayette,  George  W.,  statesman 

Fr,  Lafontaine,  "an  inimitable  fabulist"    .... 

Gel.  La  Fontaine,  Aug.  H. .?.,  author  of  200  volumes,  miscellaneous 

Fr.  Lafitte,  Jacques,  wealthy  banker  and  stiitesman 

Ital.  Lagrange,  Joseph  Louis,  an  able  mathematician 

Fr.  La'Harpe,  Jolin  Francis  de,  a  dramatist,  critic,  &c. 

Swiss.  La  Haipe,  F.  C,  statesman  and  author 

Fr.  Lalande,  Joseph  J.  le  Francis  de,  astronomer 

Fr.  Lamarck,  J.  Li.  A.  P.,  naturalist    .... 

Fr.  Lamarque,  Maxim.,  a  general  of  the  revolution  of  1789 

Fr.  Lamartine,  poet,  historian,  traveller,  and  statesman 

Eng.  Lambert,  A.  B.,  botanist  .  .  .        ■       . 

Eng.  Lamb,  Chai-les,  poet  and  essayist 

Fr.  Lammenais,  F,  R.,  abbe  de,  theological  and  political  writer 

Eng.  Lancaster,  Joseph,  founder  of  system  of  Education 

Eng.  Lander,  Richard  and  John,  travellers  in  Africa 

Fr.  Landon,  C.  P.,  author  of  works  on  the  fine  arts 

Eng.  Lane,  Edward  William,  orientalist— author  of  Modern  Egyptians,  &c 

Ital.  Langfranc,  a  learned  archbishop  of  Canterbury 

Eng.  Langton,  Stephen,  cardinal,  and  archbishop  of  Canterbury 

Eng.  Lansdowne,  Win.  Petty,  marquis  of — premier 

Eng.  Lansdowne,  Heniy  Petty,  marquis  of,  Pres.  of  Council    . 

Fr.  Laplace,  marquis  Peter  Simon,  an  eminent  astronomer  and  geometrician 

Eng.  Lardner,  Nathaniel,  a  learned  dissenting  divine 

Fr.  Las  Casas,  biographer  of  Napoleon,  &c. 

Nor.  Lassen,  Chris.,  oriental  philologist  and  historian 

Eng.  Latimer,  Hugh,  a  prelate— martyred  for  being  a  reformer 

Eng.  Laud,  William,  a  prelate,  famed  for  his  tyranny  and  superstition 

Amer.  Laureiis,  Henry,  a  patriot  and  statesman 

Fr  Lavalette,  M.  C.,  count  de,  military  commander 

SwijB.  I.avater,  John  Caspar,  a  celebrated  physiognomist 

Fr.  Lavoisier,  Anthony  L.,  a  celebrated  chemist 

Eng.  Layard,  Austen  H.,  traveller  and  explorer  of  Nineveh 

Fr."  Lebrun,  Pontius  D.  E.,  a  poet 

Swiss.  Leclerc,  John,  an  eminent  critic 

Amer.  Ledyard,  John,  an  intrepid  and  enterprising  traveller 

Amer.  Lee,  Chanes,  an  officer  in  the  revolution 

Amer.  Lee,  Richard  Henry,  president  of  congress  . 

Amer.  Lee,  Arthur,  M.  D.,  a  statesman 

Amer.  Legare,  Hugh  S.,  jurist,  statesman,  and  literaieur 

Fr.  Legendre,  mathematician 

Amer.  Leggett,  William,  political  and  miscellaneous  writer 

Ger.  Leibnitz,  Godfrey  William,  an  able  and  learned  philosopher 

Ens.  Leicester,  T.  W.  Coke,  earl  of,  agriculturist 

Scotch.  Leighton,  Robert,  an  able  prelate 

Eng.  Leland,  John,  an  eminent  divine  and  author 

Irish.  Leland,  Thomas,  an  eminent  divine  and  author 

Ens.  Lempriere,  John,  a  biographer  and  lexicographer     . 

DuTch.  Lennep,  David  J.  von.,  jurist  and  poet 

Ital.  Leo  X.,  pope  (John  de  Medici),  a  patron  of  injustice  and  the  arts 

Ger.  Leo,  Henry,  historian  .... 

Gr.  Leonidas  I.,  king  of  Sparta — the  hero  of  Thermopylae    . 

Fr.  Lesage,  Alain  Rene,  a  novelist  and  dramatist 


1842 

1756 

1825 

325 

1765 

1843 

1781 

1826 

1757 

.834 

1621 

1695 

1756 

1831 

1768 

1844 

1736 

1813 

1739 

1793 

1754 

1838 

1732 

1807 

1745 

1829 

1770 

1832 

1802 

1761 

1842 

1775 

1834 

1782 

1771 

1839 

lS.3i 

1820 

";   1005 

1639 

1228 

1737 

1805 

1780 

ian  1749 

1827 

1684 

1768 

1763 

1842 

1800 

1470 

1.5.';5 

.   1573 

1645 

1724 

1792 

1769 

1830 

1741 

1801 

1743 

1729 

1807 

1657 

1736 

1788 

1782 

17.32 

1794 

1740 

1782 

1797 

1843 

1753 

1833 

1802 

1840 

1646 

1710 

1752 

1842 

1613 

16&1 

1691 

1766 

1772 

1785 

1824 

1774 

1475 

1521 

1799 

f.  B.  c.  491 

1668 

1747 

BIOGIIAVHICAL    INDEX. 


677 


HATION.  NAME   AND   PROFESSION. 

Scotch.  Leslie^  .John,  mathematician  and  natural  philosopher 

Ft.         Levazac,  .]ohn  P.  B.  L.  cie,  a  grammarian 

Amer.    Lewis,  Maj.  Gen.  Morgan,  military  commander,  jurist,  &e. 

Eng.       Lewis,  Matthew  Gregory,  miscellaneotis  writer 

Ger.       Lichtenberg,  George  C,  experimental  philosopher 

Ger.       Liebig, . I ustus,  baron,  chemist 

Eng.       Lightloot,  John,  a  learned  divine  and  author 

Dutch.   Ligne,  Charles  Joseph,  military  officer,  and  author 

Dutch.   Limborch,  Philip,  a  theologian  and  author 

Eng.       Lingard,  John,  author  of  '  History  of  England '  . 

Fr.  Lingueet,  Simon  N.  H.,  political  writer,  and  historian 

Swed.     Linnseus,  Charles  Von,  the  most  celebrated  of  naturalists 

Hung.    Liszt,  Francis,  performer  on  piano 

Eng,       I,ister,  Thomas  Henry,  novelist,  and  biographer  of  Clarendon 

Ger.       Littrow,  John  J.,  writer  on  matliemalics  and  astronomy 

Eng.       Liverpool,  Robert  Banks  Jenkinson,  earl  of,  premier 

Amer.    Livingston,  Edward,  jurist,  diplomatist,  and  statesman 

Amer.    Livingston,  William,  a  poet    . 

Rom.      Livius.  or  Livy,  Titus,  a  celebrated  historian 

Fr.  Lobau,  Count,  marshal  of  France 

Eng.       Locke,  John,  an  eminent  philosopher  and  metaphysician 

Scotch.  Lockhart,  J.  G.,  critic  and  novelist — editor  of  '  Quarterly' 

Russ.     Lomonozotr,  Michael  V.,  a  poet  and  historian 

Irish.      Londonderry,  Robert  Stewart,  marquis  of,  a  statesman 

Gr.         Longinus,  Dionysius  Cassius,  a  critic  and  philosopher 

Span.      Lope,  De  Vega  Carpio,  Felix,  a  poet  and  dramatist 

Scotch.  Loudon,  J.  C,  voluminous  writer  on  horticulture,  agricult.,and 

Fr.  Louis,  Baron,  eminent  surgeon 

Eng.       Lowlh,  Robert,  an  eminent  divine  and  author 

Lucan,  Marcus  Annaeus,  a  Latin  poet 
Gr.  ■        Lucian,  a  celebrated  writer 
Rom.      Lucilius,  the  earliest  Roman  satirist    . 
Rom.      Lucretius,  Caius  Titus,  an  eminent  poet 
Rom.      LucuUus.  a  wealthy  warrior 

Ger.       Luther,  Martin,  the  parent  of  the  Protestant  reformation 
Fr.  Luxemburg,  duke  of,  a  military  officer 

Gr.         Lycurgus,  the  Spartan  legislator 
Scotch.  Lyell,  Sir  Charles,  geologist  and  traveller 
Gr.         Lysander,  a  famous  Spartan  general 
Gr.         Lysias,  an  orator        .... 
Eng.      Lyttleton,  George,  lord,  a  poet  and  historian 


1754 
1773 
1742 
1803 
1602 
1735 
1633 

.  1736 
1707 
1811 
1801 
1781 
1770 
1764 
1723 

1770 
1632 
1794 
1711 
1769 
f.  B.  C.250 
1562 
architect.     1783 

1710 

120 

B.  c.  148 

.  B.  c.   95 

B.C.  115 

1484 

1628 

B.  c.  898 

1797 


DIED. 

1832 
1813 
1332 
1818 
1790 

1675 
1814 
1712 

1794 

1778 

1342 

1828 
1836 
1790 
17 
1838 
1704 

1765 
1822 

1635 
1843 
1837 
1787 
.37 
210 
B.  191 

c.  49 
1546 
1695 


B.  G 


,459 
1709 


B.  c.  395 
1763 


M 

Eng.       Macaulay,  T.  Babington,  essayist,  historian,  critic,  and  statesman  . 

Scotch.  McCrie,  Thomas,  D.  D.,  biographer  of  Knox 

Eng.       McCuUoch,  John,  M.  D.,  geologist,  &c. 

Scotch.  MaccuUoch,  political  economist  and  statistician 

Fr.  Mac  Donald,  marshal  of  France  .... 

Amer.    Mac  Donough,  Thomas,  commodore,  victor  on  Lake  Champlain 

Ital.        Machiavel,  Nicholas,  a  celebrated  writer  on  polities,  &c. 

Scotch.  Mackenzie,  Henry,  "  the  Addison  of  the  North" 

Amer.    Mackenzie,  A.  Slidell,  naval  commander,  author  of  Travels 

Eng.       Mackintosh,  Sir  James,  a  celebrated  literary  character 

Scotch.  Macknight,  James,  a  divine  and  author 

Scotch.  Maclaurin,  Colin,  a  mathematician  .... 

Eng.       Mac  Lean,  L.  E.  L.  (Miss  Landon),  poet  and  novelist 

Scotch.  Maclure,  William,  geologist,  <fec.  .... 

Amer.    Macomb,  Maj.  Gen.  Alex.,  military  commander 

Scotch.  Macpherson,  James,  a  miscellaneous  writer 

Rom.      Maecenas,  Caius  C,  the  minister  of  Augustus,  and  patron  of  literature 

Amer.    Madison,  James,  4th  President  of  United  States 

Port.      Magellan,  Ferdinand,  a  celebrated  navigator 

Fr.  Magendie,  Francois,  physiologist  .... 

Irish.      Maginn,  William,  classical  and  miscellaneous  writer  and  critic 

Sar.        Mahomet,  or  Mohammed,  the  founder  of  the  religion  which  bears  his  name 

Turk.     Mahomet  II.,  7th  Turkish  sultan— conqueror  of'Constantinople 

Ital.        Maio,  Angelo,  discoverer  and  editor  of  Latin  classics 

Fr.  Maimbo\trg,  Louis,  an  historian  .... 

Jew.       Maimonide.'3,  Moses,  a  celebrated  rabbi        .... 

Fr.  Mamtenon,  Frances  d'Aubignc,  queen  .  .  . 


1772 

1835 

1773 

1835 

1765 

1840 

1773 

1825 

1469 

1527 

1745 

1831 

1849 

1766 

1832 

1721 

1800 

1698 

1746 

1804 

1838 

1763 

1840 

1782 

1841 

1738 

1796 

B.C.   9 

17E1 

1836 

1521 

i7a3 

1793 

1842 

569 

632 

1430 

1481 

1610 

1686 

11.31 

1204 

1635 

1719 

678 


THE    world's    progress. 


NJITION.  NAME   AND   PROFESSION. 

Eng.  Maittaii-e,  Michael,  a  bibliographer,  &c. 

Eng.  Malcolm,  Sir  John,  History  of  Persia  and  India 

Ital.  Malibran,  M.  F.  Madame,  vocalist 

Eng.  Malraesbury,  William  of,  an  historian 

Eng.  Malone,  Edward,  a  dramatic  commentator 

Ital.  Malpighi,  Marcellus,  a  naturalist  and  anatomist  . 

Ger.  Malte-Brun,  Conrad,  a  poet  and  geograplier 

Ger.  Malte-Brun,  M.,  geographer    .... 

Eng.  Malthus,  T.  R.,  political  economist 

Pars.  Manes,  or  Manichoeus,  founder  of  the  Manicheean  sect 

Ger.  Mansfield,  Ernest  of,  a  warrior 

Eng.  Mantell,  G.  A.,  geologist 

Ital.  Manutius,  Aldus,  a  celebrated  piiiiiter  and  author 

Ital.  Manzoni,  author  of  'I  Promessi  Sposi ' 

Fr.  Marat,  John  Paul,  an  infamous  revolutionist 

Aust.  Maria  Louisa,  Empress  of  France,  afterwards  Duchess  of  Pi 

Span.  Mariana,  John,  a  celebrated  historian    . 

Amer.  Marion,  Francis,  a  distinguislied  officer  in  the  revolution 

Rom.  Marius,  Caius,  a  famous  general  and  demagogue 

Eng.  Marlborough,  John  Churchill,  duke  of,  an  able  warrior 

Fr.  Marmont,  marshal  of  France,  and  traveller 

Fr.  Marmontel,  John  Francis,  a  celebrated  writer 

Eng.  Marryatt,  Captain,  novelist  and  traveller 

Eng.  Marsden,  oriental  traveller  and  historian 

Amer.  Marsh,  James,  metaphysician 

Eng.  Marsh,  Herbert,  bishop  of  Peterborough,  theological  writer 

Fr.  Mars,  Mademoiselle,  actress    .... 

Amer.  Marshall,  John,  chief  justice  of  U.  S.,  biographer 

Rom.  Martial,  Marcus  Valerius,  an  epigrammatist 

Span.  Martinez,  de  la  Rosa,  don  F.,  statesman  and  Uterateur 

Ger.  Martins,  C.  F.  P.  von,  botanist  and  traveller 

Prus.  Martos,  Ivan  P.,  sculptor        .... 

Iial.  Martyr,  Peter,  a  reformer  and  theologian     . 

Eng.  Mason,  John,  a  divine  and  author 

Eng.  Mason,  William,  a  divine  and  poet 

Amer.  Mason,  John  INI.,  an  eminent  divine 

Fr.  Massena,  Andrew,  one  of  the  ablest  of  Napoleon's  marshals 

Fr.  Masillon,  John  Baptist,  an  eloquent  divine 

Eng.  Massinger,  Philip,  a  dramatist 

Amer.  Mather,  Cotton,  a  divine  .... 

Irish.  Maturin,  Charles  Robert,  a  divine,  dramatist,   novelist,  and  poet 

Eng.  Matthews,  Charles,  actor  and  humorist 

Fr.  Maupertius,  Peter  L.  M.,  a  geometrician  and  astronomer 

Fr.  Maury,  John  Siffrein,  a  cardmal  and  statesman  . 

Eng.  Mawe,  Joseph,  a  mineralogist 

Fr.  Mazarin,  Julius,  cardinal,  an  able  statesman 

Mazeppa,  John,  prince  of  the  Cossacks 

Ital.  Medici,  Lorenzo  d',  a  poet— governor  of  Florence,  and  patron  of  the 

Ger.  Meiners,  Christopher,  an  historian 

Ger.  Melancthon,  Philip,  a  celebrated  reformer 

Gr.  Menander,  a  comic  poet 

Ger.  Meninski,  Francis  M.,  a  learned  orientalist 

Dutch.  Mercator,  Gerard,  a  geographer 

Fr.  Merimee,  Prosper,  novelist 

Ital.  Metastasio,  Peter  B.,  a  celebrated  poet . 

Aust.  Metternich,  Prince,  statesman  and  diplomatist 

Dutch.  Meursius,  John,  an  erudite  critic 

Ger.  Meyerbeer,  musical  composer 

Fr.  Mezerai,  Francis  Eudes  de,  an  historian 

Ital.  Mezzofanti,  Cardinal,  celebrated  linguist     . 

Gr.  Miaulis,  naval  commander 

Ital.  Micari,  Guiseppe,  historian 

Ger.  Michaelis,  John  David,  a  learned  orientalist  and  critic 

Fr.  Michaud,  Joseph,  historian 

Fr.  Michelet,  Jules,  historian         .... 

Eng.  Middleton,  Conyers,  a  divine  and  an  elegant  writer 

Fr.  Mignet,  F.  A.,  historian  .... 

Port.  Miguel,  Don,  rival  of  Don  Carlos  for  the  throne  of  Portugal 

Scot.  Mill,  Jas.,  historian  of  British  India  and  political  economist 

Fr.  Millevoye,  Charles  Hubert,  a  poet 

Pr.  Millin,  Aubin  Louis,  a  naturalist,  &c    . 

Eng.  Millman,  Rev.  H.  H.,  poet  and  historian 


BORN. 

DIED. 

1668 

1747 

1808 

1836 

1143 

1741 

1812 

1628 

1694 

1775 

1826 

1834 

239 

274 

1585 

1626 

1447 

1515 

1754 

1793 

1787 

1537 

1624 

1795 

B.C.  153 

B.C.  86 

1650 

1722 

1723 

1799 

1847 

1755 

1836 

1794 

1758 

1839 

1755 

1835 

40 

100 

1786 

1753 

1835 

1500 

1561 

1706 

1763 

1725 

1797 

1770 

1829 

1758 

1817 

1663 

1742 

1584 

1639 

1663 

1728 

1782 

1825 

1776 

1835 

1698 

1759 

1746 

1817 

1755 

1829 

1602 

1661 

1709 

s   1448 

1492 

1747 

1810 

1497 

1560 

B.C.  342 

B.  c  290 

1623 

1698 

1512 

1594 

1800 

1698 

1782 

1773 

1579 

1639 

1791 

1610 

1683 

1849 

1772 

1835 

1839 

1717 

1791 

1839 

1798 

1683 

1750 

1796 

1775 

1836 

17S2 

1816 

1759 

BIOG[lAPHICAL    INDEX. 


679 


NATION 

Fr. 

Ens. 

End-. 

Gi-r 

Eng. 
Fr. 

Span. 

Amei". 

En,i. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Ger. 

Sar. 

Turk. 

Ger. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Fr 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Ger. 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Itiil. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Scotch. 

Eng. 

Irish. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Irish. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Fr. 

Gr. 

Ger. 

Scot. 

Ger. 

Eng. 

Swiss. 

Ger. 

Fr. 

Ital. 

Irish. 

Amer. 

Scotch. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Gr. 


NAME   AND   PROFESSION. 

Millot,  Clautle  Francis  Xavier,  historian 

Mills,  Charles,  historian  .... 

Milner,  .Joseph,  author  of  Church  History 

Miltiades,  an  illustrious  Athenian  general 

Milton,  .John,  the  limner  ofBriiain 

Mirabeau,  H.  C'^iiquetti,  count  de,  a  celebrated  character  in  the  Revolu 

tion,  and  author  ..... 

INIiranda,  Francis,  a  revolutionary  general 
Mitchell,  Samuel  L.,  celebrated  jihysician  and  naturalist 
Mitchell,  Thomas,  clas.=!iral  scholar  and  critic 
Mitford,  Mary  Russell,  novelist  and  essayist 
Mitlbrd,  William,  an  historian  and  philologist    . 
Mithridates,  kiiig  ol'Ponius,  a  warrior 
Mitscherlich,  E.,  chenjisi         .... 
Mohammed  Ben  Abd  Al  Wahab,  Shiek,  founder  of  the  sect  of  Wahabite 
Mohammed  Ali,  Pacha  of  Egypt    .... 
Mohs,  Frederick,  mineralogist 

Mole,  M.  L.  comte.  statesman         .... 
Moleville,  Anthony  F.  de  Bertrand,  count  de,  an  historian 
Muliere,  .John  Bapiist,  a  celebrated  dramatist 
Mouse,  Gaspar,  an  eminent  geometrician 
Monk,  George,  duke  of  Albemai-le.  military  officer    . 
Monroe,  James,  a  sluie;-iiuui.  ulh  pie.'ident  of  the  United  States 
Monstrelet,  Engucrrand  de,  a  chronicler 
Montagu,  Lady  Mary  Wni-tloy,  an  elegant  writer 
Montaigne,  Michael  de,  an  ejnnient  essayist 
Montebello,  .John  Lannes,  duke  of,  marshal 
ftlontecuculi,  KaymuiiJ,  a  warrior 
Montesquieu,  Charles,  baron  de,  an  able  writer  . 
Montgomery,  Kichard,  an  intrepid  military  officer    . 
IMoatL'uniery,  .liimes,  j)oet        .... 
Montholon,"cum;c.  secretary  and  biographer  of  Napoieon 
Monti,  Viiiceut,  a  poet  .... 

Montmorenci,  Anne  de,  marshal 
Montpensier,  Madame,  author  of  Memoirs,  <fcc. 
Moore,  Sir  .John,  general  .... 

More,  Sir  Thomas,  chancellor, 
Moore,  Thomas,  poet,  biographer,  and  Iiistorian 
More,  Hannah,  poet,  essayist,  and  moralist 
Moreau,  John  Victor,  a  celebrated  general 
Morsan,  lady  Charles,  author  ol' novels,  travels,  &c. 
Morier,  James  novelist,  "  Hajji  Baba,"  &c.  .  .  .        1780 

Morris,  Robert,  a  signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  and  a  financier  1703 


Morris,  Gouverneur,  a  distinguished  statesman 

Morrison,  Robert,  Chinese  traveller  and  philologist 

Morse,  Jedediah,  a  geographer  and  statistical  writer 

Mortier,  marshal  of  France,  killed  by  Fieschi 

Moschus,  a  bucolic  poet  .... 

Mosheim,  John  Laurence,  an  ecclesiastical  historian 

Motherwell,  William,  poet  .... 

Mouradgea,  D'Ohason,  an  Armenian  historian    . 

Mozart,  John  C.  W.  T.,  an  eminent  composer 

Mudie,  Robert,  author  of  various  works  on  Natural  History,  &c,. 

Muller,  John  Von,  a  celebrated  historian 

Muller,  C.  O.,  historian,  archaeologist,  classic 

Murat,  Joachim,  an  intrepid  marshal,  and  king  of  Naples 

Maratori,  Louis  Anthony,  an  historian 

Murphy,  Arthur,  a  dramatist  and  translator 

Murray,  Lindley,  a  grammarian 

Murray,  Alexander,  a  self-taught  linguist    . 

Murray,  William  Vans,  a  statesman 

Murray,  John  (the  elder),  eminent  publisher 

Musajus,  an  Athenian  poet      .... 


BORN. 

DIED. 

1726 

17,Nl 

17SS 

18-0 

1744 

17!!7 

B.C.  -189 

1C08 

167-1 

1749 

17'.il 

1750 

18ii, 

176.S 

18  1 

1783 

18  :. 

1734 

IS  - 

c.  123 

B.C.   >M 

1794 

f.  1650 

1769 

1774 

IS.J'.I 

1781 

1754 

1817 

1022 

1673 

1746 

l'^18 

1608 

lo:  .1 

1759 

1S31 

1390 

1453 

1690 

1762 

1533 

1592 

1769 

1809 

1609 

16S1 

1689 

1755 

1737 

1775 

1771 

±783 

1753 

1828 

1493 

1567 

1627 

1693 

1761 

J  809 

1480 

1535 

178f 

174.4 

1833 

1763 

1813 

1752 

1761 

1768 

f.  B.  0.  160 

1695 

1740 
1756 
1777 
1752 
1797 
1771 
1672 
1727 
1745 
1775 
1761 
1778 
f.  B.  c.  1243 


N 


Pers.      Nadir  Shah,  or  Thamas  Kouli  Khan,  a  warrior  and  king 

Scotch.  Napier,  John,  baron,  inventor  of  logarithms 

Fr.  Napoleon  I.,  (Bonaparte,)  ... 

Pers,      Narses,  a  warrior,  in  the  service  of  Justinian  I.,  the  emperor 

Dutch.   Nassau,  prince  Maurice  of,  an  able  general 


1688  1747 

1550  1617 

1769  1821 

507 
1567  162£ 


680 


T.rCE    WORLD  S    PROGRESS. 


NATION.  NAME   AND   PROFESSION. 

Pers.  Nassir  Eddyn,  a  celebrated  astronomer 

Eng.  Neal,  Daniel,  author  of  History  of  tiie  Puritans,  &c. 

Ger.  Neander,  J.  W.  Augustus,  ecclesiastical  historian  .  . 

Fr.  Necker,  James,  an  eminent  financier  and  statesman 

Eng.  Neele,  Henry,  a  poet  and  miscellaneous  writer  .  •  m  • 

Eng.  Nelson,  Horatio,  viscount,  a  celebrated  admiral 

Rom.  Nepos,  Cornelius,  an  historian  .... 

Russ.  Nesselrode,  count  Charles  R.,  statesman  and  diplomatist 

Ger.  Neuwied,  Maximilian,  prince  of,  traveller  in  North  America,  &c. 

Eng.  Newton,  Sir  Isaac,  the  greatest  of  philosophers 

Eng.  Newton,  Thomas,  a  learned  prelate       .... 

Eng.  Newton,  .John,  a  Calvinistic  divine  and  writer 

Fr.  Ney,  Michael,  marshal,  "  the  bravest  of  the  brave" 

Eng.  Nicholson,  William,  a  writer  on  natural  philosophy  and  chemistry  , 

Eng.  Nicholson,  Peter,  architect  and  practical  mechanic 

Amer.  Nicklin,  P.  H.,  bookseller  and  miscellaneous  writer 

Ger.  Nicolai,  Chris.  Fred.,  a  bookseller  and  author 

Ger.  Niebuhr,  Garsten,  a  celebrated  traveller  "    . 

Ger.  Niebuhr,  B.  G.,  a  statesman  and  historian 

Pol.  Niemcevvicz  Jidius  U.,  mil.  com.  and  author      . 

Swe.  Nilston,  Sven,  zoologist  .... 

JFr.  Nodier,  Charles,  novelist         ..... 

Eng.  Normanby,  C.  G.  Phipps,  marquis  of,  novelist  and  statesman 

Eng.  North,  Frederick,  lord,  prime  minister  of  Geo.  III. 

Eng.  Northcote,  .lames,  artist  and  biographer 

Eng.  Nott,  John,  a  poet  and  translator  .... 


BORN. 

DIED. 

1201 

1274 

1678 

1743 

1789 

1850 

1732 

1804 

1798 

1828 

1758 

1805 

B.C.  30 

1755 

1782 

1642 

1727 

1704 

1782 

1725 

1807 

1769 

1815 

1753 

1815 

1786 

1842 

1733 

3811 

1733 

1815 

1776 

1830 

1756 

1841 

1787 

17a3 

1797 

1732 

Z792 

1746 

1837 

1751 

1826 

o 


Eng.  Gates,  Titus,  the  infamous  pretender  of  the  "  Popish  Plot"     . 

Eng.  Ockley,  Simon,  an  orientalist 

Arab.  Odenatus,  a  warrior,  the  husband  of  Zenobia 

Fr.  Odillon-Barrot  C.  H.,  statesman 

Ger.  Oken,  Louis,  naturalist     ..... 

Ger.  Olbers,  H.  W.  M.,  astronomer 

Eng.  Opie,  Mrs.  Amelia,  writer  on  morals  and  education 

Gr.  Oppian,  a  poet  ..... 

Dutch.  Orange,  William  of  Nassau,  prince  of,  the  founder  of  the  Dtitch  i 

Span.  Orfila,  M.  J.  B.,  chemist  and  toxicologist 

Dutch.  Origen,  one  of  the  fathers  of  the  church 

Enff.  Orme,  Robert,  an  historian      .... 

Eng.  Ormond,  James  Butler,  duke  of,  a  statesman 

Gr.  Orpheus,  a  poet,  sometimes  styled  "  the  father  of  poetiy" 

Port.  Osorio,  Jerome,  a  philosopher,  historian,  and  theological  writer 

Amer.  Otis,  James,  a  patriot  and  statesman 

Amer.  Otis,  Harrison  Gray,  statesman  and  jurist 

Eng.  Otway,  Thomas,  a  celebrated  dramatist 

Fr.  Oudinot,  Charles  N.,  marshal  of  France 

Rom.  Ovid,  Publius  Naso,  a  poet 

Eng.  Owen,  John,  an  eminent  divine 


publ 


1619 

1705 

1678 

1720 

267 

1791 

1758 

I8i0 

1771 

f.  150 

ic  1533 

1584 

1787 

185 

253 

1728 

1801 

1610 

1688 

1506 

1580 

1725 

1772 

1767 

1848 

1651 

1685 

1767 

B.  c.  43 

17 

1765 

1822 

Eng.  Paine,  Thomas,  a  political  and  deistical  writer 

Ven.  Paez,  military  commander,  and  president  of  Venezuela 

Ital.  Paganini,  Nicolo,  a  famous  violinist 

Eng.  ■  Paley,  William,  an  eminent  divine  and  author    . 

Fr.  Palisset  de  Montenoy,  Charles,  a  satirist 

Pruss.  Pallas,  Peter  Simon,  traveller  and  naturalist 
Paoli,  Pascal,  a  Corsican  patriot  and  general 

Can.  Papineau,  L.  J.,  politician  and  "  patriot" 

Rom.  Papinian,  jEmilius,  a  civil  lawyer 

Swiss.  Paracelsus,  A.  P.  T.  B.  de  H.,  an  alchemist 

Eng.  Paris,  Matthew,  an  historian 

Scotch.  Park,  Mungo,  a  celebrated  traveller 

Eng.  Parkes,  Samuel,  a  chemist  and  author 

Ital.  Parma,  Alexander  Farnese,  duke  of,  a  warrior 

Eng.  Parry,  captain  Edward,  arctic  navigator 

Fr.  Pascal,  Blaize,  eminent  as  a  geometrician  and  writer 

Pruss.  Paskewitch,  Ivan  F.,  prince  and  military  commander 


1736 

1809 

1787 

1784 

1835 

1745 

1805 

1730 

1815 

1741 

1811 

1726 

1807 

1789 

145 

212 

1493 

1541 

1259 

1771 

1804 

1759 

1825 

1592 

1790 

16:33 

1662 

BIOGRAPHICAL    INDEX. 


G81 


MATION.  NAME   AND   PROFESSION. 

Fr.  Pasquier,  Etienne  D.,  couiu,  chancellor  or  France 

Ger.       Passow,  Francis  L.  C.  F.,  philologist  and  lexicographer 

Rom.      Paterculus,  Caius  Velleius,  an  historian 

Gr.         Pausanias,  a  topographical  writer 

Port.  Pedro,  don,  claimant  of  the  throne  of  Portugal    . 

Eng.       Peel,  sir  Robert,  statesman 

Brit.  Pelagius,  a  monk,  founder  of  a  sect 

Ital.  Pellico,  Silvio,  poet  and  patriot 

Gr.  Pelopidas,  an  illustrious  Theban  general 

Eng.  Penn,  William,  the  founder  and  legislator  of  Pennsylvania 

Fr.  Perefixe,  Hardouin  de  Beaumont  de,  historian    . 

Gr.  Pericles,  an  able  Athenian  orator  and  statesman 

Fr  Perrier,  M.  Casimir,  a  statesman 

Fr.  Perouse,  John  F.  Galaup,  tie  la,  a  navigator 

Rom,.  Persius  Flaccus,  Aulus,  a  satirist 

Swiss.  Pestalozzi,  Henry,  introducer  of  a  new  system  of  education 

Fr.  Peter  the  Hermit,  the  first  mover  of  the  Crusades 

Russ  Peter  I.,  the  Great,  a  warrior  and  statesman 

Eng.  Peterborough,  Charles  Mordaunt,  earl  of,  a  warrior 
Petion,  Alexander,  a  mulatto,  president  of  Hayti 

Ital.  Petrarch,  Francis,  one  of  the  four  greatest  of  Italian  poets 

Fr.  Peyronnet,  Pierre  D.,  count  de,  minister  of  Charles  X.  and  historian 

Rom.  Phcedrus,  a  fabulist   ..... 
Philip  II.,  king  of  Macedon,  a  warrior 

Eng.  Phillips,  sir  Richard,  bookseller  and  compiler     . 

Gr.  Philoposmen,  a  celebrated  general 

Gr.  Phocion,  an  eminent  Athenian 

Photius,  a  learned  patriarch  of  Constantinople 

Amer.  Physic,  Philip  Syng,  M.  D.      . 

Fr.  Picard,  Louis  Benedict,  a  dramatist  and  novelist 

Fr.  Pichegru,  Charles,  an  eminent  general 

Amer.  Pickering,  Timothy,  a  distinguished  statesman 

Amer.  Pickering,  John,  philologist    .... 

Gr.  Pindar,  the  greatest  of  lyric  poets 

Scotch.  Pinkerton,  John,  a  fertile  and  eccentric  author    • 

Amer.  Pinckney,  William,  a  distinguished  orator  and  diplomatist 

Span.  Pinzon,  Vincent  Yanez,  a  navigator,  discovered  Brazil     . 

Fr.  Piron,  Alexis,  a  poet,  dramatist,  and  wit 

Gr.  Pisistratus,  sovereign  of  Athens 

Amer.  Pitkin,  Timothy,  historian  and  statistician 

Eng.  Pitt,  Christopher,  a  poet  and  translator 

Eng.  Pitt,  William,  a  celebrated  statesman 

Gr.  Pittacus,  of  Mitylene,  one  of  the  seven  sages 

Span.  Pizarro  Francis,  the  conqueror  of  Peru 

Gr.  Plato,  an  illustrious  philosopher — founder  of  the  academic  sect 

Rom.  Plautus,  a  comic  poet       ..... 

Scotch.  Playfair,  John,  an  eminent  mathematician  and  natural  philosophei 

Rom.  Pliny,  the  elder,  or  C.  P.  Secundus,  author  of  Natural  History 

Rom.  Pliny,  the  younger,  a  warrior  and  author    . 

Egypt.  Plotinus,  a  Platonic  philosopher 

Gr.  Plutarch,  a  celebrated  biographer 

Fr.  Poisson,  D.  S.,  mathematician 

Eng.  Pole,  Reginald,  a  cardinal  and  statesman    . 

Fr.  Polignaa  Melchior  de,  a  cardinal  and  statesman 

Fr.  Polignac,  J.  A.  M.,  prince,  minister  of  Charles  X. 

Amer.  Polk,  James  K.,  president  of  the  United  States 

Ital.  Polo,  Mark,  a  celebrated  Venetian  traveller 

Gr.  Polybius,  an  eminent  historian 

Rom.  Pompey,  Cneus,  a  statesman  and  warrior    . 

Pol.  Poniatowski,  Joseph,  prince,  an  able  general 

Eng.  Pool,  Matthew,  an  able  divine  and  author    . 

Eng.  Pope,  Alexander,  a  celebrated  poet 
Porphyry,  a  Platonic  philosopher 

Eng.  Porson,  Richard,  an  eminent  hellenist  and  critic 

Ital.  Porta,  John  Baptist,  a  natural  philosopher 

Eng.  Porter,  Anna  Maria,  novelist   .... 

Eng.  Porter,  sir  Robert  Ker,  author  of  travels,  &c. 

Eng.  Porter,  Jane,  novelist  .... 

Eng.  Porteus,  Beilby,  an  eminent  prelate 

Eng.  Potter,  Robert,  a  divine,  poet,  and  translator 

Russ.  Pozzo  di  Borgo,  diplomatist 

Eng.  Prideaux,  Humphry,  a  learned  divine 

29* 


BORN. 

1767 

1786 

about  B.  c.    20 

f.  about  120 


1788 
354 
1789 

1644 
160.5 
B.  c.  490 
1777 
1741 
34 
1745 


DIED. 

1833 


1834 
1850 


1672 

1658 
1770 
1304 
1778 
f.  30 
B.  c.  383 

B.  c.  253 
B.  c.  400 

1768 
1769 
1761 
1746 
1772 
B.  C.  522 
1758 
1765 
f.  1500 
1689 

1765 

1699 

1759 

B.C.  650 

1475 

B.  c.  430 

B.  c.  227 

1749 

23 

61 

203 

50 

1781 

1500 

1611 

1780 

1795 

1250 

B.  c.  205 

B.C.  106 

1763 

1624 

1688 

233 

1759 

1540 

1780 
1776 
1731 
1721 
1768 
1648 


B.  c.  364 
1718 
1670 

B.  c.  429 
1832 
178S 
62 
1827 
1115 
1725 
1735 
1818 
1374 


s  o.  J36 

B.C.  183 

B.  c.  318 

891 

1837 

1824 

1804 

1829 

1846 

B  c.  442 

1826 

1822 

1773 

B.  c.  527 

1847 

1748 

1806 

B.  c.  570 

1541 

B.C.  347 

B.C.  184 

1819 

79 

115 

270 

120 

1558 
1741 

1849 
1523 
B.C.  123 
B.  c.  48 
1814 
1379 
1744 
304 
1808 
1616 
1832 
1842 
1850 
1808 
1804 
1842 
1724 


682 


THE    world's    progress. 


NATION.  NAME  AND   PROFESSION. 

EnR.       Priestley,  Joseph,  an  eminent  philosopher  and  writer 

Prior.  Matthew,  a  poet  and  statesman   . 

Proclus,  a  Platonic  philosopher     .... 

Procopius,  an  historian  .... 

Propertius.  Sextus  Aurelius,  a  poet 
Egypt    Ptolemy,  Claudius,  an  eminent  astronomer  and  geographer 
Ger.        Puckler-Muskau,  H.  L.  H.,  prince  of,  author  of  travels,  &c., 

Puffendorf,  Samuel,  a  publicist  and  historian 

Pulci,  Louis,  a  poet         ..... 

Putnam,  Israel,  a  distinguished  officer  in  the  revolution 

Pyrrho,  a  philosopher,  founder  of  the  Skeptic  sect    . 

Pyttiagoras,  a  celebrated  philosopher   . 


Eng. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Rom 


Ger. 

Ital. 

Amer. 

Gr. 

Gr. 


BORN. 

DIED. 

1733 

1804 

1664 

1721 

410 

487 

410 

487 

B 

c.  52 

70 
1785 

B 

c.  12 

1632 

1694 

1432 

14S7 

1718 

1790 

f.  B 

c.  300 

B 

c.  586 

B. 

c.  497 

Fr.  ftuatremere,  E.  M.,  orientalist 

Belg.  Q.uetelet,  L.  A.,  mathematician  and  statisticiaa 

Span.  Quevedo  De  Villegas,  Francis,  a  poet 

Fr.  Quinault,  Philip,  a  lyrical  dramatist    . 

Fr.  Cluinet,  Edgar,  literateur 

Span.  Quintana,  M.  J.  poet 

Rom.  Quintilian,  Marcus  Fabius,  a  celebrated  orator 


1782 

f796 

1580 

1645 

1635 

1668 

1772 

42 

122 

B. 


Fr.  Racine,  John,  an  eminent  dramatist 

Eng.  Radclilfe,  Anne,  a  celebrated  romance  writer 

Dan.  Rafn,  C.  C,  historian  and  antiquary 

Amer.  Raguet,  Condy,  political  economist 

Eng.  Raleigh,  or  Ralegh,  sir  Walter,  "  a  man  illustrious  in  arms  and  literature" 

Hind.  Rammohun,  Roy.  philanthropist 

Scotch.  Ramsay,  Allan,  a  poet     ..... 

Amer.  Ramsay,  David,  an  historian  .... 

Amer.  Randolph,  Peyton,  first  president  of  Congress 

Amer.  Randolph,  John,  eccentric  statesman      .  "  .  . 

Pruss.  Ranke,  Leopold,  historian  .... 

Fr.  Raoul,  Rochette,  archaeologist  and  traveller        . 

Dan.  Rask,  E.  C,  philologist  and  lexicographer  .  .  . 

Fr.  Raspail,  F.  V.,  chernist  and  radical  statesman    . 

Prass.  Rauch,  metaphysician     ..... 

Pruss.  Raumer,  Frederick  Von,  liistorian  and  traveller 

Amer.  Rawie,  William,  jurist     ..... 

Eng.  Ray,  John,  a  naturalist  and  author 

Fr.  Raynal.  William  Thomas  Francis,  an  historian  and  philosopher 

Eng.  Reed,  Isaac,  a  critic  and  editor 

Eng.  Rees,  Dr.  Abraham,  editor  of  an  encyclopedia,  &c. 

Eng.  Reeve,  Clara,  a  novelist  .... 

Fr.  Regnard,  John  Francis,  a  comic  writer 

Scotch.  Reid,  Thomas,  a  celebrated  metaphysician 

Fr.  Remusat,  J.  P.  A.,  historian  and  linguist     . 

Eng.  Remiie,  ,Iohn,  an  eminent  engineer 

Fr.  Retz,  John  F.  P.  de  Gondi,  cardinal  de,  minister  of  Louis  XV. 

Eng.  Ricaut,  sir  Paul,  a  traveller  and  historian 

Eng.  Richardson,  Samuel,  an  eminent  novelist    . 

Fr.  Richelieu,  A.  J.  du  Plessis,  cardinal  and  duke,  a  statesman 

Ger.  Richter,  John  Paul  Frederick,  a  novelist,  &c. 

Span.  Riego  Y  Nunez,  Raphael  de,  a  patriot 

Ital.  Rienzi,  Nicholas  Gabrino  de,  a  political  reformer 

Amer.  Rittenhouse,  David,  a  philosopher  and  astronomer 

Ger.  Ritter,  Aug.  H.,  history  of  philosophy 

Ger.  Ritter,  Charles,  Geographer    .... 

Eng.  Robertson,  William,  a  celebrated  historian 

Fr.  Robespierre,  F.  M.  J.  I.,  the  "  terrorist"  of  the  Revolution 

Fr.  Rochelbucauld,  Liancourt,  F.  A.  F  ,  duke  de  la  . 

Fr.  Rochej  iquelin,  H.  de  la,  a  royalist  leader 

Amer.  Rodgex-s,  John,  commodore  in  llie  American  navy 

Eng.  Rodney,  George  Brydges,  lord,  an  able  admiral 

Eng.  Rogers,  Samuel,  poet        ..... 

Fr.  RoTand  de  la  Platriere,  J.  M.,  a  revolutionist  and  author   . 

Fr.  KoUin,  Charles,  a  celebrated  historian 


leb^ 

1699 

1764 

1823 

1795 

1784 

1842 

1552 

1618 

1776 

1&33 

1685 

1758 

1749 

1812 

1723 

1775 

1773 

1833 

1795 

1790 

1784 

1832 

1794 

1759 

1830 

1628 

1705 

1713 

1796 

1742 

1807 

1743 

1825 

1723 

1S03 

1647 

1709 

1710 

1796 

1788 

1832 

1761 

1821 

1614 

1679 

1700 

1689 

1761 

1585 

1763 

1825 

1783 

1825 

1354 

1731 
1791 

1796 

1779 
1721 

1793 

1759 

1794 

1747 

1827 

1773 

1794 

1771 

1838 

1717 

1792 

1733 

1793 

1661 

1741 

BIOGRAPHICAL    INDEX. 


683 


NATION.  NAME   AND   PROFESSION. 

Eng.  Romaine,  William,  a  divine  and  author 

Rom.  Romulus,  the  founder  and  first  king  of  Rome 

Eng.  Rooke,  sir  George,  an  admiral 

Rom.  Roscius,  Q.uintus,  an  actor  of  proverbial  talent 

Eng.  Roscoe,  William,  a  biographer  and  miscellaneous  writer 

ital.  Rosellini,  Ippolito,  author  of  "  Monuments  of  Egypt,"  &c. 

Ger.  RosenmUUer,  E.F.C.,  orientalist 

Fr.  Rosseau,  John  Baptist,  a  poet 

Fr.  Rosseau,  Johp  James,  an  eloquent  and  paradoxical  writer 

Ital.  Rossini,  musical  composer 

Ger.  Rotteck,  historian      ..... 

Eng.  Rowe,  Nicholas,  a  poet  and  dramatist 

Amer.  Rumford,  Benjamin  Thompson,  count,  an  officer  (in  foreign  service)  and 

philosopher    ..... 

Ger.  Rupert,  prince,  a  warrior 

Amer.  Rush,  Benjamin,  an  eminent  physician  and  author   . 

Eng.  Riissel,  lord  William,  one  of  the  martyrs  of  liberty 

Eng.  Russel,  Lady  Rachel  (wife  of  the  last),  author  of  ''  Letters" 

Eng.  Russell,  William,  an  historian    .  . 


BORN. 

DIED. 

1714 

1795 

B.  0.  716 

1650 

1708 

B.C.  61 

1751 

1831 

1800 

1768 

1835 

1670 

1741 

1712 

1778 

1792 

1775 

1840 

1673 

1718 

1753 

1814 

1619 

1682 

1745 

J813 

1641 

i683 

1723 

1746 

1794 

s 


Fr. 
Pers. 

Ital. 
Eng. 

Eng. 

Rom. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Gr. 

Ital. 

Fr. 

Ger. 

Pruss. 

Ger. 

Amer. 

Ital. 

Ger. 

Swe. 

Ger. 

Pruss. 

Gei-. 

Ger. 

Ger. 

Ger. 

Ger. 

Ger. 

Dutch. 

Ger. 

Dutch. 

Ger. 

Ger. 

Ger. 

Amer. 

Ger. 

Rom. 

Rom. 

Scotch. 

Eng. 

Scotch, 

Fr. 


Sacy,  Sylvester,  baron  de,  orientalist    , 

Sadi,  orSaadi,  a  poet        .... 

Saint  Real,  Cssar  Vichard,  abbe  de,  an  historian 

Saint  Vincent,  Jolm  Jervis,  earl  of,  admiral  . 

Saladin,  Sultan  of  Egypt  and  Syria,  a  celebrated  warrior 

Salisbury,  Robert  Cecil,  earl  of,  a  statesman 

Sail  ust,  Caius  Crispus,  an  historian 

Salmasius,  Claudius,  a  scholar  and  author 

Salvandy,  N.  A.,  comte  de,  statesman   . 

Salverte,  miscellaneous  writer 

Sand-,  George  (Madame  Dudevant),  novelist 

Sanderson,  John,  Uterateur  .  .  , 

Sands,  R.  C,  poet  and  Uterateur 

Sandwich,  Edward  Montague,  earl  of,  naval  officer 

Sanson,  Nicholas,  a  geographer  and  engineer 

Sappho,  a  poetess  .  .  .  . 

Sarpi,  Peter,  known  as  father  Paul,  a  patriot  and  historian 

Saurin,  James,  a  divine  and  sermon  writer 

Savigny,  Fred.  C.  von,  historian  of  Roman  law  . 

Saxe,  Maurice,  c.ount  de,  a  celebrated' general  in  the  French  service 

Saxe-Weimar,  Bernard,  duke  of,  a  warrior 

Say,  Thomas,  naturalist  .... 

Scaliger,  Julius  Cffisar,  a  learned  critic 

Scandenberg  (real  name  George  Castriot),  an  Albanian  prince  and 

Scapula,  John,  a  lexicographer  .  .  . 

Scheele,  Charles  William,  an  eminent  chemist    . 

Schelling,  F.  W.  J.  von,  metaphysician 

Schill,  Ferdinand  Von,  an  intrepid  and  patriotic  officer     . 

Schiller,  John  Frederic  C,  an  eminent  historian  and  dramatist 

Schlegel,  A.  W.  von,  critic  and  essayist 

Schliermacher,  F.  D.  E.,  classical  philologist  and  theologian  . 

Schlosser,  M.  S.  F.,  historian 

Schmidt,  Michael  Ignatius,  an  historian 

Scholl,  historian       ..... 

Schomberg,  Armand  Frederick,  a  warrior 

Schopenhauer,  J.  F.,  novelist 

Sclirevelius,  Cornelius,  a  lexicographer      .  . 

Schulembourg,  John  Matthias,  a  warrior 

Schumacher,  H.  C,  astronomer     .... 

St\VL\t.z,C.  G.,  exilic  anAliterateur        .  .  , 

Schuyler,  Philip,  an  officer  in  the  revolution 

Scioppius,  Caspar,  a  philologist  and  grammarian 

Scipio,  Publius  Cornelius,  surnamed  Africanus,  an  able  warrior 

Scipio,  .aEmilianus  Publius,  an  able  warrior 

Scott,  Michael,  a  philosopher — supposed  magician    . 

Scott,  Thomas,  a  divine,  and  biblical  commentator 

Scott,  sir  Walter,  one  of  the  most  eminent,  voluminous,  and  popwlar  wri 

ters  of  modern  times  .... 

Scribe,  A.  E.,  dramatist  .... 


1758 

1838 

, 

1296 

639 

1693 

1734 

1823 

1137 

1193 

3550 

1612 

f.  B.  C.  86  B. 

C.  35 

1588 

1653 

1795 

1771 

1839 

1804 

1785 

1844 

1790 

1832 

1623 

1672 

1600 

1667 

i.  B.  0.  606 

1552 

1623 

1677 

1730 

1779 

e      1696 

1750 

1600 

1639 

1737 

1834 

1484 

1558 

warrior  1404 

1467 

1600 

.   ■   1742 

1786 

1775 

1773 

1809 

1759 

1805 

1767 

1845 

1768 

18.34 

1776 

1736 

1794 

1765 

1833 

.   1619 

1690 

1770 

1838 

1615 

1667 

1661 

1747 

1780 

1747 

1731 

1804 

1576 

1649 

B 

c.  189 

3. 

0.  128 

1291 

.   *   1747 

1821 

lar  wri- 

1771 

1832 

1791 

684 


THE    world's    progress. 


NATION.  NAME   AND   PROFESSION. 

Fr.  Sebastiaiii,  marshal  of  France,  Statesman 

Eng.  Seeker,  Thomas,  an  eminent  prelate 

Amer.  Sedgwick,  Theodore,  statesman  and  political  economist 

Fr.  Segur,  count  Louis  de,  a  diplomatist  and  writer 

Tr.  Segur,  P.  P.  de,  historian 

Rom.  Seneca,  Lucius  Anneeus,  a  celebrated  philosopher,  statesman,  and  moralist, 

Ger.  Sennefelder,  inventor  oflilhography 

Span.  Sepulveda,  John  Ginez  de,  an  historian 

Rom.  Sertorius,  Quintus,  a  warrior  ; 

Fr.  Sevigne,  Mary  de,  marchioness  of,  an  epistolary  writer 

Eng.  Shaftesbury,  Anthony  Ashley  Cooper,  eajl  of,  a  statesman 

feng.  Shakspeate,  William,  the  greatest  of  tiramatic  poets 

Eng.  Sharpe,  Granville,  a  ishilanthropist 

Eng,  Shaw,  George,  a  naturalist 

Eng.  Shelley,  Percy  Bysshe.  an  eminent  poet  and  atheist  . 

Eng.  Shenstone,  William,  a'poet     . 

Eng.  Sheridan,  Thomas,  an  actor  and  author 

Eng.  Sheridan,  Richard  Brinsley,  a  dramatist  and  orator 

Eng.  Sherlock,  Thomas,  a  prelate 

Amer.  Sherman,  Roger,  a  patriot  and  self-taught  statesman 

Eng.  Shovel,  sir  Cloudesley,  an  able  naval  officer 

Eng.  Siddons,  Sarah,  the  most  eminent  of  tragic  actresses 

Eng.  Sidmouth,  viscount  (H.  Addington),  statesman 

Eng.  Sidney,  sir  Philip,  an  accomplished  officer  and  author 

Eng.  Sidney,  Algernon,  a  martyr  of  liberty  and  an  author 

Ger.  Siebold,  Ph.  F.  Von,  botanist  and  naturalist 

Eng.  Simpson,  Thomas,  a  mathematician 

Eng.  Simpson,  Robert,  mathematician  . 

Hind.  Sing,  M.  rajah  Runjeet,  chief  of  Lahore  and  Cashemire 

Swiss.  Sisraondi,  .i.  C.  L,  Ustorian  . 

Ger.  Sleidan,  John  Philipson,  an  historian 

Eng.  Sloane,  sir  Hans,  an  eminent  naturalist 

Eng.  Smart,Christopher,  a  poet  and  translator 

Eng.  Smeaton,  John,  an  eminent  civil  engineer    . 

Scotch.  Smellie,  William,  a  naturalist 

Eng.  Smith,  William,  a  divine  and  translator 

Scotch.  Smith,  Adam,  a  celebrated  writer  on  morals  and  political 

Eng.  Smith,  Charlotte,  a  poetess 

Eng.  Smith,  sir  James  E.,  botanist  and  naturalist 

Amer.  Smith,  general  Samuel,  military  commander  and  statesman 

Eng.  Smith,  rev.  Sidney,  essayist,  critic,  and  moralist 

Erig.  Smith,  sir  William  Sydney,  military  commander 

Eng.  Smithson,  James,  founder  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution, 

Eng.  Smollett,  Dr.  Tobias,  a  novelist  and  historian 

Pol.  Sobieski,  John  IIL,  king  of  Poland,  a  warrior 

Ital.  Socinus,  Faustus,  founder  of  the  Socinian  sect 

Gr.  Socrates,  one  of  the  greatest  of  ancient  philosophers 

Gr.  Solon,  the  illustrious  legislator  of  Athens 

Gr.  Sophocles,  an  eminent  tragic  poet 

Fr.  Soulie,  M.  F.,  novelist 

Fr.  Soult,  marshal  of  France,  and  statesman 

Eng.  South,  Robert,  an  eminent  divine  .... 

Amer.  Southard,  Samuel  L.,  secretary  of  the  navy  and  senator  of  U.  S.,  N.  J. 

Eng.  Southcott,  Joanna,  a  fanatic  (her  sect  not  yet  extinct) 

Eng.  Southey,  Robert,  poet,  historian,  biographer 

Eng.  Spenser,  Edmund,  an  eminent  poet 

Eng.  Spencer,  earl  of,  statesman 

Amer.  Spencer,  Ambrose,  chief  justice  of  New  York 

Span.  Spinola,  Ambrose,  marquis  de,  a  warrior 

Ger.  Spurzheim,  Dr.,  a  celebrated  phrenologist  (died  at  Boston) 

Fr.  Stael,  Madame  de,  a  talented  writer 

Eng.  Stackhouse,  Thomas,  a  diVine  and  author    . 

Fr.  Stael-Holstein,  Anne  L.  G.,  baroness  de,  an  authoress 

Eng.  Stanhope,  Charles,  earl,  a  politician  and  inventor 

Eng.  Starahope,  lady  Hester,  eccentric  traveller 

Anier.  Stark,  John,  a  distinguished  officer  in  the  revolution 

Itish.      Steel,  sir  Richard,  an  essayist  and  dramatist 

Irish.  Sterne,  Lawrence,  a  miscellaneous  writef    . 

Pruss.  Steuben,  Fred.  W.  A.,  baron,  who  generously  aided  the  American  cause 

Scotch.  Stewart,  Dugald,  an  eminent  philosopher  and  writer 

Amer.    Stone,  Wm.  L.,  historian  of  "  Six  Nations,"  "  Brandt,"  and  "  Redjacket' 

Russ.     Storch,  Henry  F.,  political  economist  .... 


economy 


United  States 


BORN. 

1775 
1693 
1780 
1753 

B.C.  2 

1490 

1627 
1621 
1564 
1734 
1751 
1792 
1714 
1721 
1751 
1678 
1721 
1650 
17.55 
1757 
1554 
1620 
1796 
1710 
1687 
1779 
1773 
1506 
1660 
1722 
1724 
1740 
1711 
1723 
1749 
175"9 
1752 
1768 
1764 

1721 
1629 
1539 
,  c.  470 
c.  598 
0.  495 
1800 
1769 
1638 
1787 
1750 
1775 
1553 
1758 
1765 
1571 
1776 
1693 
1680 
1766 
1753 
1776 
1728 
1671 
1713 

1753 

'  1793 

1766 


1768 
1839 
1830 

65 
1S34 
1572 
B.C.  73 
1696 
1683 
161'3 
1813 
1813 
1822 
1763 
1788 
1816 
1761 
1793 
1705 
1831 
1844 
1580 
16S3 

1761 
1768 
1839 
1842 
1556 
1752 
1770 
1792 
1795 
1787 
1790 
1806 
1828 
1839 
1845 
1840 
1835 
1771 
1696 
1594 
B.C.  400 

404 


1842 
1814 
1843 
1598 
1835 
1848 
1630 
ia32 
1750 
1752 
1817 
1816 
1839 
1822 
1729 
1763 
1764 
1828 
1844 
1835 


BIOGRAPHICAL    INDEX. 


685 


NATION.  NAME   AND   PROFESSION. 

Amer.  Story,  Joseph,  jurist  and  writer  on  jurisprudence 

Eng.  Stowell,  lord,  jurist         .... 

Gr.  Strabo,  an  eminent  geographer 

Eng.  StralTord,  Thomas  Wentworth,  earl  of,  a  statesman  . 

Ger.  Strauss,  David  F.,  author  of  skeptical  "  Life  of  Christ" 

Eng.  Stuart,  James,  an  architect  and  author 

Scotch.  Stuart,  Gilbert,  an  historian 


Fr. 

Fr. 

Rom. 

Rom. 

Dan. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Russ. 

Swe. 

Irish. 

Eng. 

Rom. 


Suchet,  Louis  Gabriel,  a  celebrated  marshal 

Sue,  Eugene,  novelist  .... 

Suetonius,  Tranquillus  Caius,  an  historian 

Suetonius,  Paulinus,  a  warrior 

Suhm,  Peter  Frederick,  an  eminent  historian 

Suidas,  a  Greek  lexicographer 

Sully,  Maximilian  de  Bethune,  a  warrior  and  statesman 

Surrey,  Henry  Howard,  earl  of,  a  poet 

Suvaroff,  or  Suwarrow,  prince  Alexander,  a  celebrated  and  cruel 

Swedenborg,  Emanuel,  iounder  of  a  sect 

Swift,  Jonathan,  a  celebrated  satirist 

Sydenham,  C.  W.  Poulett,  lord,  governor-general  of  Canada,  &c. 

Sylla,  Lucius  Cornelius,  a  warrior,  and  a  brutal  usurper 


BORN. 

1779 

1746 

19 

1593 

1808 

1713 

1742 

1772 

1804 

f.  100 

37 

1728 

f.  about  1000 

1560 

1515 

warrior    1730 

1689 

1667 

1793 

c.   137 


DIED. 

1845 
1836 

1C4] 

1788 
1786 
182(5 


1793 

1641 
15-17 
ISOtl 
1772 
1745 
1841 
B.C.    78 


T 


Rom. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Ger. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Swiss 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Rom. 

Ger. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Fr. 

Gr. 

Rom. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Ger. 

Eng. 

Scotch. 

Dan. 

Gr. 

Rom. 

Rom. 

Ger. 

Eng. 

Hind. 

Rom. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

■tins. 

Ei:^. 

Eng. 

Irish. 

W.  Ind 

Fr. 

Rom. 


Tacitus,  Caius  Cornelius,  an  eminent  historian  .  .  .56 

Talleyrand,  prince,  statesman  and  diplomatist  .  .  1754 

Talma,  Francis  J  o.seph,  one  of  the  greatest  of  actors  .  .        1763 

Tamerlane,  Timur  Beg,  or  Timour,  a  celebrated  Tartar  prince  and  conqueror  1336 
Tasso,  Bernardo,  a  poet — author  of  Amadis  de  Gaul  .  .        1493 

Tasso,  Torquato,  one  of  the  greatest  of  Italian  poets  .  .  1544 

Tauchnitz,  Karl,  an  eminent  publisher  at  Leipsic 

Taylor,  Jeremy,  a  prelate  and  eloquent  writer    .  .  .  1613 

Taylor,  Thomas,  editor  of  Plato  and  other  classics    .  .  .        1758 

Taylor,  Zachary,  maj.-gen.  U.  S.  army,  victor  in  Mexico,  president  of  U.  S.  1784 


Telford,  Thomas,  civil  engineer 

Tell,  William,  one  of  the  champions  of  Swiss  liberty 

Temple,  sir  William,  a  statesman  and  writer 

Tenterden,  Charles  Abbott,  lord,  jurist,  chief  justice,  K.  B. 

Tennyson,  Alfred,  poet  ..... 

Terence,  or  Terrentius,  a  comic  writer         .  .  .  b. 

Tertullian,  Q,.  S.  F.,  one  of  the  most  learned  of  the  fathei's  of  the  churcli 

Thaer,  Albert,  writer  on  agriculture 


1757 


1628 
1762 


1.35 
1838 
1826 
1405 
1569 
1595 
1836 
1667 
1835 
1850 
1834 
1354 
1698 
1832 


192 
160 
1752 


Thales,  one  of  the  seven  sages — founder  of  the  Ionic  school  of  philosophy,  b.  c.  639    b 


Themistocles,  an  illustrious  Athenian 

Thenard,  chemist  and  statesman    ..... 
Theocritus,  a  pastoral  poet      .  .  .  .  .    f.  e.  c.  285 

Theodosius,  Flavius,  a  Roman  emperor  and  warrior  .  .         346 

Theophrastus,  a  celebrated  philosoJDher  .  .  .       .b.  c.  371 

Thespis,  a  poet,  said  to  be  the  inventor  of  tragedy     .  .  b.  c.  576 

Thibaudeau,  A.  C,  count,  historian      .... 
Thierry,  Jacques  N.  A.,  historian  .  .  .  .        1795 

Thiers,  Adolphe,  hisi  jrian  and  statesman  .  .  .  1797 

Thiersch,  F.  W.,  Gree^  philologist,  &c.      .  .  .  .        1784 

Thomson,  James,  a  popular  poet  ....  1700 

Thomson,  Dr.  Thomas,  chemist    .  .  .     -         . 

Thorwaldsen,  Albert,  sculptor  ....  1771 

Thucydides,  an  historian  .  .  .  .  b.  c.  469 

Tiberius,  Claudius  Drusus  Nero,  a  warrior  and  emperor  .        b.  c.   34 

TibuUus,  Aulus  Albius,  an  elegiac  poet       .  .  ,  f.  b.  c.    30 

Tieck,  Louis,  a  poet  and  novelist  ....  1773 

Tillotson,  John,  an  eminent  prelate  ....        1630 

Tippoo  Saib,  Sultan  of  Mysore,  India,  a  warrior  .  .  1739 

Titus,  Sabinus  Vespasianus  Flavius,  an  emperor,  the  father  of  his  people  40 
Tomline,  George,  a  prelate  and  writer  ....  1750 
Tompkins,  Daniell).,  vice-president  of  the  United  States  .  1774 

Tooke,  John  Home,  a  politician  and  philologist        .  .  ,        1736 

Tooke,  William,  a  miscellaneous  writer  .  .  .  1744 

Toplady,  Augustus  M.,  an  eminent  divine  ....  1740 
Torrens,  colonel,  novelist  and  political  economist  .  .  1783 

Toussaint  rOuverlure,  negro  president  of  Hayti        .  ..  .        1745 

Tracy,  A.  L.  C.  D.,  comte  de,  Writer  on  education  and  philosophy  1754 

Trajan,  Marcus  U.  C,  an  able  emperor  and  warrior  .  .  52 


245 

1828 

543 

B.  c.  535    B.  c.  470 


395 


1748 

1844 

B.  c.  400 

37 


1694 
1799 
81 
1787 
1825 
1812 
1820 
1778 
1S40 
1803 
ia36 
117 


686 


THE    world's    progress. 


NATION.  NAME   AND   PROFESSION. 

Pruss.     Trenck,  Frederick,  baron  de,  celebrated  for  his  adventures 

Dutch.   Tromp,  Martin  H.,  a  celebrated  admiral 

Amer.     Trumbull,  .lonathan,  a  statesman 

Amer.     Trumbullj  John,  a  poet ;  born  in  Connecticut 

Araer.    Trumbull,  col.  .John,  statesman  and  historical  painter 

Eng.       Tucker,  Abraham,  a  metaphysical  writer 

Fr.  Turenne,  Viscount  de,  an  eminent  warrior 

Fr,  Turgot,  Anne  Robert  James,  a  statesman 

Eng.       Tyrrell,  James,  an  historian  .... 

Gr.         Tyrtffius.  a  poet 

Scotch.  Tytler,  William,  an  historical  and  miscellaneous  writer 

Scotch.  Tytler,  Alexander  Fraser,  an  historical  and  miscellaneous  writer 


BORN. 

DIED. 

1726 

1794 

1597 

1653 

1809 

1750 

1831 

175G 

1S13 

1705 

1774 

1611 

1675 

1727 

1781 

1642 

1718 

171 1 

\7'.i:i 

1747 

isi.; 

u 


Span. 
Irish. 


Ulloa,  don  Anthony  de,  a  navigator  and  author 
Usher,  James,  a  learned  divine  and  historian 


1716 

1580 


nor- 

1656 


Fr.  Vaillant,  Sebastian,  an  eminent  botanist 

Dutch.  Valckenaer,  I.ouis  Caspar,  an  able  philologist  and  critic 

Fr.  Valdo,  Peter,  founder  of  the  sect  of  Waldenses,  f.  in  12th  century. 

Rom.  Valerius  Maximus,  an  historian  .  .  .  .  f. 

Iial.  Valla,  Laurence,  an  eininent  philologist 

Eng.  Vancouver.  George,  a  navigator 

Ens.  Vane,  Sir  Henry,  an  advocate  of  republicanism 

Rom.  Varro,  Marcus  T.,  "  the  most  learned  of  the  Romans" 

Ger.  Vater,  John  Severinus,  an  eminent  philologist 

Fr.  Vauban,  S.  le  P.  de,  marshal,  a  military  engineer 

Fr.  Vendome,  Louis  Joseph,  duke  of,  a  warrior 

Fr.  Vernet,  Horace,  historical  painter 

Eng.  Vernon,  Edward,  admiral  .... 

Fr.  Vertot,  Rene  Hubert,  abbe  de,  an  historian 

Rom.  Vespasian,  Titus  Flavins,  a  warrior  and  emperor 

Ital.  Vespucius  Americus,  a  navigator  whose  name  was  unjustly  given  to  the 

new  world  ..... 

Eng.  Victoria  Alesandrina,  queen  of  Great  Britain 

Ital.  Vida,  Mark  Jerome,  a  Latin  poet 

Fr.  Villars,  Louis  Hector,  duke  of,  an  able  general 

Fr.  Villemain,  minister  of  public  instruction,  and  historian    . 

Eng.  Vince,  Samuel,  an  eminent  mathematician 

Rom.  Virgil,  or  Publius  Virgilius  Maro,  the  greatest  of  the  Roman  poetf 

Fr.  Volney,  count  de,  a  celebrated  writer 

Fr.  Voltaire,  Francis  iMarie  Arouet  de,  a  celebrated  poet,  philos.,  and  historian 


1609 

1722 

1715 

1785 

30 

1406 

1457 

17.50 

1798 

1612 

1662 

116 

B.C.  27 

1771 

1826 

1633 

17U7 

1654 

1712 

1789 

1684 

1759 

1655 

1735 

79 

1451 

1516 

1819 

1490 

1566 

1653 

1734 

1791 

1821 

.  70 

B  !.  19 

17-57 

1820 

1694 

1778 

w 

Eng.  Wakefield,  Gi  .?rt,  a  scholar  and  critic 

Eng.  Walker,  John,  a  lexicographer 

Scotch.  Wallace,  William,  a  patriot  and  hero 

Ger.  Wallenstein,  A.  V.  E.,  a  celebrated  general 

Eng.  Waller,  sir  William,  a  parliamentary  general 

Eng.  Waller',  Edmund,  an  elegant  poet 

Eng.  Walpole,  Robert,  earl  of'Oi ford,  a  statesman 

Eng.  Walpole,  Horace,  earl  of  Orford,  an  author 

Eng.  Walsingham,  sir  Francis,  a  statesman 

Eng.  Walton  Izaak,  an  angler  and  biographer 

Eng.  Walton,  Brian,  a  divine  and  orientalist 

Eng.  Warburton,  William,  an  eminent  prelate  and  writer 

Amer.  Ward,  Artemas,  an  officer  in  the  revolution    . 

Eng.  Warren,  sir  John  Borlase,  a  naval  officer 

Eng.  Warton.  Joseph,  a  poet  and  critic  .... 

Eng.  Warton,  Thomas,  poet  and  critic 

Anier.  Washington,  George,  the  father  of  his  country 

Amer.  Washington,  Bushrod,  justice  of  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  Slato; 

Scotch.  Watson,  Robert,  an  historian    .... 

Cng.  Watson,  Richard,  an  eminent  prelate  and  writer 

Scotch.  Watt,  James,  a  celebrated  natural  philosopher  and  engineer 


1756 

1801 

1732 

1807 

1276 

1305 

1583 

1634 

1597 

166S 

1603 

1687 

1676 

1745 

1718 

1797 

1536 

1590 

1593 

16S3 

1600 

1661 

1698 

1779 

1748 

ISIW 

1754 

1822 

1722 

ison 

1728 

1790 

1732 

1799 

1759 

lts29 

1730 

1780 

1737 

1816 

1736 

1819 

BIOGRAPHICAL    INDEX. 


687 


NA  riON  NAME   AND   PROFESSION.  BORN. 

Scoirh.  Watt,  Robert,  a  bibliographer        .....  1774 

Eng.  Walts,  Dr.  Isaac,  a  divine,  poet,  and  miscellaneous  writer  .  1674 

Ger.  Weber,  Carl  Maria  Von,  an  eminent  composer  .  .  .  1786 

Amer.  Webster,  No;ili,  author  of  English  Dictionary      .  .  .  175S 

Irish.  Wellesley.  marquis  of,  gov.-gen.  ol'India  and  lord  lieutenant  of  Ireland  1760 

Irish.  Wellington,  duke  of,  military  commander  and  statesman  .  .  1769 

Eng.  Wells,  Edward,  a  theologian  and  scholar     ....  166.3 

Ger.  Werner,  Abraham  Theophilus,  a  mineralogist    .  .  .  1750 

Ger.  Werner,  Fred.  L.  Z.,  a  poet  and  dramatist   ....  1763 

Eng.  Wesley,  .lohn,  the  founder  of  the  Meihodist  Society  .  .  170.3 

Eng.  Westall,  Richard,  historical  painter  ....  176.5 

Amer.  Wheaton,  Henry,  jurist,  diplomatist  and  law  commentator  .  17S5 

Eng.  Whislon,  William,  a  divine,  mathematician,  and  translator     .  .  1667 

Eng.  Whiiby,  David,  a  learned  divine  ....  1638 

Eng.  White,  Henry  Kirke,  a  poet  .....  178.5 

Anier  White,  William,  one  of  the  two  first  bi.^hops  of  the  P.  E.  church  in  U.  S.  1747 

Eng.  Whitefield,  George,  founder  of  the  Calvinistic  Methodists        .  .  1714 

Eng.  Wicklitfe,  or  Wiclif,  John,  the  morning  star  of  the  reformation       .  1324 

Ger.  Wieland,  Christopher  M..  an  able. and  fertile  writer  .  .  1733 

Eng.  Wiffen,  J.  H.,  poet  and  historian  ....  1792 

Eng.  Wilberforce,  William,  statesman  and  philanthropist  .  .  1750 

Anier.  Wilde,  Richard  Henry,  a  poet  and  liternleur       .  .  .  1789 

Eng.  Wilkes,  .John,  a  celebrated  political  character  .  .  .  1717 

Scotch.  Wilkie,  sir  David,  historical  painter      ....  1785 

Eng.  Wilkins,  sir  Charles,  oriental  philologist      .... 

Eng.  Wilkinson,  sir  . I.  G.,  historian  of  Egypt  and  archBeologisl 

Eng.  Williains,  Helen  Maria,  a  miscellaneous  writer  .  .  .  1762 

Anier.  Williamson,  Hugli,  physician  and  historian  of  North  Carolina        .  1735 

Amer.  Wilson,  Alexander,  a  celebrated  naturalist  .  .  .  1766 

Eng.  Windham,  William,  a  statesman  .  .  .  .  1750 

Amer.  Wirt,  William,  attorney-general  of  the  United  States,  and  biographer  .  1772 

Amer.  Wistar,  Caspar,  an  eminent  physician  and  anatomist        .  .  1761 

Amer.  Witherspoon,  John,  an  able  divine  and  patriot  .  .  .  1722 

Amer.  Wolcott,  Oliver,  a  patriot — signer  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence  1727 

Eng.  Wolcott,  John,  known  as  Peter  Pindar,  a  poet  .  .  ,  1733 

Eng.  Wolfe,  James,  a  distinguished  general  .  .  .  1726 

Ger.  Wolff",  John  Christian,  a  philosopher  and  matliematician  .  .  1679 

Eng.  WoUaston.  William  Hyde,  an  experimental  philosopher  .  1766 

Eng.  Wolsey,  Thomas,  cardinal,  a  celebrated  statesman    .  .  .  1471 

Eng.  Wordsworth,  William,  poet    .....  1770 

Amer.  Worth,  W.  J.  major-general,  United  States  army       .  .  .  1794 

Eng.  Wren,  sir  Christopher,  a  celebrated  architect      .  .  .  1632 

Aust.  Wurmser,  D.  S.,  field-marShal,  Austrian  army  .  .  .  1717 

Eng.  Wyatt,  sir  Thomas,  poet  and  statesman  .  .  .  1503 

Eng.  Wycherley,  William,  dramatic  poet  ....  1640 

Eng.  Wykeham,  M.,  bishop  of  Winchester,  statesman  and  philanthropist  1324 

Amer.  Wythe,  George,  an  eminent  lawyer,  statesman  and  patriot 


DIED. 

1819 
1748 
1826 
1843 
1812 

1727 
1817 
1823 
1791 
1837 
1848 
1752 
1726 
1SU6 
1836 
1770 
13-S4 
1813 
18.36 
1830 
1847 
1797 
1841 
1836 

1827 
1819 
1813 
1810 
1835 
1818 
1794 
1797 
1818 
1759 
1754 
1828 
1530 
1850 
1849 
1723 
1797 
1540 
1715 
14ai 
1806 


Fr.  Xavier,  St.  Francis,  "  Apostle  to  the  Indies" 

Gr.  Xenocrates,  a  philosopher       .... 

Gr.  Xenophenes,  a  philosopher — founder  of  the  Eleatics 

Gr.  Xenophon,  a  celebrated  philosopher,  historian,  and  general 

Span.  Ximenes,  Francis,  cardinal,  an  eminent  statesman    . 


1506 
.  406 


1552 
I.  314 


.  446    B.C.  360 
1457  1517 


Eng.       Young,  Edward,  a  poet  and  miscellaneous  writer 

Eng.       Young,  Arthur,  an  agricultural  writer 

Eng.       Y'oungi  Thomas,  a  physician  and  philosopher 

Ypsilanti,  prince  Alexander,  a  leader  in  the  modern  Greek  revolution 
S]ian      Yriarte,  don  Thomas  de,  an  eminent  poet    . 


1681 

1765 

1741 

1820 

1774 

1829 

1792 

1828 

1750 

1790 

Iial.        Zaccaria,  Francis  A.,  a  voluminous  writer 

Gr.         Zeno,  of  Elea,  a  philosopher  . 

Gr.         Zeno,  the  founder  of  the  sect  of  Stoics 


1714  1795 

B.C.  463 
B.  c.  362    B.  c.  264 


688 


Tllb;    WORLDS    Plt.OGK.ESS. 


NATION.                                                         NAME    AND   PROFESSION.  BORN.  DIED. 

Ital.        Zeno,  Apostolo,  an  eminent  writer         ....  1B68  1750 

Zenobia,  Septimia,  qtieenof  Palmyra,  a  conqueror,  and  patroness  ofthe  arts  300 

Swiss.     Zimmerman,  John  George,  a  miscellaneous  writer  .               .               .  1728  1795 

Ger.        Zimmerman,  E.  A.  W.  von,  naturalist                 .               ,                .  1743  1815 

Ger.        Zinzendorf,  N.  L.,  count,  chief  of  the  Moravians      .               .               .  1700  1760 

Swiss.    Zolikofer,  G.  J.,  theologian     .               .               .               ,               .  1730 

Zoroaster,  a  famous  Eastern  philosopher     .... 

Swiss.     Zuinglius,  Ulric,  an  enlightened  reformer           .               '              .  1484  1531 


PAINTERS,  ENGRAVERS,  SCULPTORS,  ETC. 

THE  MOST  EMINENT  IN  THEIR  DEPARTMENTS. 


NATION. 

Gr. 


Gr. 
Gr. 


Iial. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

<.;r. 

Scotch. 

Amer. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Ital. 

Gr. 

Fr. 

Ital. 

Eng. 

Flem. 

Ital. 

Eng. 

Irish. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Iial. 

Eng. 

Ital. 

Flem. 

Do. 

Eng. 

Dutch. 

Fr. 

Swiss. 

Eng. 

Ital. 

Dutch 

Dutch. 

Flem. 

Ital. 

Eng 

Ital. 

Ital 

Eng. 
Gr. 

Ital. 


NAME  AND  PROFESStON. 

Agailiarcus,  the  inventor  of  perspective  scenery 
ni  theatres  ....    Painter  - 

Ageldas  ....  Sculptor 

Agesander  (sculptor  of  "Laocoon  and  his  Chil- 
dren ")         -  -  •  -  Sculptor  ■ 

Albano,  Francis  ("the  painter  of  the  d'ncfist  ")Painter 


i.  B.  c.  5th  cent. 


Alberii,  Leo  Baptist,  a  Florentine 

Alheninelli,  Mariuito     - 

Alcamenes  (pufiil  of  Phidias) 

Allan,  Sir  William    -        -  ■  - 

AUston,  Washingtiin 

AiiErelo,  MichaefdUionarotii),  a  pre-eminent 

Angelo,  Michael  (Caiaviiiiirlo) 


Pa.  Sc.  Sf  Archil- 
Painter 

Sculptor  f.  B. 

Painter    - 

Poet  ^  Histor.  Painter 
Pa.  Sc.  4"  Architect 
Painter 


Apelles,  the  most  celehiaied  of  ancient  painters  Painter     •  f.  B. 

Apollodorns,  an  Athenian    -  -  -  Pointer  •        f.  B. 

Appiani,  of  Milan  -  -  -  Painter 

Arisiides,  of  Thebes  -  -  -  Painter      -  f.  B. 

Audran,  Gerard,  a  celebrated      -  •  Histor.  Engraver 

Baccio,  Delia  Porta  (known  as  San  Marco)      -  Painter 

Bacon,  .Tohn    ....  Sculptor    • 

Balen,  Henry  Van    -  -  -  -  Painter 

Bandinelli,  Baccio       ...  Sculptor    - 

Banks,  Thomas     ....  Sculptor 

Barry,  James  ....  Painter  ' 

Bartolini  -  -  .  -  -  Engraver 

Bartolomeo,  Fra,  di  St.  Marco    -  .  Painter 

Baioni,  Pompey        .  -  -  -  Painter 

Beechy.  Sir  Wm.  -  -  -  Landscape  Painter    - 

Bella,  Stepha--,o  Delia,  a  Florentine  -  Engraver    ' 

Berchem,  Nicolas         -  -  •  Engraver 

Bird,  Edward  .  .  Painter 

Blake,  William,    ....  Painter  4"  Engraver 

Both,  .lohn  and  Andrew  -  ■  Painters 

Bourdon,  Sebastian  -  -  -  Painter  Sp  Engraver 

Bourgeoise,  Sir  Francis  (born  in  London)  Painter     - 

Boydell,  John  (a  printseller,  and  lord  mayor  of 

London)    .  -  -  .  Engraver 

Bramante  D'Urbino,  Francis  L.  (1st  of  St.  Peter's 

Church)  ....  Architect 

Brontel,  Francis  -  -  -  Painter- 

Brill,  Maahew      ....  Painter 

Brtiges,  John  of,  or  John  VanEyck  -  Painter 

Boonavotti,  see  Angelo. 

Burnett,  James         -  -  .  -  Landscape  Painter 

Cagliari,  Paul  (known  as  Paul  Veronese),  a  cele- 
brated -----  Painter    -  -       -       1532 

Cagliari,  Benedict,  Carletto,  and  Gabriel,  bro- 
thers and  sons  of  Paul. 

Calcott,  Sir  A.  W.  -  -  .  Landscape  Painter  1779 

Callirnachus  ....  Sculptor  ^  Architect  i.  a. 6.  5^0 

Cambiaso,  Lucus,  a  Genoese  -  -  Painter  -  1527 


.  c.  5th  I 

1578 
1400 

c.  450 
1781 
1779 
1474 
1569 

c.  330 

c.  408 
1751 

c.  240 
1640 
1469 
1740 
1560 
1487 
1745 
1741 

1469 
1708 
1753 
1610 
1624 
1772 
1757 
1610 
1616 
1756 

1719 

1444 

f.  1635 

1550 

1370 

1788 


1660 
1490 
1520 

1850 
1843 
1563 
1609 


1817 

1703 
1517 
1799 
1632 
1559 
1805 
1805 

1517 
1787 
1893 
1684 
1689 
1819 
1826 
1650  &  56 
1671 
1811 

1804 

1514 

1584 
1441 

1816 

1588 


1844 
158S 


BIOGRAPHICAL    INDEX. 


689 


NATION 

Ital. 
Ital. 
Ital. 
Ital. 
Ital. 
Ital. 
Ital. 


Fr. 

Span. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Flem. 

Gr. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Gr. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Dutch. 

Dutch. 

Dutch. 

Eng. 

Ger. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Ger. 

Gr. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Dutch. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Ger. 

Ger. 

Eng. 

En?. 
Gr." 

Dutcli, 

En?. 

Swiss 

Eng. 

lial. 

Ens. 

UhI 

It<il. 

Ual. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Ital. 

Ual. 


NAME   AND   PROFESSION. 

Canaletto,  Anthony,  a  Venetian  - 
Canova,  Antonio, 
Caravaggio,  see  Angelo. 
Caracci  Lodovico    ^    - 

Agostino 

Annibale 

Carpi,  Ugo  da,  discoverer  of  the  art  of  printing 

ill  Chiaro-oscuro — with  three  plates — to  imi- 
tate drawings        -  -  -  - 
Casas,  Louis  JVancis    - 
Castillo  Y  Saavedra,  Anthony 
Cavendone,  James 
Cellini,  Benvenuto,  a  Florentine 
Champagne,  Philip  de  - 
Chares     -                   -               . 
Cosway,  Richard 
Chantry,  sir  Francis 
Chaudet,  Anthony  Denis 
Cimabue,  Giovanni,  a  Florentine 
Claude  Gele — called  Claude  Lorraine 
Cleomenes,  an  Athenian  (TheMedicean  Venus) 
Clevenger              .... 
Cole,  Tiiomas 

Collins,  William  ...  - 

Constable,  John 

Cooper,  Samuel    .... 
Copley,  John  Singleton  (bom  in  Boston)  - 
Corregio,  Ant.  (founder  of  the  Lombard  school) 
Cortona,  Pietro  da,  a  Tuscan 
Courtois,  James  (known  as  11  Borgognone) 
Couston  Nicholas  (also  his  brother  William) 
Cuyp,  Jacob  G.,    . 
Cuyp,  Albert  (son  of  above) 
Cuyp,  Benjamin    .... 
Daniel,  Thomas 

Dannecker,  John  Henry — (Adriadne,  &c.) 
David,  James  Louis,  a  celebrated 
David  (Founder  of  recent  French  school) 
Delaroche,  Paul 

Denner,  Baithaser  .  -  - 

Dinocrates,  a  Macedonian  (builder  of  Alexan- 
dria, <fec.)  .... 
Doici,  Carlo    -  -  .  - 
Domenichino  (excelled  in  expression) 
Donatello,  or  Donato,  a  Florentine 
Douw.  Gerard       .... 
Dubuffe          .... 
Dufresnoy,  Charles  Alphonso 
Dunlap,  William 
Durer,  Albert  (and  author) 
Eberhardt        .... 
Eginton,  Francis  (r(:Storer  of  the  art  of  paint- 
ing on  glass)      .... 
Etty,  William 

Eupompus  (lounder  of  school  at  Sieyon) 
Eyck,  John  Van  (said  to  have  invented  paint- 
ing in  oil)  .... 
Flaxman,  John 

Fuseli,  Henry  (resided  in  England)   - 
Gainsborough,  Thomas  ^     - 

Ghiberti,  Laurence,  a  Florentine 
Gibson  .... 

Giiirdani,  Luke  (The  Proteus  of  painting) 
Giorgione,  Barbarelli    - 
Giotto  (one  oi  the  earliest  modern)    . 
Giraldon,  Francis 
Girodet — TrlD^ori.  Aime  Louis 
Gniigon.  Jnhii  ('•  The  French  Pliidias  ")    - 
Gueicino  (real  n;\\\w  Franris  Ilarbieri) 
Guiilo  Kfui  (excelled  iji   bt-auiy  (if  exjiression 
nn.l  grace)   .  -  -  . 


BORN. 

DIED. 

Landscape  Painter    ■ 

1697 

1718 

Sculptor 

1757 

1822 

Painter 

1555 

1619 

Painter 

158S 

1601 

Painter 

1560 

1609 

About  1700 

. 

1846 

Painter  Sf  Architect   - 

1756 

1827 

Painter  - 

1603 

1667 

Fresco  Painter 

1577 

1606 

Engraver  ^  Sculptor 

1500 

1570 

Painter 

1604 

1674 

Painter                      f.  s.c.  300 

Painter 

1740 

1826 

Sculptor    {    - 

1781 

1841 

Painter 

1763 

1810 

Painter 

1240 

1300 

Painter 

1600 

1682 

Sculptor        -         f.  B.  c 

.    180 

Sculptor 

1844 

Land.  ^  Hist.  Painter 

1802 

1848 

Land.  Sf  Fam.  Life  Pa. 

1788 

Painter 

1776 

1837 

Miniature  Painter     ■ 

1689 

1776 

Painter 

1737 

1815 

Painter 

1493 

1534 

Painter 

1596 

1669 

Painter 

1621 

1673 

Sculptor 

1658 

1731 

Landscape  S^  Cattle  Pa. 

1568 

1649 

Landscape  Sr  Cattle  Pa. 

1606 

1667 

Historical  Painter     - 

1650 

Landscape  Painter 

1840 

Sculptor       t 

1758 

1841 

Painter 

1750 

1825 

Sculptor 

1780 

Historical  Painter 

Portrait  Painted- 

1685 

1747 

Architect               -     f.  B. 

c.  330 

Scripture  Painter 

1616 

1680 

Painter 

1581 

1611 

Sculptor 

i:383 

1466 

Familiar  Life  Painter 

1613 

1674 

Historical  Painter 

Painter 

Historical  Painter     - 

176G 

Pa.  Eng.  Sc.  ^  Arch. 

1471 

1528 

Sculptor 

Painter 

1737 

1805 

Historical  Painter 

1789 

'849 

Painter 

Painter 

1370 

U4\ 

Sculptor 

1755 

1826 

Painter 

1741 

182.- 

Landscape  Painter    - 

17-.?7 

17.^S 

Sculptor 

1378 

1  iriC, 

Sculptor 

Painter 

16-29 

I7i)i 

Painter 

1477 

I.MI 

Painter,  Sculp.  Sf  Arch. 

1276 

i;',:i;. 

Sculptor 

1630 

171.-. 

Painter 

1767 

1824 

Sculptor 

|.»2 

Painter 

1590 

liiiiO 

Painter 

1574 

.0-12 

690 


THE    world's    progress. 


NATION.  NAME   AND   PROFESSION. 

Eng.  Ilarlow,  George  Henry 

En?.  Ilaydon,  R.  B. 

En?.  Heath,  Charles 

En:j.  Hilton,  William 

Flem.  Hobbema,  Mymlerhout        -  - 

Ens.  Hogarth,  William 

Swiss.  Holbein,  Hans       ... 

Off.  Hollar,  Wenceslaus  (executed  2400  plates)  Engraver 

\'\i:n\.  Honthorst,  Gerard  (called  Gherarda  dal  Notte)   Painter 


Diiicli.  Houbralren,  Jacob  (600  portraits) 

h'l-  Houdon  (executed  statue  of  Franklin) 

!■',•  Houel,  John  (Picturesque  Travels,  &c.) 

.Ain'r.  Inman,  Henry 

I)  1  rh.  Huysum,  John  Van  (flowers  and  fruit) 

i,  i  L.  Jones,  Inigo    .... 

I'fMi.  Jordaens,  Jacob     • 

I   ■  .  Julio,  Romano 

S'vi-:s  Kauffman,  M.  A.  Angelica  C.  (in  England) 

(J   I-.  Kiieller,  Sir  Godfrey  (resided  in  England) 

Eii_'  Landseer,  Edwin  - 

I). Itch.  Lairesse,  Gerard  (excelled  in  expedition) 

I'r.  Landon,  C.  P.  (more  eminent  as  an  author 

works  on  the  fine  arts) 

i;ii'^.  Lawrence,  sir  Thomas 

l''r.  Lebrun,  Charles  (painter  to  Louis  XIV  ) 

Ger.  Lely,  sir  Peter  (painter  to  Charles  H.  ofEnglan 

Er.  Le  Sieur,  Eustace  (the  French  Raphael)  • 

Fr  Leyden,  Lucas,  Dammesz  - 

Eng.  Liverseege,  Henry 

Gr.  Lysippus  (made  600  statues) 

Amer.  Malbone.  Edward  G.     ■ 

Flem.  Matsys.  Quintin    - 

l.al.  Masaccio  .... 

Ger.  Mayer      .... 

-tal.  Mazzuolo,  Francis 


ier.       Mengs,  Anthony  R.  (the  Raphael  of  Germany)    Painter 


Fr 

Swiss. 

Eng. 

Span. 

Eng. 

En?. 

En?. 

Eng, 

Dutch. 

Dutch. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Iial. 

Span. 

Or. 

Amer. 

Fr. 

Hal, 

Swiss. 

f;r. 


I)  ach. 

I',-. 

Iiai. 

(^  I-. 

Amer. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Gi- 


Mignard,  Peter 

Mind,  Gottfried 

Moreland,  George 

Murillo,  Bartholomew  S. 

Newton,  Gilbert  Stuart 

NoUekins,  Joseph 

Nonhcote,  James  - 

Opie,  John 

Ostade.  Adrian  Van  (interiors) 

Ostade,  Isaac  (winter  scenci)      -  ■  Painter 

Owen,  William    ....  Painter 

Pajou,  Augustin  -  .  -  Sculptor 

Palladio,  Andrew  -  •  -  Architect 

Palomino  de  Castro  Y  Velasco,  A.  A.        ■  Painter 

Parrhasius,  of  Ephesus       -  •  -  Painter 

Peale,  Charlej  W.         - 

Perrault,  Claudius  (designed  the  Front  of  tl 

Louvre)       ....  Architect 

Perugino,  Peter  (the  master  of  Raphael)        -  Painter 

Petitot,  John  (excelled  in  enamel)  -  Painter 

Phidias  (the  most  famous  of  ancient  sculptors)  Sculptor 

Picart,  Bernard  -  -  -  Engraver 

Pigalle,  John  Baptiste  -  -  ■  Sculptor 

Pifes,  Roger  de  (an  author  and  painter)    -  Painter 

Piranesi,  John  Baptiste  (16  vols,  folio)  -  Engraver 

Polyclbtus  (statue  of  Juno  at  Argos)        -  Scidptor 

Ponlenone,  Regillo  da  .  .  •  Painter 

Potter,  Paul  (unequalled  in  animal  painting)  Painter 

Pous.sin,  Nicholas  (excelled  in  landsc.  painting)  Painter 

Poussin,  Gaspar  (Dughet)  landscape         ■  Painter 

Pra.xiteles  ....  Sculptor 

Pratt.  Matthew  -  •  -  Painter 

Prudhon.  of  Cluny  -  -  -  Painter 

Pugel,  Peter   -  -  -  -  Sculp.  Pa.  4"  Arch 

Pythasoras  ■  -  -  -  Sculptor 


BOUN. 

1787 
1786 

1786 
1611 
1697 


Painter 

Historical  Painter 

Engraver 

Historical  Painter 

La?idscape  Painter 

Painter 

Portrait  4"  Historical  Pa.  1493 
1607 
1592 
1698 
1746 
1736 
1801 
1682 
1572 
1595 
1492 
1747 
1648 


Eng7-aver     • 

Sculptor 

Painter  <5"  Engraver 

Portrait  S;  Landsc.  Pa. 

Painter 

Architect 

Painter 

Painter  6f  Architect    • 

Poetical  Painter  - 

Painter 

Animal  ^  Historical  Pa. 

Painter  Sf,  Engraver         1640 

Painter 

Portrait  ^  Hist.  Painter   1769 

Painter  .      ■               ■  1619 

d)  Painter                 ■  1618 

Painter         -               -  1617 

Painter  ij"  Engraver  1494 

Painter                 -  1803 
Sculptor             -      f.  B.  c.  324 

Miniature  Painter     -  1777 

Painter                 -  1460 

Painter        ■              •  1402 
Sculptor 

Painter        ■              -  1503 


Painter 

Painter 

Painter 

Painter 

Historical  Painter 

Sculptor 

Painter ' 

Painter  ' 

Familiar  Life  Painter 


1729 
1610 
1768 
1764 
1613 
1785 
1737 
1746 
1761 
1610 


1617 
1769 
1730 
1518 
16.53 
f.  B.  c.  420 
Histor.  ^  Portrait  Pa.       1741 

1613 
1446 
1607 
B.C.  498 
1663 
1714 
1635 
1707 
B.  c.  430 
1584 
1625 
1594 
1613  ■ 
f.  B.  c.  350 
1734 
1760 
1622 


DIED. 

1819 

1846 
1849 
1839 
1699 
1764 
1554 
1677 
1660 
1780 
1828 
1813 
1846 
1749 
1652 
1670 
1546 
1807 
1723 

1711 

1826 
18.30 
1690 
1680 
1655 
15:33 
1832 

1807 
1529 
1427 

1540 
1779 
1695 
1814 
1804 
1682 
1835 
1823 
1831 
1807 
16S5 
1671 
1825 
1809 
1580 
1726 

1827 

1688 
1.524 
1691 
c.  431 
1733 
178.-. 
1709 
1778 


16.54 
1665 
1675 

1805 
1823 
1G»1 


bio(.'i;aphical  index. 


691 


NAME   AND   PROFESSION. 

Raphael  (real  name  Sanzio)  a  pre-eminent  Painter 

Renibnindi,  Paul           -               -      -          -  Painter 

Reynolds,  sir  Joshua            -               -  -     Painter 

Roland,  Pliilip  L.  (Homer  in  the  Louvre)  Sculptor 

RoTiiney,  George  ...  -    Painter 

Rosa,  SaWator  (scenes  of  gloom)               -  Painter 


/<ATION 

lial. 

Iial. 

En^. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Iial. 

Eng. 

Flem.     Rubens,  Peter  Paul,  a  celebrated 

Scotch.  Runciman,  Alexander 

Dutch.   Ruysdael,  Jacob 

D'.itcli.    Ruysdael,  Solomon 

Eng.       Rysbrach,  John  Michael  (works  in  Westmin- 
ster Abbey)         .... 

Ital.        Sanmicheli,  Michael 

1 1  ill.        .Sarto,  Andrea  del — see  Vanucchi 

lial.        Scamozzi,  Vincent 

Oer.        Schadow   Rudolf 

Dutch.   Schalken,  Godfrey  (candlelight  scenes) 

Gr.         Scopas 

Eng.       Sharp,  William    .  -  .  - 

Sherwin,  John  Keyse    - 

Smybert,  John      .  .  .  -■ 

Snyders,  Francis  (landscape  and  animal)_ 


Eng. 
A  mer. 
Flem. 
Fr. 
Dutch 


Rovvlandson,  Th.  (caricature— Dr.  Syntax,  &c.)  Painter  ^  Engraver 
~         ~     '  '  '         '  Painter 

Painter 

Landscape  Painter 
Painter 

Sculptor 
Architect 

Architect 
Sculptor 
Painter 
Sculptor 
Engraver     • 
Engraver 
Painter 
Painter 
Soufflot,  J.  G.  (church  of  St.Genevieve  at  Paris)   Architect 


Spaendonck,  Gerradvan  (flower) 


Scotch.  Stransre.  Robert 


Painter 

Engraver 

Painter 


I5ng.       Strutt^  Joseph  (an  author  and  painter) 

Eng.       Stuart,  James  (author  of  the  "  Antiquities  of 

Athens")  ....  Architect 

Amer.    Stuart,  Gilbert  (pupil  of  Benjamin  West)  Portrait  Painter 

Flem.     Teniers,  David,  the  elder  (pupil  of  Rubens)  Painter 

Flem.      Teniers,  David,  the  younger  (pupil  of  Rubens)  Painter 

Dap..       Thorwaldsen  Albert  -  -  -  Sculptor 

Gr.         Timanthes  (contemporary  with  Parrhasius)  Painter        •  i 

Ital.        Tintoretto  (a  Venetian— pupil  of  Titian)  -  Painter 

Ital.        Titian  (the  greatest  painter  of  Venetian  school)  Painter 

Amer.     Trumbull,  John    .  -  -  -  HistoricahPainter 

Eng.       Vanbrugh,  sir  Jn.  (Blenheim  and  Castle  Howard)j47T/ji7ec« 

Dutch.    Vandervelde,  William  (marine  and  battle)        -  Painter     - 

Dutch.   Vandervelde,  the  younger  -  Painter 

Dutch.   Vandervelde,  Adrian  -  -  •  Landscape  Painter 

Dutch.   Vanderwerf,  Adrian       -  -  Historical  Painter 

Flem.     Vandyke,  sir  Anthony  (the  greatest  of  portrait 

painters)  ....  Portrait  Painter 

Vannucchi,  or  .Andrea  del  Sarto     -  -  Painter 

Van  Vitelli,  Louis,  a  Neapolitan  -  -  Architect 

Vasari,  George  (a  biographer  of  artists)    -  Architect  Sf  Painter 

Vasi,  Joseph,  a  des^igner  and   -  -  .  Engraver     - 

Velasquez,  James  R.  de  Sylvia  Y  -  Painter 

Vernet,  Joseph        ....  Painter 

Vernet,  Horace  -  -  -  Historical  Painter 

Ver  Bryck  C.  -  -  -  -  Landscape  Pai7iter 

Verrochio,  Andrew  (inventor  of  the  method  of 

taking  the  features  in  a  plaster  mould)  -  Sctdpitor 
Veronese,  Paul  (see  Cagliari) 

Vertue,  George  (500  plates)         -  -  Engraver     - 

Visnola,  James  (Caprarola  palace  and  St.  'Peie,x's)ArcIiiteCt 

Viiici,  Leonardo  da         -  -  -  Painter 

Vitruvius  (temp.  Augustus)    -  -  -  Architect 

Volimto.  John         ....  Engraver 
Vouet,  Simon,  founder  of  Fr.  sch.  (temp.  Chas.  1.)  Painter 

Wailly,  Charles  de  -  .  -  Architect 

Warren,  Charles  (perfecter  of  engraving  on  steel)  Engraver 

We.=t.  Beniamin  -  -  -  »^   ■    ■ 

i-h.  Wilkie,  David 
r.        Wilson,  Richard 
WooUet,  William 
Dutch.    VVouvermans,  Philip    • 
Eng.        Wren,  Sir  Christopher  (S'.  Paul's,  &c.) 
Ens.       Wvatt,  Jame.'s  (Pantheon.  Kew  Palace.  &c.) 
I'al.  /ahlhi,  Nicholas 


Ital. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Sic. 

Span. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Am. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Ens. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

(Jr. 

I'll. 

I'r. 

Iliitr^ 

.Amer. 

S'- 

!■:, 

I'll 


Painter 

Familiar  Life  Painter 

Landscape  Painter 

Engraver  ■ 

Painter 

Arcfiilect 

Architect 

Architect 


BORN. 

1483 
1606 
1723 
1746 
1734 
1614 
1756 
1577 
1736 
1636 
1616 

1694 
1484 

1550 
1786 
1643 
c.  460 
1740 

17-28 
1579 
1714 
1746 
1721 
1749 

1713 
1756 
1582 
1610 
1772 
.  c.  420 
1512 
W80 
1756 
1672 
1610 
1633 
1639 
1654 

1598 
1488 
1700 
1512 
1710 
1599 
1714 

1813 

1422 

1684 
1507 
1452 
s.  c.  30 
1733 
1582 
1729 

1738 
1785 
1713 
1735 
1620 
1632 
1743 
lfi74 


DIED. 

1520 

1647 
1792 
1816 
1802 
1673 
1827 
164G 
1785 
1684 
1670 

1770 
1559 

1616 

1822 

1706 

0.  353 

1824 
1790 
1751 
16.57 
1781 
1822 
1722 
1802 

1788 
1828 
1649 
1694 
1844 

1594 
1579 
184 
1726 
,  1693 
1707 
1672 
1718 

1641 
1530 
1773 
1574 
1782 
1660 
1789 

1844 


1756 
1573 
1519 

1S03 
1649 
1798 
1823 
1820 
1841 
1782 
1785 
166S 
1723 
ISl'3 
1750 


692                                 THE  world's  progress. 

NATION                                                       NAME   AND   PROFESSION.                                                             BORN.  DIED. 

Gr.  Zeuxis,  a  celebrated  ancient              -  -    Painter  -              b.  c.  490    b  c.  400 

Ger.  Zincke            ....  Enamel  Portrait  Pa.         1684  1767 

Ital.  Zuccaro,  or  Zucchero,  Taddeo          -  -    Painter  ■              ■        1529  1566 

Ital.  Zuccaro,  or  Zucchero,  Frederigo              -  Painter     ■           ■               1539  1619 

Ital  Zuccarelli              -              -              •  Painter    -                            1710  1786 


ADDENDA 

TO 

THE    WORLD'S    PROGRESS. 

(December,  1851.) 

[In  addition  to  a  brief  record  of  the  more  important  occurrences  and  statistics  of  the  years  1850 
and  1851,  the  following  pages  contain  some  corrections  ef  errors  in  the  previous  editions.  Some 
other  inaccuracies  have  been  corrected  in  the  body  of  the  work.  In  selecting  the  names  for  the 
Biographical  Index,  it  was  difficult  to  draw  the  line.  While  it  was  desirable  to  include  those 
names  which  the  general  reader  would  be  likely  to  look  for,  th«re  was  still  no  space  for  all  those 
to  be  found  in  a  biographical  dictionary :  in  endeavoring  to  condense  the  list,  however,  many 
names  were  omitted  (some  from  mere  oversight)  which,  on  a  further  collation,  are  now  added  to 
this  appendix. 

It  will  be  obvious,  however,  that  whatever  care  and  diligence  may  he  bestowed  upon  a  volume 
of  this  kind,  entire  perfection  and  completeness  cannot  reasonably  be  expected;  and,  in  acknow- 
5edging  the  gratifying  reception  so  promptly  given  to  the  book,  the  editor  begs  to  say,  that  he  will 
be  greatly  obliged  by  any  essential  additions  or  corrections  which  may  be  contributed  for  future 
editions.] 


ADMINISTRATIONS  of  the  United  States— (p.  152)    On  the  death  of  Pre- 
sident Taylor,  July  9,  1850. 

Millard  Fillmore,  of  New-York  (Vice-President)  became  President.    He  appointed,  soon 
after,  the  following  Cabinet,  viz. : 

Daniel  Webster,                  Massachusetts,  Secretary  of  State.. 

Thomas  Corwin,                  Ohio,  Secretary  of  Treas. 

Charles  M.  Conrad,             Louisiana,  Secretary  of  War. 

William  A.  Graham,           North  Carolina,  Sec.  of  the  Navy. 

A.  H.  H.  Stewart,                Virginia,  Sec.  of  Interior. 

Nathan  K.  Hall,                   New- York,  Post  Master  Gen. 

John  J.  Crittenden,              Kentucky,  Attorney  General. 

William  R.  King,  Alabama,  was  elected  Pres't  of  the  Senate, 

and  became  acting  Vice  Pres't  of  U.  S. 

Howell  Cobb,                       Georgia  {continued  in  office}  )  Speakers  of  H.  Rep». 

Linn  Boyd,                           Kentucky,                Dec.  1851.  S  *^ 
Omissions  071  ;;«.o-e  152,    "  World's  Progress." 

Hugh  S.  Lesrare,  S.Carolina,  May  9,  dierf  June  20,  1843,         ?  oopo  nfsjmfa 

John  C.  Calhoun,  S.  Carolina,  March  6,  1844,  to  Mar.  1,  1845,  \  *^"-  °'  °"*"'- 

Geo.  M.  Bibb,  Kentucky,  June  15,  1844,  to  Mar.  3,  1845,        Sec.  of  Treas. 

Wm.  Wilkins,  Pennsylvania.  Feb.  15,  1844,  to  Mar.  3,  1845,       Sec.  of  War. 

Thos.  W.  Gilmer,  Feb.  15,  1844,  died  Feb.  28, 1844,  ?  S...  „f -v,-,, 

John  Y.  Mason,  Virginia,  Marcb  14, 1844,  to  Mar.  3,  1S15,  \    "^^  °'  ^^^^^- 


2  ADDENDA    TO    THE    WORLD's   PROGRESS,     1850-51.  [aME 

AFRICA.  The  British  forces  defeated  with  considerable  loss  in  their  engage- 
ment with  the  Caffres  of  South  Africa,  Dec.  29,  1850.  The  Catfres  attack 
Fort  White,  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  Jan.  3,  1851,  but  are  repulsed,  with  loss 
of  20  killed.  Jan.  7 — the  CafFres,  in  their  attack  on  Fort  Beaufort,  are 
completely  routed,  and  their  chief  Hermanns  and  his  son  killed.  3000 
Caffres  attack  the  colonists  near  Fort  Hare,  Jan.  23.  but  are  driven  back 
with  loss  of  100  killed.  Feb.  23d — Col.  Somerset  burns  Fort  Hamilton, 
which  had  been  abandoned  by  the  British,  killing  90  Caffres,  and  taking 
230  prisoners.  J.  G.  Richardson,  the  African  traveller,  dies  at  Ungurta,  six 
days  distance  from  Kouka,  the  capital  of  Bornou,  March  4,  1851. 
ANGLO-SAXONS.  It  may  be  assumed,  on  the  most  moderate  data,  that  up- 
wards of  51,000,000  of  the  human  race  now  speak  the  language  of  Shaks- 
peare,  Bacon,  and  Newton. 
ARCTIC  EXPEDITION.  Dispatches  received  by  British  Government,  Sept., 
1851,  confirming  the  statement  that  traces  of  Sir  J.  Franklin's  party  had 
been  discovered,  showing  that  they  had  passed  their  first  winter,  1845-6,  in 
the  bay  between  Beechey  Island  and  Cape  Riley,  and  that  their  departure 
had  been  sudden.  The  vessels.  Advance  and  Rescue,  nobly  dispatched  by 
Mr.  Grinnell  in  aid  of  this  expedition  in  May,  1850,  were  frequently  in  com- 
munication with  the  British  party,  and  returned  to  New-York  Oct.,  1851. 
ADVERTISEMENTS.  The  number  of  advertisements  in  the  159  London 
papers,  in  1850,  was  891  650,  the  duty  on  which  at  Is.  6d.  each,  amounted  to 
i;66,873  15s.  In  the  222  provincial  papers,  875,631  advertisements  ;  in  102 
Irish  papers,  236,128  ;  and  in  the  Scottish  papers,  249,141.  The  Times  sup- 
plement, Jan.  23,  1843,  contained  1706  advertisements,  one  page  of  which, 
embracing  six  columns,  yielded  i;108. 
AGRICULTURE,  U.  S.,  1851.  The  following  are  the  number  of  farms  in 
several  states,  as  reported  in  the  last  census  : — 

New- York  -  -  -  174,234  I  Maryland  ....  21,950 
Pennsylvania  -  -  -  127,733  |  New  Jersey  •  .  .  24,504 
Ohio  ....  146,821  I  Delaware  -  .  -  .  6,225 
Indiana  ....  101,973  |  Michigan  .  -  .  34,699 
Vir=2inia    .        .        -       .      •  76,794    Wisconsin         -        -        .    22,062 

Illinois 71,062    Iowa      ....        15,500 

Kentucky-        -        ■        -         77,290  | 

ALABAMA,  Nov.,  1851.  The  governor,  in  his  message,  recommends  a  dis- 
criminating tax  on  all  articles  from  those  states  that  continue  slave  agi- 
tation. The  population  of  this  state,  1850,  according  to  census  returns, 
was:— White,  426  515;  Free  colored,  2,250.  Total  free,  428,765;  Slaves, 
342,894.    Fed.  Rep.  Pop.  634,501. 

ALFRED  THE  GREAT.  A  medal  commemorative  of  the  1000th  anniversary 
of  this  monai-ch  was  struck  in  1849,  with  the  legend,  "  Alfred  and  his  chil- 
dren, the  British  Empire,  United  States  and  Anglo-Saxons  every  where  !" 

ALMANACS.  The  almanac  was  canonized  as  St.  Ahnachius,  in  the  Roman 
Calendar. — H.  Wharton  s  Life  of  Loyola,  1688.  Almanacs  first  printed  at 
Constantinople,  Sept.,  1806.  Regiomantus  supposed  to  be  indebted  for  his 
formula,  1474,  to  the  Persian  almanacs. — Encij.  Mdrop.  The  popular  al- 
manac in  Shaksx>eare's  time  was  that  of  Leonard  Digges. —  C.  Knight.  In 
1851,  Dr.  McGowan,  laboring  in  China  for  the  Missionary  Union,  prepared 
a  philosophical  almanac  in  the  language  of  that  countrj^  exhibiting  to  the 
Chinese  the  realities  of  science,  and  particularly  detailing  the  principles  of 
•**--=}  Magnetic  Telegraph. — A''.  Y.  Express.     See  World's  Progress,  p.  162. 

aflERICAN  FLAG.     Previous  to  1776  the  colors  used  in  this  country  exhib- 
ited a  snake  with  13  rattles,  in  a  crimson  ground  interlaced  with  white,  by 


ast]  addenda  to  the  world's  puogeess,  1850-51.  3 

some  supposed  in  compliment  to  France,  but  more  recently  by  others  as  re- 
presenting those  in  the  armorial  bearings  of  Gen.  Washington.  A  descrip- 
tion of  this  flag  is  given  in  a  London  paper,  published  in  1776.  On  the  14th 
June,  in  the  succeeding  year,  the  American  Congress  "  Resolved,  that  the 
flag  of  the  13  Unitsd  States  be  13  stripes,  alternate  red  and  white ;  that  the 
union  be  13  stars,  white,  on  a  blue  field — representing  •  a  new  constellation.'  " 
Anew  '-star-spangled  banner"  made  its  appearance  on  the  river  Thames 
(London),  October,  1851,  showing  five  stars  emblematical  of  the  British 
colonies  New  South  Wales,  Victoria  (Hong  Kong),  South  Australia,  Van 
Dieman's  Land,  and  West  Australia. 

AMERICAN  LITERATURE.  The  first  English  work  Avritten  in  America  was 
Sandy's  Translation  of  the  Metamorphoses ;  Dr.  W.  Vaxighan's  poem  of  the 
Golden  Fleece  was  written  about  the  same  time.  Joceiyn,  who  wrote  the 
New  England  Rarities,  and  his  Two  Voyages,  brought  over  a  version  of  part 
of  the  Psalms,  by  Quarles,  which,  if  approved  by  the  Minister  at  Boston, 
was  to  have  succeeded  Stcrnhold  and  Hopkins  in  the  New  World.  The  first 
work  printed  was  the  ■'  Freeman''s  Oath,"  Cambridge,  1639  ;  the  second  an 
Almanac,  calculated  for  Nevf  England,  by  Pierce,  a  mariner ;  and  the  third 
"  The  Psalms,  neioly  turned  into  metre." — Dr.  Holmes's  Amcrico^n  Annals. 

AMUSEMENTS,  Public,  New  York,  April,  1851. 

Nine  Theatres,  with  audiences  nightly  of  -  -  -  -  15,900 

Four  Minstrel  Concerts  "".....       2,300 

Three  Panoramas,  «  ii  ....  gOO 

Nightly  audiences  at  Public  Amusements  in  New- York 18,800 

The  average  nightly  receipts,  exclusive  of  Astor  Opera  House  (not 
obtained),  amounted  to  $'5,800. 

AMUSEMENTS,  London.  The  amount  annually  expended  in  London  for 
sight-seeing,  theatres,  &c.,  is  estimated  at  about  four  millions  sterling. — Art 
Journal. 

ARMY,  (Standing),  U.  S.  A.  June,  1850,  the  regular  army  of  the  United  States, 
including  882  commissioned  officers,  consisted  of  10,320  men  :  distributed, 
eastern  division,  in  the  Atlantic  States ;  Avestern,  west  of  the  Alleghanies ; 
and  the  Pacific  division  in  Oregon  and  California.  Expenses  of  the  war 
department  j^ear  ending  June  30,  1849,  partially  including  those  of  the 
Mexican  war,  amounted  to  S17;290,936.    ' 

ARMIES,  European,  1851.  Great  Britain,  114,451,  infantry  and  cavalry  effect- 
ive ;  France,  408  000  (exclusive  of  National  Guards,  who  number  over 
2,000,000) ;  Russia,  674,000;  Austria.  405,000;  Prussia,  121.000,  which  last 
with  Au.stria,  has  an  effective  organization  of  the  Landwehr,  similar  to  the  Na- 
tional Guards  of  France. 

ARMORIES,  U.  S.  There  are  five  armories  in  the  United  States,  viz. :  Harper's 
Ferry,  Virginia;  Springfield,  Massachusetts;  Alleghany,  Pennsylvania; 
Washington,  District  of  Columbia ;  and  Watervhet,  New-York.  For  the  fiscal 
year  ending  January  30, 1850,  the  manufactory  of  weapons  of  war  is  reported 
as  28,115  percussion  muskets;  2,000  percussion  cavalry  musketoons  ;  2,676 
percussion  rifies ;  110,487  fiint  lock  muskets  altered  to  percussion. 

ASTRONOMY.  The  planet  Uranus,  was  discovered  through  observation 
of  the  perturbations  of  Jupiter  and  Saturn ;  and  similar  movements  in 
Uranus  led  M.  Leverrier  to  determine  by  calculation  the  existence  of  a  new 
planet.  This  remarkable  theoretic  conclusion  was  verified  on  the  night  of 
Sept.  23d,  1846,  by  M.  Galle,  at  Berlin,  the  new  planet  {Neptune)  being  found 
in  the  position  and  with  the  diameter  announced  by  Leverrier  ,  one  of  the 
noblest  achievements  of  modern  times.     M.  Arago  calculates  the  distance  of 


4  ADDENDA    TO    THE    WORLd's    PROGRESS.     1850-5 1,  [baN 

this  planet  from  the  sun  af  1,250,000,000  leagues,  or  about  3,125,000,000 
miles  !  Periodic  time  nearly  166  years.  Its  volume  is  about  two  hundred 
and  thirty  times  that  of  the  earth.  Thus,  during  the  year  1846,  the  bounds 
of  our  solar  system  have  been  nearly  doubled.  The  discovery  of  Neptune 
marks,  in  a  signal  manner,  the  maturity  of  astronomical  science.  The 
Parthcnope,  a  new  planet  discovered  by  M.  de  Gasparis,  at  Naples,  May, 
1850  ;  the  name  of  the  Victoria,  discovered  b}'  Mr.  Hind  in  same  year,  was 
changed  for  that  of  Clio ;  the  Ei(eria  planet,  discovered  by  de  Gasparis,  at 
Naples,  November,  1850.  Another  discovered  by  Mr.  G.  P.  Bond,  of 
Cambridge;  United  States,  August,  same  year ;  and  one  by  Dr.  Peterson,  of 
Altona,  situate  near  the  North  Pole. 

ATTORNEY-GENEEAL,  U.  S.  A.  Appointed  by  the  President,  and  is  one  of 
the  members  of  the  Cabinet.  He  is  the  legal  adviser  of  the  executive  gov- 
ernment. The  first  attorney-general  of  the  United  States  was  William  Bi-ad- 
ford,  appointed  by  Washington.  1789.  (See  Administrations.)  There  are 
also  District  Attorneys  for  the  United  States,  appointed  by  tlie  President, 
for  the  several  districts  in  each  State  of  the  Union.  In  each  State  there  is 
also  an  attorney-general  of  the  State  ;  in  some  States  appointed  by  the  gov- 
ernor and  legislature,  in  others  elected  by  the  people. 

AUSTRIA.  Ultimatum  of  the  Austrian  government  delivered  at  Berlin,  Nov. 
6,  1850.  directing  that  Prussia  evacuate  Hesse,  dissolve  the  Erfurt  league, 
&c.,  which  is  replied  to  by  the  Prussian  king  signing  an  order  for  calling  out 
the  whole  military  force  of  the  monarchy.  The  Russian  ambassador  at  Vi- 
enna, Nov.  11,  announces  that  the  continuance  of  the  Russian  policy  in  the 
electorate  will  be  considered  by  his  government  a  causus  belli.  Protest  of 
France,  and  remonstrance  of  Lord  Palmerston  at  Vienna,  Dec.  1850,  against 
the  proposed  extension  of  the  Germanic  confederation  beyond  the  Alps.  The 
Austrians  complete  their  military  possession  of  Hamburg,  Jan.  31.  1851,  and 
Feb.  2  proclaim  their  resumption  of  seignorial  rule  of  the  King  of  Denmark. 
The  Emperor  estabhshes  a  council  of  the  empire  by  imperial  decree,  April 
1851.  The  German  diet,  July  17.  in  answer  to  Lord  Palmerston's  protest 
against  annexing  the  non-German  provinces  of  Austria  to  the  German  Fed- 
eration, reply  '•  that  no  foreign  interference  should  be  allowed  in  a  purely 
Germanic  question."  August  20,  the  Emperor,  by  cabinet  letters,  declares 
"  that  his  ministers  are  responsible  to  no  other  political  authority  than  the 
throne,"  and  the  minister-president  is  directed  to  take  into  consideration  the 
possibility  of  carrying  out  the  constitution  of  March,  1849. 

BALLOONS.  Mr.  Green  and  the  Duke  of  Brunswick  in  April  1851,  crossed  the 
British  channel  from  Hastings,  and  in  5  hours  landed  safely  near  Boulogne; 
greatest  altitude  mid-channel  was  4000  feet.  Mr.  Green  ascended  on  horse- 
back from  Vauxhall,  July  1850 ;  since  then  M.  Poitevin  has  made  several 
ascents  en-cheval,  and  in  a  carriage  and  pair  (July  1851),  sometimes  accom- 
panied by  his  wife,  &c. — In  one  ascent  he  carried  up  a  live  ostrich.  Lt.  Gale 
(the  Mazeppa  of  the  Bowery  Theatre)  left  Bordeaux  with  his  balloon  Sept. 
1850,  and  was  found  dead  the  next  morning  in  a  field,  dreadfully  mutilated. 
Several  hazardous  ascensions  have  since  been  made  in  France,  one  by  an 
aeronaut  with  his  head  downwards. 

BAL  riMORE,  U.  S.  A.  Population,  by  the  census  of  1850,  169,000,  being  a 
gain  of  66  per  cent,  in  ten  years. 

BANKS,  PENNY.  These  were  first  instituted  at  Greenock  in  Scotland.  Of  5,000 
deposits  the  aggregate  amount  of  nearly  .£1,100  gives  an  average  of  about  4s. 
6d.  each.  In  London  and  the  provincial  towns  they  are  becoming  very  pop- 
ular. In  Whitechapel,  8000  deposits  in  nine  months  showed  an  accumulation 
of  nearly  £2,000  or  about  5s.  each. 


bis] 


ADDENDA    TO    THE    WORLD's    PROGRESS,    1850-51. 


try,  to  March  1851. 


Maine     - 

New  Hampshire    - 

Massaciiusetts    - 

Boston 

Vermont 

Rhode  Island 

Providence 

Connecticut 

New-York 

New- York  city 

New  .Jersey 

Pennsylvania 

Philadelphia 

Wisconsin  - 

Texas 

Maryland     - 

Ballimore 

Iowa 

Mississippi 

Virginia 

North  Carolina - 

South  Carolina 

Georgia  - 

Ohio 

Indiana  - 

Kentucky    - 

Tennessee 

District  of  Columbia 

Delaware 

Missouri 

Michigan 

Louisiana    - 

Alabama 


Total  - 
Boston,  Banker's  Mag.  1851. 


itioQ  of  the  Bankin 

%  interests  in  this  c 

To.  Bks. 

Circulation. 

Specie. 

Capital. 

32 

$2,300,000 

$424,000 

$.3,148,000 

-        22 

1.700,000 

150,000 

2,205;000 

102 

9,600,000 

645,000 

16,405,000 

-        30 

6.000,000 

2,100,000 

21,760,000 

27 

2,300,000 

120,000 

2,195.000 

-       38 

1,100.000 

130,000 

3,037,865 

23 

1,400,000 

130,000 

8,159,037 

14 

5,200,000 

880,000 

20,9^9,732 

152 

18,000,000 

880,000 

20,949,732 

-       28 

6.400,000  . 

10,740,000 

27,300,330 

25 

2,900,000 

690,000 

3,646,7';0 

-       58 

7,000,000 

2.-500,000 

8,009,781 

15 

4,130,000 

4,000,000 

10,518,700 

1 

225,000 

I 

300,000 

12 

i',2i6i6o"6 

'400,066 

1,997,079 

12 

2,068,000 

2,127,000 

1,997,079 

1 

200,000 

1 

100,000 

35 

7,000,060 

2,300,666 

9.913.100 

19 

3,500,000 

1,600,000 

3,650^000 

14 

6,090,000 

2,200,000 

11,431,183 

17 

1,000,000 

1,600,000 

5,329,213 

-       57 

10,366,000 

2,750.000 

7,425,171 

14 

3,300,800 

1,280,000 

2,082,910 

-       23 

6,680.000 

2,680,000 

9,180  000 

21 

4,000,000 

1,500.000 

7,16.5,197 

4 

900,000 

300,000 

1,182,300 

9 

900,600 

250,000 

1,440,000 

6 

2,600,000 

1,900,000 

2,258.751 

6 

650,000 

116,000 

1,150.000 

5 

4,200,000 

7,300,000 

13,267,120 

2 

200,000 

-      863 

$120,505,400    i 

5:51,446,000  S 

(230,897,500 

BENEVOLENT  SOCIETIES.  The  receipts  of  some  of  the  principal  Benevolent 
Societies  of  New- York,  for  the  year  ending  April  30th,  1851,  were: 

American  Tract  Society,  $310,618  09 

"  Bible        "                276,852  53 

"  B.  C.  For.  Miss.    8  months, 176,676  83 

"  Home  Missionary  Society,              150,940  25 

"  and  Foreign  Chrislian  Union.     11  months,        -        -       -  56,265  82 

"  and  Foreign  Bible  Society,      .......  29,648  28 

"  Baptist  Home  Missionary  Society,      .....  19,2-52  61 

"  Seaman's  Friend  Society, 22,000  00 

"  Society  for  Melior.  condition  of  Jews.  -        -       -        -      "      11,193  02 

New- York  State  Colonization  Society,              -  ' 22,000  00 

"  Association  for  Improving  the  condition  of  the  Poor,         -  32,327  31 

"  Society,  Relief  Widows  and  Orphans  of  Medical  Men,  amount 

of  funds,  Nov.  1851, 10,292  94 


$1,118,067  68 

BIBLE  SOCIETIES.  Tlie  first  that  ever  existed,  was  established  by  some  Ro- 
man Catholic  Prelates,  in  France  in  1774. — Chambers's  Ed.  Jl.  Tlie  British 
and  Foreign  Bible  Society  has  distributed  during  the  45  years  ending  Jan. 
1.  1851,  more  tha.n  twenty- i/iree  millions  of  copies,  in  one  hundred  and  forty 
different  languages. 

BISHOPRICS,  English  Colonial.— Nova  Scotia,  established  1787  ;  Quebec  and 
Montreal,  united  1793;  Calcutta,  1814;  Barbadoes  and  Jamaica,  1824; 
Madras,  1835 ;    Sidney  and  Bombay,  1836 ;   Toronto  and  Newfoundland, 


6  ADDENDA    TO    THE    WOE-Ld's    PROGRESSj    1850-51.  [bRI 

1839  ;  New  Zealand  and  Jerusalem,  1841 :  Gibraltar,  Antigua,  Guiana,  and 
Tasmania,  1842  ;  Fredericton  and  Colombo,  1845  ;  Newcastle,  Adelaide,  Mel- 
bourne, and  Capetown,  1847  ;  Hong-Kong  and  Prince  Rupert's  Land,  1849 ; 
Lyttleton,  1850.— iV.  Haven  CL  Rev. 
BOOKS,  U.  S. — The  number  of  volumes  published  during  the  year  ending 
June  30th,  1851,  is  estimated  to  have  been  1,261,  forming  1,176  distinct 
works ;  which  were 

Novels  and  Tales, 249 

Theological  and  Religious 170 

Histories  and  Travels 121 

Biograpliical,  96 :  Poetry  and  Hymns,  80 176 

Science,  Natural  History,  &c. 83 

Classics,  Educaiion,  &c. 84 

Law,  43;  Medicine,  47;  Agriculture,  20 110 

Practical  Mechanics 18 

Arts,  Music,  and  Architecture 57 

Political  Economy,  Commerce,  and  Miscellaneous  -        -        -    193 

Total 1,261 

"Book  Trade." 
BOOKS  Imported  into  United  States  for  the  year  ending  June  80,  1851 : — 

In  Hebrew, $74  00 

Latin  and  Greek, 2,027  00 

English,  - 341,755  00 

Other  Languages, 115,486  00 

Periodicals  and  Illustrated  Newspapers, 4,328  00 

Periodicals  and  other  works  in  course  of  publication,  -       -         2,88100 

Total, $466,531  00 

Books  exported  during  same  period,  ....  $119,47500 

American  Almanac,  1852. 

BOOKS,  German. — Since  the  Easter  Fair  at  Leipsic,  1851,  not  less  than  3,860 
new  books  had  been  published,  up  to  Nov. ;  and  1150  were  then  in  prepar- 
ation for  issue. — Illus.  News. 

BOOKS,  London,  1850  about  4,400  were  published,  of  which  the  Papal  Question 
furnished  180  in  one  month;  fiction,  500;  law,  250;  and  travels,  200;  the 
remainder  miscellaneous. — Illus.  Netus. 

BRITISH  MUSEUM.  The  total  income  for  the  year  1850,  was  £55,686  17s.  Id. ; 
and  the  actual  expenditure  within  the  same  period,  £47,463  5s.  lOd. 

BOSTON,  U.  S.  A.  Population  by  the  census  of  1850,  135,000,  being  an  increase 
of  42,000,  or  about  45  per  cent,  in  ten  years. 

BRIDGES.  The  Suspension  Bridge  over  the  Niagara  river,  near  the  Falls,  com- 
pleted July  28,  1848.  C.  E.  Ellett  was  the  engineer.  The  Britannia  Tubular 
Bridge,  over  the  Menai  Straits,  between  Caernarvon  and  the  Isle  of  Anglesea, 
completed  October,  1850,  Mr.  Stephenson  engineer,  at  an  outlay  of  nearly 
£600,000.  A  suspension  bridge  over  the  Ohio,  at  Wheeling,  span  1010  feet, 
being  152  feet  longer  than  the  Friburg  bridge,  Switzerland,  was  completed 
by  Mr.  Ellett,  1850.  Remington's  bridge,  at  Montgomery,  Ala.,  on  the  same 
plan  as  that  he  exhibited  in  London  about  two  years  ago,  though  slight  in 
appearance,  is  of  extraordinary  merit  for  its  strength  and  ingenuity.  The 
floating  bridge,  for  passage  of  railroad  cars  across  Lake  Champlain,  went 
into  operation  1st  Sept.,  1851. 

BRITAIN,  GREAT,  and  BRITISH  ISLES.  The  returns  of  forty  thousand  enu- 
merators show  the  population  of  this  country,  in  March  1851,  to  be,  males 
10,192,721 ;  females,  10,743,747,  being  an  increase  during  the  last  50  years 
of  98  per  cent. ;  the  average  of  annual  rate  of  increase  during  that  period, 
is  1'37-  This  amount  is  exclusive  of  absent  soldiers  and  sailors,  the  number 
of  whom  is  estimated  at  167,604.     In  Scotland,  the  rate  of  increase  for  the 


car]  addenda  to  the  world's  progress,  1850-51.  T 

half  century  preceding  1851,  is  78  per  cent. ;  present  popnlation,  2.865,421. 
The  population  in  Ireland  6,515,794,  compared  with  that  of  184],  viz., 
8.175.124,  shows  a  total  decrease  of  1,659,330  souls.  The  returns  of  the  Brit- 
ish metropolis,  including  parts  of  Middlesex,  Surrey  and  Kent,  give  a  total 
population  of  2,361,640,  the  preponderance  in  which  is  females. — Parliamen- 
tary Returns. 
BUILDING  (Benefit)  SOCIETIES.  First  established  at  Kircudbright,  Scot- 
land, 1815 ;  after  1830  they  increased  rapidly. — Scratchleifs  Treatise  on  B.  B. 
Societies.     Several  have  been  in  successful  operation  in  New- York  since  1848. 

CALCULATING  MACHINE.  A  very  superior  one  exhibited  in  the  Crystal 
Palace,  1851.  by  J.  A.  Statfel,  of  Warsaw.  This  extraordinary  machine  was 
the  effect  often  years  undiminished  study  and  application  ;  by  it  any  errors 
may  be  corrected  and  the  operator  warned  of  any  surplus  calculation. — Itlus. 

News. 

CALIFORNIA,  State  op,  U.  S.  A.  Constitution  ratified  by  the  people,  Nov. 
13,  1849.  The  State  admitted  into  the  Union  by  vote  of  the  United  States 
Senate,  Aug.  13, 1850,  and  on  Sept.  9,  1850,  the  California  Senators,  Dr.  Wm. 
M  Gvvin  and  Col.  J.  C.  Fremont,  took  their  seats.  The  number  of  emigrants, 
to  California,  passing  Fort  Laramie,  and  registered  to  June  20, 1850.  are,  men, 
82,740  ;  women.  494  ;  children,  591 ;  of  mules,  6,725  ;  oxen,  21.418;  cows, 
3.185  ;  horses,  28,798  ;  and  wagons,  7,586.  The  census  returns  for  1850,  in- 
dicate a  white  population  of  165,000  and  1,800  colored,  making  the  fractional 
representative  enumeration  74,000  and  thus  securing  a  second  Representa- 
tive in  Congress. — Daily  Times.  First  overland  party  of  the  season, 1851, 
arrives  at  Placerville  July  17.  in  77  days  from  St.  Joseph's.  Gov.  McDougal 
issiies  a  proclamation,  July  21,  against  "  Vigilance  Committees,"  calling  upon 
all  good  citizens  to  sustain  the  laws.  From  Jan.  to  31  Oct.  1851,  inclusive,  the 
number  of  vessels  at  Boston.  New  York,  Philadelphia,  Baltimore,  and  New 
Orleans,  show  an  evident  decrease  in  tlie  clearances  and  cargoes  for  that 
country. — Boston  Price  Current.  Great  fire  in  San  Francisco,  Sept.  17, 1850, 
loss  $300,000 ;  more  than  200  houses  destroyed  by  fire  in  Nevada  City,  esti- 
mated loss,  S'l, 300,000.  Another  fire  at  San  Francisco  May.  3,  1851,  several 
lives  lost  and  many  injured,  2,500  buildings  consumed,  and  from  one  to  five 
millions  of  property  destro3'ed.  A  fire  at  Stockton,  May  14,  total  loss 
$1,500,000.  Sliock  of  an  earthquake  felt  at  San  Francisco,  May  15.  Jenkins 
hung  at  San  Francisco  and  the  police  driven  back  by  the  "  Vigilance  Com- 
mittee," June  10,  1851.  Another  Are  (the  sixth)  at  San  Francisco,  June  22. 
500  houses  burned,  and  $3,000,000  property  consumed.  "  Jim  Stuart"  hung 
at  San  Francisco,  July  11,  1851,  being  the  second  execution  by  the  "  Vigi- 
lance Committee."  At  Saci'amento,  Aug.  21,  a  prisoner  under  sentence  of 
death,  but  reprieved  by  the  Governor,  is  forcibly  executed  by  the  citizens. 
Aug.  24,  Whittaker  and  McKenzie  taken  by  force  from  the  jailer  at  Saa 
Francisco,  and  publicly  executed  b}^  the  "  Vigilance  Committee."  Aug.  30, 
a  fire  consumes  part  of  Marysville,  California.  California  Fleet. — The  whole 
number  of  clearances  from  the  United  States  for  California,  in  the  year  1850, 
was  565,  of  which  181  were  from  New  York,  and  170  from  Boston. 

CANADA.  A  memorial  for  annexation  to  the  United  States  received,  in  five 
hours,  the  signatures  of  300  merchants,  land-owners,  and  professional  men, 
in  Montreal,''Oct.  10, 1850. 

CARDINAL  WISEMAN,  born  at  Seville,  created  cardinal  January,  1848,  public 
assumption  in  London,  1850.  The  operations  of  the  Catholics  arising  from 
this  creation  produced  great  excitement  in  England.  A  London  bookseller 
issued  a  catalogue  of  more  than  1700  English  works  on  Popery,  which  he 
offered  for  sale. — See  Westminster. 


8  ADDENDA    TO    THE    WOKLD's   PROGRESS,    1850-51.  j  COA 

CARPETS  IN  NEW- YORK.  Prior  to  1760  they  were  not  known,  but  in  the 
papers  of  that  date  Matthew  Wilders  advertises  a  variety  imported  from 
Scotland. — Noah's  S.  Times. 

CATHOLICS,  1851.  Prelates  in  the  U.  States— Archbishops,  16  ;  Bishops,  85  ; 
Vicars  Apostolic,  10. — Ami  de  Religion.  The  total  income  received  by  three 
Catholic  institutions  in  Low.  Canada,  was  stated  by  the  Montreal  Courier, 
of  March,  1851,  to  be  larger  than  the  whole  Provincial  revenue.  Real  es- 
tate in  the  Papal  dominions  is  stated  at  $195,000,000. — II  Cailnlico  Christiano 
{Maltese  paper),  1851.  The  number  of  Catholics  in  the  United  States  is  esti- 
mated at  1,233,350  {Am.  Almanac),  while  the  entire  Catholic  population  of 
the  world,  Greek  and  Roman,  is  judged  by  Ungewitter  and  Dr.  Baird  to 
amount  to  nearly  200.000,000.  The  great  "  aggregate  meeting"  of  Roman 
Catholics  from  all  parts  of  the  United  Kingdom  for  inauguration  of  the 
Catholic  Defence  Association,  held  at  Dublin,  August  19th,  1851.  The 
Duke  of  Norfolk,  whose  ancestors  for  centuries  observed  the  Roman  Catho- 
lic faith,  secedes  to  the  Protestant  Church,  Sept.,  1851. 

CHICAGO.  From  the  returns  of  eight  of  the  largest  establishments  in  this 
city,  the  business  operations  for  1851  were : — Cattle  slaughtered,  30.800 ; 
barrels  beef  packed,  59  600 ;  barrels  tallow,  7,342  ;  hides,  30,800  ;  tons  of 
salt  used,  2,023  ;  number  of  hands  employed,  463. —  Chicago  Trib.  and  N. 
Y.  Daily  Times. 

CHILI.  Suspension  of  "  discriminating  duties"  upon  Chilian  vessels  deter- 
mined by  U.  States  Nov.  1,  1850,  so  long  as  the  equality  of  maritime  imposts 
is  maintained  between  the  two  countries.  Don  Manuel  Montt  inaugm-ated 
President  Sept.  18,  1851, 

CHINA.  The  progress  of  the  disturbance  in  the  southern  provinces  escites 
serious  alarm  in  the  Imperial  Court,  Pekin,  June  23,  1851. 

CHOLERA  appeared  on  the  island  of  Jamaica,  West  Indies,  in  the  autumn  of 
1850,  and  before  the  1st  December,  more  than  6,000  persons  had  fallen  vic- 
tims. It  also  appeared  in  California,  Oct.  22,  1850.  In  the  city  of  Mexico, 
2,700  persons  died  of  cholera  in  four  weeks — May  and  June,  1850. 

CHURCH  OF  ENGLAND.  Great  escitement  and  agitation  in  England  re- 
specting a  dispute  on  doctrine  between  the  Bishop  of  Exeter  and  Rev.  Dr. 
Gorham,  one  of  his  clergy.  The  Privj'  Council's  decision  in  favor  of  the 
latter,  afterwards  ratified  by  the  courts,  March  8,  1850.  According  to  evi- 
dence of  Mr.  Baines  before  Committee  H.  Commons,  1851,  there  were  in 
Gt.  Britain  13,193  places  of  worship  dissenting  from  the  tenets  of  the  Es- 
tablished Church  ;  to  which  may  be  added  R.  Catholic  chapels  597,  minor 
sects  and  Jews  550 ;  making  the  total  of  nonconformist  churches  14,340. 

CINCINNATI,  the  "  Queen  of  the  West,'  had  by  the  census  of  1850.  a  popula- 
tion of  115,590.  In  1840,  it  was  46,382.  Increase,  in  ten  years,  69,208,  or 
about  150  per  cent. 

CLOCKS.  Between  200,000  and  300,000  clocks  are  manufactured  annually  in 
the  State  of  Connecticut ;  the  brass  works  being  made  by  machinery  with 
mathematical  precision.  Chauncey  Jerome  of  N.  Haven  makes  upwards  of 
800  per  day,  some  of  which  he  sells  at  sixlij  cents  each  wholesale,  warranted. 
An  astronomical  clock  exhibited  in  Crystal  Palace,  by  Dr.  Henderson  of 
Liverpool,  requires  winding  up  but  once  in  a  century.  It  was  commenced 
in  1844,  and  finished  for  the  Great  Exhibition. — Illus.  News. 

COALS.  Comparative  view  of  the  areas  of  coal  lands,  and  the  production,  la 
1845,  of  the  six  principal  producing  countries. 


com] 


ADDENDA    TO    THE    WORLd's    PROGRESS,    1850-51. 


Countries. 

Square  Miles, 
of  Coal  For- 
mation. 

Tons  of  Fuel 

produced  in 

1845. 

Relative 

parts  of 

1,000. 

Official  estimated  Value  at  tlie 
Places  of  Production. 

American 
Dollars. 

Pounds  Ster- 
ling. 

Great  Britain... 

Belgium 

United  States... 

11,859 

518 

133,132 

1,719 

not  defined. 

31,500,000 
4,960,077 
4,400,000 
4,141,617 
3,500,000 
659,340 

642 
101 
89 
84 
70 
14 

45,738,000 
7,689,900 
6,6.50.000 
7,663,000 
4,122,945 
800,000 

9,4.50,000 
1,660,000 
1,373,963 
1,603,106 
856,370 
165,290 

Prussian  States. 
Austrian  States. 

Total 

49,161,034 

1,000 

72,663,845 

15,108,729 

COAL  FIELDS,  1851.    East  of  the  Mississippi,  124,735  square  miles  ;  west  of 
ditto,  8,379  square  miles.     This  is  all  bituminous.     The  anthracite  of  Penn- 
sylvania is  about  437  square  miles.     In  Europe  &  Brit.  America  we  find :  — 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  anthracite,        ....  3,720  sq.  miles. 

"  "  bituminous,  -  -  -  8,139  " 

British  America,  "  ....  18.000  " 

Spain,  "  ...  3^408  « 

France,  "  ....  1,719  « 

Belgium,  "  ...  _       518  " 

Scientific  American. 
The  very  general  substitution  of  coal  for  wood  as  fuel,  and  its  emploj^ment 
in  the  manufacture  of  iron  and  in  the  production  of  steam  and  gas,  have,  of 
late  years,  given  an  amazing  impulse  to  the  trade  in  this  article.  Coal  was 
discovered  in  Mansfield,  Massachusetts,  about  1835,  but  the  efforts  to  ren- 
der the  same  available  Avere  only  eflSciently  applied  by  the  Mansfield  Mining 
Co.,  in  1848,  which  establishment  it  is  expected  will  work  the  mine  to  much 
public  advantage.  The  main  shaft  is  171  feet  from  the  surface,  and  four 
other  shafts  lead  from  this,  making  the  entire  length  1,100  feet. — Boston 
Traveller.  The  amount  of  Pennsylvania  anthracite  coal  sent  to  market 
in  1850  was  3127,083  tons.  Coal-field  found  at  Port  Philip,  V.  D.  Land, 
June,  1851.  surpassing  any  of  those  in  the  sister  colonies. 

COAL,  GT.  BRITAIN.     The  present  home  consumption  is  about  thirty-two 
millions  of  tons  annually  :    export  about  six  millions. — Anderson's  "  Course 
of  Creation." 
COD  FISHERY.    The  total  amount  of  tonnage  employed  in  the  cod  fishery  of 
Marblehead,  Mass.,  from  1794  to  1850,  was  28,233,507.     Number  of  vessels 
rating  over  fifty  tons  each,  8147 ;  under  fifty  tons,  1007.     Vessels  lost  in 
1846,  eleven  —  A^.  Y.  Sun. 
COFFEE  AND  TEA.     Value  of  imported  into  the  United  States  of  America, 
For  the  year  ending,  June  30,  1849  :— Coffee,     $9.058,352 ;  Teas,    $4,071,789. 
"  "  1850:        "  11,234,835;      "  4,719,232. 

"  "  1851:        "  12,851,070;      "         4,798,005. 

Courier. 
COINAGE  OP  THE  U.  S.  Mint  and  Branches,  for  the  year  ending  December 
31,  1849.    Gold,  value  S'9, 007,761 ;  silver,  S2. 114,950  ;'copper.  $-41,984 ;  total, 
Sll, 164,695.     The  amount  of  coinage  at  Philadelphia,  1851,  from  January 
to  November  5  inclusive,  was :  gold.  i$46. 139,131 ;  silver,  S246.650;  silver 
three  cent  pieces,  $146  653;  copper,  $91,988;  total,  $46,624,422.'    The  Cali- 
fornia gold  deposited  at  the  Mint  during  that  period  was  $42,512,588. — 
'Pfibune. 
COMMERCE,  Internal,  of  the  United  States,  1851.     The  aggregate  value  of 
the  lake  trade,  as  appears  by  returns  made  at  the  bureau  of  Topographical 
Engineers,  amounts  to  the  enormous  sum  of  $186,485,269,  or   more,  by 
$40,000,000,  than  the  whole  foreign  export  trade  of  the  country.  The  aggre- 
1* 


10  ADDENDA    TO    THE    WORLd's    PROGRESS,    1850-51.  [cOT 

gate  tonnage  is  203,041  tons,  of  which  35,904  is  foreign.  The  net  value  of  the 
commerce  of  the  western  rivers  is  $256,233,820;  the  value  of  vessels, 
$18,661,500.  The  gross  value  of  the  internal  commerce  of  the  United  States 
may  be  estimated  at  $795,654,744. 

COMMERCIAL  Tonnage,  the,  of  England  is  stated  at  3,130,000  tons.  If  so, 
the  United  States  will  stand  as  the  first  commercial  nation  in  the  world,  as 
her  tonnage  on  the  30th  of  June.  1850,  was  as  follows  :  registered  tonnage 
in  foreign  trade,  1.585. 711  tons;  vessels  in  coasting  trade,  1.797,824  tons; 
fishing  vessels,  151,918;  in  whale  fishery,  146,016  tons.  Total,  3,681,469 
tons. 

CONVENTION  of  Delegates  from  Southern  States  in  defence  of  the  slavehold- 
ing  interest,  at  Nashville,  June  3,  1850 ;  and  again  November  12,  1850. 

COPPER.  The  Connecticut  mines  are  stated  by  Professor  Silliman  to  extend 
over  thirty  miles  south  of  Bristol,  and  would  employ,  it'  thoroughly  worked, 
30,000  miners.  The  net  profits  in  1849  were  $120,000;  and  the  yield  in- 
creases in  value  everj'  foot  the  miners  proceed.  From  Lake  Superior  the 
shipments  of  copper,  till  the  close  of  navigation,  1850,  were  2,680,000  lbs. — 
Ann.  Scientific  Discovery. 

COSTUME,  Bloomer.  The  male  costume  was  entirely  adopted  by  Miss  Web- 
ber, an  agriculturist  of  Belgium,  in  1850;  and  a  jjartial  modification  by  Mrs. 
Bloomer,  of  Seneca  Falls,  New-York,  in  1851.  Attempts  have  been  made 
for  its  general  adoption,  both  in  this  country  and  in  England;  but  the  pro- 
priety of  female  opinion  has  hitherto  been  against  it. 

COTTON.  First  exported  from  this  country  to  Liverpool  in  1784,  when  eight 
bales  were  seized  by  the  customs,  who  disputed  its  positive  shipment  from 
the  United  States.  In  1791  the  exports  to  Great  Britain  were  about 
2,000,000 ;  the  shipments  now  made  exceed  800,000,000  lbs.  With  the  ex- 
ception of  Liverpool,  moi-e  cotton  is  shipped  from  New  Orleans  to  Boston 
than  to  any  other  part  of  the  world. —  V.  Flax-Cotton.  The  quantity 
received  in  England  from  the  United  States  has  increased  from  seventy 
millions  of  pounds  in  1849,  to  nearlj^  one  hundred  and  twenty  millions  in 
1850 ;  the  former  being  about  9  per  cent,  of  the  Avhole  quantity  imported  by 
that  country,  the  latter  about  18  per  cent. — Morning  Express.  The  ratios 
of  cotton  imported  by  Great  Britain  in  the  five  years  1844-49  were :  America 
78i  per  cent.,  India  10^.  Brazil  7,  Egypt,  3J,  West  Indies  and  miscellaneous 
OJ  per  cent.  "If  we  could  derive  a  larger  supply  than  we  now  do  from 
our  own  colonies,  equally  good  and  cheap  with  that  from  the  United 
States,  it  would  be  nationally  beneficial  in  many  ways." — Companion  to 
British  Almanac.  1851.  The  exports  of  cotton  from  the  United  States  in  1850 
were  valued  at  $72,000,000.  The  value  of  entire  product  of  United  States 
cotton  goods  for  year  ending  June  30,  1851,  was  $61,859,184. — Herald. 

COTTON  SPINDLES  in  operation  in  Europe  and  America,  1851.  The  follow- 
ing is  the  estimated  number  of  spindles  in  actual  operation  :  Great  Britain, 
17-500.000;  France.  4.300.000;  United  States.  2.500  000;  Zohvereiu  States, 
815.000;  Russia,  700,000:  Switzerland,  650,000;  Belgium.  420,000;  Spain, 
300,000;  Italy,  300,000.    Total,  28,985,000.    ' 

COTTON  MANUFACTURES  in  the  United  States.  It  is  estimated  that  the 
annual  product  of  all  the  cotton  mills  in  the  United  States  is  250,000,000 
yards,  and  the  consumption  of  cotton  600,000  bales;  100,000  bales  of  which 
are  consumed  south  of  the  Potomac  and  in  the  Western  States.  The  value 
of  this  amount  of  cotton  when  manufactured,  is  supposed  to  be  upwards 
of  sixtj^-seven  millions.  Convention  of  cotton  planters  at  Macon,  Georgia, 
October  28,  1851. 


dec]  addenda  to  the  world's  progress,  1850-51.  11 

CUBA.  Trial  of  General  Lopez  and  others,  engag-ed  in  the  Cuban  expedition, 
commenced  in  Circuit  Courr,  New  Orleans,  December  17,  1850.  General 
Quitman,  of  Mississippi,  arrested  by  United  States  Marshal  February  3, 
1851,  on  charge  of  setting  on  foot  a  military  expedition  against  Cuba  ;  he 
issues  a  paper  to  the  people  of  Mississippi,  resfgning  his  office  as  Governor. 
Proclamation  by  the  President  United  States,  April  25,  warning  all  persons 
within  jurisdiction  of  the  States  from  aiding  or  engaging  in  any  expedition 
against  Cuba.  Arrest  of  OSullivan  and  others,  April  26,  on  charge  of  being 
concerned  in  a  Cuban  military  expedition  then  fitting  out  in  New- York. 
Steamer  Pampero,  with  Lopez  and  400  to  500  volunteers,  sails  from  New 
Orleans,  Aug.  3  ;  disembark  at  Cabanos  on  the  12th  ;  Col.  Crittenden,  on  his 
route  to  join  Lopez  then  in  advance,  is  attacked  by  500  Spanish  troops  and 
his  forces  scattered.  Lopez  having  repulsed  Gen.  Enna,  at  Las  Posas,  retreats 
to  the  mountains  ;  is  taken  by  bloodhounds  on  the  29th,  and  publicly  garot- 
ted  at  Havana,  September  1.  Col.  Crittenden  puts  to  sea,  but  is  captured 
with  50  of  his  comrades  on  the  15th  Aug. ;  the  whole  are  carried  to  Havana 
and  shot  the  next  day.  The  remaining  followers  of  Lopez,  after  enduring 
great  privations,  are  captured  or  surrender,  and  all  but  three  or  four  con- 
demned by  the  governor  to  10  years'  labor  on  the  public  works  in  Spain,  for 
which  country  they  are  shipped  September  1,  under  escort.  Great  excite- 
ment at  New  Orleans,  Aug.  21,  growing  out  of  the  above  ;  the  Spanish  resi- 
dents attacked,  and  the  Spanish  Consul  placed  in  city  prison  for  safety. 
Mr.  J.  S.  Thrasher,  late  editor  of  the  '-Faro  Industrial,"  arrested  at  Ha- 
vana, and  after  a  trial  resulting  in  his  conviction,  sent  to  Spain  24th  Nov., 
1851.    The  American  prisoners  in  Spain  pardoned  by  the  Queen,  Dec.  1851. 

DAGUERREOTYPES.  Of  the  innumerable  variety  of  specimens  of  this  Art, 
those  of  the  United  States  are  considered  superior  for  brilliancy  and  execution. 
It  is  estimated  that  not  less  than  15,000  persons  are  connected  with  this  Art 
in  the  U.  States,  and  that  the  amount  of  material  annually  consumed  in  their 
operations  exceeds  ^900,000.  The  nearest  approach  to  success  in  Daguer- 
reotypes in  natural  colors  is  that  of  M.  Niepce  the  original  inventor  of  the 
Art — Daguen'e  having  only  perfected  the  discoveries  of  that  gentleman.  Da- 
guerre  died  in  Paris,  July  1851.  '  Hill's  "  discoveries  "  in  colored  Daguerreo- 
typy  decided  by  a  committee  of  "  New  York  State  Daguerreotype  Associa- 
tion," 18th  Nov.  1851  to  be  "  an  unmitigated  delusion." 

DEBTS  OF  THE  STATES  IN  THE  AMERICAN  UNION,  1851.  In  round 
numbers  the  debts  of  the  different  States  for  the  year  1851,  are  estimated  as 
follows : — 

Maine,  $850,000 ;  New  Havnpsliire,  ^76,790  ;  Vermont,  none ;  Massachusetts,  $6,000,000 ; 
Rhode  Island,  none  ;  Connecticut,  none  ;  New- York,  $24,000,000  ;  New  .Jersey,  $67, 000; 
Pennsylvania,  «54O,000,000:  Delaware,  none;  Maryland,  .$15,000,000;  North  Carolina, 
$977,000  ;  South  Carolina,'  .'J2.300,000  ;  Georgia,  $1,800,000  ;  Florida,  none  ;  Alabama,  $8,- 
900,000;  Mississippi,  $7,270,000;  Louisiana,  $16,283,000  ;  Texas,  $11,000,000;  Arkansas, 
S3,850,000;  Tennessee,  $3,3-37,000;  Kentucky,  $4,497,000;  Ohio,  $49,000;  Indiana, 
$6,530,000;  Illinois,  $5,590,565;  Michiean,  $2,800,000;  Missouri,  $156,000;  Iowa, 
$55,000;  Wisconsin,  none  ;  California,  $650,000. 

DECLARATION  OF  INDEPENDENCE.  In  March  1851  the  Legislature  of 
North  Carolina  accepted  a  Report  affirming  as  a  well-ascertained  historical 
fact  that  tlie  celebrated  Mecklenburg;  Declaration  was  published  in  June, 
1775, — large  portions  of  which  were  embodied  in  Mr.  Jefferson's  Declaration 
of  the  following  year.  A  resolution  was  passed  that  the  Governor  cause  to 
bo  transmitted  the  block  of  mai'ble  presented  by  Lincoln  county  for  the 
Washington  Monument  with  the  arms  of  the  State  and  the  following  inscrip- 
tion sculptured  thereon, — "North  Carolina,  Declaration  of  Independence, 
Mecklenburg,  May  20,  1775. 


12  ADDENDA    TO    THE    WOULd's    PROGRESS,    1850-51.  [EDIT 

DEMOCRACY  of  England,  France  and  the  United  States— Compared. 

Votes  Votea 

Conntry.           Pop.           No.  Votes,            to  Country.                Pop,  No,  Votes,  to 

Pop.  ■  Pop. 

England,  17,000,000     630,721        1  in  26  I  Great  Britain  P  ooficn  nnn  sqa  •571  i  in    49 

Wales,         850,000       37,924        1  in  23  and  Ireland,  \  '^°P^"i"^  bdy,d71  1  m    4^ 

Scotland,  2,800,000       72.720        1  in  38  I  France,             34,000,000  250,000  1  in  137' 

Ireland,     8,000,000       98,006        1  in  81  |  United  States,  20,000,000  2,750,000  i  in      7 

DENMARK.  Battle  of  Idstedt,  between  the  Danes  and  Schleawig-Holsteiners ; 
Danes  lose  116  killed  and  2,373  wounded,  Holsteiners  retire,  but  advantage 
about  equal,  July  25,  1850,  See  Germany,  Austria,  &c.  The  Government 
of  Schleswig-Holstein  yields  to  the  Commissioners  of  the  Germanic  Confed- 
eration, Jan.  10, 1851.  The  Danish  mining  operations  in  Greenland  1851  pro- 
duced large  quantities  of  copper  ore,  yielding  about  sixty  per  cent. 
DIAMONDS.  The  Koh-i-noor,  or  "  Mounlain  of  Light,"  valued  at  £2,000,000, 
received  in  England  from  India,  July,  1850.  The  actual  value  of  this  Dia- 
mond tested  by  Mr.  Jeffrey's  tables  is  ^£260,000.  It  is  however  exceeded 
by  the  famous  Portugal  Diamond,  weighing  1,680  carats;  this  Diamond  has 
never  been  cut  or  polished,  and  is  valued  by  the  Portuguese  Government  at 
£5,644.000!  The  Durra-i-Noor  or  Sea  of  Light,  the  property  of  the  East 
India  Company,  a  blue  Diamond  belonging  to  the  Queen,  another  in  Mr. 
Hope's  collection  (177  grs.)  with  several  parti-colored,  and  a  green  diamond 
owned  by  the  King  of  Saxony,  are  among  the  most  remarkable  gems  of  the 
present  day.  Several  pink  diamonds  were  exhibited  in  the  "  Crystal  Pal- 
ace," also  a  Black  diamond  weighing  350  carats,  the  property  of  Mr.  Joseph 
Mayer. 
DIRECTORY,  New  York  City.  The  earliest  published  was  in  1786,  a 
small  volume  of  82  pages,  printed  by  Shepherd  Kollock,  Wall  street ;  the 
names  of  the  individuals  and  firms  include  about  900,  and  occupy  33  pages, 
the  remainder  being  filled  with  general  statistics  of  the  City,  U.  S.  Govern- 
ment, Post  Office  regulations,  &c.  In  his  address  the  Editor  states  it  was  the 
"  first  Directory  ever  attempted  in  this  country."  The  N.  Y.  Hist.  Society 
possesses  a  complete  set  from  its  first  publication  to  1851.  • 
DOLLAR.  This  word  is  said  to  have  originated  from  the  following  circum- 
stance. In  1516  a  silver  mine  was  discovered  at  St.  Joachim's  Thai  (or  dale) 
in  Bohemia,  the  proprietor  of  which  issued  a  number  of  silver  pieces  which 
were  called  Joachim's  Thaler;  by  subsequent  corruptions  this  word  became 
Dollar,  the  mark  $  is  simply  a  monogram  of  the  letters  P.  S. — i.  e,  Peso  the 
Spanish  v/ord  for  Dollar. 
DRAMATIC  FUND  ASSOCIATION.  This  benevolent  institution  for  the  re- 
lief of  decaved  or  disabled  members  of  the  profession,  in  this  country,  was 
founded  in  New  York,  April  1848. 
EARTH,  Rotation  of  the.  M.  Foucault's  public  demonstration  in  Paris,  May 
1851,  of  the  rotation  of  the  earth,  was  preceded  by  a  similar  exhibition  bj 
M.  Guyot,  Paris,  1836. 
EDUCATION.  General  convention  of  the  friends  of  education  in  the  United 
States,  at  Philadelphia,  Oct.  19,  1849,  and  again,  Aug.  1850.  The  report  of 
the  Board  of  Education  of  New  York,  for  1851,  shows  the  number  of  children 
attending  the  207  schools  in  that  district,  as  107,363.  Yearly  outlay, 
$274,794;  average  expense  of  each  child  for  the  scholastic  year  of  204  days, 
is  $6  86.  The  London  Athenjeum  in  referring  to  this  report  states  that  the 
governmental  cost  of  each  criminal  in  Great  Britain  is,  from  first  to  last, 
nearly  £400 !   and  nobly  endorses  that  great  truth  in  political  economy, 

*  Before  the  late  revolution.    At  the  election  in  December,  1851,  the  sufTrage  was  nominally 
•  universal,'  and  the  number  of  votes  was  about  8,000,000, 


ERi]  ADDENDA    TO    THE    WORLD's   PROGRESS,    1850-51.  IS 

that  "  The  cheapest  system  of  police  is  education  !"  Students  in  New-York 
Free  Academj^,  1851,  382 ;  professors  and  tutors  17. — F.  A.  Catalogue  {See 
Schools.)  In  the  United  States  there  are  217  colleges  and  professional  schools, 
120  colleges  proper,  43  theological,  17  law,  37  medicine.  Of  the  colleges  13 
are  Baptist,  8  Episcopalian.  13  Methodist,  and  11  Roman  Catholic.  The 
number  of  volumes  in  the  diflerent  collegiate  libraries  is  871,800. — American 
Almanac. 

ELECTRIC  TELEGRAPH.  The  crude  idea  was  started  by  Schwenter,  a  Ger- 
man, in  1636. — Lond.  Pldlos.  Jaur.  In  1684  the  celebrated  Hooke  presented 
a  communication  to  the  Royal  Society,  "  showing  how  to  communicate  one's 
mind  at  great  distances,  not  by  sound  but  by  sight!" — Chambers.  In  1774, 
Le  Sage  of  Geneva  submitted  a  plan  for  an  electric  telegraph,  to  Frederick 
the  Great,  as  ''  the  monarch  best  capable  of  realizing  it."  In  1787,  Lomond, 
of  Paris,  exhibited  to  Arthur  Young  ■'  an  alphabet  of  motions"  appertaining 
to  an  electric  telegraph ;  the  distances  to  be  accomplished  by  which.  Young 
expressly  states,  "  depended  solely  on  the  length  of  the  wires."  In  Jan.  1851, 
twenty-two  thousand  miles  of  a  continuous  telegraphic  route,  extending  from 
Halifax,  N.  S.,  to  New  Orleans,  and  as  far  West  as  Dubuque,  Iowa,  was  ac- 
complished as  follows :  Professor  Morse's  principle,  12,000  miles ;  Messrs. 
House  and  Bain  10,000  miles. — Scien.  American.  Dec.  2,  1851,  a  dispatch  of 
84  words  was  sent  from  New  York  to  New  Orleans,  a  distance  of  1,900  miles, 
and  an  answer  received  in  less  than  five  minutes ;  the  whole  distance  traversed 
being  3,800  miles. — N.  Y.  Commercial.  BakewelFs  copying  electric  telegraph 
expei'imented  on,  Apr.  1851,  gave  fac-similes  of  autographs,  at  the  rate  of 
120  to  150  letters  per  minute.  The  submarine  telegraph  between  Dover  and 
Calais,  completed  Oct.  17,  opened  for  public  use  Nov.  13,  1851.  United 
States  brig  Dolphin,  sailed  Oct.  1851,  upon  her  expedition  to  run  a  line  of 
soundings  for  telegraphic  purposes  across  the  Atlantic. 

EMIGRATION  to  the  U.  S.  A.  Passengers  arrived  in  the  year  ending  June 
30,  1849,  299,610,  of  whom  213,736  landed  at  New  York;  in  1850  the  num- 
ber was  315,333,  of  whom  212. 796  landed  in  New  York. 

ENGLAND.  Resignation  of  the  Russell  Ministry  Feb.  22,  1851 ;  after  several 
unsuccessful  attempts  by  Lord  Stanley  to  form  a  cabinet.  Lord  J.  Russell 
and  his  colleagues  resumed  their  ministerial  functions.  Second  reading  of 
the  prohibited  Affinity  Marriage  Bill,  lost  in  the  House  of  Peers,  Feb.  25, 
by  a  vote  of  16  to  50  ;  Lord  Campbell  and  the  Ecclesiastical  Bench  voting 
in  the  majority.  Great  Exhibition,  May  1st,  which  see.  Banquet  to  royal 
and  foreign  commissioners  of  Great  Exhibition,  on  board  American  steamer 
Atlantic  at  Liverpool,  by  Mr.  W.  Brown,  M.  P.,  July  12,  1851.  Oath  of 
Abjuration  (Jew)  Bill,  passed  by  the  Commons,  is  refused  a  second  read- 
fag  in  the  House  of  Lords,  July  17,  by  a  majority  of  36.  July  18,  Alderman 
Salomons,  the  Jewish  member  for  Greenwich,  not  permitted  to  take  his  seat. 
(Case  in  abeyance.)  Resignation  of  Lord  Palmerston,  Sec.  for  Foreign  Af- 
fairs, Dec.  1851. 

ENVELOPES  FOR  LETTERS.  Delarue's  machine  in  London  completes  no 
less  than  396,000  daily,  the  cutting,  folding,  and  gumming,  being  performed 
by  one  single  operation. — Illus.  News.  Dr.  Hawes'  three  machines  at 
Worcester,  Mass.,  complete,  count  and  pack  36,000  per  day,  and  prepa- 
rations are  making  for  a  contract  of  120,000  daily. —  W.  Spy. 

ERIE  CANAL  ENLARGEMENT.  The  passage  of  this  bill  defeated  in  the 
New  York  Senate  April  16,  1851,  by  the  withdrawal  and  resignation  of 
twelve  of  the  democratic  members.  The  bill  passed  by  new  Legislature, 
1851. 

ERIE  RAILROAD.     This  great  undertaking,  extending  from  N.  Y.  city  to 


14  ADDENDA    TO    THE    WORLD's    PROGRESS;     1850-51.  [EXP 

Dunkirk,  469  miles,  was  opened  by  President  Fillmore.  Mr.  Webster,  &c., 
15tli  May,  1851.  Original  charter  1832;  cost  nearly' $20,000,OJU  ;  first 
regular  journey  19th  May,  1851,  the  whole  distance  being  completed  in  17 
hours,  or  nearly  27-2  miles  per  hour. 

EXHIBITION.  GREAT,  LONDON,  opened  by  the  Queen,  May  1,  closed  Oct. 
11,1851.  This  building,  erected  for  the  exhibition  of  the  "World's  In- 
dustry" in  arts,  manufactures,  &c.,  covered  nearly  nineteen  acres,  being  four 
times  the  size  of  St.  Peter's  at  Rome.  It  was  erected  from  the  designs  of 
Joseph  Paxton,  almost  entirely  of  glass  and  iron  ;  the  cubic  contents  of  the 
building  were  33,000,000  feet;  height  of  the  transept,  108  feet. — 
Total  cash  receipts  from  privileges,  season  tickets  and  visitors,       -        -       -       j6505,107 

DC  which  ^356,808  25  was  taken  in  the  Is.  days. 
Expenses  and  appropriations,  355,000 

Net  profit,         -       £150,107 

Total  number  of  visitors,  6,201,856 

Laraest  number  of  admissions  on  closing  day,  being  at  5  P.  M.,        -        -        -  10S,000 

Nurhber  of  Exhibitors,  17,000 

Council  Medals  awarded  to  Great  Britain, 79  ;  Germany,  12 ;  Austria,  4 ;  Belgium,  2 ;  Tuscany. 
2;  Spain,  1 ;  France,  56;  United  States,  5;  Russia,  3 ;  Switzerland,  2;  Holland,!;  Rome, 
1 ;   and  Turkey,  1.     Total,  169. 
Jury  Medals,  of  which  9  were  awarded  to  U.  S.,  2,918. 

Tiie  number  of  letters  received  by  the  acting  Commissioners  during  their  otficial  session  was 
Thirly-stven  Thousand  ! 

It  is  not  a  little  to  the  honor  of  the  United  States  that  the  articles  com- 
bining the  greatest  utility  were  exhibited  by  American  citizens ;  McCor- 
mic's  Reaping  Machine  being  one  of  the  most  important  and  successful. 

EXPLOSIONS,  Fires,  E.^rthquakes,  &c.  Portuguese  frigate.  Donna  Maria  II., 
of  32  guns,  accidentally  destroyed  by  explosion  at  Macao,  China,  Oct.  29, 
1850,  when  188  of  the  244  men  on  board  perished.  At  Fredericton,  N.B., 
near  300  houses  destroyed  by  fii'e,  Nov.  11,  1850.  A  terrible  hurricane  at 
Cape  Girardeau,  Mo.,  Nov.  27,  1850,  and  many  of  the  principal  buildings 
destroyed.  Steamer  Anglo-Norman,  on  a  pleasure  trip,  explodes  at  New  Or- 
leans, Dec.  13,  1850,  nearly  100  persons  killed,  wounded  and  missing. 
Violent  storm,  Boston  and  vicinity,  March  17, 18.19, 1851,  miusual  rise  of  tide, 
and  great  damage  to  property  on  wharves.  Earthquake  at  Valpai'aiso,  South 
America,  April  2,  the  most  violent  since  that  of  1822,  few  lives  lost,  but  great 
destruction  of  property.  Great  storm  on  the  whole  sea-coast  of  Massachu- 
setts, April  15, 16, 17,  greatly  exceeding  the  injuries  of  the  preceding  month. 
The  city  of  Amalfi,  and  neighboring  towns  southeast  of  Naples,  visited  by  a 
series  of  shocks  by  earthquake  July  14,  and  3,000  persons  supposed  to  have 
perished.  Volcanic  eruptions  from  8  craters,  in  the  mountains  of  Martin- 
ique, West  Indies,  Aug.  5.  Tornado,  attended  with  great  injury  to  build- 
ings, &c.,  at  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  Aug.  15  ;  this  was  preceded  by  storms  and 
freshets  in  Iowa  and  Tennessee.  On  the  17th  great  damage  to  shipping  at 
Castries,  St.  Lucia,  by  an  extraordinary  commotion  of  the  sea.  A  destruc- 
tive tornado  passed  over  Waltham,  West  Cambridge,  and  Medford,  Mass., 
Aug.  22,  doing  much  damage  in  its  progress.  Same  day  a  violent  storm 
blew  down  and  unroofed  buildings,  &c.,  at  Tallahassee,  Florida. 

EXPORTS  AND  IMPORTS,  U.  S.  A.  Year  ending  June  30,  1849,  imports 
$147,857,439,  exports  $145.755,820 ;  excess  of  imports,  $2101,619.  Imports 
for  year  ending  June  30,  1850,  $178,138  318.  Year  ending  June  30,  1851, 
imports  $210,000,000,  exports  $188,000,000  ;  excess  of  imports  $22,000,000. 
Specie  imported  same  period,  $5,000,000 ;  do.  exported,  chiefly  California 
gold,  $29,000,000.  The  amount  of  imports  in  1850,  for  articles  of  dress  and 
personal  ornament,  was  stated  by  N.  Y.  Express  to  be  $18,476,768. 

EXPORTS  OF  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  1849,  .£58,848,042— being  an  in- 


f'RAJ  ADDENDA    TO    THE    WORLd's    PROGRESS,    1850-51.  15 

crease  of  £9,902,717  over  those  of  1848.  Of  the  exports  there  were  : — To 
British  Colonies.  Xl6.594.087  ;  China,  ^61.445. 959  ;  United  States  of  America, 
£9,564.909  ;  Cuba,  £733.169  ;  Brazil,  £2.067,299;  Mexico  and  Central  South 
America,  £3,757,468.  In  1850  the  British  exports  were,  to  United  States, 
£14,891,951,  and  to  forty-four  other  countries,  £37,847.085;  total  exports, 
1850,£71,867,885. — Pari.  Returns.  Imports  by  Great  Britain.  1851,  amount 
exclusive  of  London  was,  England,  £6,691,629 ;  Scotland,  £1,961,981 ;  Ireland, 
£2,055,925.— 7/Zus,  News. 

FIRES.  At  San  Francisco,  $1,500,000  worth  of  property  destroyed,  Dec.  24, 
1849  Another  at  same  place,  May  4,  1850 ;  200  buildings,  value  $4,000,000, 
destroyed.  Another  at  same  place,  300  houses,  &c.,  value  $5,000,000 
burnt,  June  14,  1850. — See  Explosions. 

FIRE-ANNIHILATORS.  The  Water  Bomb  for  extinguishing  fires,  invented 
by  Zachary  Greyl,  a  German,  1721 ;  another  by  an  English  chemist,  1823, 
Phillips's  annihilator,  experimented  with  in  New  York,  1851.  Salomon's 
gas  engine  exhibited,  Cincinnati,  Sept.  1851 ;  and  one  by  W.  Lay,  at  Phila- 
delphia, same  5'ear.  First  fire  engines  in  New- York,  brought  from  London, 
1713,  with  hooks  and  ladders. 

FLAX-COTTON.  M.  Claussen's  patent,  in  1850,  for  a  new  preparation  of  hemp, 
under  the  title  of  cotton-flax,  having  excited  much  attention,  extensive  pre- 
parations were  made  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  for  the  cultivation  of  flax 
for  the  new  material.  A  sample  of  60  tons  manufactured  for  a  Manchester 
house,  I  flax  and  i  cotton,  was  considered  decidedly  successful,  when  the 
British  Board  of  Trade  agreed  to  purchase  a  company's  produce  of  100,000 
acres,  at  the  rate  of  £l2  per  acre.  In  the  western  states,  and  particularly 
Ohio,  the  subject  excited  great  interest,  as  a  branch  of  trade  well  suited  for 
the  agricultural  facilities  of  that  district. 

FLOGGING  IN  THK  NAVY.  Bill  to  abolish  it  passed  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives of  the  United  States,  131  to  29,  Sept.  19, 1850.  Mr.  Brodhead  of  Penn- 
sylvania, presented  a  petition  in  Senate,  Dec.  17,  1851,  praying  for  "  restor- 
ation of  flogging  in  the  United  States  Navy." 

FLORIDA,  1851.  White  population  47,167  ;  free  colored  925;  slaves,  39,309; 
total  87,401.  Farms  in  cultivation  4,304;  manufacturing  establishments 
producing  annually  upwards  of  $500,121. —  Census  Returns. 

FRANCE,  1849.  Nov.  9,  M.  Poussin,  French  minister  to  the  U.  S.,  having  been 
dismissed  by  the  American  government,  sails  for  France.  Nov.  12,  trial  of 
the  political  offenders  of  June  1848  ends  at  Versailles  ;  11  are  acquitted,  20 
convicted  and  sentenced — 17  to  transportation  for  life,  3  to  imprisonment  for 
five  years.  Nov.  15,  Ledrja  RoUin  and  30  other  accused  persons,  absent  from 
trial,  are  sentenced  to  transportation  for  life.  1850,  Jan.  1.  The  President 
creates  his  uncle  Jerome  a  marshal  of  France.  April  15,  300  soldiers  drown- 
ed at  Anglers  by  the  fall  of  a  bridge.  May  16,  the  French  ambassador  re- 
called from  London  in  consequence  of  a  dillaculty  connected  with  an  English 
claim  on  Greece.  May  31,  new  electoral  law  restricting  the  right  of  suffrage, 
passed.  June  21,  an  arrangement  Avith  England  on  the  Greek  dispute. 
June  24,  dotation  bill,  giving  the  President  2,160,000  francs  per  ann.,  passed. 
Dec.  the  French  government  protests,  at  Vienna,  against  the  proposed  ex- 
tension of  the  Germanic  Confederation  beyond  the  Alps.  1851,  Jan.  3,  the 
Ministry  resign.  Feb.  8,  the  Presidential  Dotation  Bill  proposing  an  additional 
grant  of  1,800,000  francs,  rejected  in  the  assembly.  March  25,  Declaration  at 
Honolulu  of  arrangement  of  difficulties  between  the  Haisvaian  government 
and  the  French  republic.  July  5,  report  of  sub-committee  on  petitions,  for 
revision  741,011;  for  revision  and  prolongation  of  powers  370,511;  for  pro- 
longation of  powers  12,103;  total  signatures  1,123,165.   July  19,  question  of 


16  ADDENDA    TO    THE    WOULd's    PROGRESS,    1 850-5 i.  [gOL 

revision  of  French  Constitution  again  taken  in  Assembly,  when  the  minority 
was  declared  97  less  than  the  three-fourths  required  by  the  constitution.  Dec. 
1,  Revolution  in  France  ;  Louis  Napoleon  by  a  coup  cUilat  seizes  the  reins 
of  government,  dissolves  the  National  Assembly;  declares  a  state  of  sie^-e  ;  ar- 
rests the  Members  of  the  Assembly ;  constitutes  an  entire  new  Ministry. 
The  President  proposes  the  instant  restoration  of  universal  suffrage ;  an 
immediate  election  by  people  and  army  of  a  President,  to  hold  office  for  ten 
years,  to  be  supported  bj^"  a  council  of  state,  and  two  houses  of  Legislature. 
The  revolution  creates  an  intense  excitement.  Dec.  10,  the  vote  of  the  army 
shows  a  large  majorityfor  Louis  Napoleon.  Resistance  to  the  usurpation  is 
shown  in  various  parts  of  France,  but  the  overwhelming  power  of  the  ainiy, 
and  a  "  state  of  siege"  in  33  departments,  crushes  all  open  opposition.  Dec. 
20,  the  election,  under  various  controlling  influences,  results  in  the  confirm- 
ation of  Louis  Napoleon  as  President  for  10  j^ears,  bj^  a  vote  of  about  seven 
millions  out  of  eight  millions.  The  French  census  of  1851  shows  a  total  pop- 
ulation of  35,500,000.  The  number  of  foreigners  domiciled,  of  all  nations, 
exceeds  1,000,000,  of  which  75,000  are  British,  or  about  one-half  the  British 
residents  previous  to  the  revolution  of  1848. 

GAS.  First  introduced  in  U.  S.  in  City  of  Baltimore  1820,  and  shortly  after  in 
Boston,  New  York  and  Philadelphia. — Sci.  American.  Opposed  in  Italy 
by  the  Pope  (Gregory  XVI.)  as  "  subversive  of  religion  "  in  suppressing  the 
sale  of  wax  candles  for  the  shrines. —  Gas  Journal.  Water  Gas  discovered 
by  Lavoisier,  circa  1790. — Sci.  American.  Paine's  Water  Gas  spoken  of 
during  the  last  5  or  6  years,  but  appears  to  have  been  accomplished  by  the 
French  Chemists.  Superior  gas  from  wood  and  fibrous  matter,  the  discovery 
of  a  German,  used  at  the  R.  R.  Depot  at  Munich,  1851.  In  1847  the  expense 
of  gas  at  the  London  Gen.  Post  Office  was  X3.047 ;  increased  facilities  by  the 
Gas  Co.  gradually  reduced  the  charges  in  1850,  when  the  whole  amount  paid 
by  the  Post  Office  was  ill, 485. 

GEORGIA.  Population  in  1850  was,— white,  513,083  ;  free  colored,  2,586 ;  slaves, 
362.966;  federal  representative  pop.  733,448. —  Census  Returns. 

GERMANY.  The  Archduke  John  resigns  his  office  as  head  of  the  central  power 
at  Frankfort.  Dec.  20, 1849.  The  Schleswig-Holsteiners  under  Gen.  Willisen, 
engage  the  Danes  at  Idstedt,  in  a  bloody  but  indecisive  battle,  July  25, 1850. 
The  Schleswig-Holsteiners  attempt  to  take  Frederickstadt,  but  are  repulsed 
by  the  Danes  and  lose  500  men,  Oct.  5,  1850.  Difficulties  in  Hesse-Cassel, 
between  the  Elector  and  his  people,  in  regard  to  the  mode  of  taxation.  Aus- 
tria aud  Prussia  respectively  send  armies  to  the  Electorate,  to  take  opposite 
parts  in  the  struggle  ;  but  they  are  soon  after  withdrawn,  without  collision, 
Sept.— Nov.  1850. 

GIPSIES.  A  company  from  England  arrived  in  Cecil  county,  Maryland,  in 
March  1851,  bringing  with  them  all  their  wandering  habits  and  peculiarities. 

GLOBES,  MONSTER.     Originally  exhibited  in  Paris  1823,  and  a  more  perfect 
one  by  M.  Gu^rin  in  1844,  which  he  styled  the  Georama. — Art.  Jl.   Wyld's 
Monster  Globe  erected  in  London  1851.  employed  300  men  nearly  30  days  in 
fitting  up  the  interior. — ///.  News. 
GOLD.    Received  from  California,  in  port  of  New  York,  1851, 

•Tanuary,         -  -  -        $2,890,903 

February  -  -  -      4,363,471 

March,  -  -  -  1,951,055 

April,      ....      2,02.3,119 

May,  .  -  .  2,282,388 

June,      ....      3,975,355 

Gold  discovered  at  Opkir,  Bathurst  District,  Australia,  by  Mr.  Hargreaves, 
in  Feb.  1851 ;  and  at  Port  Philip,  in  June,  same  year.    One  piece  weighed 


July, 

$3,094,311 

August, 

-      4,105,689 

Saptember, 

3,237,460 

October 

-      3,756,241 

Nov.  to  21st, 

5,233,813 

hun]  addenda  to  the  world's  progress,  1850-51.  17 

3  lbs.  10  oz. ;  and  Dr.  Kerr  found  in  one  day  over  102  lbs.,  value  £4000  ster- 
ling. The  diggings  are  estimated  at  300  miles  in  extent.  Gold  mines  re- 
ported to  be  discovered  in  the  province  of  Gerona,  Spain,  Oct.  1851.  Nearly 
.£750,000  sterling  was  raised  in  London,  Nov.  1851,  for  California  and  Aus- 
tralian gold  mining  operations. 

GREECE.  Lord  Palmerston's  note  to  the  Greek  government,  Nov.  1851,  pro- 
duces great  sensation  at  Athens,  and  the  ministerial  crisis  likely  to  end  in 
favor  of  the  Russian  party. 

GUN  COTTON.  Discovered  by  Prof.  Schoenbein,  in  Germany,  1846,  but  its 
practical  utility  for  mining  purposes  supersedes  its  use  in  tii-e-arms. 

GUTTA  PERCHA.  Previous  to  1844,  the  very  name  of  gutta  percha  was  un- 
known to  European  commerce.  In  that  year  two  cwt.  was  shipped  experi- 
mentally from  Singapore.  The  exportation  of  gutta  percha  from  that  port 
rose  in  1845  to  169  piculs  (the  picirl  is  1330  lbs.) ;  in  1846,  to  5,364  ;  in  1847, 
to  9,292 ;  and  in  the  first  seven  months  of  1848,  to  6,768  piculs.  In  the  first 
four  and  a  half  years  of  the  trade,  21,598  piculs  of  gutta  percha,  valued  at 
$274,190,  were  shipped  at  Singapore,  the  whole  of  which  were  sent  to  Eng- 
land, with  the  exception  of  15  piculs  to  Mauritius,  470  to  the  continent  of 
Europe,  and  922  to  the  United  States.  The  great  variety  of  articles  for  do- 
mestic use,  the  ornamental  arts,  &c.,  to  which  this  material  has  been  applied, 
has  given  employment  to  thousands,  not  only  in  the  factories  of  our  own 
and  other  countries,  but  also  to  the  gatherers  in  the  Indian  Archipelago, 
with  whom  it  at  present  constitutes  one  of  their  most  profitable  articles  of 
export. 

HAMBURGH.     Occupied  by  4,000  Austrian  troops,  Jan.  1851. 
HATS,  STRAW.    This  branch  of  trade  is  principally  carried  on  in  Massachu- 
setts.    At  Medfield  the  value  of  Bonnets  made  in  1851  was  ^^134,000 ;  Fox- 
boro'  for  the  same  period,  $122,000 ;  and  in  Franklin  $160,000.     In  Boston 
city  alone  there  are  over  300  sewers. 
HESSIAN  FLY.  This  plague  to  agriculturists  was  introduced  into  this  country 
by  the  foreign  mercenaries  on  Long  Island,  1777,  from  their  baggage  or  in 
the  forage  of  their  horses. 
HUMAN  RACE.     Dr.  Pickering  enumerates  eleven  different  races,  of  which 
the    names    and    numbers,    supposing    the  whole    human  family   to   be 
900,000;  000,  are  as  follows  : 

Abyssinian,    -  -  -  3,000,000 

Papuan,  -  -  -      3,000,000 

Negrillo,        -  -  -  3,000,000 

Australian,         -  -  -         500,000 

Hottentot,      -  -  -  500,000 

Dr.  P.  supposes  that  there  have  been  at  least  two  centres  whence  these  dif- 
ferent races  have  been  derived,  one  in  Asia  and  the  other  in  Africa ;  he  does 
not  support  the  original  unity  of  the  races  in  one  parent  stem. — See  Picker- 
i'lig's  Races  of  Men,  1861.  Professor  Agassiz  contends  for  a  primitive 
ubiquity,  or  different  types  of  humanity  co-existent  in  different  climes  and 
countries. 

HUNGARY.  The  fortress  of  Comorn  surrenders  to  the  Austrians,  September 
27,  1849.  Count  Louis  Batthyani,  late  prime  minister  of  Hungary,  shot  at 
Pesth,  at  the  sole  urgency  of  Haynau,  October  7,  1849.  In  his  visit  to  Lon- 
don, September,  1850,  Haynau  was  attacked  and  severely  maltreated  for  his 
cruelty  in  the  late  Hungarian  war.  General  Bem  dies  at  Aleppo,  December 
9.  The  Austrian  government  and  the  Ottoman  Porte,  in  Feb.,  1851,  con- 
clude on  a  general  amnesty  towai'ds  the  Hungarian  refugees,  eight  only  ex- 
cepted, amongst  whom  is  Kossuth.     Mr.  Charles  Brace,  an  American,  im- 


While,    - 

350,000,000 

Mongolian,  - 

-      300,000,000 

Malayan, 

120,000,000 

Telingan,     - 

60,000,000 

Negro, 

55,000,000 

Ethiopian,   - 

5,000,000 

18  ADDENDA    TO    THE   WORLd's   PROGRESS,    1850-51.  [iRO 

prisoned  in  Hungary  May  23,  on  a  charge  of  being  an  agent  of  TJjhazy  and 
Cretz,  and  travelling  with  revolutionary  books,  &c.,  for  the  purpose  of  ex- 
citing rebellion.  The  authorities  of  Pesth.  November  15th,  forbid  the  distri- 
bution of  all  foreign  journals,  including  those  intended  for  editors  of  news- 
p|ipers,  until  decision  is  received  as  to  what  papers,  &c.,  shall  be  admitted. 
Louis  Kossuth,  ex-governor  of  Hungary,  after  a  series  of  vicissitudes, 
during  which  he  was  nobly  protected  by  the  Ottoman  Porte,  visits  England 
on  his  route  to  this  country,  landing  at  New- York,  December  5,  18-51.  where, 
as  in  England,  he  was  received  with  every  demonstration  of  friendship  and 
liberality,  in  return  for  his  great  exertions  to  procure  the  freedom  of  his 
native  country.  His  arrival  in  New- York  was  known,  per  telegraph,  at  Mil- 
waukie.  1,000  miles  distant,  in  less  than  fifteen  minutes.  Great  Kossuth- 
procession,  Saturday.  December  6th,  1851.  This  was  followed  by  a  public 
banquet,  professional  dinners,  &c.,  &c. ;  Kossuth's  semi-official  interview 
with  the  President  at  Washington,  December  31.  He  is  formally  presented 
to  the  Senate  of  the  United  States,  January  5,  1852. 

ILLINOIS,  Population  of  in  1850  was,— white,  846,104;  colored,  5,366;  farms 
in  cultivation,  76,208;  dwelling-houses,  146,544;  manufactories  producing 
annually  ^500  and  upwards,  3,099. — Census  Retwrns. 

INDEX  Expurgatory.  In  1850  the  "  Congregation  of  the  Index"  among  other 
works  placed  on  their  pages  Professor  Vericour's  (Cork  College)  "  Historical 
Annals  of  Christian  Civilization." — Ilhistrated  News.  In  1851,  D'Harmon- 
ville's  "  Diet,  de  Dates,"  1844,  Professor  Whateley's  "  Elements  of  Logic,"  and 
Henry's  "  Historical  Institutions  of  Egyptians,"  were  added  to  the  list.  The 
last  author,  however,  "made  due  submission  to  the  Church." — Giornale  di 
Roma,  April,  1851. 

INDIA,  British.  A  fourth  presidency  contemplated  by  Great  Britain,  Nov.  1851, 
and  a  proposal  to  remove  the  seat  of  government  from  Calcutta  to  Lahore. 

INDIANA,  1850.  White  population,  983,634;  free  colored,  5,100.  Total, 
988  734.  Farms  in  cultivation,  93,896  ;  manufactories  producing  annually 
S500  and  upwards,  4,326. —  Census  Returns. 

INDIA  RUBBER.  The  natives  of  Hindostan  were  the  first  to  collect  this  sub- 
stance, which  was  introduced  into  England  in  1735,  for  the  purpose  of  re- 
moving pencil  marks  from  paper. — AlJicn.  In  1772  a  cubical  one-half  inch 
of  this  substance  cost  3s.  sterling.  Mr.  Macintosh,  of  England,  was  the  first 
to  manufacture  the  prepared  gum  for  its  present  innumerable  applications. 
Cuirasses  of  vulcanized  rubber  were  introduced  in  the  French  army,  1851, 
and  said  to  be  biillet-proof  (?)  The  daily  product  of  India  rubber  shoes, 
made  in  the  United  States,  is  calculated  at  15,000,  at  an  annual  profit  of 
nearlj'  $200  000. — Farmer  and  Mechanic. 

INOCULATION.  The  small-pox  was  introduced  into  the  United  States 
about  1517  ;  and  so  late  as  the  year  1769  we  find  the  practice  of  inoculation 
prohibited  by  law  in  Virginia, 

IOWA.  The  population  of  this  territory,  according  to  census  returns  1850, 
was  192  214,  and  the  aggregate  valuation  of  taxable  property  $22,623,334, 
being  an  increase  of  $4,114,567  since  1849. — Avierican  Almanac. 

IRON,  United  States,  1851. 

*  Annually. 

Mine  at  Salisbury,  Conn.,  yields,  -           .....  3,000  tons. 

Dulchessand  Columbia  Co.,  N.Y., 20,000    " 

EfS'xCo.,                15,000    " 

Clinton  Co.,                  -           -           -  3,000    " 

Franklin  Co., GOO    " 

St.  Lawrance  Co., 2,000    " 

Value  oflron  produced  in  the  U.S.,1S35,          ....  $6,000,000 

'.              "              "                 1837,    -                      ...  7,700,000 


LAN]  ADDENDA    TO    THE    WORLd's    PROGRESS,    1850-51.  19 

The  iron  ores  in  Ohio,  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  Illinois,  Maryland,  and  Virginia, 
from  recent  inspections,  are  found  to  be  inexhaustible. — Sci.  American.  In 
the  Gentleman's  Magazine,  1783,  is  a  recommendatoi-y  article  of  cast  iron, 
then  in  its  infancy,  which  is  there  said  to  be  "  capable  of  being  carried  to  a 
great  extent." 

JESUITS.  In  1851  this  body  published  in  Italy  a  "  Catechism  Filosnfio,"  or 
dialogue  on  Monarchical  "Constitutions,  containing  instructions  for  kings, 
how  far  thty  may  go  with  a  safe  conscience  in  breaking  promises  made  to 
their  people. — Edin.  Rev. 

JEWS.  Of  the  original  twelve  tribes,  two  only  are  at  present  known ;  the 
tribes  of  Judah  and  Benjamin.  The  Spanish  and  Portuguese  Jews  are  the 
descendants  of  Judah  ;  the  Jews  of  Germany  and  Northern  Europe  are  of  the 
tribe  of  Benjamin  —Art  Jour.  Dr.Raphael  (lecture  N.  Y.,  May,  1851),  states 
that  with  the  exception  of  Josephus.  who  wrote  in  Greek,  and  M.  Jost,  who 
wrote  in  German,  about  1841,  the  Jewish  historians  from  the  first  century 
(A.D.,)'to  the  nineteenth,  invariably  wrote  in  the  Hebrew  language.  Dr. 
Lykins,  of  the  Pottawattamie  Reservation,  exhibited  in  the  office  of  Indian 
Department,  Washington,  in  Dec.  1851,  a  Jewish  frontlet,  containing  por- 
tions of  the  Pentateuch,  which  he  received  from  P'ategwe.  a  Pottawattamie 
Indian,  iu  whose  family  it  had  been  from  time  immemorial.  There  were 
originally  two  of  these  indexes  of  Jewish  faith,  one  of  which  was  irrecover- 
ably lost  in  crossing  a  river. — Nat.  Intel.  This  curious  discovery  may  per- 
haps be  considered  as  strengthening  the  opinion  of  the  late  Major  Noah, 
that  the  American  Indians  are  descended  from  the  lost  tribes  of  the  Jewish 
people. 

KAFFIR  (or  Caffrk)  WAR,  in  South  Africa,  against  the  British  Colonists ; 
Jan.,  Feb.  1851,  several  engagements  and  many  lives  lost. — See  Africa. 

KENTUCKY.  The  census  returns  show  the  population  in  1850  to  have  been 
987.950;  of  whom  776,713  were  free,  and  211.237  slaves.  The  increase  com- 
pared with  returns  of  1840,  is,  free,  179,143  ;  slaves,  28,979 ;  total,  208,122. 
The  first  white  man  who  built  in  Kentucky,  was  James  Harrod,  in  1774,  at 
Harrod's  Station,  near  the  present  town  of  Harrodsburg. 

KOSSUTH.— &e  Hungary. 

LAND  OWNERS.  It  is  a  remarkable  fact,  that  of  all  the  constitutional  states 
of  Europe  or  America,  Great  Britain  is  the  country  in  which  the  people 
hold  the  smallest  stake  in  the  soil.  France  with  a  population  of  32,560,034, 
has  10,896,682  landed  proprietors,  or  one  in  three.  The  United  States,  with 
a  po])ulation  of  20,000  000,  has  5,000,000  proprietors,  or  one  in  four.  Belgium, 
with  a  population  of  5,022,677,  has  950,723  proprietors,  or  one  in  five.  Hol- 
land, a  commercial  and  shipping  country,  with  a  population  of  3,500  000,  has 
400,000  proprietors,  or  one  in  nine.  Sweden,  with  a  population  of  3,874,203, 
has  300,000  proprietors,  or  one  in  twelve.  While  Great  Britain  and  Ireland, 
with  a  population  of  27,041, 050,  have  only  633,421,  or  one  in  forty  of  the  popu- 
lation, including  freeholders  and  copyholders,  with  a  direct  interest  in  the 
soil. 

LANDS  (Public)  of  the  U.  S.  A.  Within  the  limits  recognized  by  treaties  and 
cessions  (see  American  Almanac,  1850,  p  179),  the  public  lands  covered  an 
estimated  area  of  1,584,000,000  acres.  To  the  30th  Sept.  1849,  146,000  000 
acres  had  been  sold,  leaving  unsold  an  area  of  1,438,000,  acres,  which  land, 
in  large  bodies  of  detached  tracts,  is  found  in  the  several  States  and  Terri- 
tories above  mentioned.  The  system  for  surveying  and  disposing  of  the 
public  lands  was  established  by  the  act  of  20th  May,  1785,  and  has  continu- 
ed to  the  present  time  but  with  slight  modifications,  viz. ;  every  township 
of  six  square  miles  is  to  be  divided  into  36  sections,  of  one  mile  square,  each 


20 


ADDENDA   TO   THE    WORLD's    PROGRESS,    1850-51. 


section  generally  containing  640  acres.  The  lands  are  then  proclaimed  by 
the  President  for  sale,  at  public  auction,  at  not  less  than  SI  25  per  acre,  and 
such  as  hereafter  remain  unsold  may  be  purchased  at  private  sale  at  that 
rate. — American  Almanac. 

Quantity  of  Public  Land  sold,  and  the  amount  paid  for  it,  in  each  Year,  from  1833  to  the 
Third  Quarter  of  1850. 


Years. 

Acres. 

Dollars. 

Years. 

Acres. 

Dollars. 

1833 

3,856,227-56 

4,972,284-84 

1843 

1,605,264-06 

2,016,O44-.30 

1834 

4,658,218-71 

6.099,981-04 

1844 

1,7.54.763-13 

2,207,678-04 

1835 

12.564,478-85 

15,999,804-11 

1845 

1.843,527-05 

2,470,303-17 

1836 

20,074,870-92 

25,167,833-06 

1846 

2,263,730-81 

2,904,637-27 

1837 

5,601,103-12 

7,007,523-04 

1847 

2,52 1,305 -.59 

3,296,404-08 

1838 

3,414,907-42 

4,305,564-64 

1848 

l,8S7..553-04 

2,621,615-26 

1839 

4,976,382-87 

6,464,556-79 

1849 

1,329,902-77 

1,756,890-42 

1840 

2,236,839-74 

2,789,637-53 

1850" 

869,082-32 

1,129,186-50 

1841 

1.164,796-11 

1,463.364-06 

1842 

1,129,217-58 

1,417.972-06 

Total + 

73,752,221-65 

$94,191,279-21 

'  Embracing  only  three  quarters  of  the  year,  t  Total  for  eighteen  years  and  three  quarters. 
LANGUAGE.  Ethnography  has  furnished  conclusive  evidence  that  the 
family  of  American  languages  have  had  a  common  origin  with  those  of 
Asia.  The  unity  of  all  human  language  must  be  considered  as  establishing 
an  identical  unity  of  all  the  human  races ;  all  dialects  must  be  regarded  as 
dialects  of  one  iiow  lost. — Dr.  Smyth's  Unity  of  Human  Races. 

LAW.  The  number  of  Lawyers  in  the  United  States,  in  March  1851,  was  21,979, 
or  about  one  to  every  tifteen  hundred  inhabitants. — Monthly  Law  Magazine. 
Estimating  their  average  receipts  at  SIOOO  per  annum,  their  aggregate 
income  would  reach  within  a  fraction  of  twenty-two  millions  of  dollars.  In 
1851  there  were  in  New  York,  4.740  lawyers;  in  Pennsylvania,  1,848;  in 
•Ohio,  2,031 ;  in  Massachusetts,  1,132  ;  in  Kentucky,  1,066 ;  and  in  Georgia, 
908. — Livingston's  Laiu  Register. 

LETTERS.  The  number  of  letters  transmitted  in  the  following  European 
countries  annually,  were  estimated,  in  March  1851,  as  follows: — 

Population.  Letters.  Pr.  Head. 

England,                -           -           -           29,000,000  320,000,000  11- 

France,            ....      36.000,000  108,000,000  3" 

Prussia,                 -           -           -           16,500,000  45.000,000  2-7 

Switzerland,               -           -           -        2,408,000  13.600,000  5-6 

Austria,                 -           -           -           37,000,000  23,000,000  0-6 
Being  rather  more  than  half  a  letter  iot  t&zh  inhabitant  of  the  Austrian  dominions. 

London  Watchman.  Vide  P.  Office. 

LIBRARIES  in  United  States,  1851.  Professor  Jewett,  of  the  Smithsonian  In- 
stitute, shows  the  number  of  libraries  to  March,  1851,  to  be  10,640,  and  the 
aggregate  number  of  volumes  3, 641. 765.  Of  these,  Harvard  comprises 
83,000;  Philadelphia  and  Loganian,  60,000;  Congressional,  50,000 ;  Boston 
Athenaeum,  56,000.  The  aggregate  number  of  volumes  in  182  of  the  largest 
libraries  was  stated  by  Mr.  Evans,  before  the  select  committee,  British  House 
of  Commons,  to  be  1.294.000.  The  Legislature  of  New- York,  in  1851,  voted 
an  appropriation  of  $75,000  for  the  erection  of  a  State  library  in  the  rear  of 
the  capitol  at  Albany.  Among  the  donations  to  this  library  is  one  from 
Austria  of  the  Pater  Noster  in  upwards  of  600  languages  and  dialects.  A  large 
portion  of  the  valuable  library  of  Congress  destroyed  by  fire  in  the  Cajitol, 
Dec,  1851. 

LINEN.  The  average  annual  import  of  linens  into  the  United  States  is  esti- 
mated at  about  S6^500,000.  The  only  manufactory  in  the  United  States  is 
that  of  Mr.  Stevens,  at  Webster,  Massachussetts.  In  1840  the  flax  crop  in 
all  the  States  north  of  the  Ohio  river,  and  including  Maryland,  covered  some 


mas]     addenda  to  the  world''s  progress,  1850-51.      21 

four  millions  of  acres,  averaging  350  lbs.  flax  lint  per  acre ;  of  which  about 
one-third  is  fit  for  linen  fabric  ;  the  remainder,  say  ISOlbs.,  being  available  for 
paper  bagging,  &c.  The  excess  of  profit  in  the  culture  of  flax  compared  with 
cotton,  is  shown  by  A^.  Y.  Tribune,  April,  1851,  to  be  nearly  50  per  cent. 

LIGHTHOUSES.  In  July,  1850.  the  lighthouse  establishment  of  the  United 
States  numbered  315  lights  in  lighthouses,  and  40  floating-lights,  attended 
in  all  by  346  keepers,  exhibiting  over  3,000  lamps,  and  supported  at  an 
annual  expense  of  $141,153. 

LITHOGRAPHY.  A  process  for  printing  in  oil  by  different  stones,  according 
to  the  colors  required,  was  invented  byJMr.  Kronheim,  of  Pater  noster  Row, 
London,  in  March,  1851. 

LOCKS.  Mr.  Chubb,  of  London,  stated  before  the  Society  of  Arts  in  Jan., 
1851,  that  the  basis  of  all  security  in  modern  locks  is  found  in  the  old 
Egyptian,  the  original  of  the  patent  tumbler  lock. — Illustrated  News.  His 
lock,  however,  was  picked  by  the  celebrated  Mr.  Hobbs,  of  New- York,  during 
the  session  of  the  Great  Exhibition,  1851.  Day  and  Newell's  parautoptic 
lock,  exhibited  in  the  Crystal  Palace,  is  susceptible  of  1,307,647,368,000 
changes  ;  the  time  required  for  effecting  the  whole  of  which  would  consume 
13,000,000  years. 

LOTTERIES.  The  Maryland  Convention  of  1851  passed  a  resolution  abolish- 
ing all  lotteries  and  their  attendant  evils,  after  April,  1859. 

MANHATTAN.  This  term,  as  applied  to  the  island  on  which  the  city  of  New- 
York  stands,  is  taken  from  the  name  given  by  the  Indians  to  the  original 
Dutch  settlement  in  1621,  and  means  '^  the  place  where  they  (the  Indians)  all 
got  drunk !" 

MANUFACTURES.  The  increase  of  manufacturing  industry  in  Great  Britain 
in  sixty  years,  is  shown  by  the  following  table  of  the  raw  materials  used  in 
that  kingdom : 

Tn  1790.  In  1849. 

Wool,             ....  3,245,352  lbs.  76,756.183  lbs. 

Silk, 1,253,445    "  6,881,861    " 

Hemp,            ....  592,306    «  1,061,273    " 

Flax,          -           -     '     -           -           .  257,222    "  1,806,786    " 

Cotton,            ....  30,574,374    "  758,841,650    " 
See  "  Cotton,"  &c. 

MARYLAND.  The  new  Constitution  of  this  State  went  into  operation  on  4th 
July,  1851,  and  from  its  general  acceptance  promises  greatly  to  increase  the 
prosperity  of  the  State.  Population  by  the  census  of  1850,  582,506,  of  which 
89,800  were  slaves. 

MASKS.  Before  the  introduction  of  females  on  the  British  stage,  masks  were 
used  in  the  representation  of  female  characters',  by  the  male  actors  who 
were  no  longer  youthful. — Knight's  Shakspcare.  They  were  also  employed 
by  female  actors  in  the  early  stage  of  the  English  drama,  and  also  by  women 
when  travelling.  Miss  Livingston,  of  New-York,  who  married  Nicholas 
Bayard,  about  1749,  when  she  rode  out  in  cold  weather,  or  went  sleighing, 
wore  a  black  velvet  mask,  with  a  silver  button  or  mouthpiece  to  keep  it  on. 

MASSACHUSETTS.  The  polls,  population,  and  valuation,  for  the  last  four 
decennary  terms,  are  as  follows,  viz. : 

Polls.  PopTilatinn.  Valuation. 

1820,  -  -  -  125,715  -  -  523,287  -  -  $153,644,265  . 

1830,  -  -  -  150,691  •  -  610,408  -  -  208,908,107 

1840,  -  -  -  185,908  -  -  718,592  -  -  299,878,327 

1850,  -  -  -  245,142  -  -  994,665  -  -  597,936,969 

The  relative  increase  of  polls,  population,  and  property,  during  the  above 
periods,  omitting  fractions,  is  as  follows : 


22  ADDENDA   TO    THE    WORLD's    PKOGRESS,    1850-51.  [MET 

Polls.  Population.  Valuation, 

1820  to  1830,        -       -       28,000  -  -  17,000  -  -  $55,000,000 

1830  to  1840,       -        •       35,000  .  -  108,000  -  -  9i;000,O00 

1840  to  1850,       -        -        57,000  -  -  255,000  -  -  299,048,666 

In  this  State  systematic  beggary  is  unknown.  The  poor  are  provided  for  by 
law,  and  for  this  purpose  not  less  than  204  comfortable  alms-houses  are 
sustained  at  the  public  charge.  The  number  of  persons  relieved  or  sup- 
ported as  paupers,  in  the  year  1850,  was  25.981,  and  of  these  12,334  were 
foreigners,  the  larger  portion  being  from  Ireland.  The  weekly  cost  of  each 
pauper  in  alms-houses  was  Sl'OSs- ;  out  of  alms-houses,  $0*98.  Estimated 
value  of  pauper  labor  in  alms-houses,  S17,966.  Of  paupers  by  reason  of 
idiocy,  the  number  was  969  ;  while  that  from  intemperance  in  themselves, 
or  through  others,  was  not  less  than  14,674.  Number  of  pubhc  schools  in 
this  State,  1850,  was  3,878  ;  scholars  in  summer,  176,344  ;  in  winter  schools, 
194.403.  Male  teachers,  2,442  ;  female  do.,  5,985.  Average  expense  each 
scholar  in  Massachusetts  is  nearly  $8.  Value  of  public  school-houses  in 
1848  was  S2,750,000,  of  which  amount  S2,200,000  had  been  expended  since 
1838.  Criminal  prosecutions  in  1850  were  3,764,  of  which  the  convictions 
were  1,907.  Of  the  banks  in  Massachusetts,  there  are  29  in  Boston,  and  97 
in  various  parts  of  the  State ;  cash  capital,  independent  of  other  resources, 
$36,925,050;  circulation,  $17,005,826.  The  commerce  and  manufactures  of 
Mass.  have  advanced  100  per  cent,  in  the  last  ten  years — Am.  Al. ;  the  im- 
portations more  than  doubled,  and  its  tounaffe  has  increased  more  than  50 
per  cent.  The-Avealth  of  Boston  and  its  suburbs,  in  1840,  was  $120,000,000 ; 
in  1850  it  had  increased  to  nearly  $270,000,000.  The  annual  value  of  the 
boots  and  shoes  manufactured  in  Massachusetts  is  estimated  at  $18,000,000. 

MEDICINE.  The  first  medical  school  established  in  the  U.  S.  was  commenced 
in  Philadelphia  in  1768 ;  this  was  closed  during  the  first  war  with  Great 
Britain.  First  medical  degrees  conferred  were  by  King's  College,  New 
York,  1769.  Thatcher's  "  Brief  Guide  on  Small  Pox  and  Measles,"  Mass., 
1677,  was  the  first  medical  work  published  in  this  country.  Inoculation  for 
small  pox  introduced  by  Dr.  Z.  Boylston  of  Boston,  1677,  having  first  ex- 
perimented on  his  own  son  ;  Dr.  B.  Van  Beuren  first  practised  inoculation  in 
New- York.  The  first  recorded  post-mortem  examination  in  America  was 
that  of  Gov.  Sloughter,  by  Dr.  Johannes  Kutbyl  and  five  other  physicians 
of  New-York,  in  1691 ;  and  the  first  medical  meeting  was  held  in  New 
Brunswick,  N.  J.,  Vim.— Lit.  World. 
Medical  Sludents,fall  Session,  N.  Y.,  1S51. 

Coll.  Physicians  and  Surgeons,            ....  197 

Univei-sity  of  New-York,               .....      179 
N.  Y.  Medical  College, 69 

445 
Med.  Gaz. 
At  the  Female  Med.  College,  Philadelphia,  June,  1851,  there  were  forty 
students.      Doctor  or  Doctress  Elizabeth  Blackwell  practises  at  this  present 
(for  females  and  children)  in  N.  York  city. 

MESMERISM.  In  1776,  F.  A.  Mesmer  of  Germany  first  made  pubhc  his  doc- 
trine of  a  subtle  fluid  produced  by  planetary  influence  acting  on  the  nervous 
system  of  the  animal  frame.  Franklin  and  Dr.  Bailly  exposed  the  futility 
of  animal  magnetism,  which  theory,  however,  has  been  lately  revived,  both 
in  this  country  and  Europe.  Among  others  who  have  made  themselves 
conspicuous  in  favoring  this  absurdity,  is  the  celebrated  Miss  Martineau. — 
Haydn. 

METEORIC  Stone  falls  at  Charlotte,  N.  C,  accompanied  by  explosion.  &c., 
Oct.  31,  1849. 

METHODISTS.    The  general  "Book  Concern"  of  this  body  was  first  estab- 


mor]  addenda  to  the  wokld's  progress,  1850-51.  23 

lished  at  Philadelphia  in  1800. — Ezekiel  Cooper,  Agent ;  it  was  subsequently 
removed  to  New-York.  The  unfortunate  dissension  between  the  Northern 
and  Southern  Methodist  Conferences  on  the  question  of  Slavery  was  brought 
to  trial  in  New-York  in  May,  1851,  and  by  decision  of  Judge  Nelson,  of  U. 
S.  Circuit  Court,  in  Nov.  of  that  j^ear,  judgment  was  given  confirming  the 
full  right  and  title  of  the  Southern  Conference  to  their  proportion  of  the 
profits  of  the  General  Book  Concern,  the  value  in  18i5  being  |i750,000.  The 
case  will  be  moved  to  the  Superior  Court. 

MEXICO.  Gen.  Arista  inaugurated  president  of  republic  of  Mexico,  Jan. 
15, 1851.  The  initial  boundary  point  between  Mexico  and  the  U.  States,  es- 
tablished on  the  right  bank  of  the  Rio  Grande,  in  32°  22'  north  latitude,  by 
the  American  and  Mexican  commissioners,  and  a  monument  recording 
same,  erected  April  24,  1851.  Herrera,  ex-president  of  Mexico,  dies  in  that 
city  May  15,  1851.  Gen.  Carvajal's  insurrection  in  Northern  Mexico — his 
attack  on  Metamoras  Oct.  20,  1851, 

MEXICAN  WAR  with  the  United  States.  Mr.  Corwin,  Sec.  of  the  Treasury, 
estimates  the  direct  and  indirect  cost  of  this  war  to  the  U.  S.  at  nearly 
$300,000,000. 

MICHIGAN.  The  population  of  this  state  in  1850  was— Whites,  393,156; 
Free  colored,  2,547  ;  Federal  Rep.  Poi3ulation,  395,708. — Census  Returns. 

MILITIA,  U.  S.  The  Army  Register  for  1851,  gives  the  aggregate  number  of 
the  militia  force  throughout  the  States  as  2,006,456,  this  does  not  include 
Iowa,  California,  Minnesota,  Oregon,  Utah,  and  New  Mexico,  from  which 
there  are  no  returns.  Of  the  volunteer  companies  included  in  the  militia  re- 
turns, New-York  city  furnishes  170,  each  of  which  averages  60  members. 

MILITARY  BOUNTY  Land  Bill,  passed  the  House  of  Representatives,  U.  S. 
June  25,  1850.  It  gives  160  acres  of  land  for  12  months'  service  in  the  war 
of  1812,  and  the  Mexican  and  Indian  wai'S. 

MILITARY,  U.  S.  The  number  of  officers,  non-commissioned  officers,  privates, 
&c.,  attached  to  the  army  of  the  U.  States  on  1st  January,  1851,  was  10,334. 

MINNESOTA.  The  first  Territorial  legislature  closes  its  session  of  sixty  days 
Nov.  1,  1849.  The  census  retui-ns  show  the  population  of  this  territory  in 
1850  to  be — white,  6,038;  colored,  39— total,  6,077;  farms  in  cultivation, 
157  ;  manufactories  producing  annually  S500  and  upwards,  5. 

MISSISSIPPI.    The  literal  translation  of  the  aboriginal  name  is  Great  River; 
the  Indian  title  is  written  variously  by  the  early  journalists ;  Marquette 
spells  it  "  "  Missoissippy ;"  Heniippin  "  Meschasipi."     Sape  is  river,  running 
water  ;  the  prefix  means  '-'great"  'Mg." — Christ.  Rev. 
The  Population  of  Mississippi  in  1850  was  -. 

Whites.  Slaves. 

North  District, 170.459  134.508 

Soutli        " ]  29,550  177;060 

Totals,  ....        300,009  311,568 

The  Mississippi  Legislature  in  the  session  of  1850  abolished  the  common- 
law  form  of  pleadings,  for  a  system  similar  to  that  of  chancery  or  civil  law, 
and  appointed  a  special  officer  for  making  up  the  •'  Mississippi  Reports," 
to  the  exclusion  of  all  other  reporters.  These  reports  are  in  future  to  be 
printed  by  the  State  only. — Am.  Almanac. 
MORMONS.  The  number  of  Mormons  in  England  and  U.  S.  early  in  1851 
was  estimated  at  300,000.  Twenty-five  hundred  left  the  former  country 
for  Deseret  in  the  spring  of  that  year. — AUien'm.  In  April,  18ol.  their  elders 
and  preachers  were  gathering  converts  to  their  principles  in  Italy  and 
Switzerland,  and  especially  among  the  Waldenses ;  also  at  Paris.    Their 


24  ADDENDA    TO    THE    WORLD's    PROGRESS,    1850-51.  [nEW 

celebrated  "  Bible,"  professed  to  have  been  delivered  to  Joe  Smith,  was 
really  written  by  Rev.  Sol.  Spaulding,  about  1812,  as  a  supposed  history  of 
some  ancient  mounds  in  Ashtabula  co.,  Ohio.  The  MS.  is  said  to  have  been 
borrowed  by  one  of  the  Mormons,  who  copied  it  and  subsequently  printed 
the  same. — Athen.  A  copy  of  this  "  Bible"  in  the  English,  French,  and 
Danish  languages,  was  intended  for  exhibition  in  the  Crystal  Palace,  1851. 

MORTALITY,  New-York.  Deaths— 4,042  men— 3,683  women— 6,798  boys, 
and  5  234  girls — total,  19,755.  Greatest  mortality  in  a  single  month  in  July 
when  2,364  persons  deceased  ;  lowest  in  June,  when  1,385  died.  Deaths  in 
1850,  were  16,978— increase  1861,  2,777.— iV.  Y.  Ccmmercial. 

MOUNTAINS,  FORMATION  OF.  Prof  Gorini  of  the  University  of  Lodi,  in 
Oct.  1851,  by  a  remarkable  process,  illiistrated  the  formation  of  mountains 
by  melting  a  secret  composition,  and  allowing  it  gradually  to  consolidate, 
during  which  jDrocess  portions  continue  to  ooze  up  in  gradual  elevations, 
forming  ranges  and  chains  of  hills  exactly  corresponding  in  shape  with 
those  which  are  found  on  the  earth. — Lon.  Times. 

MUSIC.  Jenny  Lind,  the  "  Swedish  Nightingale  "  gave  her  first  concert  in 
America  at  Castle  Garden,  New  York.  1850.  The  proceeds  of  her  100  sub- 
sequent concerts  in  the  U.  States  and  Havana,  were  estimated  at  $^800,000. 

MURDER.  John  W.  Webster,  Professor  of  Chemistry  in  Harvard  College,  ex- 
ecuted in  Boston  for  the  murder  of  Dr.  Geo.  Parkman  (Nov.  1849,)  August 
30,  1850. 

NATIONAL  ACADEMY  OF  DESIGN,  N.  Y.  Instituted  1826;  number  of 
members  originally  limited  to  35;  but  now  increased  to  50. — A?-t  Jour. 

NAVY,  OF  THE  U.  S.  The  Naval  power  Sept.  1,  1851,  consisted  of  the  Penn- 
sylvania, 120  guns  ;  10  Ships  of  line,  74  guns  each  ;  the  Independence  Razee, 
64  guns  ;  12  Frigates  of  1st  class,  44  guns  each  ;  2  Frigates  of  2d  class,  36 
guns  each  ;  21  Sloops  of  war,  20  guns  each  ;  1  do.  18  guns,  and  4  of  16  guns 
each ;  4  Brigs  of  10  guns  each :  3  Schooners,  4  guns ;  5  Steam  Frigates, 
30  guns  (including  the  Mississippi) ;  the  Powhatan — number  of  gnus  not 
returned  ;  3  Steamers  1st  class  7  guns ;  3  do.  2d  class  8  guns,  and  4  do.  num- 
ber of  guns  not  returned,  with  5  store  Ships  and  Brigs,  24  guns. 

NAVY,  BRITISH.  The  Naval  force  of , the  United  Kingdom  for  1850,  compris- 
ed six  hundred  and  seventy-one  Ships  of  war,  either  in  ordinary  or  commis- 
sion, varying  from  two  to  one  hundred  and  twenty  guns  each  ;  of  this  number 
one  hundred  and  seventy-eight  are  armed  Steamers,  of  one  hundred  to  three- 
hundred  horse-power  engines,  constructed  on  the  most  approved  principles 
for  active  sea  service.  This  fleet,  the  largest  of  any  maritime  power  on  the 
globe,  employs  in  time  of  peace  35,000  to  50,000  able-bodied  seamen,  2,000 
strong  lads,  and  13,000  royal  marines. 

NEW  ENGLAND.  "  In  1630  the  whole  of  New  England  contained  but  SOOin- 
habitants,  which,  in  a  century  afterwards,  had  increased  to  160  000,  and  may 
at  this  day  be  given  at  nearly  three  millions.  The  capital  of  New  England, 
in  1720,  contained  12,000  inhabitants;  in  1820,  43,000  ;  in  1830,  78,000  ;  and 
in  1860i  186,000.  Boston,  in  1789,  was  proud  of  two  stage  coaches,  which 
employed  twelve  horses ;  she  was  prouder  still  in  1800,  of  twenty-five  stage 
coaches,  which  employed  one  hundred  horses  ;  in  1847,  these  twenty-five 
coaches  had  risen  into  two  hundred  and  fifty  coaches  and  omnibuses,  em- 
ploying one  thousand  six  hundred  horses,  without  taking  into  account  seven 
railways,  which  provide,  daily,  accommodation  for  7,000  passengers.  The 
first  newspaper  published  in  the  colonies,  was  issued  in  1704,  ia  this 
same  city  of  Boston,  and  a  third  newspaper  published  in  the  same  town,  in 
1721,  under  the  title  of  the  Nexv  England  Courant,  could  not  maintain  itself, 
though  it  had  very  warm  advocates,  being  supported  by  the  Hell-flre  Club ; 


new]  addenda  to  the  world's  progress,  1850-51.  25 

at  this  moment  there  are  in  Boston  sixteen  daily  news-papers,  with  a 
circulation  of  36,000  copies,  and  fifty  weekly  news-papers  with  a  circu- 
lation of  223,000— to  say  nothing  of  semi-weekly  papers,  and  semi-monthly 
papers,  and  monthly,  quarterly,  and  annual  publications. — Extract  from  Sir 
H.  Bukoer's  Speech  before  N.  Eng.  Society,  Dec.  22,  1850. 
NEW  HAMPSHIRE.  The  returns  of  the  7th  census  (1850)  show  a  population 
of  817,997  ;  in  1810  it  was  284,574 ;  gain  in  10  years  83,423,  being  an  increase 
of  nearly  12  per  cent. 

1850.  1851. 

Number  of  School  Districts  reported,       .....  2,167  2,222 

"  Scholars  in  winter  schools,         ....  77,806  73,301 

"  "  summer    " 61,498  58,328 

Whole  amount  raised  for  District  Schools,  -        -      S174,517  66  $179,065  46 

Increase  above  preceding  year,        ....  15,087  28       4,-547  80 

Number  of  Banks  in  N.  Hampshire  is  22 ;  cash  capital  independent  of  othw 
resources,  $2,501,000;  circulation  $2,012,837. — Am.  Almanac. 

NEW  JERSEY.  The  total  free  population  of  this  State,  according  to  the  7th 
census  (1850)  was  488.552,  viz  466,288  white  and  22,269  colored  ;  of  the  old 
slave  population  but  119  remaining.  The  number  of  children  receiving  pub- 
lic instruction  in  1851  was  76  245,  at  the  average  cost  per  quarter  of  $2  10 
each  pupil.  The  appropriations  and  receipts  for  school  purposes  was  $152,- 
678  62 ;  amount  expended  $99,560  13 ;  whole  available  school  fund  was 
$377,929  86. — Am.  Almanac.  Transit  duties  levied  upon  merchandise  and 
passengers,  for  the  year  1850,  and  paid  into  the  State  Treasury  was  $75,511 
— viz.;  Delaware  fellaritan  Canal  $20,289;  Camden  &  Amboy  Rail-Road  & 
Transportation  Co.,  $41,421 ;  New  Jersey  R.  R.  &  Trans'n  Co.,  $13,261. 

NEWSPAPERS.  The  newspaper  press  of  a  country  may  be  regarded  as  the 
surest  index  to  its  intellectual  condition.  The  census  of  1850  shows  the 
number  of  newspapers  in  the  United  States  to  be  2,800,  of  which  2,000  are 
published  in  the  free,  and  800  in  the  slave  states.  About  850  are  Whig  ; 
750  Ojiposition ;  70  Freesoil  or  anti-slavery ;  20  Agricultural ;  40  Temper- 
ance ;  200  Religious  ;  and  870  neutral  and  miscellaneous.  New  York  state 
publishes  443  papers ;  Pennsylvania  328 ;  Massachusetts  212 ;  and  Ohio 
SOO. — Census  Returns.  In  the  Austrian  dominions  it  appears  there  are  but 
10  newspapers  ;  24  in  Spain ;  20  in  Portugal ;  30  in  Asia ;  14  in  Africa  (1)  ; 
65  in  Belgium ;  85  in  Denmark  ;  90  in  Russia  and  Poland ;  800  in  Prussia  ; 
and  320  in  other  Germanic  States.  Of  the  London  papers  it  is  stated  that  the 
daily  circulation  of  the  Times,  in  1846,  was  28,594 ;  other  papers  88,999 ;  but 
in  1850  the  Times  had  run  up  to  38,019  daily  copies,  while  the  circulation  of 
all  the  other  papers  was  only  24,116.  The  London  Illustrated  News,  in  1849; 
rose  to  a  weekly  circulation  of  69,000.  Of  the  newspapers  published  in  the 
United  Kingdom,  159  are  issued  in  London  ;  222  in  the  English  provinces ; 
110  in  Scotland  ;  and  102  in  Ireland.  The  duty  paid  for  the  different 
advertisements  in  these,  in  1850,  was  .£163,038  !  In  July,  1851,  Burgess,  an 
Englishman,  issued  the  tirst  number  of  a  Persian  Journal,  with  all  the  fea- 
tures of  a  general  newspaper,  under  the  patronage  of  the  prime  minister  of 
that  country. — N,  Y.  Tribune. 

NEW  YORK  City.  The  census  of  1850  shows  a  population  of  617,849,  being  an 
increase  in  ten  years  of  205,000,  or  about  65  per  cent ;  including  Brooklyn, 
Williamsburg,  and  other  suburbs,  properly  belonging  to  New  York,  the  en- 
tire population  was  about  700,000.  The  manufacturing  capital  employed  in 
this  city,  annually,  according  to  the  last  census,  is  $105"218  308.  Number  of 
children  in  the  Public  and  Ward  schools  in  1850,  was  105,378.  Dreadful  acci- 
dent in  9th  Ward  school,  Nov.  20,  1851,  through  a  false  alarm  of  fire,  when  43 
children  were  killed,  and  59  injured ;  there  were  1,800  children  in  the  school 
at  the  time  of  the  accident,  under  the  superintendence  of  24  teachers ! 


26  ADDENDA    TO    THE    WORLd's    PROGRESS,    1850-51.  [PAT 

NEW  MEXICO.  This  Territory,  according  to  the  census  returns,  1850,  has  a 
white  population  of  61,632  ;  colored  17.  Farms  in  cultivation  3,750 ;  man- 
ufactories producing  annuallj'  $500,  and  upwards,  20. 

NEW  ORLEANS.  Population  shown  hy  the  census  returns,  1850,  was  119,- 
285. — Am.  Alma.  Number  of  deaths,  same  year  was  7.819,  of  which  1,389 
were  by  cholera.     The  St.  Charles  Hotel  destroyed  by  fire.  Mar.  18,  1851. 

NICARAGUA.  General  Munoz,  ex-minister  of  war,  deposes  President  Pineda 
and  his  cabinet,  at  Leon ;  sends  them  prisoners  to  Tigre  Islands,  and  elects 
Albaunaz  president.  The  senate  assembles  at  Grenada,  and  elects  Monte- 
negro president,  Aug.  4,  1851.  Steamer  Prometheus  arrives  at  New  York 
from  San  Juan,  the  Atlantic  terminus  of  the  Nicaragua  route,  Aug.  12, 1851, 
then  for  the  first  time  opened. 

NORTHWEST  PASSAGE.  The  Investigator  and  Enterprise,  Sir  James  Ross's 
vessels,  arrive  in  London,  on  their  return  from  their  fruitless  Arctic  E.xpe- 
pedition,  Nov.  11,  1849.  Another  expedition,  under  Captains  Collinson  and 
McClure,  sails  from  Woolwich,  Jan.  11,  1850.  Another,  under  Capt.  Penny 
and  Capt.  Stewart,  from  Peterhead,  April  13,  1850.  Another  under  Capt. 
Austin,  4  vessels  from  Greenhithe,  May  4,  1850.  Another,  under  Sir  John 
Ross,  from  Lochyran,  May  24,  1850. — See  Arctic  Expedition. 

OHIO.  The  total  population  of  this  state  in  1850,  was  1,980,408;  viz.,  white 
1,956 ;  colored  24,300.  Farms  in  cultivation  143,887  ;  manufacturing  es- 
tablishments producing  annually  over  $500, 10  550  ;  houses.  336,098. —  Cen- 
sus Returns.  In  1850  the  wheat  crop  of  Ohio  amounted  to  30,000,000  bushels. 
April,  1851,  completed  62  years  since  the  first  band  of  white  settlers  entered 
Ohio. 

OCEANS.  Edrisi,  the  Nubian,  writing  in  the  12th  century  of  the  Atlantic, 
says:  '-There  is  no  mariner  who  dares  to  enter  into  its  deep  waters,  or  if 
they  have  done  so,  keep  along  its  coasts,  fearful  of  departing  from  them." 
— Irding's  Columbus.  Lieut.  Goldsborongh  (U.  S.  ship  Saratoga),  in  Dec,  1850, 
found  soundings  in  the  Atlantic  128°  21'  south,  at  3J  miles  ;  but  Sir  James 
Ross  in  1848,  in  lat.  15°  3'  south,  long.  26°  14',  run  out  4,600  fathoms,  or 
nearly  5^  miles,  without  finding  a  bottom  ;  this  appears  to  be  the  greatest 
depth  satisfactorily  obtained.  In  May,  1851,  Lieut.  Rodgers,  TJ.  S.  navy,  in 
Gulf  Stream,  30  miles  S.W.  from  Key  West,  sounded  at  730  fathoms;  but  at 
another  point  at  a  depth  of  3,000,  the  line  was  cut  off,  '■  supposed  by  a  sword- 
fish." —  Tribune.  The  entire  surface  of  the  sea  is  estimated  at  150  millions 
of  square  miles,  the  Pacific  covering  78  millions,  the  Atlantic  25  millions, 
and  the  Mediterranean  one  million.  The  waters  of  the  Mediterranean  and 
the  Red  Sea  are  exactly  on  a  level. —  Tribune.  Mr.  Stephenson  (Brit.  Ass., 
1850),  from  actual  experiment,  found  the  force  of  the  waves  is  1^  ton  per 
square  foot,  in  the  German  Ocean ;  and  nearly  double  that  force  in  the  waves 
of  the  At\^^iX\i\c.— Household  Words.  Dr.  Scoresby  (Brit.  Ass.,  1850),  stated 
the  height  of  the  waves  of  the  Atlantic,  from  the  trough  to  the  crest,  to  be 
43  feet  and  their  average  velocity  a  fraction  over  32  miles  an  hour ;  thus 
confirming  Mr.  Scott  Russel's  observations  in  1845. 

OMNIBUSES,  &c.  The  number  licensed  to  carry  passengers,  in  New- York 
in  the  year  1851,  was  586  ;  hacks  d20.— Marshal's  Returns. 

PARLIAMENT  (British).  The  House  of  Commons  first  meets  in  the  new 
building  at  Westminster,  May,  1850.  Baron  Rothschild,  a  Jew,  claims  his 
seat  as  member  elect  for  London,  but  his  claim  is  postponed,  August  5, 1850. 
Mr.  Alderman  Salomons,  Jewish  member  for  Greenwich,  refused  his  seat  in 
the  Commons,  July  18,  1851,  the  question  still  in  abeyance. 

PATENTS,  American.  The  number  of  patents  granted  by  the  oflSce  at  Wash- 
ington, from  1790  to  1850  inclusive,  is  16,296. 


POS]  ADDENDA    TO    THE    WORLd's    PROGRESS,    1850-51.  27 

PENCILS.  Gessner  first  describes  the  "  pencil  of  plumbago,  in  wooden  handles," 
in  1565. — {Fossils.)  Pettus  (Fleta  Minor)  speaks  decidedly  of  pencils  "  in- 
closed in  fir  or  cedar,"  in  1683.  M.  Conte,  of  Paris,  made  great  improve- 
ments in  1795.  Mordan's  "  ever-pointed  pencil"  was  patented  about  1820. 
Philip  Crabbe,  the  first  manufacturer  of  lead  pencils  by  machinery,  died  in 
his  100th  year,  in  London,  May,  1851.— Tribune. 

PENS,  STEEL.  The  largest  factors  are  Gillott's,  of  Birmingham,  who  em- 
ploy nearly  1,000  hands,  for  the  conversion  of  2^  tons  of  steel  into  35,000 
gross  of  pens  weekly  !  In  1820-1  the  first  gross  of  three-slit  pens  was  sold 
wholesale  for  ,£7  4s. ;  in  1851  a  superior  article  could  be  furnished  at  3s.  6d. 
to  5s  per  gross,  while  the  commonest  pens  can  be  rendered  at  twopence  the 
gross!  Gillott's  house  exhibited  in  the  Crystal  Palace,  1851,  a  giant  pen  of 
thirty-six  inches  in  length,  and  close  to  this  was  a  small  glazed  frame  con- 
taining 15,840  steel  pens,  the  whole  weighing  only  one  ounce.  The  greatest 
number  of  these  pens  are  sent  to  the  United  States. — Illus.  News. 

PENNSYLVANIA.  The  population  exhibited  by  the  7th  census,  1850,  was 
2,311.681  ;  the  banking  capital,  $18,675,484  14 ;  tax  on  dividends, 
$153,877  14 ;  tax  on  corporation  stocks,  $70,008  86 ;  ratio  of  tax,  12 ;  in 
1849  the  ratio  was  14. — Herald.  Total  revenue  for  year  ending  Novem- 
ber 30,  1851,  was  $5,645,678  74;  total  expenditures  during  the  same  period 
$4,780,667  53. 

PHILADELPHIA,  U.  S.  A.  By  the  census  of  1850  this  city  and  suburbs  con- 
tains 406.353  inhabitants.  Increase  in  ten  years,  148,221,  or  about  57  per 
cent.  In  the  city  and  county  there  are  258  public  schools,  with  45,388  child- 
ren, under  the  instruction  of  81  male  and  646  female  teachers.  The  total 
school  expenditure  for  the  year  1850  was  $332,433  21,  being  an  average  of 
$6  46  each  child.  Manufacturing  capital  of  this  city  in  1850,  according  to 
census  returns,  was  $33,000,000,  and  the  annual  products  $61,000,000. 
Duties  received  at  custom-house,  1851,  Jan.  to  Nov.  inclusive,  $3,532,982, 
against  $3,213,031  in  corresponding  period  of  preceding  year. —  Tribune. 

PLANK  ROADS.  The  first  plank  road  in  Canada  was  laid  down  in  1836,  and 
in  New-York  in  1837.     Plank  roads  in  operation,  Jan.  1,  1851 : 

Canada.    New-  York. 
Numloer  of  roads,           ....  —  19 

Number  of  miles,       ....  442  2,106 

Averase  cost  per  mile,           -        -        -  $1,750  $1,833 

Total  cost, $773,500    $3,860,292 

Very  nearly  four  millions  of  dollars  have  been  expended  in  New-York  upon 
these  roads,  and  the  resulting  advantages  are  immense.  The  Troy  and 
Lansingburg  road  pays  10  per  cent,  dividend,  which  is  generally  believed  to 
be  the  case  Avith  all  the  others,  with  the  exception  of  the  Utica  and  Bur- 
lington, which  j'ields  20  per  cent.  None  of  the  stocks  are  in  the  market. — 
Kingsford. 
POSTAGE,  Gt.  Britain.  The  gross  revenue  of  the  Post  Office  for  the  year 
ending  Jan.  5,  1850,  was  £2  213,149  ;  the  cost  of  management,  .£1,307,248  ; 
the  net  revenue,  after  deducting  charges  other  than  management,  was 
^840,787.  [An  ample  proof  of  the  advantage  of  cheap  postage.]  The  num- 
ber of  Money  Orders  issued  was  4,248,891,  the  representative  value, 
.£8,152,643.  The  value  of  commission  on  the  issue  was  £70,670 ;  the 
amount  of  expenses  incurred  was  £70,248.  The  total  amount  of  the  charge 
for  packet  service  in  the  year  was  £748,296.  The  value  of  bank  notes, 
checks,  and  money  orders  found  in  letters  returned  to  the  Dead  Letter 
office,  for  the  two  years  ending  5  Jan.,  1851,  amounted  to £1,245,158  Bs.  5d., 
the  whole  of  which  was  regularly  entered  and  indexed,  and  is  returnable 
to  the  claimant,  on  proving  his  title  to  same. 


ADDENDA    TO    THE    WORLD's    PROGRESS,    1850-51. 


[pop 


POPULATION,  United  States  of  America,  viz. : 


I860. 

1840. 

Incre.ise  per  cent,  since 

STATES. 

TOTAL  POPULATION. 

POPULA 

TION. 

1840. 

Whites. 

Sl.lves. 

Whites. 

Slaves. 

Whites. 

Maine    ...        - 

583,088 



501,798 

about  16  pr.  ct. 

New  Hampshire  - 

317,864 

284,574 

i 

"      11      " 

Massachussets 

994,271 

737,699 

«      35      « 

Conrjecticut 

370,604 

309,978 

17 

"      20      « 

Rhode  Island 

147.555 

108,830 

5 

"      36      " 

Vermont 

313,466 

291,948 

«        7      « 

New  York    - 

3,090,022 

2.428.621 

4 

«      28      " 

New  .Jersey 

489,333 

222 

■373.306 

974 

»      31      « 

Pennsylvania 

2,311,681 

1,724,033 

64 

"      34      « 

Ohio      .... 

1,977,031 

1,519,467 

3 

"      24      " 

Michigan 

395.703 

212,267 

»      86      "  ■ 

Wisconsin     - 

304,226 

30,945 

11 

«    884      " 

Indiana 

988,734 

685,866 

3 

<(      44      « 

Illinois  .        .        -        . 

858,598 

476,183 

331 

«      77      " 

Iowa      .... 

192,122 

43,112 

"    347      " 

California     . 

200,000 

"      . .      " 

SLAVE  STATES. 


1850. 

18-10. 

Increase 

per  cent,  sir 

CO 

De- 

STATES. 

TOTAL  POPULATION. 

TOTAL  POPULATION. 

1840. 

crease. 

Pop.        1  Whiles, 

8lavBS. 

Fop. 

Whites. 

slaves. 

Total. 

Whites. 

Sla. 

W. 

S. 

Delaware 

91,.535i  89,246 

2,339 

78,085 

75,480 

2,605 

17  p.  Ct. 

19p.  Ct. 

H 

Dis.  Columbia 

51,687 1  48,000 

3,687 

43,712 

39,018 

4,694 

18    " 

19    " 

22 

Maryland 

533.035  492,667 

90,368 

470,019 

.380,282 

89,737 

24    « 

30    " 

0^ 

Virginia 

1,421,081  9-18,0.55 

473,026 

1,239,797 

790.810 

448,987 

15    " 

20    " 

5i 

N.  Carolina  - 

868,903  530,491 

288.412 

753,419 

.507,602 

24.5,817 

15A  " 

14i" 

17 

S.  Carolina  - 

663,469  283,.544 

384,925 

594,398 

267,315 

327,083 

13"  « 

6    « 

18 

Georgia 

878,635  515.669 

362.966 

691,392 

410,448 

280,944 

27    " 

26    " 

29 

Florida  - 

87,387:  48,046 

39,341 

54,477 

28,760 

25,717 

59    " 

66    " 

.50 

Alabama 

771,659  428.765 

342,894 

590,756 

337,224 

253,532 

31    « 

27    " 

36 

Mississippi   - 

592,853  292.434 

300,419 

375,651 

180,440 

195,211 

58    " 

62    " 

54 

Louisiana     - 

500,763  269.9.56 

230.807 

352,411 

183,959 

168,452 

42    « 

47    a 

37 

Texas  - 

187.403  1.34,0.57 

53,346 

Arkansas 

209.640  162,658 

46,98::! 

97,574 

77,639 

19,935 

116    " 

111    " 

135 

Missouri 

682,043  594,621 

87,422 

383,702 

325,462 

58.240 

77    " 

83    » 

50 

Tennessee     - 

1,002,6:2:5  763.164 

239,461 

829,210 

646,151 

183.059 

21    " 

18    " 

31 

Kentucky 

1,001,495  779,728 

221,768 

779,828 

597,570 

182,258 

29    " 

31    " 

20 

Territories. 

Minnesota 

6.192 

N.  Mexico     - 

61.632 

Oregon 

20,000 

Utah      - 

25.000 

KECAPITULATION. 


Free  States 
Slave  States 
District  and  Territories 


Total  Free 
Population. 


13,533,328 

6,393,757 

160.824 


20,087,909 


119 

3,175,783 
3,687 


3,179589 


Total  free  population 
Slaves 


Ratio  of  Representation 


Representative 
Population. 


13,533,399 
8,299,226 


21,832,625 


20.087,909 
3,179,589 


',*  The  highest  rates  of  increase  in  the  Free  States  lor  the  last  10  years  were  in  Wisconsin, 
884  per  ct.  ;  Io"wa,  347  per  ct. ;  Michigan,  86  per  ct. ;  Illinois,  77  per  ct.  The  highest  in  the 
Slave  States  were,  in  Arkansas,  whites,  111  per  ct. ;  Missouri,  whites,  83  per  ct. ;  Florida,  66 


pro]  addenda  to  the  world's  progress,  1850-51.  29 

per  ct. ;  Mississippi,  62  per  ct.  Tiie  higliest  increase  of  Slaves  was  in  Arkansas,  135  per  r.t  ; 
Mississippi,  54  per  ct.  ;  Missouri,  50  per  ct.  Tlie  lowest  rate  in  tlie  Free  States  was,  in  Ver- 
mont, 7  per  ct.  ;  New  Hampshire,  11  per  ct.  The  lowest  in  the  Slave  States  of  whites,  was 
in  South  Carolina,  6  per  ct. ;  North  Carolina,  14i-  per  ct. 

In  North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  Georgia,"  Alabama,  and  Arkansas,  the  Slaves  have  in- 
creased more  than  the  Whites.  In  all  ihe  other  States  the  proportion  of  Slaves  lias  diminished, 
especially  in  Maryland,  Virginia,  and  Kentucky. 

General  ratio  of  increase  of  the  whole  United  States. 
FromlSSOtolSlO,  white,  34-72         -       -        -        Colored,  23-81 
"     1840  to  1850        "      38-20         ...  "       26-16 

The  centre  of  Representative  population  in  1790,  was  46  miles  north  and  22  east  of  Washing- 
ton, in  Baltimore  county,  Maryland.  In  1800,  the  centre  was  64  miles  north  and  30  west  of  Wash- 
ington, in  Adams  county,  Pennsylvania.  In  1820,  it  was  47  miles  north  and  71  west  of  Wash- 
ington, in  Morgan  county,  Virginia.  In  1830,  it  was  43  miles  north  and  108  west  of  Washing- 
ton, in  Marion  County,  Virginia.  By  these  calculations,  the  accuracy  of  which  we  see  no  rea- 
son to  question,  the  representative  power,  in  its  rapid  and  accelerated  movement  westward, 
has  for  lifty  years  kept  nearly  the  same  parallel  of  latitude.  In  that  time  it  lias  moved  10  miles 
south,  and  182  miles  westward.     The  advance  westward  was  as  follows : 

From  1790  to  1800       -       -        13  miles.  |  From  1S20  to  18-30      -        -       37  miles. 
"     1800  to  1810       -        -       39     "       I      "     1830  to  1840      -       -        52     " 
"     1810  to  1820       -       -       41     "       I 
The  calculation  is  that  the  census  of  1850  will  show  the  centre  of  representative  population 
in  the  State  of  Ohio. 
PHYSICIANS  were  formerly  ecclesiastics.     It  was  during  the   nunciate    of 
Cardinal  d'Etouteville  in  France,  in  1452,  that  he  obtained  permission  for 
them  to  marr}'. — Menage.     Sir  William  de  Butts,  phj'sician  to  Henry  VIII., 
and  mentioned  as  such  by  Shakspeare.  was  paternal  ancestor  of  Mrs.  Sher- 
wood, the  popular  authoress,  who  died  in  Sept.,  1851. 
POET-LAUREATE  (England).    Alfred  Tennyson  appointed  Nov.,  1850. 
POST  OFFICE,  U.  S.  A.    Year  ending  June  30,  1849  ;  length  of  mail  routes 
167,703  miles  ;  amount  of  annual  transportation,  in  miles,  42,544.069  ;   gross 
revenue  $4,905,176;  net  revenue  $426,127.     In  1850,  the  length  of  mail 
routes  was  178,672  miles;  revenue  $5,552,971;    expenditures  $5,212,958; 
of  which  amount  the  transportation  charges  were  $2,965,786. 

The  actual  receipts  during  the  year  ending  June  30,  1851,  were,         -        $6,786,493  22 
Less  amount  received  for  Brit.  Postages,         ......  58,626  44 

Gross  Revenue  for  the  year,  ......        $6,727,86678 

Being  an  increase  of  $999,006  41  over  the  proper  revenues  of  the  preceding 
year.  The  ordinary  expenditure  of  the  department,  year  ending  .lune  30, 
1851,  was  $6,024,566  79.  Number  of  post  offices  in  36  states,  and  District 
Columbia  in  1837,  was  19,604.— P.  Mas.  Gen.  Report. 

POST  OFFICE,  New  York.  For  the  quarter  ending  Sept.  30, 1851,  there  were 
received  by  steamers  and  packet  ships  577.885  letters  and  261,426  papers; 
despatched  by  mail  per  steamer  and  ship,  during  same  period,  papers 
305,448 ;  letters  584,038 ;  which  latter,  added  to  the  daily  average  corre- 
spondence, shows  the  receipt  and  transmission  of  nearly  7  millions  of  letters 
by  the  New  York  office,  in  three  months.  During  same  quarter,  5  100  official 
letters  were  received,  and  3  018  written  and  despatched.  In  addition  to  all 
this,  687  Dead  Letters  were  sent  to  the  proper  office  at  Washington,  con- 
taining property  of  value,  gold  dust,  bank  bills,  drafts,  &c.,  in  amounts 
varying  from  $1  to  $10,000,  a  large  portion  of  which  were  returned  to  the 
writers,  and  the  balance  remain  subject  to  the  order  of  the  proper  owners. 
Increase  of  business  under  the  new  Jaw  is  10  per  cent,,  and  about  75  per  cent, 
of  all  letters  are  prepaid.   Number  of  stamps  sold  to  Sept.  30,  was  1,475.555. 

PROTESTANTISM  in  U.  S.  In  the  year  1800,  the  Episcopal  Church,  the  old- 
est in  the  Union,  numbered  320  churches ;  260  ministers ;  16  000  members  ; 
and  7  bishops.  In  1850  it  had  increased  fourfold,  viz. ;  churches,  1,560 ;  minis- 
ters, 1,504 ;  members, 73, 000;  bishops,  28.  The  congregation  lists  in  1850,  com- 
prised 1,971  churches  ;  1,687  ministers ;  and  197,175  members.  The  Baptists 
enumerated  18, 455  churches  ;  9,018  ministers ;  and  948,867  members.  Pres- 


30  ADDENDA    TO    THE    WORLD's    PROGRESS.     1850-Sl.  [raI 

byterians  4  General  Assemblies  ;  65  Synods  ;  360  Presbyteries ;  4,578  minis- 
ters; 1,014  students  and  licentiates  ;  5  672  churches  ;  and  490.259  members, 
being  an  increase  of  eleven-fold  since  1800.  The  various  bodies  of  Methodists 
speaking  the  English  language,  had,  in  1850, 80,000  places  of  worship  ;  6,000 
regular  preachers ;  8,000  local  preachers ;  and  more  than  a  million  and  a 
quarter  of  members.  The  Methodist  Protestant  churches  of  German  origin, 
have  1,827  regular  and  559  local  preachers ;  5  356  congregations ;  and  333  000 
members.  The  orthodox  Friends  had  300  congregations.  More  than  10,000 
places  of  worship  were  erected  in  1849,  and  S"l,670,150  were  paid  in  volun- 
tary subscriptions  to  ministers. — Dr.  Baird  before  Lon.  Evan.  Soc.  To  these 
may  be  appended  the  following,  viz. : — 

Churches.    Ministers.    Members. 
Dutch  Reformed,        .....  282  299  33,980 

German  do.  and  Lutherans,        ...  1,865  936  233,000 

Moravians,  .....  22  24  6,000 

Unitarians, 245  250  30,000 

Universalists, 1,194  700  60,000 

Swedenborgians,  ....  42  30  5,000 

Dr.  Baird  estimates  the  number  of  Protestants  in  the  world  as  follows : — 

England,  Wales,  Scotland  and  Ireland,     .....  20,000,000 

Prance,  Italy,  and  Switzerland,  ......  3,000,000 

Germany  and  Holland,        .......  22,' 00,000 

Hungary  and  Poland,  more  than        ......  3,000,000 

In  the  Scandinavian  countries,       ......  8,5L10,1'00 

In  Russia,  fully  ........  3,000,000 

The  United  States,  all  of  ......  19,000,000 

British  America,  including  West  Indies,  about         ....  2,000,000 

Australia,  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  British  possessions  in  Asia,  Africa, 

and  Polynesia,  .......  500,000 

Total, 81,000,000 

PRUSSIA.  New  edict  against  the  press  enforced ;  37  journals  forbidden  to 
pass  through  the  post,  June  5, 1850.  The  treaty  of  Olmutz  announced  at  Berlin, 
Dec.  3,  1850.  May  31.  1851,  Inauguration  of  Ranch's  Colossal  Equestrian 
statue  of  Frederick  the  Great,  Berlin.  In  Oct.,  1851,  the  question  of  the  ad- 
mission of  Jews  to  judicial  office,  brought  to  a  partial  termination  by  their 
permission  to  study  law. — Illus.  News. 
PYRAMIDS.  M.  Persigny, in  his  "Destination,"  &c.,  "des  Pyramides,"  lately 
published  in  France,  appears  to  have  made  the  nearest  approach  to  the 
original  design  of  these  structures,  viz.,  that  they  were  intended  as  a  barrier 
to  arrest  the  progress  of  the  sands  from  the  desert,  and  thus  to  preserve  the 
cultivated  fields  of  Egypt  from  destruction.  The  great  Pyramid  at  Ghizeh 
it  is  stated  was  first  opened  by  the  Caliph  Al  Mamoun,  in  the  expectation  of 
discovering  treasure  ;  when  the  people  murmured  at  their  disappointment, 
he  ordered  a  smn  of  money  to  be  secretly  deposited,  which,  on  its  discovery 
by  the  laborers,  is  said  to  have  satisfied  their  cupidity. 
RAILWAYS  IN  THE  United  States  of  America,  Jan.  1850. 

In  Massachusetts,  .... 

In  other  New  England  States, 

In  New- York,  .... 

In  other  States,  .... 

Total,        .  .  .  9,714*      " 

*  The  estimate  on  page  154*  was  erroneous. 

Railroad  Jubilee  at  Burlington,  Vt.,  celebrating  the  union  by  railroad  of  the 
waters  of  the  lakes  and  the  Atlantic,  June  25,  1850.  N.  Y.  &  Erie  R.  Road 
opened  witli  appropriate  ceremonies,  through  the  entire  line.  May  14.  1851. 
The  Hudson  River  R.  Road  Co.,  organized  March,  1847,  road  completed, 
Oct.,  1851,  at  a  cost  of  86,666,681. 

RAILWAYS,  South  America.    The  first  Railway  in  Peru,  from  Callao  to  Lima, 
six  miles,  was  opened  Nov.,  1850. 


rev]  addenda  to  the  world's  progress,  1850-51. 


31 


RAILWAYS,  Great  Britain.  During-  the  year  1849,  about  870  miles  of  new 
railways  were  opened  in  the  United  Kingdom,  viz. :  630  miles  in  England, 
108  in  Scotland,  and  132  in  Ireland.  The  following  table  gives  the  progress 
of  railways  since  1811,  with  the  average  receipts  per  mile  per  week  : 


YeaTs. 

Miles  open 

1,770 

Per  mile  per  v 

£S4 

years. 

Miles  open 

Per  mile  per  week 

1844 

1848 

4,178 

£50 

1845 

2,033 

£67 

1849 

4.983 

£46 

1846 

2,498 

£64: 

1850 

6,075 

£44 

1847 

3,375 

£56 

The  number  of  rail-road  passengers  in  England  and  Wales  in  1846,  was  35,- 
000,000;  in  1850,53  000  000;  total  United  Kingdom  in  1850,  66,000,000.— 
Herald.  The  great  Russian  rail-road,  from  Moscow  to  St.  Petersburgh,  was 
opened  Nov  13,  1851,  the  distance  420  miles,  being  run  through  in  18  hours, 
23j  miles  per  hour. — Londoji  Paper. 
RELIGIOUS  denominations  in  the  United  States,  according  to  returns  made 
1844 — 51,  and  by  estimate. 


Names. 

Churches.        Ministers. 

Communicants. 

Roman  Catholics, 

. 

1,073              1,081 

1,233.350 

Protestant  Episcopalians, 

. 

1,232               1,497 

67,550 

Presbyterians,  old  school, 

2,675              2,027 

210,306 

Presbyterians,  new  school, 

. 

1,579               1,489 

140,060 

Cumberland  Presbyterians, 

. 

480 

350 

50,000 

Other  classes  of  Presbyterians, 

. 

530 

293 

45,500 

Dutch  Reformed,     - 

. 

282 

299 

33,980 

German  Reformed, 

. 

261 

273 

70,000 

Evangelical  Lutherans,     - 

. 

1,604 

663 

163.000 

Moravians, 

. 

22 

24 

6,000 

Methodist  Episcopal  CNorth) 

- 

3,984 

662,315 

Methodist  Episcopal  (South) 

• 

Metliodist  Protestant  Church, 

. 

740 

64,313 

Reformed  Methodists, 

- 

75 

3,000 

Wesleyan  Methodists, 

- 

600 

20,U0O 

German  Methodists,  (United  B 

ethren) 

1,800 

500 

15,000 

AUbright  Methodists  (Evangelical  Association) 

600 

250 

15.000 

Mennonites, 

400       . 

250 

58,000 

Orthodox  Congregationalists, 

1,971       ■       1,687 

197,196 

Unitarian             do. 

. 

245 

250 

30,000 

Universalists, 

- 

1,194   ■ 

700 

60,000 

Svvedenborgians, 

■ 

42 

30 

5,000 

Resular  Baptists,     - 

8,872              5,509 

719,290 

Si-if-Principle  Baptists, 

21 

25 

3,586 

Seventh-Day  Baptists, 

- 

52 

43 

6,243 

Free  Will  Baptists, 

1,252 

,082 

56,4-52 

Church  of  God  Baptists, 

- 

97 

128 

10,102 

Reformed  Baptists  (Campbelli 

es). 

1,848 

848 

118,618 

Christian  Baptists  (Unitarians) 

- 

607 

498 

3,040 

Antiraission  Baptists,    - 

2,023 

897 
A 

64,738 
m.  Almanac,  1852. 

REVENUE,  and  Expenditures,  U.  S.  A. 

REVENUE. 

Year  ending,  June  30, 

1848. 

1849. 

1850. 

Customs, 

$31,757,070 

$28,346,733 

$39,668,686  42 

Sale  public  lands, 

3,3-28,642 

1,688,959 

1,859,894  25 

Miscellaneous  sources. 

351,037 

1,038,649 

1,847,218  33 

Loans  and  balance  on  hand. 

22,957,951 

2.S,742,-284 

6,230,914  28 

Total, 

$-58,394,700 

$59,816,630 

$49,606,713  28 

EXPENDITURES. 

Civil  List, 

$2,647,955 

$2,865,615 

$3,042,770  07 

Foreign  Intercourse, 

390,897 

"7,972,832 

4,8-33,594  76 

Miscellaneous, 

2,546.216 

3,179,192 

6,958,360  24 

War  Department,t 

27,8-20,163 

17,290.936 

9,401,239  16 

Department  of  Interior, 

Navy, 

3,400,524  87 

10,670,4 16 

'9,869,8i8 

7,923,313  18 

Public  Debt,      - 

15,429,197 

16,453,272 

7,437,366  41 

Total,  $58,-241,167 

Including  the  Indemnity  to  Mexico. 


$57,631,667  $43,002,268  69 

t  Inc.  part  of  Mexican  war. 


Jackson's  Administration. 

Rev.  from  Ciis.  Ex.  ofCnU'n. 

1835    ....        26,091,829    1,284,997 

1837    31,129,275    ....      1,397,469 

Van  Buren's  Administration. 

1838  ....        20,127,988    ....      1,514,633 

1840  ....        15,332,036    ....      1,542,319 

1841  ....        20,104,474    ....      1,483,960 

Tyler's  Administration. 
1844    ....        29,560,530    ....      1.807,500 
1815    ....        31,144,244     ....      2,066,033 

Polk's  Administration. 

1847  ....        28,305,464    ....     2.099,844 

1848  ....        33,034,275     ....     2,132,636 

Taylor's  and  Fillmore's 
Administration. 

1849  ....   28,346,738 

1850  ....   39,668,686 


32  ADDENDA   TO    THE   WORLD'S    PROGRESS,    1850-01.  [RUS 

Agsresate  receipts  for  fiscal  year  ending  June  30, 1850,  with  balance  in 

Treasury       -  - $52,312,979  87 

Total  expenditures  to  same  period,  ....  48.005,878  68 

Imports  for  year  ending  .lunu  30,  1851,  ....  215,725,13000 

Of  which  there  were  in  specie,  -  -  .  -  4,967,901  00 

REVENUE  FROM  CUSTOMS,  and  Expenses  of  Collecting  it.     U.  S.  A. 

Washington's  Administration. 

Rev.  from  Cus.  Ex.  of  Coll'n. 

1796  ....      $12,fB1.866    $291,206 

1797  ....        13,000;i05    ....        343,434 

Adams's  Administration. 

1800    16,185,889     440,373 

1801  ....        20,828.336    ....        483,772 

Jefferson's  Administration. 

1808    11,349,769     565,238 

1809  ....        11,885,380    ....        498,130 
Madison's  Administration. 

1815  ....        39,012,624    ....        476,007 

1816  ....        33,577,988    ....        819,038 

1817  ....        22,706,514    ....        782,308 

Monroe's  Administration. 
1824    ....        25,726,836     ....        779,739 
1^5    ....        31,903,875     ....        889,302 

Adams's  Administration. 

1827  ....        28,191,308    ....        889,818 

1828  ....        30,187,701     ....        932,093 

1829  ....        27,982,947    1,01.3,667 

REVENUE  AND  EXPENDITURE  (Great  Britain),  year  eoding  Jan.  5,  1850, 
Revenue,  .£52,951,748.    Expenditure,  £50,853,622. 

RICE.  First  planted  in  South  Carolina,  1693,  and  has  been  grown  in  that  state 
every  year  since  that  period. 

RIOTS.  At  Philadelphia,  between  a  set  of  white  "rowdies,"  called  "killers," 
and  negroes.  Military  called  out ;  4  persons  killed  ;  11  wounded;  4  houses 
burned,  Oct.  10,  1849.  Riot  at  Hoboken.  N.  J.,  between  Germans  and  "  short 
boy"  rowdies  from  N.  York.  May  26.  1851.  Riot  at  New  Orleans  in  refer- 
ence to  Cuban  affairs — ^the  Spanish  Consul's  house  attacked,  and  also  those 
of  the  Spanish  residents,  Aug.  21,  1851.  Christiana  Treason  trial,  at  Phila- 
delphia, Nov.,  1851 ;  Hanneway  and  others  acquitted  Dec.  11,  but  the  mur- 
derers of  Mr.  Gorsuch  sent  to  Lancaster  for  trial. 

•ROMAN  CATHOLICS.  The  appointment  by  the  pope  of  several  R.  C.  bishops 
and  archbishops  in  England,  causes  great  excitement  in  that  country,  and 
an  indignant  letter  from  Lord  John  Russell,  the  premier,  Nov.,  1850.  A  sta- 
tistical account  from  the  Vicar  General's  office  at  Rome,  in  April,  1851,  shows 
the  ecclesiastical  body  of  that  city  to  consist  of  34  bishops,  1,240  seciilar  and 
1,892  regular  priests,  and  1,467  monks.  The  schools  and  seminaries  under 
their  supervision  were  321. — See  Eccl.  States. 

ROME.  The  Council  of  State  at  Rome  announces  a  political  amnesty,  except- 
ing from  it,  however,  the  late  Triumvirate,  the  chiefs  of  the  assembly,  and 
the  military  leaders,  and  about  13,000  persons  supposed  to  be  implicated  in 
the  late  movements,  Sept.  18,  1849.     The  pope  returns  to  Rome,  April  19, 

1850.  The  total  population  of  Rome  in  April,  1851,  was  170,824. —  Vicar  GenHs 
Office.  In  1848  the  population  numbered  179.000,  and  a  proportional  dimi- 
nution is  shown  in  the  returns  of  the  other  Roman  States. — Herald.    In  Oct. 

1851,  a  mixed  commission  of  cardinals,  prelates,  merchants,  &c.,  and  simple 
workmen,  was  formed  by  the  Pope,  for  the  examination  and  amendment, 
where  susceptible,  of  all  corporate  laws. — Illus.  Neics. 

RUSSIA,    The  Russian  troops  repeatedly  defeated  by  the  Circassians,  June 

1851. 
RUSSIAN  ARMY,  1851.    Infantry,  640,384 ;  cavalry,  101,902  ;  artillery,  41,902 ; 

adding  to  the  above  the  engineer  staff",  the  entire  force  amounts  to  810,000 


sha]  addenda  to  the  world's  progress,   1850-51.  33 

eifective  troops.  Other  accounts,  however,  place  the  actual  number  of  mili- 
tary fit  for  service  no  hig'her  than  300,000  men,  and  of  these  a  quarter  must 
be  kept  in  Poland. — -Tricskr  Zdlung. 
SAN  FRANCISCO,  Commerce  of.  The  amount  of  duties  collected  at  San  Fran- 
cisco, in  the  quarter  ending-  Sept,  30, 1851,  as  compared  with  the  correspond- 
ing q  uarter  of  the  year  1850. 

1850.  1851. 

July,             -           -           -           .fl43,276  48  $182,396  75 

August,              -           -           -        176,656  00  104,128  00 

September,             -           -              144,318  00  162,558  19 

1464,250  48  $459,082  94 

Amount  of  deposits  in  September,  1851,  on  account  of  unascertained,  $72,707  30,  being  ia 

addition  to  above. 

Amount  of  Bullion  reported  in  manifests  at  Custom's  House  was,  July,  1851,  $3,471,245 , ■ 

August,  $3,311,100;  Sept.,  $3,488,171 ;  Total,  $10,270,516. 

Specie  brouglit  into  tlie  city  in  freight  was,  for  July,  $84,280 ;   August,  $61,195 ;  Sept,, 

$55,351. 

Males.        Females.      Cliild'n.  Total.  Left. 

Passengers  arrived,  July,        .       -        1,729  231  134  2,094  1,697 

"  '•  August,        -  1,886  348  211  2,445  2,097 

"  "  September,      -        1,140  140  56  1,336  6,574 

Totals,  -  5,875         10,368 

Excessof  Departures,  Sept.  30,  1851,  ....      4^493 

10,368 
SCHOOLS,  originally  kept  in  the  porches  of  churches.  Even  so  late  as  1624, 
John  Evelyn,  then  four  years  old,  was  taught  by  "  one  Frier  at  the  church- 
porch  of  .Wotton." — E^s.  Diary.  The  ragged  schools,  for  the  instruction  of 
destitute  children  in  England,  originated  with  John  Pounds,  a  poor  cripple 
and  shoemaker  at  Portsmouth,  who,  while  laboring  for  his  daily  sustenance, 
found  tiine  to  instruct  the  vagabond  children  of  his  neighborhood.  He  died, 
"deplored  by  all  his  scholars  and  their  relatives,  Jan.,  1839."  Infant 
schools  originated  about  1780,  with  Oberlin,  pastor  of  Waldbach  (Germ.); 
and  in  England  were  first  put  in  operation  in  1815,  by  James  Buchanan,  one 
of  the  masters  engaged  by  Robert  Owen  at  Lanark.  Wilderspin's  plans 
were  subsequent  to  the  above. —  West.  Review.  Sabbath  schools  were  par- 
tially in  operation  previous  to  the  great  effort  of  Mr.  Raikes,  through  the 
instrumentality  of  Miss  Walker,  a  Quaker  lady  of  Tottenham,  near  London, 
and  the  Rev.  Mr.  Lindsay  and  wife,  of  Catterick,  Yorkshire. — Nor.  of  Scot. 
Gaz.  The  first  S.  school  in  the  United  States  is  said  to  have  been  estab- 
lished by  Mrs.  Archibald  Lake,  in  the  stockade  in  Marietta,  Ohio,  March, 
1791. 
SEWING  MACHINES.  Invented  1848,  and  brought  to  general  use  by  the 
large  tailoring  establishments.  A  machine,  with  the  attention  of  one  girl, 
will  sew  six  overcoats  per  day. — Sci.  Am. 
SHANGHAI.  The  population  trading  with  this  Chinese  port  is  between 
60,000.000  and  80,000,000.  The  teas  grown  here  are  the  finest  in  the  world, 
and  its  supplies  to  foreign  countries  are  about  seven-eights  of  the  whole  pro- 
duct exported  from  the  empire.  The  amount  sent  forward  from  China  in 
1850.  is  given  officially  as  follows:  To  Russia,  7,000  000  lbs.;  France, 
2.000  000  lbs. ;  Holland  3,000,000  lbs.;  Great  Britain,  52,000  000  lbs.;  and 
the  U.  States.  30  000  000  lbs. ;  the  total  valuation  of  which  shipments  can- 
not fall  far  short  of  $30,000,000.  The  rich  silk  fabrics  of  Suchan  are  brought 
to  Shanghai,  as  well  as  numerous  other  articles  of  valuable  traffic,  all  of 
which  may  be  more  readily  purchased  here  than  at  Canton,  which  port  re- 
ceives its  principal  export  supplies  from  the  former.  The  importance  of 
Shanghai  as  a  port  of  entrance  for  the  American  merchant  offers  incalculable 
advantages. — See  N.  Y.  Courier. 

2* 


34  ADDENDA    TO    THE    WORLD's   PROGRESS,    1850-51.  [STE 

SHIPPING,  U.  S.  A.  Vessels  built  and  tonnage  thereof  in  the  U.  S. :  year  end- 
ing June  30,  1849.  Ships,  198;  brigs,  148;  schooners,  623;  sloops  and 
canal  boats,  370;  steamers,  208.  Total,  1,547.  Aggregate  tonnage,  3,535,000. 
Iron  cylinder  masts  first  fitted  in  a  Dutch  E.  Indiaman  at  Liverpool.  March, 
1851.  Amount  of  tonnage  of  American  vessels  engaged  in  foreign  trade,  for 
year  ending  30th  June,  1850,  was  entered  2,573,016  ;  cleared,  2.632,788.  For- 
eign tonnage  during  same  period  entered,  1,775,623;  cleared,  1,728  214. 
Number  of  vessels  built  in  1850  was  1  360.  their  total  tonnage  272,218  54-95. 
In  1851  the  total  U.  S  tonnage  was  3,772,439,  including  the  whaling  vessels, 
181.644 ;  vessels  built,  1.367.  Massachusetts  total  tonnage  engaged  in  foreign 
and  domestic  trade,  694,402;  New- York.  1,041.013;  Oregon  (smallest), 
1,063.— ikf.  Courier.  The  clipper  ship  "  Flying  Cloud,"  Capt,  Cressy,  left 
New- York  June  2,  1851,  and  arrived  at  San  Francisco,  August  20,  making 
the  trip  round  Cape  Horn  in  the  unprecedented  short  space  of  90  days ;  the 
shortest  passage  on  record.    In  three  days  the  F.  C.  made  992  miles. 

SLAVE-TRADE.  Official  returns  made  to  the  foreign  ofSce  in  London  show 
that  from  the  year  1840  to  the  year  1848,  inclusive,  594  vessels,  containing 
37,824  slaves,  were  captured  by  the  British  squadron,  and  556  of  them  con- 
demned. It  has  been  estimated  by  the  English  statician  McQueen,  that  the 
loss  sustained  by  slave-traders  in  conseqiience  of  the  caiitures  or  presence 
of  African  cruisers,  from  the  year  1800  to  1847,  was  £30,240,000. 

SLAVERY,  U.  S.  A.  Renewed  agitation  of  this  subject  caused  by  the  passage 
and  enforcement  of  the  "  Fugitive  Slave  Bill"  (passed  by  Congress  in  Aug., 
1850).  In  several  instances,  the  claims  for  fugitive  slaves  are  resisted  or 
defeated  in  the  Northern  States,  but  without  serious  collision  or  bloodshed; 
Sept.,  Dec,  1850.  By  decision  of  Judge  Hoadly,  Superior  Court,  Cin.,  in 
Oct.,  1851,  this  law  was  pronounced  as  '■  opposed  to  the  spirit  and  letter  of 
the  Constitution  of  the  TJ.  S."  The  Boston  Post  of  Dec.,  1850,  states  that 
the  original  Fugitive  Slave  Law  was  drafted  by  Geo.  Cabot,  of  Mass.,  Nov. 
1792,  and  passed  unanimously  by  the  Senate  on  the  18th  of  Jan'y  following, 
by  a  majority  of  41.  A  Papal  Bull  of  Dec,  1839,  prohibits  all  traffic  in 
human  beings  by  subjects  of  Roman  Catholic  States. —  Wade's  Brit.  Hist. 

SPAIN.  Queen  Isabella  personally  opens  the  Cortes  in  the  new  palace,  in  the 
Plaza  de  Cervantes,  Oct.  31,  1850.  At  Madrid,  Nov.,  1851,  the  commission- 
ers for  regulating  the  liberty  of  the  press  refuse  to  assent  to  the  ministerial 
proposition  of  seizing  newspapers  before  publication. 

STAGES.  In  1749  there  was  a  daily  stage  route  between  Newark,  N.  J.,  and 
New-York,  during  the  summer  months  only.  The  number  of  passengers 
in  one  season  was  considered  large  at  3.000;  the  number  of  passengers  over 
the  railroad  to  the  same  place  v.'as,  in  1850,  959,000  ! 

STEAM  ENGINE.  A  patent  was  granted  in  England  in  1618,  for  a  steam— or 
as  it  is  there  designated,  a  "  fire-engine,  for  taking  ballast  out  of  rivers  and 
for  raising  fresh  water."  It  is  supposed  to  have  been  an  invention  brought 
from  Italy,  where  it  is  stated  to  have  been  anteriorly  used.  Brancas,  an 
Italian  philosopher,  published  at  Rome,  in  1629,  a  book  on  the  subject. — 
Wade's  Brit.  Hist,  A  complete  steam-engine,  weighing  only  three  fourths 
of  an  ounce,  and  capable  of  full  motion,  was  finished  and  intended  for  exhi- 
bition at  the  Crystal  Palace  by  an  ingenious  mechanic  of  Saddleworth, 
Yorkshire,  in  Feb.,  1851. — Illus.  Nev^s.  The  tubular  boiler  was  invented  by 
Col.  John  Stevens,  Hoboken,  N.  J.,  1805. 

STEAM  NAVIGATION,  U.  S.  A.  The  steamer  Atlantic,  3,500  tons,  the  first 
of  the  Collins'  line,  sailed  for  Liverpool,  from  New  York,  April  27,  1850. 
Steam  communication  between  Philadelphia  and  Liverpool  opened  jby  the 
"  City  of  Glasgow,"  arrived  at  Philadelphia,  Jan.  1, 1851.    The  first  steamer 


sug] 


ADDENDA    TO    THE    WORLd's    PROGRESS,    1850-51. 


35 


that  ever  crossed  the  Atkntic  was  the  "  Savannah,"  350  tons,  from  Savannah, 
Geo.,  to  Liverpool,  which  port  she  reached  20th  July,  1819. — Manoade's 
Com.  Report.  The  first  steamboat  that  ascended  the  Mississippi  was  com- 
manded by  Capt.  Henry  M.  Shreeve,  who  subsequently  invented  the  steam 
snag-boat ;  he  died  in  1851.  The  number  of  steamboats  on  the  Western 
watei's  in  1850  was  estimated  at  575,  investing  a  capital  of  S60,000,000, 
and  employing  15.000  hands.  The  annual  cost  to  the  U.  S.  government  of 
the  Steam  Mail  Service  in  1850.  was  distributed  as  follows  : — Collins'  line, 
New  York  and  Liverpool,  $385, 000 ;  Ocean  Steam  Navigation  Company, 
New  York  and  Bremen,  $200.000 ;  do.,  do.,  do.,  do..  New  York  and  Havre, 
$150.000 ;  New  York,  Havana  and  New  Orleans,  $290,000 ;  Panama  and 
Oregon  line,  $199,000;  Charleston  and  Havana  line,  $.50,000.— Total, 
$1,274,000.  The  first  steamer  on  Lake  Nicaragua  began  its  trips  January, 
1851.  Duty  paid  by  Cunard  steamers  at  Boston,  in  1847,  was  $1,199,971  78; 
in  1850,  $1,322,383  30.  Marine  Steam  Force  of  Great  Britain  in  1851  was— 
147  ships,  including  3  in  Canada,  and  32  iron  steamers,  11  ranging  from 
1.547  to  1,980  tons.  A  discovery  in  1851  of  a  work  in  the  archives  of  Venice, 
of  a  treatise  on  "  Navigation  by  Fire,"  byM.  Gautier,  Mem.  Roy.  Soc.  Paris, 
shows  that  the  professor's  plans  for  steam  navigation  were  exhibited  by  him 
to  the  Venetian  Republic  in  1756. 

STEAMBOAT  BUILDING.    The  annual  report  on  commerce  and  navigation, 
gives  the  following  aggregate  of  the  number  of  steamboats  built  in  the 
United  States  since  1824 — twenty-five  years,  in  periods  of  five  years  each  : 
From  1824  to  1829,  -        -        -        194  I  From  1844  to  1849,         -        -        -        960 

"     1829  to  1834,  -        -  304  I  • 

"     18:34  to  1839,  -        -        -       504  I  Total,        -       2,492 

"     1839  to  1844,  -        -  522  I 

Two-thirds  of  these  were  built  in  the  West,  one-sixth  of  them  in  Ohio. 

STEAM  AND  POWDER  EXPLOSIONS.  The  most  fatal  accident  of  this 
nature  in  1849  was  that  of  the  steamboat  Louisa,  at  N.  0.,  Nov.  15,  when 
60  persons  were  killed  and  92  wounded  and  missing.  During  1850  the 
number  of  steamboats  lost  in  the  Western  waters  was  53,  and  64  seriously 
injured.  Nearly  700  persons  lost  their  lives,  and  $1  500,000  of  property 
was  destroyed.  Some  of  the  most  prominent  accidents  by  explosion  in 
1850  and  1851,  were  :— 

FACTORY  OR  VESSEL. 

Steamer  Telegi-aph, 
Ship  of  war,  Volney, 
Am.  Steamer  Resolute, 
Ste.  Antoinette  Douglas, 
Am.  Steamer  Colurnbus, 
Steamer  Anglo  Norman, 
South  America, 

Knoxville, 

Fashion, 

Oregon, 

Ferry-boat  (many  injured), 

Victoria  Coalpit, 

Cotton  mil], 

Distillery, 

Balloon,  1  mile  high,  exploded  near  Lon- 
don ;  the  4  passengers  providentially 
escaped  without  serious  injury. 

Steamer  .lai-kson  (35  injured),  Shawneetown,  III.,  7 

Brilliant,  Bayou  Sara,  La.,         many. 

ed  years  ago  the  Jesuits  brought  a  few  bundles  of  cane  from 
planted  them  in  the  second  municipality  of  New  Orleans. 


1850. 

November  7, 

u 

10, 

« 

23, 

a 

26, 

December  13, 

t' 

l?", 

« 

IS, 

ii 

20, 

l&jl. 

March  2, 

February 

23, 

March  15, 

"      27, 

August  2, 

September  8, 

Near  Newcastle,  Del 
Near  Brest, 
New- York, 
Tate's  Shoals, 
OtT  Point  Lookout, 
New  Orleans, 
Near  Bayou  Sara, 
New  Orleans, 
Near  Pittsburgh, 

Mississippi, 
St.  Louis', 
Scotland, 
Stockport,  Eng., 
Harrison,  Ohio, 


LIVES 
LOST. 

,    15 

10 

5 

30 

7 

40 

20 

many 

21 
15 
61 
14 
15 


"  21, 

"  25 

SUGAR.     A  hutldr 
Hispaniola,  and 


36         ADDENDA  TO  THE  WOR-LD's  PROGRESS,  1850-51.       [UNI 

In  1759  the  first  sugar-mill  was  erected.  In  1840  the  number  of  slaves  em- 
ployed in  the  sugar  culture  was  148,890,  and  the  product  was  119,947  hogs- 
heads, of  1,000  pounds  each,  and  600,000  gallons  of  molasses. — Mobile 
Register. 

TEA.  Quantity  imported  into  Great  Britain  in  1849,  53,460.751  lbs.  The 
duty  upon  it  amounted  to  i;5,471,671.  This  is  an  increase  of  nearly  50  per 
cent,  over  the  imports  of  1840. 

TELEGRAPH,  THE  SNAIL.  The  actuality  of  telegraphic  communication 
by  medium  of  magnetism  in  snails,  experimentally  demonstrated  by  Prof. 
Gregory  of  Edinburgh,  May,  1851. 

TELEGRAPH— see  "  Electric:' 

TEMPERANCE  SOCIETIES.  The  benevolent  influence  of  these  associations 
may  be  estimated  from  the  fact  that  the  amount  of  taxation  in  the  state  of 
New  York,  in  1850,  occasioned  by  pauperism  and  crime  resulting  from  in- 
temperance, was  nearly  S2  600,000,  and  the  amount  for  the  entire  Union 
during  that  period,  and  resulting  from  the  evils  of  intemperance,  was  over 
S16,OL)0,000.  The  daily  expenditure  in  the  5,000  drinking  places  in  New 
York  is  calculated  at  over  ^40,000. — Mr.  Foster's  Speech  at  Tripler  Hall. 
March,  1851. — Father  Matthew,  the  "  Apostle  of  Temperance,"  after  visiting 
numerous  states  in  the  Union  during  two  years,  and  administering  over 
600,000  pledges,  sailed  for  Liverpool  in  steamer  Pacific,  Nov.  8,  1851. 

TEXAS.  The  question  of  the  boundary  line  between  Texas  and  New  Mexico, 
after  mrrch  excitement  and  discussion,  is  settled  by  the  payment  of  S'lO,- 
000,000  by  the  U.  S.  to  Texas,  as  indemnity  for  the  territory  claimed  by 
New  Mexico,  Sept.,  1850.  Population  in  1850,  188,403,  including  53,346 
slaves. 

TIDES.  The  highest  known  are  in  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  Newfoundland,  and 
the  Bay  of  Tonquin,  Cochin  China. —  Q.  Rev.,  1819.  That  of  the  former 
rises  60  feet;  the  tide  at  Chepstow  (Monmouth,  Eiig.)  rises  70  feet. — Illus. 
News.  That  of  Baffin's  Bay  only  4  feet. —  Capt.  Russ,  1819.  Seeds  dropped 
accidently  into  the  sea  in  the  W.  Indies,  were  subsequently  found  on  the 
shores  of  the  Hebrides. — Dr.  Walker  to  Lord  Karnes. — See  Oceans. 

TIGRE  (Island  of).  Central  America,  seized  by  Mr.  Chatfield,  British  Consul, 
with  an  armed  force,  for  the  "  British  Queen,"  Oct.  17,  1849  ;  but  the  claim 
was  not  enforced,  and  was  settled  in  the  "  Nicaragua  Treaty,"  signed  at 
Washington,  by  Clayton  and  Bulwer,  June,  1850. 

TURKEY.  Battle  between  the  Turks  and  Syrians,  who  had  revolted  against 
the  Turkish  recruiting  system — Syrians  defeated  with  loss  of  1,000  men, 
1850.  Explosion  on  board  the  Neiri  Schevket,  line  of  battle  ship,  at  Con- 
stantinople, 1,000  persons  killed,  Oct.  23,  1850. 

UNION  MEETINGS.  Gov.  Quitman  of  Miss.,  addresses  a  disunion  meeting 
with  some  opposition,  at  Natchez,  Oct  7,  1850.  A  similar  meeting  in  Yazoo 
city  votes  down  the  resolutions  proposed.  A  convention  for  amending  the 
constitution  of  Indiana,  assembles  at  Indianapolis,  Oct.  7.  A  great  union 
meeting  at  Mobile,  Ala.,  Oct.  8.  Convention  for  amending  constitution  as- 
sembles at  Richmond,  Va.,  Oct.  14.  A  union  festival  in  compliment  to  Mr. 
Clay,  at  Lexington,  Ky.,  Oct.  17.  A  Woman's  Rights  convention  held  in 
Worcester,  Mass.,  Oct.  23.  A  great  union  meeting  at  Dayton,  Ohio,  Oct.  26, 
and  an  immense  meeting  for  like  purpose  in  New  York,  Oct.  30.  Conven- 
tion to  amend  constitution  of  Maryland,  meets  in  Annapolis.  Nov.  4 ;  another 
at  Concord,  N.  H.,  for  revising  constitution  of  that  state,  Nov.  6  ;  and  one  at 
Manchester,  N.  H.,  Nov.  20.  A  great  union  meeting  at  Philadelphia,  Nov. 
21.    One  at  Bath.  Me..  Dec.  16.    Convention  of  Delegates  from  Southern 


wis]  addenda  to  the  world's  progress,  1850-51.  37 

Rights  Association,  of  S.  Carolina,  at  Charleston,  May  8 ;  adjourns  after 
resolving  "  that  with  or  without  co-operation  they  are  for  dissolution  of  the 
Union !" 

UTAH  Terrttort  of  U.  S.  A  territorial  government  provided  bj^  Congress, 
Sept.  9,  1850.  The  territory  is  bounded  on  the  west  b}^  California,  north  by 
Oregon,  east  by  the  summit  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  south  by  the 
parallel  of  ST''  N.     The  act  provides  the  sum  of  S5,000  for  a  library. 

VENEZUELA.  Gen.  J.  G.  Monagas  elected  president  for  four  years,  Jan. 
20,  1851. 

VIRGINIA.  According  to  the  census  returns,  the  real  estate,  &c.,  of  Virginia, 
1850,  was  8530,000.000,  viz.  :— Real  estate,  8278.000,000 ;  value  of  slaves, 
$147,000,000 ;  other  personal  estate,  $105  000,000.  The  returns  further 
show  that  nearly  83,000  white  persons  over  the  age  of  21,  can  neither  read 
nor  write!  The  new  Constitution  of  this  state  adopted  1851,  in  the  111th 
article  has  the  following  clause  :  "  And  no  person  shall  have  a  right  to  vote 
who  is  of  unsound  mind,  or  a  pauper,  or  a  non-commissioned  officer  in  the  ser- 
vice oftke  United  States."  Population  of  1850,  1,421,081,  including  473,026 
slaves. 

WAMPUM.  This  material  as  a  representative  circulating  medium,  was  bor- 
rowed by  the  people  of  Plymouth.  Mass.,  from  the  Manhattan  Dutch,  and 
was  found  very  profitable  in  their  traffic  with  the  eastern  Indians,  and  subse- 
quently among  the  colonists  generally.  Three  of  the  blackheads  and  six  of 
the  white,  were  considered  as  equivalent  to  a  penny ;  and  for  convenience' 
sake,  they  were  strung  in  lengths  of  certain  value  from  one  penn}^  to  5  shil- 
lings, in  white  ;  and  from  twopence  to  ten  shillings  in  black;  as  the  quan- 
tity in  circulation  increased,  the  value  depreciated  and  the  number  of  beads 
to  the  penny  was  augmented. — See  Hild.retKs  U.  S.  America,  1850. 

WARS,  Modern.  Those  of  the  17th  century,  were  wars  of  religion;  of  the 
18th  century,  of  conquests  and  dynasties  ;  of  the  19th,  of  monarchs  against 
the  people, — Berlin  Corres.  N.  Y.  Com.  The  actual  cost  of  the  late  Mexi- 
can war  is  estimated  at  $300,000,000,  The  wars  of  Europe  from  1783  to  1815, 
are  estimated  at  $15  000,000.000.  The  late  Hungarian  war  left  25,000  widows, 
and  80,000  orphans  of  soldiers,  almost  entirely  without  food,  shelter,  or 
clothing. 

WASHINGTON,  D.  C,  Population  in  1810.  8,201,  in  1820,  13.248,  in  1830, 
18  827,  in  1840,  23.,364,  in  1850,  about  42.000. 

WASHINGTON'S  FAREWELL  ADDRESS,  The  original  MS.  was  sold 
at  auction  in  Philadelphia,  to  a  citizen  of  New  York,  for  $2,300,  February 
12, 18-50, 

WESTMINSTER,  Archbp.  op.  Nicholas  Wiseman,  having  been  created  Car- 
dinal by  the  Pope,  is  installed  as  Roman  Catholic  Archbishop  of  Westmin- 
ster, Nov.,  1850.  This,  in  addition  to  Dr.  Ullathorne's  enthronement  as  R,  C. 
bishop  of  Birmingham,  in  Oct.,  together  with  the  parcelling  out  of  all  Eng- 
land into  Roman  dioceses,  created  great  excitement,  and  petitions  from  every 
quarter  of  the  United  Kingdom  were  addressed  to  the  Queen  and  govern- 
ment, praying  their  resistance  to  the  '•  monstrous  usurpation." 

WHALE  FISHERY.  Registered  tonnage  employed  in  this  branch  of  commerce, 
1850,  was  146.016,  Fish  and  sperm  oil  exported  during  the  year  ending 
June  30,  1850,  $1,809,115.  The  average  yield  of  a  polar  whale  is  about 
120  barrels  oil. 

WILLIAM  THE  CoNauEROR.    Inauguration  of  the   statue  of  this  renowned 

monarch  at  Falaise,  Normandy,  his  native  place,  Oct,  26,  1851. 
WISCONSIN.    The  population  of  this  State  is  shown  by  the  census  returns, 


S8  ADDENDA   TO    THE    WORLD's    PROGRESSj    1850-51.  [ZIN 

1850,  to  be :  white,  304,565  ;  colored,  626  ;  total,  305.191.  Farms  in  cultiva- 
tion, 20,177;  manufactories  producing  annually  S'500,  and  upwards,  1,273. 

WOOL.  The  imports  of  wool  into  the  U.  S.  for  fiscal  year  1850,  amounted  to 
^1,681,691 ;  and  for  same  period  1851,  83,883,160.— Cowie?-. 

WORSHIP,  Forms  of.  The  Jews  and  Quakers  wear  their  hats  during  worship, 
Protestants  and  Catholics  remove  them. — The  Mohammedans  wear  their 
turbans,  but  put  off  their  shoes  on  entering  their  mosques,  evidently  from 
their  Prophet's  adoption  of  many  of  the  Jewish  customs. — See  Exodus  in,  5. 
It  is  particularly  worthy  of  remark  that  the  Moliammedans  invariably  re- 
move from  their  persons  all  jewelry,  and  articles  of  adornment  previous  to 
the  commencement  of  their  prayers. 

WRECKS,  &c.  The  number  of  vessels  belonging  to  the  U.  S.  lost  during  the 
year  ending  June,  1818,  was  585 ;  value,  $2,021,495 ;  value  of  cargoes. 
$2,501,771 ;  total  number  of  lives  lost  in  connection  with  them,  477.  The 
Caleb  Grimshaw,  Liverpool  and  N.  Y.  packet  ship,  burnt  at  sea ;  60  passen- 
gers lost  on  a  raft ;  339  rescued  by  Capt.  David  Cook  of  Nova  Scotia,  Nov. 
12,  1849. 

DATE.  NAME   OF  VESSEL. 

1850. 

January  13,  Am.  Ship  Hottinguer, 

May  6,  Steamer  Commei-ce, 

"    24,  Br.  Indiaman,  Sulimary, 

June  2,  A  barge, 

"    17,  Am.  Steamer,  Griffith,  burnt 

"     18,  Br.  Steamer  Orion, 

July  18,  Brig.  Elizabeth, 

October  4,  Am.  bark  Isaac  Mead, 

"         7,  Br.  ship  Providence, 

Nov.  24,  Br.  Ship  Edmund, 

"    28,  Propeller  Helena  Sloman, 

Minot's  Ledge  lighthouse  carried  away,  April  17,  '51,  and  the  two  assistant 
keepers  droAvned.  Steamship  Union  lost  on  her  passage  from  San  Francisco 
to  Panama,  July  5,  '51 ;  passengers  and  gold  dust  saved. 

YACHTING.  The  Yacht  America,  built  by  Steers  of  New- York,  204  tons  bur., 
after  winning  the  "  cup  of  all  nations"  at  Covves,  I.  of  Wight,  England,  and 
out-sailing  the  British  j^acht  Britannia,  Aug.,  1851,  was  sold  by  Messrs. 
Stevens  to  Capt.  Blaquiere  for  i;5,000  ! 

YANKEE.  The  derivation  of  this  word  is  generally  accredited  to  the  Indian 
pronunciation  of  the  word  English,  which  they  render  Yengeese. — In  New- 
York  it  is  applied  to  the  New  Englanders  ;  in  the  South  to  all  the  North- 
eners  ;  and  in  Europe  to  all  Anglo-Americans. — In  a  curious  book  on  the 
Round  Towers  of  Ireland,  published  some  j'ears  ago,  the  origin  of  the  term 
Yankee-Doodle  was  said  to  have  been  traced  to  the  Persian  phrase  Yanki 
^oiiwiaA,  or  "Inhabitants  of  the  New  World."  Layard,  in  his  "Nineveh," 
also  mentions  Yanghi-dunia  as  the  Persian  name  of  America. — Illus.  News. 

YUCATAN.  Intelligence  received  at  New  Orleans,  Jan.  3,  1851,  that  a  battle 
between  the  whites  and  Indians  in  Yucatan  resulted  in  the  victory  of  the 
latter,  300  of  the  whites  being  killed. 

ZINC.  The  Soc.  Jndust.  Nationale  in  Paris,  granted  to  M.  Leclaire,  1846,  a 
medal  of  gold  worth  3000  francs,  for  his  substitution  of  zinc  for  white  lead 
in  the  formation  of  painter's  color,  the  use  of  which  latter  has  been  attended 
with  so  much  danger  to  healtli. — Art  Journal.  White  paint  prepared  from 
zinc  is  much  used  of  late  in  the  U.  States,  and  has  hitherto  been  greatly 
approved. 


WHERE. 

LIVES 

lOST. 

Wexford  rocks.  Ire. 

13 

Lake  Ontario, 

38 

From  Boinbay, 

100 

Near  Neuwerk,  Ger. 

100 

Off  Port  Patrick, 

50 

Lake  Erie, 

300 

OffFirelsland,  N.  Y. 

many 

Charleston  to  N  Y. 

24 

Near  Belfast, 

19 

Near  Limerick, 

95 

At  sea,  Hamburgh  to  N.  Y.      11 

PAINTING. 

PAINTING-.  Chronological  Table  of  the  most  celebrated  Painters,  arranged  in 
Schools  and  Ages,  from  the  revival  of  the  art,  1600,  to  the  commencement  of 
the  Nineteenth  Century. 

(From  Bell's  Edition  of  Bredow's  Tables  of  Universal  History.) 

1.  Florentine  School.— Style  elevated  and  Ijold,  seeking  rather  to  be  admired  than 
to  please  ;  sometimes  gigantic  ;  neglects  coloring  and  grace.— 1240,  Gimabue  :  1726,  Giotto  ■ 
1211,  Andrea  Taffi;  14(Ji),  Wassolino ;  1402,  Massacio ;  1431,  FilippoLippi;  1432,  Andrea 
Verrochio,  Andrea  Castagna,  Pisanello;  1443,  Ghirlandajo  ;  1445,  Leonardo  da  Vinci; 
1469,  Bartolorameo  di  San  Marco  ;  1471,  Baldassarre  Peruzzi ;  1474,  Michael  Angelo  Buon- 
arotti ;  1484,  Dominico  Beccafurai ;  1488,  Andrea  del  Sarto  ;  1493,  Jacopo  Carrucci  da  Pon- 
toruio ;  1496,  Del  Rosso  ;  1500,  Perino  del  Vaga  ;  1509,  Daniel  da  Volterra  ;  1510,  Francesco 
Salviati;  1510,  Giorgio  Vasari ;  1545,  Antonio  Tempesta  ;  1559,  Luigi  Cardi ;  1563,  Fran- 
cesco Vanni;  1578,  Matteo  Rosselli ;  1596,  Pietro  Berretini,  called  Pietro  da  Cortona;  1611, 
Pietro  Testa;  1615,  Benvenuto  da  Garofoli ;  1616,  Carlo  Dolci ;  1666,  Benedetto  Lutti ; 
1695,  Giovan'  Geronimo  Servandoni ;  1702,  Pompeo  Battoni. 

2.  Roman  School  carries  invention  and  design  to  the  highest  perfection  by  the  analyti- 
cal study  of  the  antique  and  of  nature  ;  heads  of  the  most  sublime  beauty  ;  coloring  and 
chiaro  oscuro  less  perfect.  1513,  Bernardino  Pintuiichio;  1446,  Pietro  Perrugino;  1483, 
RatTael ;  1488,  G.  F.  Penni ;  1492,  Giulio  Romano  ;  15-28,  Frederico  Barocci ;  1529,  Taddeo 
Zucchero;  1.543,  Frederico  Zucchero ;  1589,  Dominico  Feti ;  1594,  Nicholas  Poussin  • 
1598,  Giovan'  Lorenzo  Bernini;  1599.  Andrea  Sacchi  ;  1600,  Claude  Gelee,  called  Claud  * 
of  Lorraine  ;  1602,  Ceriozzi ;  1605,  G.  B.  Salvi,  called  11  Sassoferrato ;  1613,  Gaspard  E-.- 
ghet,  called  Poussin  or  Guaspre;  1616,  Luigi  Scaramuccia  ;  1617,  Francesco  RomaneF  ' 
1623,  Giacinto  Brandi;  162:!,  Filippo  Lauri ;  1625,  Carlo  Maratti ;  1634,  CiroFerri;  169-. 
Pietro  Bianchi  ;  1728,  Raftael  Mengs. 

3.  Venetian  School.— Faithful  imitation  of  well-chosen  subjects  of  nature,  excellent 
coloring,  admirable  effect;  design  less  perfect  throu,-;!!  the  neglected  study  of  the  antique; 
this  school  is  now  extinct.  1421,  Gentile  Bellini ;  1431,  Andrea  Mantegna;  1478  Gior''!- 
one;  1477,  Titian  (Tiziano  Vecelii  da  Cadore)  ;  1480,  G.  A.  Regillo;  1485,  Sebastiano  del 
p,„,„K„.   ,:.,A    . ._T, ,.,„    r  „   , ™.  1522,  Paolo  Pari ■ 

Cagliari ;  1535, 

,..-.,,    -    •  ,  , , , ,.-  Pal  ma  (Tl  Vec- 

chio);  Io44,  ,lac  Palma;  1549,  Giov.  Contarino ;  1560,  Maria  Tintoretta ;  1561,  Leonardo 


1687,  Ant.  Canale  ;  1693,  Giov.  Bat.  Tiepolo  ;  1699,  Giuseppe  Nogari. 

4.  Lombard  and  Bolognese  Schools. — Correggio,  born  in  Lombardy,  not  having 
founded  a  permanent  School,  but  having  been  imitated  by  the  painters  of  Bologna,  these 
two  Schools  are  conjoined.  Correggio's  distinguished  characteristics  are  a  seducing  and  vo- 
luptuous (though  perhaps  somewhat  affected)  grace  in  his  figures  and  attitudes,  and  a  magic 
harmony  in  his  coloring.  Tibaldi  and  the  Caracci  introduce  a  more  elevated  character  of 
design,  and  many  of  their  pupils  unite  therewith  the  fine  coloring  and  the  graces  of  Correg- 
gio. 1450,  Francesco  Franco;  149i),  F.  Priinaticcio;  1494,  Coiiregoio  Antonio  AUe-'ri ; 
1495,  Polidori  Ca'dari  ;  1504,  Fr  Mazzuoli ;  1522,  PelleOTino  Tibaldi;  1546,  Camillo  I'ro- 
caccini  ;  1559,  M.  Angelo  Araerigi,  called  Carravaggio ;  1555,  Lodo v.  Caracci ;  1557,  A-'OS- 
tino  Caracci;  1560,  Anniba'e  Caracci ;  1560,  Bartol.  Schidone;  1575,  Guido  Reni.  caTled 
Guido;  1.576,  Lionello  Spada;  1577,  Aless.  Tiarini ;  1578,  Francesco  Albano;  1580,  Gia- 
como  Cavedone ;  1581,  Dom.  Zampieri,  called  Domenichino  ;  1581,  Giov.  Lanfranco  ;  1588, 
Frances  Gessi ;  1590,  G.  F.  Barbieri ;  1597,  Lodov  Lana  ;  1600,  Mic.  Ang.  Colonna ;  1606 
Grimaldi ;  1618,  Giorg.  And.  Sivani  ;  1612,  SimoneCanlarini  ;  1624,  P.  Fran.  Mola  ;  1628, 
Cignani;  1638,  P.  F.  Caroli;  1643,  Lodov.  auaini  ;  1648,  Ant.  Franceschini ;  1654,  Guis. 
del  Sole;  1657,  Fer.  Galli  Babiena  ;  1665,  Guis.  Maria  Crespi ;  1668,  Dom.  Maria  Viani ; 
1671,  DonatoCreti;  1674,  Giov.  P.  Zanotti ;  1691,  G.  P.Paniui. 

(Neapolitans,  Genoese,  Spaniards.  These  nations  are  not  regarded  as  having  found- 
ed general  Schools ;  their  painters  are  formed  on  the  masters  of  the  great  Italian  Schools. 
Neapo.itan.— The  painters  of  this  nation  are  reproached  with  being  in  general  somewhat  af- 
fected. Pietro  and  Tommaso  Stefani,  d.  1310 ;  Fit  del  Tesauro,  1320  ;  15(10,  And.  Sabbata- 
ni;  looO,  Guis,  Cesare  d'Arpiuo ;  IBUO,  Aniello  Falcone;  1603,  Mario  Nuzzi ;  1613,  Mat- 
teoPetri|  1615.  Salvator  Rosa;  1631;  Luca  Giordano;  1657,  Fran.  Solimene  ;  1661,  Nun- 
zio  Feiajoli;  1679,  Sebast.  Conca ;  1693,  Carl  Corrado.  Genoese  are  often  incorrect  in 
design.— 14(10,  Nich.  da  Vnttri ;  1527,  Cambiasi ;  1544,  G.  B.  Paggi ;  1557,  Bern.  Castelli  • 
1581,  Bernardo  Strozzi  ;  1590.  Gio.  Carlone  ;  1616,  Benedetto  Castiglione  ;  1625,  F.  M.  Bor- 
zoni;^1639,  G.  B.  Gauli;  1644,  Greg.  Ferrari;  ]6.=i4,  Bart.  Guidobjni ;  1660,  II  Molinaret- 
to.  Spaniards.- These  painters  have  especially  imitated  the  Venetian  School,  and  often 
display  Its  brilliant  coloring.— 1400,  Alonso  Berragente  ;  1487,  Blaise  de  Prado ;  1519,  Mo- 


rales;  15-28,  Luis  de  Vargas;  1532,  J.  F.  Ximenez  deNavarete;  1550,  Pablo  de  las  Eovlas; 
1589,  Josef  Ribera;  1599,  Don  Diego  Velasquez  de  Siiva;  i601,  Alonso  Cano  ;  1610,  Hen- 
rique de  las  Marinas  ;  1(313,  Barto'ome  Esteban  de  Murillo  ;  1617,  Franc.  Rizzi ;  1631,  Mai  ias 
de  Torres;  1640,  Pedro  de  Nunez  ;  1640,  Juan  de  AU'aro  ;  1651,  Juan  C.  Falco  ;  1663,  P.  di 
Pietri.) 

5.  Gersian  School. — This  school  having  never  had  a  common  point  of  union,  btars  no 
general  and  distinctive  character;  it  produces,  in  the  different  styles  of  painting,  rival  artists 
to  the  great  masters  of  Italy  and  of  the  Netherlands.  l-i97,  Th.de  Matina  ;  13.57,  Theo.  de 
Prague;  1357,  N.  Wurmser ;  1479,  Albert  Durer;  1492,  Lucas  MUller;  1498,  Hans  Holbein  ; 
1515,  Lucas  Cranach  ;  1534,  Tobias  Stimmer;  1550,  Christ.  Schwartz;  15.56,  John  Van 
Aachen;  1564,  J.  Rottenhammer ;  1570,  J.  Lys;  1574.  Adam  Elzheimer ;  1598,  Sam.  Hof- 
mann  ;  1600.  J.  W.  Bauer  ;  1C06,  Jo.  Sandrart ;  1611  Ch.  Loth ;  1616,  Govaert  Flink  ;  1618, 
P.  VanderFaes;  1619,  J.  Spilberg  ;  1621,  Leb.  Stopkopt ;  1625,  J.  Lingelback  ;  1631,  J. 
HenRoos;  1637,  Jos.  Warner;  1639,  Gasp.  Netscher  ;  1640,  Ab,  Mignon  ;  1647,  M.  S.  Me- 
rian  ;  1648,  Godfrey  Kneller;  1666,  G.  P.  Ruggendas;  1668,  J.  R  Ruber  ;  1669,  Anna  Wa- 
ser;  1685,  Balthasar  Deuner  ;  1689,  Fr.  P.  Ferg  ;  1698,  J.  E.Riedenger;  1709,  Brinkmann  ; 
1712,  C.  W.  E.  Dietrich  ;  1728,  Raffael  Blengs ;  1730,  Solomon  Gessner. 

6.  Flemish  or  Belgic  School. — This  School  e.xcels  in  coloring  and  in  the  faithful  imi- 
tation of  nature,  but  does  not  always  e.\hibit  sufficient  nobleness  of  design  ;  it  produces 
eminent  artists  in  every  style;  that  to  which  Teniers  has  affixed  his  name  bad  its  birth  in 
this  School ;  the  Academy  at  Antwerp,  the  cradle  of  this  School,  was  founded  in  1510,  but 
there  was  a  Society  of  Painters  at  Antwerp  from  the  year  1442. — -1306,  Eubert  Van  Eyk  ; 
1370,  John  Van  Eyk;  1450,  ttuentin  Messis;  1490,  Ber.  V.  Orley ;  1499,  J.  de  Mabuse; 
1553,  Peter  Knock  ;  1520,  Frank  Floris  ;  1534,  Mar  de  Vos  ;  1536,  J.  Straden  ;  1540,  F.  Por- 
bus;  1546,  B.  Spranger  ;  1548.  C.  Van  Mander  ;  1550.  H.  Steenwyck;  1555,  DenysCalvart ; 
1556,  OttoVenius;  J569,  P.  Van  Breughel ;  1570,  P.  Neefs ;  1573,  S.Frank;  1576,  Fr. 
Sneyders;  1577,  Peler  Paul  Rubens;  1580,  David  Teniers;  1.594,  James  Jordaens;  1599, 
Anthony  Van  Dyk  ;  1602,  Phillip  de  Champagne;  1610,  David  Teniers ;  16l3,  J.  Van  Ar- 
tois;  1618,  Gonzales  Coques;  1634,  Van  der  Meulen ;  1664,  Simon  Varelst ;  1068^0.  P. 
Vanbruggen;  1672,  Ab.  Breughel;  1742,  Henry  de  Coort. 

7.  Dutch  School. — ^This  School  is  especially  distinguished  by  an  eminent  intelligence 
of  the  chiaro  oscuro;  exhibits  good  coloring,  and  a  faithful  imitation  of  nature  in  the  mi- 
nutest details.  The  style  of  precious  finishing  is  carried  to  the  highest  pitch  in  this  School. 
1407,  Erasmus;  1494,  Luke  of  Leyden  ;  1498,  Martin  Hemskerk  ;  1518, 'An.  Moro  ;  1564, 
Ab.  Blofmart;  1579,  Sol.  de  Brey  ;  1586,  Cornelius  Poelenberg  ;  1596,  Leo  Bramer  ;  1600,  J. 
D.  de  Heein  ;  1600,  John  VVyuants  ;  1606,  Albert  Cuyp  ;  1606,  Paul  Rembrandt  van  Ryn  ; 
1008,  Gerard  Terburg;  1610,  Adrian  Van  Ostade ;  1613,  Gerard  Dnw ;  1615,  Gabriel  Mot- 
zu  ;  1620,  Philip  VVouvermans  ;  1624,  Nicholas  Bergham ;  1625,  Paul  Putter  ;  1631,  Ludolph 
Bakhuytzen;  1633,  W.  Van  der  Velde ;  163.5,  Jac.  Ruysdael,  Hobbema;  163.5,  Fran.  Miens; 
1636,  John  Steen  ;  1637,  Van  den  Heyden  ;  1638,  Adrian  van  der  Velde  ;  1640,  Karel  du  Jar- 
din  ;  1664,  John  Weenix;   1669,  Adrian  van  der  Werf;  1682,  John  Van  Huysum. 

English  Painters. — Formed  in  general  on  the  masters  of  the  Flemish  and  Italian 
Schools;  excel  in  portraits  and  landscapes,  are  unrivalled  in  water-colors. — 1480,  Haus  Hol- 
bein; 1543  F.  Zucchero;  1.572,  Inigo  Jones  ;  1601,  P.  Oliver ;  1009,  S.  Cooper  ;  1610,  W. 
Dobson;  1620,  Ric.  Gibson ;  1019,  John  Greenhill  ;  1648,  Godfrey  Kneller;  1660,  Luke 
Cradock;  1677,  James  Thornhill ;  1697,  William  Hogarth;  1714,  Rich  Wilson;  1723, 
Joshua  Reynolds  ;  1727,  Tbom.  Gainsborough  ;  1733,  Sawrey  Gilpin  ;  1734,  P.  J.  de  Louth- 
erbourg;  1735,  David  Allan  ;  1738,  Benjamin  West;  1745,  James  Strutt;  1746,  James  North- 
cote;  1748,  J.  F.  Nollekins;  1748,  Philip  Reinagle;  1751,  William  Hamilton  ;  1752,  Wm. 
Beechey  ;  1755,  Thorn.  Stothard  ;  1759,  Francis  Bourgeoise;  1761,  John  Opie  ;  1764,  Geo. 
Morland;  1769,  Thomas  Lawrence;  1774,  Edward  Bird;  1776,  John  Constable;  1786, 
Will.  Hilton  ;   1787,  Geo.  Hen.  Harlow  ;  ,  Thomas  Daniell ;  1785,  David  VVilkie ;  1786. 

R  B.  Haydon  ;         ,  A.  W.  Calcott ;  1789,  W.  Etty. 

8.  French  School. — The  good  painters  of  this  School  are  formed  on  the  model  of  the 
different  Italian  Schools,  of  which  they  bear  the  several  characteristics ;  they  are  in  general 
more  successful  in  composition  and  design  than  in  coloring.  It  is  emancipated  from  the  de- 
gradation and  afliected  style  it  assumed  after  the  death  of  Le  Brun  by  Vien,  and  become  ihe 
most  numerous  and  flourishing  school  of  all. — 1490,  Fran.  Primaticcio;  1490,  Rosso  de 
Rossi;  l.')02,  J.  Cousin  ;  1582,  Simon  Vouet;  1594,  Nicholas  Poussin  ;  1600,  Claude  Lor- 
raine ;  1600,  Le  Va'entin;  1600,  James  Blanchard  ;  1607,  James  Petitot ;  1016,  Sebastian 
Bourdon;  1617,  Eustachius  le  Seur;  1619,  Charles  le  Brun  ;  1640,  Charles  de  la  Fosse; 
1644,  John  Jouvenet;  ]6.')7,  Joseph  Vivien;  1667,  Nicho'as  Berlin  ;  16B7.  Anth.  Rivallv; 
1684,  Ant.  Watteau;  1683,  Francs  Le  .Mo-ne;  1692,  Noel  N.  Covpel ;  1700,  Chas.Natoire ; 
1794,  F.  Bouchier;  1712,  Joseph  Vernet ;  1716,  Vien;  1729,  J.  B.Deshays  ;  1756,  J,  L.  Da- 
vid ;  1758,  Carle  Vernet;  1767,  A.  L.  Girodet. 


ADDENDA   TO   THE   WORLd's   PROGRESS,    1850-51. 


41 


ADDITIONS  TO  THE  BIOaRAPHICAL  INDEX. 

(including  accidental  omissions  in  the  former  editions.) 


NATION, 

Eng. 

Eiig. 

Gr. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Gev.  Fr. 

Amer. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Span. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Ger. 

Eng. 

Scotch. 

Hung. 

Jew. 

Ital. 

Eng. 

Russ. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Dutch. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Moor. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Ger. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Enff. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Polish. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Gr. 

Fr.  Ital. 

Eng. 

Sp.  Eng. 

Fr, 


NAME   AND   PROFESSION. 

Adelaide,  Queen  Dowaser,  widow  of  William  IV. 
Adrian  IV.  (N.  Breakspeare),  the  only  English  pope 
.SIgineta,  Paulus,  writer  on  medicine      .... 

iEifric,  Abp.  Canterbury,  author  of  Anslo  Saxon  works  . 
Almon,  John,  political  writer  and  publisher 
Anne  of  Austria,  wife  of  Louis  XIII.  of  France 
Armstrong,  S.  T.,  book  publisher  and  Lt  Governor  of  Mass.  . 
Armenides,  philosopher  of  the  Eclectic  School 
Aspasia,  celebrated  courtesan — cause  of  the  Pelop.  war     '         temp. 
Audubon,  John  James,  traveller  and  naturalist  (b.  at  New-Orleans) 
Baffin,  Wm.,  navigator— explorer  of  Baffin's  Bay    . 
Balboa,  Vasco  Nunez  D.,  one  of  the  first  navigators  to  the  W.  Indies 
Barron,  James,  Commod.  TJ.  S.  Navy 

Bartram,  William,  horticulturist  .  ,'.".' 

Baskerville,  John,  celebrated  printer,  publisher,  and  ty'pe-fourider 
Bastide,  .John  F.  de,  voluminous  writer  and  editor 
Bates,  William,  non-conformist  divine,  and  theol.  writer    . 
Beck,  John  B.,  writer  on  medicine,  botany,  &c. . 
Beckmann,  John  A,,  author  of  History  of  Inventions    . 
Bell,  Andrew,  D.D.,  founder  of  national  schools 
Bell,  Henry,  first  successful  steam  navigator  in  Europe 
Bem,  Gen  ,  military  commander  in  the  war  with  Austria 
Benjamin  of  Tudela,  one  of  the  earliest  modern  travellers  . 
Beniivoglio,  Guido,  cardinal,  and  historian 
Benger,  Eliz.  Ogilvie,  biog.  of  Anne  Boleyn,  Queen  of  Scots,  &c. 
Behrmg,  or  Beering,Vitus,  captain  in  Russian  navy  who  gave  name  to 
the  "Straits"       .  .  .  .  ... 

Behn,  Aphra,  female  dramatist,  temps.  Charles  II '.     "      .     ' 
Berrington,  Joseph,  Author  of  History  of  Middle  Ages.      "     . 
Bickersteth,  (Rev.  E.,)  author  of  popular  religious  works  . 
Bickerstaff,  Isaac,  dramatic  writer  of  18th  century 
Bilderdyk,  George,  poet  ...... 

Bingham,  George,  author  of  Ecclesiastical  History— Christ.  Antici 
Blainville,  M.  de,  chemist  and  naturalist        ... 
Blanchard,  Laman,  essayist  and  magazine  writer 
Bloomfield,  E.  V.,  classical  scholar,  ed.  of  Museum  Criticum' 
Boabdil,  the  last  Moorish  king  of  Grenada  .  .  about 

Bodley,  Sir  Thomas,  founder  of  the  Bodleian  Library 
Bonaparte,  N.  F.  C.  J.,  duke  of  Reichstadt— only  son  of  Napoleon 
Boleyn,  Anne,  second  queen  of  Henry  VIII.  . 
Bos,  Lambert,  Greek  scholar,  author  of  works  on  Greek  Classics 
Bowles,  Rev.  W.  L.,  poet         ..... 

Boyer,  Abel  (Fr.  refugee  in  England),  author  of  Fr.  Dictionary 

Brigham,  Amariah,  M  D.,  medical  writer  and  philanthropist 

Brand,  J.,  Author  of  ■' Popular  Antiquities  " 

Brinvilliers,  Marchioness,  notorious  poisoner 

Brunton,  Mary,  novelist—"  Discipline,"  &c. 

Bryan,  Michael,  author  of  Diet,  of  Painters 

Buckingham,  John  Sheffield,  duke  of,  military  comm'r,  poet 

Burgundy,  Charles  the  Bold,  duke  of    .        . 

Buckminster,  J.  S.,  author  of  "  Sermons,"  &c. 

Buxton,  T.  Fowell,  leading  opponent  of  the  slave  trade      . 

By  thner,  Victorinus,  author  of  Lyra  Prophetica 

Cadmus,  founder  of  Thebes,  introducer  of  letters     . 

Cade,  Jack,  noted  for  his  rebellion  asainst  Henry  VI.    . 

Calhoun,  John  C,  senator  of  U.  S.  for'S.  Carolina— ex-Sec.  of  State,  &c 

Calamy,  Ed.,  numerous  theological  works 

Cambridge,  duke  of,  youngest  son  of  George  III. 

Capo  D'Istria,  John,  Count  of,  diplomatist— o^sassmaZed 

Catharine  de  Medici,  wife  of  Henry  II.  of  France     . 

Catharine  Parr,  6th  queen  of  Heurv  VIII. 

Catharine  of  Arragon,  1st  queen  of  Henry  VIII. 

Caulaincourt,  A.  A.  L.,  Duke  of  Vicenza 


BORN.  DIED. 

1850 
11.59 
630 
1005 

1738  1805 
1604  1666 
1784  1850 
5th  c.  B  c. 

Pericles,  b  c.  450 
1780  1851 
1584 

1517 
1769     1851 

1823 
1706     1775 

1724 
1625  1699 
1794     1851 

1739  1811 
1753  1832 
1767     1830 

1851 
1173 

1579     1641 

1827 

1741 
1689 
1827 
1850 


1760 
1668 
1778 
1803 


1544 
1811 
1507 
1670 
1761 
1664 
1798 
1743 


1723 
1850 
1844 
1816 
1495 
1612 
1832 
1536 
1717 
1850 
1729 
1849 
1806 
1676 
1778  1818 
1757  1821 
1649     1720 

f.  1470 
1784     1812 
1787     1845 
1664 
f.  B.  0.  1700 
f.  1450 

1782  1850 
1732 
1774  1850 
1780  1831 
1503  1589 
15  1548 
1483  1536 
1773     1827 


42 


ADDENDA   TO    THE   WORLd's    PROGRESS,     1850-51. 


NATION. 
Ital. 

Eng. 

Ital. 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Kom. 

Mex. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Gr. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Fr. 

Ital. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Scotch. 

Eng. 
Rom. 
Pers. 
Fran. 
Amer. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Swiss. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Dutch. 

Ital. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Scotch. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Swiss. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Ger. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Ger. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Rom. 

Ital. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Ger. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Pr. 


BORN. 

1749 
1637 
1500 


1788 


1650 


NAME   AND   PROFESSION. 

Cavallo  Tiberius,  author  of  works  on  nat.  phil.  in  England  . 

Cave.  Dr.  William,  author  of  ■'  Primitive  Christianity" 

Cellini,  Benvenu-o,  Florentine  artist,  author  of  Autobiography 

Chastelleux,  F.  .1  ,  marquis,  author  of '-Travels  in  America" 

Cogswell,  Kev.  Wm.,  D.D.,  theological  and  statistical  writer 

Chillingworth,  Wm.,  theologian — author  of  Religion  of  Protestants 

Claudianus,  Claudius,  poet,  temp.  Emperor  Theodosius,  Arcadius,  &c. 

Clavigero,  F.  S.,  author  of  the  History  of  Mexico 

Clemens,  or  Clement,  of  Alexandria,  one  of  the  fathers  of  the  church 

Clinton,  Sir  Henry,  commander-in-chief  of  British  army  in  Amer.  Revol. 

Clovis,  first  Christian  king  of  France  .  .    , 

Codrus,  17th  and  last  king  of  Athens         .  .  . 

Collier,  Jeremiah,  non-juring  divine,  author  of  Ecc'I  History 

Colton,  Waller,  Rev.,  author  of  several  books  of  travel 

Commines,  Philip  de,  historian,  chronicler,  statesman,  and  courtier  1445 

Condorcet,  .John.  A.  N.  C,  marquis  of,  mathematician  and  philosopher    1743 

Congreve,  Sir  Wm.,  inventor  of  Congreve  rockets,  &c.  .  1772 

Cooper,  J.  Fenimore,  novelist,  traveller  and  histoiian 

Corday,  Charlotte,  the  executioner  of  the  sanguinary  Marat 

Cosmo  I.,  grand  duke  of  Tuscany,  promoter  of  the  arts,  &c.  .        1519 

Coverdale.  Miles,  one  of  the  earliest  English  relormers — trans,  of  the  Bible  1509 

Cowper,  Wm.,  earl,  lord  high  chancellor 

Crichton,  .Tames,  an  accomplished  gentleman — the  "  admirable  Crichton"  1560 

Crcssus,  5th  and  last  king  of  Lydia,  famed  for  his  riches,    . 

Curtis,  William,  botanisi,  author  of"  Flora  Londinensis" 

Curtius  Marcus,  who  devoted  himself  for  his  country 

Cyrus  the  Great,  king  of  Persia,  conqueror  of  Lydia,  Assyria,  &c. 

Daguerre,  perfecter  of  the  rfao-i^erreoii/yje  process 

Dale,  Richard,  naval  commander,  associate  of  Paul  Jones,  &c. 

Damon,  Pythagorean  philosopher,  friend  of  Pythias — in  Sicily 

Daniel,  Samuel,  poet-laureate  on  the  death  of  Spenser,  and  historian 

Danton,  George  .lames,  sanguinary  revolutionist  (guillotined)    1759 

Daru,  P.  a.  n.  B.,  statesman,  poet  and  historian     .  .  .        1767 

Davenant,  Sir  Wm.,  poet-laureate  after  Ben  Jonson        .  .  1606 

Davis,  Matthew  L.,  politician,  biographer  of  Burr  .  .        1766 

Da voust,  L.  N.,  duke  of  Auerstadt,  marshal  of  France    .  .  1770 

Dearborn,  H.  A.  S.,  Gen.,  military  commander  in  war  of  1812,  &c.,  1783 


DIED. 

1809 
1713 
1.570 
1738 
1850 
1644 


f.  189 


1795 

511 

.  1069 

1726 

1851 

1509 

1794 

18-28 

1851 

1793 

1574 

1580 

1723 

1583 

f.  B.  c.  5.57 

1799 

B.  c.  362 

B.  c.  529 

1789  1851 

1756  1826 

1562 


Delolme,  J.  L.,  author  of  work  on  English  Constitution 
Denham,  Sir  John,  poet         ..... 

Denon,  D.  V.,  baron  de,  author  of  the  great  work  on  Egypt 

Dewitt,  John,  an  enlightened  staiesman 

Diodati,  John,  translator  of  the  Bible  into  Italian    . 

Dodsley,  Robert,  bookseller,  editor  of  Old  Plays,  and  author 

Donne,  .Tohn,  a  divine  and  poet      .  .  .  .  , 

Douce,  Francis,  antiquarian — '•  Shakspeare  and  his  Times,"  &c.  . 
Douglas.  David  B.,  officer  in  the  war  of  1812,  engineer,  &c. 
Drake,  Nathan,  essayist. — "  Mornings  in  Spring,"  &c. 
Drayton,  Michael,  poet — ''  Polyolbion,"  &c.    .  .        . 

Drew,  Samuel — ^"  Essay  on  ihe  Soul,"  &c. 

Drummond,  Wm.,  poet — friend  of  Ben  Jonson 

Drummond,  Sir  William,  antiquary — "Origines,"  &c. 

Dugdale,  Sir  Wm.,  antiquary,  '■  Monasticon,"  &c. 

Dumont,  Stephen,  writer  on  legislation,  &c. 

Dwight,  Rev.  S.  E.,  biographer  of  Edwards,  &-c.   . 

Eaton,  Wm.,  consul  at  Tunis— distinguished  in  war  with  Tripoli 

Eichhorn,  John  Geo.,  biblical  critic,  author  of  History  of  Literature 

Ellenborough,  lord,  chief  justice  of  England 

Elliott,  Eben,  the  Corn-law  Rhymer  .  .  .  . 

Eschenbers,  .1.  J  — "  Manual  of  Classical  Literature"    . 
Estaing,  Chas.  Hen.,  count  de,  naval  coinm.  in  Amer.  war 
Exmouth,  Viscount,  naval  coiumander — at  Algiers,  &c. 
Fabius  Pictor,  the  first  Roman  historian — works  not  extant 
Facciolati,  James,  author  of  Latin  Dictionary 
Fairfax,  Edward,  poet — translator  of  Tasso, 
Falkland,  viscount,  statesman  and  soldier  in  the  civil  war 
Feltham.  Owen,  author  of  "  Resolves,  Moral,"  ifec,  about   . 
Fichte,  John  Gotlieb,  philosopher  and  metaphysician 
Fitch,  John,  one  of  the  first  experimenters  in  steam-boats    . 
Flamstead,  John,  astronomer  .... 

Fletcher,  Giles,  poet     ...... 

Fletcher,  Phineas,  brother  of  foregoing,  poet 
Foix,  Gaston  de,  nephew  of  Louis  XII.,  warrior 


1619 

1794 

1829 

1668 

1850 

1823 

1851 

1806 

1668 

1825 

1672 

1649 

1764 

1631 

1834 

1849 

1836 

1631 

1833 

1649 

18-28 

1686 

1829 

1850 

18U 

1827 

1818 

1850 

18-20 

1793 

1757  ,1833 

f.  B.  c.  2-25 

1682  1769 

1632 

1610  1643 

1678 

1762  1814 

1743  1798 

1646  1719 

1588  1G23 

1582  1650 

1489  1512 


1745 
1615 
1747 
1625 
1589 
1703 
1573 

1793 
1766 
1.563 
1765 
1585 

1605 
1750 

1764 
1752 
1748 
1782 
1743 


ADDENDA    TO    THE   WORLD's    PROGRESS,    1850-51. 


43 


NATION. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Amer. 

Ger. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Scotch. 

Amer. 

Scotch. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Irish. 

Garth. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Ger. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Max. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng, 

Gr. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Amer. 

Rom. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Ens. 

Eng. 

Scotch. 

Scotch. 

Amer. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Amer, 

Eng. 

Gr. 

Gr. 

Span. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

En?. 

Eng. 

Amer. 

Fr. 

Amer. 

Amer. 


Swe. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Ens. 

Ger. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Scotch. 


NAME   AND   PROPESSION. 

Foscolo,  TIgo,  writer  of  plays  and  essays,  &c,    . 

Francis.  Saint,  founder  of  the  Franciscan  Friars 

Fuller,  S.  Margaret,  marchioness  d'Ossoli,  essayist  and  critic 

Fugger,  the  name  of  a  nohle  and  very  wealthy  "family  at  Augsburgh 

Gay-LAissac,  N.  F.,  chemist,      .... 

Gell,  Sir  Wm.,  antiquary — "  Pompeiana,"  and  "  Rome  " 

Goguot,  Anth.  Y.,  advocate,  author  of  "Origin  of  Laws,"  &c. 

Good,  John  Mason,  medical  writer — "  Book  of  Naturej"  &c. 

Gordon,  lord  George,  author  of  the  Anti-popery  Riots  in  1780 

Gore,  Christopher,  Gov.  of  Mass.,  senator  of  U.  S. 

Grahaine,  James,  historian  of  the  United  Slates 

Grammont,  Philibert,  count  of,  famous  wit  at  court  of  Chaa.  II. 

Grenville,  Rt.  Hon.  W.  Wynilham,  lord,  prime  minister 

Hall,  .Joseph,  bishop  of  Norwich,  the  Christian  Seneca    . 

Hamilton,  Anlh.,  count,  poet,  courtier,  and  man  of  letters    . 

Hannibal,  the  Carthaginian  general — invader  of  Italy 

Harley,  Robert,  earl  of  Oxford,  statesman,  patron  of  Pope 

Harris,  .Tames,  philologist,  author  of  "  Hermes,"  &c.     . 

Hatton,  Sir  Christopher,  lord  chancellor  for  Queen  Elizabeth 

Heinecius,  .lohn  G.,  jurist,  civilian,  prof,  of  philosophy 

Heloise,  or  Eloise,  celebrated  for  beauty  and  wit,  and  love  for  Abelard 

Herbelot,  Bartholomew  d'.  learned  orientalist 

Herrera,  ex- president  of  Mexico         .... 

Herbert,  Edward,  lordof  Cherbury,  diplomatist  and  historian 
Hill,  Aaron,  poet    ...... 

Hill,  Rev.  Rowland,  a  popular  and  eccentric  preacher 
Hipparchus,  the  most  eminent  of  ancient  astronomers 
HoUis,  Thos.,  benefactor  of  Harvard  College,  U.  S.  A. 
Holyoke,  Edw.  A.,  physician  and  man  of  science — lived  101  years 
Home,  Sir  Everard,  author  of  Comparative  Anatomy,  &c.  . 
Hopkins,  Stephen,  statesman  and  jurist— signer  of  Dec.  of  Indep. 
Hopkinson,  Francis,  political  writer — signer  of  Dec.  of  Indep.     . 
Hortensius,  Q.uintus,  eloquent  orator  and  writer     . 
Hoste,  Paul,  mathematician — author  of  Naval  Evolutions 
Howe,  .John,  non-conformist  divine  and  theol.  writer 
Howe,  Sir  Wm.,  British  comtnander-in-chief  in  America 
Howell,  .Jas.,  author  of  Familiar  Letters  .  , 

Hunter,  Wm.,  anatomist     ..... 

Hunter,  .John,  anatomist  .... 

Hunter,  W.  L.,  diplomatist  and  senator 

Huntingdon,  Henry  of,  historian 

Huntingdon,  Selina,  countess  of,  founder  of  chapels,  schools,  &c. 

Hurd,  Richard,  bishop  of  Litchfield — philologist  and  miscel.  writer 

Hutchinson,  Anne,  i-eligious  enthusiast — banished  from  N.  E.     . 

Hutton,  Wm.,  an  ingenious  self-educated  writer 

Hypatia,  a  female  philosopher  of  great  attainments,  in  Alexandria 

Ignatius,  St.,  eminent  father  of  the  Church,  and  martyr     . 

Irensus,  St.,  bishop  of  Lyons,  Christian  father  and  martyr 

Irene,  empress  of  Constantinople — famous  for  beauty,  talent  and  crime 

Isabella  of  Castile,  wife  of  Ferdinand  of  Arragon — patron  of  Columbus 

lamblicus,  a  philosopher — author  of  Life  of  Pythagoras 

Jervis,  .John,  earl  St.  Vincent,  admiral — victor  ofl'Cape  St.  Vincent 

John  of  Gaunt,  duke  of  Lancaster,  warrior,  &c. 

John  of  Salisbury,  bp.  of  Chartres,  latin  poet — promoter  of  literature 

Johnson,  Sir  Wm..  British  commander  in  N.  America 

Johnsonj  Richard  M.,  Col.  distinguished  in  war  of  1812,  V.  Pres.  IT. 

Joinville,  John  Sieur  de,  statesman  and  historian  . 

Jones,  Jacob,  commodore  in  U.  S.  N.— victor  in  the  "  Wasp,"  &c. 

Jutlson,  Rev.  Adoniram,  D.D.,  missionary  in  Burma 

Jugurtha,  king  of  Numidia — conquered  and  put  to  death 

Justinian  I.,  the  Great,  emperor  of  the  East — fanned  for  his  Code 

Kalm,  Peter,  naturalist— author  of  travels  in  America 

Kellermann,  Francis  C,  duke  of  Valmy,  marshal  of  France 

Kent,  Edward,  duke  of,  4th  son  of  Geo.  III.,  father  of  Q.  Victoria 

Keppel,  Augustus,  viscount,  admiral 

Kirby,  Rev.  W.,  entomologist  .... 

Knowles,  Richard,  author  of  Hist,  of  the  Turks,  &c. 
Korner,  Theodore,  poet  and  dramatist 
Lannes,  John,  duke  of  Montebello  and  marshal  of  France    . 
Larcher,  P.  H.,  classical  philologist  and  translator 
Latham,  John,  M.D.,  ornithologist  and  antiquarian 
Law,  John,  the  originator  of  the  "  Mississippi  Bubble" 


BORN.  DIED. 

me  1827 

1132  1226 
1810  18-50 
15lh  and  16th  c. 
1778  1850 
1777  1836 
f.  1758 
1764  1827 
1750  1793 
17.58  1827 
1790     1842 

1707 
1759  1834 
1574  1656 
1646  1720 
,  c.  247  B.  0.  183 
1661  1724 
1709     1780 

1591 
1681  1741 
1101  1164 
1625     1695 

1851 
1581     1648 

1750 
1744  1833 
f.  about  150  B.  c. 
1720  1774 
1728  1829 
1756  1832 
1707  1785 
1738  1791 
B.  c.  49 
1652  1700 
1630     1705 

1814 
1595  1666 
1718  1783 
1728  1793 
1774  1849 
f.  1150 


1707 
1720 


1791 
1808 
1643 
1723  1815 
415 
f.  68 

202 
803 
1451     1504 
f.  300 

1734  1823 
13—     1399 

f.  12th  c. 

1774 
1780  1850 
1228     1318 

1768  18.50 
1788     1850 

s.  0.  106 
483  565 
1715     1779 

1735  1820 
1767     1820 

1786 
1751     1850 

1610 
1788     1813 

1769  1809 
1726  1811 
1740  1837 
1681     1729 


44 


ADDENDA   TO    THE   WORLD's    PROGRESS,    1850-51. 


NATION.  NAME  AND  PROFESSION. 

Eng.  Lee,  Nathaniel,  dramatic  poet 

Fr.  L'Enclos,  Anne  or  Ninon  de,  a  noted  voluptuary 

Eng.  Lennox,  Charlotte,  poet  and  novelist — born  at  New-York 

Ire.  Leslie,  Charles,  theological  writer 

Ger.  Lessing.  Gotthold  Ephraim,  miscellaneous  writer 

Eng.  L'Estrange.  Sir  Robert,  polit.  and  controversial  writer  . 

Scotch.  Leyden,  .John,  poet  and  oriental  scholar 

Leyden,  .John  of, 

Eng.  Lillo,  George,  dramatist — "  Geo.  Barnwell,"  &c. 

Eng.  Lilly,  Wm.,  astrologer  .... 

Scotch.  Lindsay,  Sir  David,  poet 

Amer.  Livingston,  Brockholst,  jurist  .... 

Amer.  Livingston,  Robt.  R.,  chancellor  of  the  State  of  N.  Y.  and  diplomatist 

Fr.  Louis  Philippe  I.,  king  of  the  French 

Span.  Loyola,  Ignatius,  founder  of  the  Jesuits 

Eng.  McAdam,  John  Loudon — Co\ossus  of  Roads 

Amer.  McDuffle,  Geo.,  ex-Gov.  of  S.  C,  senator  of  U.  S.,  &c. 

Eng.  Macauley,  Catharine,  historian 

Irish.  Macklin,  Charles,  actor  and  dramatist 

Rom.  Macrobiiis,  A.  A.  T.,  miscellaneous  writer 

Eng.  Madan,  Martin,  translator  of  Juvenal,  &c. 

Irish.  IVIagee,  Wm.,  archb.  of  Dublin — theological  writer 

Fr.  Malebranche,  Nicholas,  priest  and  philosophical  writer 

Fr.  Malesherbes.  C.  W.,  statesman  and  author 

Eng.  Mandeviile,  Sir  John,  traveller 

Egypt.  Manetho.  historian 

Rom.  Manlius,  Titus  Torquatus,  warrior  and  consul 

Rom.  Manlius,  Marcus,  saved  capitol  from  Gauls 

Scotch.  Mansfield,  Wm.  Murray,  earl  of,  chief  justice. 

Fr.  Marceau,  F.  S.  D.,  general  under  Napoleon 

Rom.  Blarcellus,  M.  Claudius,  general  against  Hannibal 

Ital.  Margaret  of  Anjou,  queen  of  Henry  VI.  of  England 

Ger.  Maria  Theresa,  empress  of  Germany 

Eng.  Marlowe,  Chrisiopher,  yjoet  and  dramatist 

Irish.         Martin-  Mis.  Bell,  novelist— died  at  New-York 

Eng.  Marvel,  Andrew,  poet  and  political  writer 

Scotch.      Mary  Stuart,  queen  of  Scots — murdered  by  Queen  Elizabeth 

Eng.  Maskelyne,  Nevil,  mathematician  and  astron. 

Amer.  Mather,  Increase,  D.D.,  theol.  and  historian     . 

Eng.  Maurice,  Thomas,  oriental  scholar  and  historian   . 
Maximus  Tyrius,  philosopher  of  second  century 

Ital.  Medici,  Cosmo  de,  merchant  and  statesman 

Scotch.      Melville,  Henry  Dundas,  viscount — statesman 

Jew.  Mendelssohn,  Moses — the  Socrates  of  the  Jews 

Port.  Mendez-Pinto,  Ferdinand — lying  traveller 

Amer.  Mercer,  Hugh,  brig'r  general  in  Revolutionary  army 

Ger.  Mesmer,  Fred.  A.,  discoverer  of  animal  magnetism 

Fr.  Michaux,  Andre,  traveller  and  botanist — N.  A.  Sylva 

Amer.       Miller,  James,  gen.  Milit.  commander  in  war  of  1SI2 

Eng.  Miller,  Philip,  gardener  and  botanist 

Eng.  Miller,  .Joseph,  witty  actor — the  Father  of  Jests 

Amer.        Miller,  Samuel,  D.D.,  historian  of"  18th  Century"  and  theologian 

Amer.        Miller,  Wm.,  founder  of  the  "  Millerites,"  "  End  of  the  World^'  sect 

Eng.  Milner,  John,  Catholic  divine  and  theological  writer 

Minucius-Felix,  Marcus,  rhetorician 

Fr.  Mirabaud,  J.  B.  de,  philosopher  and  translator 

Eng.  Monmouth,  James,  Duke  of,  natural  son  of  Charles  II. 

Eng.  Montagu,  Elizabeth,  essayist  and  founder  of  tlie  Blue  Stockings 

Fr.  Blontespan,  Mad.  de,  mistress  of  Louis  XIV. 

Mex.         Montezuma,  emperor  of  Mexico — conquered  by  Cortes  . 

Fr.  Mont.faucon,  antiquary  and  critic 

Eng.  Montfort,  Simon  de,  earl  of  Leicester — founder  of  the  H.  of  Commons 

Fr.  Montgollier,  J.  E.,  inventer  of  air  balloons 

Scotch.      Montrose,  Jarnes  Graham,  marquis  of,  royalist  general 

Eng.  More,  Henry,  theological  and  philosophical  writer 

Welsh.      Morgan,  William,  mathematician 

Ger.  Munchausen,  J.  C.  F. — proverbial  for  "stories" 

Assy.  Nabonassar,  1st  king  of  the  Chaldeans 

Assy.         Nabopolassar,  king  of  Babylon 

Irish.         Napier,  W.  J.,  lord,  naval  commander 

Eng.  Nash,  Richard — commonly  called  Beau  Nash 

Gr.  Nestorius,  patriarch  of  Constantinople— founder  of  Nestorians 


JORN. 

DIED. 

1692 

1616 

1705 

1720 

1804 

1732 

1729 

1781 

1616 

1704 

1775 

1821 

1693 

1733 

1602 

1681 

1490 

1557 

1757 

1823 

1746 

1813 

1850 

1491 

1556 

1756 

1836 

1851 

1730 

1791 

1690 

1787 

420 

1726 

1765 

1831 

1638 

1715 

1721 

1794 

1372 

f.  B.  c 

304 

f.  B.  C 

340 

I 

.  c.  383 

1705 

1783 

1769 

1796 

B 

.  c.  209 

1482 

1717 

1780 

1593 

1850 

1620 

1678 

1542 

1587 

1732 

1811 

1639 

1723 

1753 

1824 

1389 

1464 

1740 

1811 

1729 

f. 

1550 

1777 

1734 

1815 

1746 

1802 

1775 

1851 

1691 

1684 

1738 

1759 

1850 

1781 

1849 

1752 

1826 

f.  3d  c. 

f. 

1770 

1649 

1685 

1720 

1800 

1520 

1655 

1741 

1265 

1745 

1799 

16- 

1645 

1614 

1687 

1833 

1797 

f.  B.  0 

747 

f.  B.  C 

626 

1787 

1834 

1674 

1761 

439 

ADDENDA   TO   THE   WORLD's   PROGRESS,    1850-51. 


45 


NATION.  NAME   AND  PROFESSION. 

Gr.  Nicephorus,  Calistus,  ecclesiastical  historian 

Gr.  Nicephorus,  Gregorius,  Byzanline  historian 

Eng.  Nichols,  John,  antiquary  and  miscellaneous  writer 

Amer.  Noah,  Mordecai  M.,  ex-consul  to  Mcu'occo,  editor  and  politician 

Ger.  Noheden,  G.  H.,  grammarian  and  misc.  writer  . 

Eng.  North  Fred.,  lord,  premier  during  Amer.  war 

Irish.  Nugent,  lord,  author  of  Life  of  Hampden,  &c. 

Rom.  Numa  Pompilius,  2d  king  of  Rome 

Eng.  Oglethorpe.  J.  E.,  general — founder  of  Georgia 

Eng.  Oldcastle,  Sir  J.,  lord  Cobham 

Amer.  Olin,  Stephen,  D.  D.,  Pres.  Wesleyan  Sem.,  author  of  Travels  in  the 

East,  &c.,  ..... 

Irish.  O'Keefe,  J.,  dramatist,  .... 

Sar  Omar,  3d  caliph  of  the  Saracens— founder  of  the  Mosque 

Irish.  O'Meara,  surgeon  and  biographer  of  Napoleon 

Fr.  Orleans,  L.  J.  P  ,  duke  of— "Egalite  -'' — guillotined 

Scotch.  Ossian,  ancient  Gaelic  bard— supposed  to  have  lived  in  the 

Egypt.  Osymandyas,  king  of  Egypt — about 

Eng.  Overbury,  Sir  T.,  poet,  &c. — poisoned  in  the  Tower 

Span.  O viedo,  J.  G.,  bishop  of,  author  of  "  Travels  in  W.  Indies  " 

Ger.  Panzer,  G.  W.  F..  bibliographer 

Irish.  Parnell,  T.,  poet  and  divine  .  . 

Eng.  Parr,  Thomas — lived  152  years 

Eng.  Parr,  Samuel,  learned  divine  and  philologist    . 

Eng.  Patrick,  Simon,  learned  prelate  and  theological  vrater 

Paul,  St.  Vincent  de,  missionary  ecclesiastic 

Eng.  Pearson,  John,  bishop  of  Chester — writer  on  the  Creed,  &c. 

Eng.  Peele,  George,  dramatist  and  poet 

Eng.  Penn,  Wm.,  admiral — father  of  the  founder  of  Pennsylvania 

Eng.  Pepys,  Samuel,  secretary  to  the  admiralty,  author  of"  Diary,"  &c, 

Eng.  Perceval,  Spencer,  prime  minister — assassinated    . 

Eng.  Peters,  Hugh,  eccentric  preacher  and  Roundhead — executed 

Fr.  Philidor,  Andrew,  writer  on  chess  playing 

Span.  Phillip  II.,  king— married  Mary  Q  ueen  of  England— sent  the  Armada 

Eng.  Philipps,  Ambrose,  poet  and  dramatist. 

Jew.  Philo  Judaeus,  learned  Jewish  writer  of  Alexandria 

Ital.  Piazzi,  astronomer  ..... 

Swiss.  Pictet,  Benedict,  theological  and  historical  writer 

Eng.  Picton,  Sir  T.,  general — killed  at  Waterloo 

Eng.  Piozzi,  Hester  L.,  miscel.  writer — friend  of  Dr.  Johnson 

Eng.  Pocock,  Dr.  E.,  learned  critic  and  commentator  . 

Eng.  Pocock,  R.,  learned  prelate  and  traveller 

Amer.  Poinsett,  Joel  R.,  statesmen,  diplomatist,  and  author 

Polycarp,  St.,  Christian  father  and  martyr 

Fr.  Pompadour,  J.  A.  P.,  Marchioness  de,  mistress  of  Louis  XV. 
Polish.       Poniatowski,  Stanislaus  Aug.,  last  king  of  Poland  . 

Fr.  Pradt,  Abbe  Dominique  de,  political  writer 

Eng.  Price,  Dr.  R.,  writer  on  civil  liberty 

Eng.  Pritchard,  J.  C,  ethnologist — "  Natural  History  of  Man," 

Eng.  Prynne,  Wm.,  learned  lawyer,  political  writer,  and  antiquary 

Fr.  Psalmanazar,  Geo.,  literary  impostor  . 

Eng.  Purchas,  Samuel,  divine — editor  of  Voyages  and  Pilgrimages 

Eng.  Puttenham,  Geo.,  poet  and  critic 

Eng.  Pye,  H.  J.,  poet-laureate  .... 

Fyrrhus,  king  of  Epirus — one  of  the  greatest  warriors  of  antiquity 

Eng.  Q,uarles,  Francis,  poet — author  of  "Emblems,"  &c. 

Eng.  Q,uin,  Jaines,  eminent  actor  .... 

Fr.  Rabelais,  Fi'an.,  wit  and  satirist 

Eng.  Raffles,  Sir  T.  Stamford,  author  of  History  of  Java 

Eng.  Raikes  R.,  printer — founder  of  Sunday  schools 

Fr.  Rapin  de  Thoyras,  Paul,  author  of  History  of  England    . 

Fr.  Reggio,  C.  N.  Oudinot,  due  de,  marshal  of  France 

Rom.         Regulus,  M.  A.,  patriotic  general  and  consul 

Eng.  Rennell,  Major  J.,  geographer  and  topographer 

Eng.  Repton,  Humphrey,  landscape  gardener  and  architect    . 

Eng.  Jew.  Ricardo,  David,  writer  on  political  economy  and  finance 

Amer.        Rich,  Obadiah,  bibliographer 

Eng.  Richard  I.,  Cosur  de  Lion,  king 

Eng.  Richard  III.  king— killed  at  Bosworth  . 

Eng.  Richardson.  James,  traveller  in  Africa,  &c. 

Ensr.  Ridley,  Nicholas,  prelate  and  protestant  martyr 

Eng.  Ritson,  Joseph,  lawyer,  antiquary  and  editor  of  poets 


BORN.  DIED. 

14th  c. 
14th  c. 
1744    1828 
ia51 
1770     1826 
1733     1792 
1850 
f.  E  c  714 
1698     1785 
1417 


1748 


1851 

1833 

643 

1778     1836 
1747     1793 

3dc. 

1500  B.  0. 

1581     1613 

1540 

1729     1812 

1679     1717 

1483     1635 

1746     1825 

1626     1707 

1576     1660 

1612     1686 

1598 

1621     1670 

1703 

1762     1812 

1599     1660 

1726     1795 

1556     1598 

1749 

f.  A.  D.  40 

1746     1826 

1655     1724 

1815 

1739     1821 

1604     1691 

1704     1765 

1778     1851 

169 

1720     1764 

1732     1798 

1759     1837 

1723     1791 

1849 

1609     1669 

1679     1763 

1577     1628 

1600 

1745     1813 

B.  c.  272 

1592     1644 

1693     1766 

1483     1553 

1781     1826 

1735     1811 

1661     1725 

1767 

f.  B.  c.  256 


1742 
1752 
1772 

1157 
1450 

1500 
1752 


1830 
1818 
1823 
1850 
1199 
1485 
1651 
1555 

ia)3 


46 


ADDENDA    TO    THE    WORLD's    PROGRESS,    1850-51. 


NATION.  NAME   AND   PHOPESSION, 

Scotch.  Rob  Roy,  (Robert  Macgregor.)  highland  freebooter,  about 

Fr.  Rocbambeau,  J.  B.  D,  colintde,  marshal  of  France 

Fr,  Roland,  M.  J.  P..  madame,  martyr  to  the  Revolution 

Eng.  Romilly,  Sir  S.,  jurist  and  statesmen 

Irish.  Roscommon,  W.  D.,  Earl  of,  poet  and  critic 

Scotch.  Ruddiman,  Thos.,  critic  and  grammarian 

Dutch.  Ruyter,  M.  A.  de,  admiral 

Eng.  Rymer,  Thomas,  antiquarian  and  historian  (Fcedera)    . 

Eng.  Sacheverell,  Henry,  divine — impeached  for  sedition 

Eng.  Sackville,  T.,  Earl  of  Dorset,  poet,     . 

Eng.  Sackville,  Ch.,  earl  of  Dorset,  wit  and  poet 

Eng.  Sadler,  Sir  Ralph,  diplomatist  and  historian    . 

Jewish.  Sadoc,  Rabbi,  founder  of  the  sect  of  Sadducees 

Fr.  Saint  Pierre,  Bernardin  de— "  Paul  and  Virginia,"  "  Stud,  of  Nat."  &c. 

Eng.  Sale,  George,  hist(U'ian  and  translator  of  the  Koran 

Phoen.  Sanchoniatho,  philosopher  and  iiistorian 

Eng.  Savage,  Richard,  poet  .... 

Fr.  Savary,  N.,  traveller  and  Oriental  scholar 

Ital.  Savonarola,  Jeroine,  monk — famed  for  zeal  and  eloquence 

Dan.  Saxo  Grammaiicus,  Iiistorian 

Ital.  Scala,  statesmen  and  historian  of  Florence 

Ital.  Scaliger,  Joseph  Justus,  critic  and  historian 

Fr.  Scarron,  P.,  comic  poet  and  satirist    . 

Ger.  Schlegel,  Fred.,  critie  and  historian 

Ger.  Schwab,  Gustav.,  poet,         .... 

Ger.  Secundus,  John,  Latin  poet 

Eng.  Sedley.  Sir  C,  poet  .... 

Eng.  Selden,  John,  antiquary  and  historian 

Scotch.  Selkirk,  John,  mariner — the  original  of"  Robinson  Crusoe 

Span.  Servetus,  Michael,  polemical  writer  against  Calvin 

Eng.  Seward,  Anna,  poetess  and  miscellaneous  writer 

Eng.  Shadwell,  T.,  poet  laureate 

Eng.  Shirley,  James,  dramatic  writer, 

Anier.  Short,  Wm.,  charge  d'affaires  to  France,  Holland  and  Spain 

Rom.  Silius  Italicus,  Caius,  Roman  poet     . 

Sam.  Simon  Magus,  religious  impostor 

Gr.  Simonides,  ancient  poet         .  .  .  , 

Eng.  Skelton,  John,  poet-laureate  to  Henry  VIII. 

Gr.  Socrates,  ecclesiastical  historian 

Span.  Soils,  Antonio  de,  historian  of  Mexico,  &c. 

Eng.  Somers,  Lord  John,  chancellor  and  polit.  writer — "  Coll.  of  Tracts' 

Eng.  Somerv'ille,  Wm.,  poet, 

Pr.  Sorbonne,  R.  de,  divine,  founder  of  the  college  at  Paris 

Fr.  Soult,  one  of  Napoleon's  marshals,  ex-statesman,  &c. 

Eng.  Southern,  T.,  dramatic  writer  and  poet 

Gr.  Sozomen,  Hermias,  ecclesiastical  historian 

Eng.  Speed,  John,  chronologist,  historian  and  antiquary 

Eng.  Spel man,  Sir  Henry,  historian  and  antiquary 

Dutch.  Spinoza.  Bened.,  remarkable  atheist  . 

Eng.  Stillingfleet,  Dr.  E.,  bp.  of  Worcester  and  theological  writer 

Eng.  Slow,  John,  antiquary  and  historian 

Eng.  Strype,  John,  dirine,  biographer  and  historian 

Amer.  Stuart,  Moses,  professor,  theologian,  and  philologist 

Eng.  Stukely,  Wm.,  divine  and  antiquary 

Eng.  Suckling,  Sir  J.,  poet  and  dramatic  writer 

Eng.  Sylvester,  Joshua,  poet  .... 

Eng.  Taylor,  John— called  the  "Water  Poet," 

Eng.  Tenyson,  Dr.  T.,  ab'p  of  Canterbury,  polemical  writer 

Gr.  Theoduret,  ecclesiastical  historian 

Eng.  Thoresby.  Ralph,  biographer  and  antiquary 

Eng.  Tickell,  Thomas,  poet,  and  writer  in  the  "  Spectator"   . 

Eng.  Tindal,  Matthew,  D   D.,  polemical  divine 

Ital.  Tiraboschi,  G.,  historian      .... 

Irish.  Tone,  Theobold  Wolle,  general  in  the  Irish  Rebellion 

Jew.  Tudela,  Benjamin  de,  rabbi  and  traveller 

Eng.  Tusser,  Thomas,  old  English  writer  and  poet 

Eng.  Tyndale,  Wm.,  reformer,  and  first  translator  of  the  Bible  into  English 

Eng.  Tytler,  P.  F.,  historian 

Eng.  Tyrwhitt,  T.,  critic  and  antiquary 

Fr.  Valliere,  the  duchess  de  la,  mistress  of  Louis  XIV. 

Eng.  Vanbrugh,  Sir  John,  dramatist,  .... 

Swiss.  Vattel,  E.  de,  jurist  and  metaphysical  writer  ("  Law  of  Nations  ") 


BORN. 

DIED. 

1733 

1725 

1807 

1754 

1793 

1757 

1818 

1663 

1684 

1674 

1757 

1607 

1679 

1713 

1672 

1724 

1536 

1608 

1637 

1706 

1507 

1587 

f.   B.  C. 

220 

1737 

1814 

173G 

f.  B.  C 

760 

1697 

1743 

1788 

1452 

1498 

1208 

1430 

1497 

1540 

1609 

1610 

1660 

1772 

1829 

1792 

1850 

1511 

1536 

1639 

1701 

15S4 

1654 

1680 

1509 

1553 

1744 

1809 

1640 

1692 

1594 

1666 

1759 

1850 

B.  C.  1 

k.  D.  74 

66 

f.  B.  C. 

450 

1529 

f.  5th 

c. 

1610 

1686 

16.50 

1716 

1002 

1743 

1201 

1274 

1769 

1851 

1662 

1746 

450 

1555 

1629 

1561 

1643 

1633 

1677 

1635 

1699 

1535 

1605 

1737 

1780 

18.51 

1687 

1765 

1613 

1641 

1563 

1618 

1580 

1654 

1636 

1715 

386 

457 

16.58 

1725 

1686 

1740 

1657 

1733 

1731 

1794 

1763 

1798 

f.  12th  c. 

1580 

1500 

1536 

1790 

1849 

1730 

1786 

1726 

1714 

1767 

ADDENDA    TO    THE   WORLd's    PROGRESS,    1850-51. 


47 


NATION.  NAME  AND  PKOPESSION. 

Span.  Vega,  Lopez  de,  dramatic  poet  .  .  .  . 

Ital.  Virgil,  Polydore,  priest  and  liistorian 

Fr.  Voiture,  v.,  poet  and  miscellaneous  writer 

IJrit.  Vortigern,  warriur  ..... 

Ger.  Voss, , J.  G.,  liistorical  writer  and  chronologist 

Ger.  Voss,  Isaac,  critic  and  philologist    .... 

Eng.  Warwick,  R.  Neville,  earl  of,  general  and  statesman— "  King  Malcer' 

Eng.  Waierland,  Dr.  D.,  divine,  and  polemical  writer 

Eng.  Wedgewood, . I.,  scientific  manulacturer  of  pottery 

Eng.  Whiiehead,  Wm.,  poet-laureate  .  .  .  . 

Eng.  Whiielocke,  Bulslrode,  lawyer  and  statesman 

Eng.  Whitgift  archb'p,  divine,  and  writer  against  the  Puritans    . 

Eng.  Wither,  George,  poet  ..... 

Eng.  Wood,  Anthony  j\,  antiquary  and  biographer 

Eng.  Wotton,  Sir  H.,  statesman  and  poet   .... 

Eng.  Zouch,  T.,  D.D.,  biographer      .  .  .  .  . 


BORN. 

DIED. 

1562 

1635 

1555 

1598 

1648 

484 

1577 

1649 

1618 

1689 

1471 

1683 

1740 

1731 

1795 

1715 

1785 

1605 

1676 

1530 

1604 

1590 

1667 

1632 

1695 

1568 

1639 

1737 

1816 

PAINTEES,  ENGEAYEES,  SCULPTOES,  &c. 


NATION. 

Scotch. 

Irish. 

Ital. 

Ger. 

Ital. 

Ilal. 

Eng. 

Eng. 
Dutch. 
Ital. 
Ital. 

■  Ital. 
Dutch. 
Ger. 

Eng. 

Ital. 

Fr. 

Dutch. 

Dutch. 

Ital. 

Dutch. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Eng. 

Fr. 

Fr. 

Pruss. 

Ger. 

Ital. 

Eng. 

Span. 

Dutch. 

Ger. 

Scotch. 

Eng. 

Eng. 

Dutch. 

Dutch. 

Fr. 

Eng. 

Eng. 


{Additions  to  list  on  page  688.) 


NAME   AND   PROFESSION. 


Allen,  Sir  William 

Barker,  Robert,  inventor  of  panoramas 

Bartolozzi,  Francesco 

Bauer,  Ferdinand 

Bellini,  Giov.,  founder  of  the  Ven'n  School 

Bernini,  Giovanni,  L.      . 

Bewick,  John,  publisher  of  various  works 
witli  woodcuts 

Bone,  Henry 

Brill,  Paul         .... 

Brunelleschi,  Philip,  "  Pitti  Palace"  at  Flor. 

Cellini,  Benvenuto,  Florentine  artist— au- 
thor of  Autobiography 

Cignani,  Carlo 

Con,  Cornelius 

Cranach,  Lucas, 

Gibbons,  Grinling,  famed  for  carving  in  oak 

Guilio,  Romano,  (see  Julio)    . 

Greuze.  Jean  Baptiste    . 

Metzii,  Gabriel 

Mieris,  Francis 

Morghen,  Raphael  .  ... 

Neel's,  Peter,     .... 

Pannini,  Giov.  Paolo 

Piombo,  Sebastiano  del   . 

Richardson,  Jonathan,  writer  on  art  and 

Roubilliac,  L.  F. 

Rousseau,  James 

Schadow,  J.  G.  ,  , 

Scheffer,  Ary, — living 

Schidone,  Bartolomeo 

Shee,  Sir  M.  A.,  pres't  Royal  Academy 

Spagnoletto,  Guiseppe  Ribera  la, 

Steen,  Jan  .... 

Sunder,  Lucas,  (see  Cranach) 

Thom.  Jas.— Tam  O'Shanter,  &c. 

Thornhill,  Sir  James 

Turner,  J.  W.  M.      . 

Van  der  Neer,  Arnold 

Van  Huysum 

Watteau,  Antoine 

Westall,  llichard 

Wyatt,  R.  J.      . 


SSION. 

BORN. 

DIED. 

Painter 

1781 

1850 

Painter 

1740 

1806 

Engraver 

1730 

1813 

Botanical  painter     . 

1826 

Fainter 

1462 

1512 

Pain'r,  Sculp' r  8^  Arch't 

1598 

1680 

Wood  engraver 

1795 

Enamel  painter 

1755 

1834 

Landscax)e  painter  . 

1556 

1625 

Architect 

1377 

1476 

1.500 

1570 

Painter 

1628 

1719 

Engraver 

1536 

1.578 

Engraver  . 

1470 

1553 

Sculptor 

1721 

Painter      .  '     . 

1726 

1805 

Familiar  life  painter 

1615 

1669 

U                        (h 

1635 

1681 

Engraver  . 

1758 

1833 

Arch'l  painter   . 

1570 

1651 

"        " 

1691 

1764 

Painter 

1485 

1547 

Painter 

1665 

1745 

Sculptor 

1762 

Painter 

1630 

1693 

Sculptor 

1764 

1850 

Painter 

Painter 

1560 

1616 

Painter 

1795 

1850 

Painter 

1589 

1656 

Painter 

1636 

1689 

Engraver 

Sculptor 

1850 

Historical  painter 

1676 

1732 

Painter 

1851 

Landscape  painter  . 

1619 

1683 

Fruit  painter   . 

1682 

1749 

Painter 

1684 

1721 

Historical  painter 

1731 

1836 

Sculptor 

1795 

1850 

ADDENDA   TO   THE    WORLD's   PROGRESS,    1850-51. 


MUSICIANS, 

(/ra  addition  to  those  mentioned  in  the  Biographical  Index.) 


NATION. 

Ger. 
Eng. 
Fr. 
Eng. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Ger. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Ger. 

Fr. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

ital. 

Ital. 

Ital. 

Eng. 
Ital. 

Ital. 
Ital. 
Ger. 
Ital. 
Ital. 
Eng. 


NAME   AND   PROFESSION. 


Bach,  John  Sebastian 

Bishop,  Henry  Rowley — living 

Boieldieu,  Francois  Adrien 

Calcott,  J.  W.,  musical  doctor,  atjthor  of 

"  Musical  Grammar,"  and 
Corelli,  Arcangelo     . 
Gemimani,  Francesco     . 
Giardini,  Felice 
Gluck,  Christopher 
Jomelli,  INicolai 
Lully,  Giovanni  Battista 
Blendelssohn,  Felix  Bartholdy 
Mehul,  Etienne  Henri     . 
Paer,  Ferdinand 
Paesiello,  or  Paisiello,  Giovanni 
Palestrina,  Giovanni  Perluigi  da 
Peraolesi,  Giovanni  Battista  Jesi  da 
Peri,  Jacopo,  (see  Rimicini,  v/ho  did 

compose  the  first  opera — Peri  did) 
Purcell,  Henry 

Sacchini,  ARtonio,  Maria  Gaspardo 
Sapio 

Scarlatti,  Alessandro 
Spentini 

Spohr,  Louis — still  living 
Stradella,  Alessandro,  about    . 
Tanini,  Giuseppe 
Tallis,  Thomas 


Organist  and  composer 
Cotnposer   . 
Comjyoser 

Composer    . 

Violinist  and  composer 


Composer   . 

Violinist  and  com,poser 
Composer 


1782 
1775 

1766 
1663 
1680 
1716 
1712 
1714 
1634 
1809 
1763 
1771 
1741 
1524 
1707 


DIED. 

1750 

1834 

1821 
1713 
1762 
1795 
1787 
1744 
1687 
1848 
1817 
1839 
1816 
1594 
1737  or  '9 


Tenor  vocalist 
Comjjoser 

Violinist  and  composer 
Vocalist  " 

Violinist 
Composer  . 


1550  1625 

1658  1695 
1734  1786 
1792  1851 

1659  1725 
1780  1851 
1783 

1645  1670 

1692  1770 

16th  c. 


ABBREVIATIONS. 


Amer. 

American, 

Gr. 

Greek. 

Pruss, 

Ara. 

Arabian. 

Heb. 

Hebrew. 

Rom. 

Assy. 

Assyrian. 

Hind. 

Hindoo. 

Kuss. 

Bab. 

Babylonian, 

Ital. 

Italian. 

Sam. 

Bav. 

Bavarian. 

.Tew. 

Jewish. 

Sar. 

Car. 

Carthaginian. 

Mace. 

Macedonian. 

Span. 

Dan. 

Danish. 

Nor. 

Norman. 

Swe. 

Eng. 

English. 

Pers. 

Persian. 

Syr. 

Fr. 

French. 

Phen. 

Phoenician. 

U.  S.  A 

Ger. 

German, 

Port, 

Portuguese. 

U.S. 

Prussian. 
Roman. 
Russian. 
Samaritan. 
Sardinian. 
Spanish. 
Swedish. 
Syrian. 
,  I*  United  States  of 
5     America. 


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